The Great Sundering

The Story of the Protestant

Reformation

Part One: Preludes to the Reformation

1. Church Corruption
- By 16th Century, Church prestige damaged by
Great Schism & criticisms of Humanists.
- Critics concentrated attacks on 4 problems
in church:
1. Clerical Immorality: Restrictions on celibacy
often ignored, especially in rural areas.
2. Clerical Ignorance: Standards for ordination
shockingly low. Many priests barely literate.
3. Clerical Pluralism: The practice of holding
multiple church offices at once.
4. Clerical Extravagance: Top church officials
lived in lavish luxury.
5. Simony: The sale of Church offices.

- Situation made worse by series of questionable Popes:

1. Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia)
- Spaniard who lived with mistress & illegitimate children.
- Appointed sons Cardinals, forced Duke of Pesaro to marry
his daughter Lucretia Borgia.
- Funded son Cesare Borgias in wars of conquest.
- Poisoned series of Cardinals in order to inherit their wealth.
- Worst. Pope. Ever.
2. Julius II (Guiliano della Rovere)
- Nicknamed Il Papa Terribile, known for aggressive foreign
policy & military style.
- Donned armor & fought personally in battle.
3. Leo X (Giovanni de Medici)
- Son of Lorenzo the Magnificent & not actually a Priest.
- Appointed Cardinal at age 16 with help of Dads money.
- Never attended Seminary or formally ordained.
- Spent lavishly as Pope, running through Papal treasury
in just two years.
- Began selling church offices to raise funds.

2. The Lollards
- 14th Century religious reform movement in England
led by John Wycliffe. Beliefs:
1. Papal claims of temporal power had basis in
Scriptures.
2. Scriptures alone should be the standard of Christian
belief and practice.
3. Abolish practices such as the veneration of Saints,
pilgrimages, pluralism, and absenteeism.
4. The Church should be stripped of its property.
5. Christians should read Bible and decide its meaning
for themselves.
- Struck at the roots of medieval religious practice.
- A precursor to the Reformation in following century.
- Wycliffe protected by Edward IIIs son John of Gaunt
- Many in England resented money going to a French pope
helping France finance war against England.
- Lollard means "mumbler of prayers and psalms."
- Lollards produce first English Bible.
- Lollard ideas go from England to Bohemia through
German wife of the King Richard II.

3. Jan Hus
- Bohemian Priest in Prague & Professor at
University of Prague.
- Influenced by Wycliffe, begins preaching his ideas.
- 1415: Brought before Council of Constance, refuses
to recant his heresies and burned to death.
- News of Huss execution reaches Bohemia, Czechs
declare rebellion against Church.
- 1420: Pope declares a Crusade against Bohemian
rebels, Emperor Sigismund leads troops against.
- Hussites led by 60 year-old one-eyed knight
Jan Zizka, who defeats Germans repeatedly.
- Nobles originally supported rebellion in order to
get hands on Church property.
- Once this is achieved nobles lose enthusiasm &
Church re-establishes control.
- Rest of revolution over by 1436.
- A remnant in Eastern Bohemia holds out (exists
to this day as the Moravian Brotherhood).

4. Philosophers
Marsiglio de Padua
- Rector of University of Paris
- 1324: Publishes Defensor Pacis (Defender of the Peace)
- Said the state was the great unifying power in society.
- The Church should thus be subordinate to the State &
should own no property of its own.
- Said that authority in the Church rests with a council of
both laymen & priests superior to the Pope.
- In direct contradiction to medieval notion of a society
governed by Church & State with Church supreme.
- Marsiglio excommunicated for his ideas.
William of Ockham
- English Friar who pioneered skeptical way of thinking.
- Ockhams Razor: A plurality of causes is not to be
assumed without necessity.
- The simplest explaination is usually correct.
- Applied skepticism to dogmas of Church, his razor
shaving off many beliefs.
- Reduced much of theology to un-provable guesses.

Part Two: The Reformation Begins

1. Martin Luther
- German monk of Peasant background.
- Trained for a time to be a Lawyer.
- A priest & later Doctor of Theology teaching at
University of Wittenberg in Saxony.
- Devote follower of ritual, but plagued by doubts.
- Comes to believe that salvation comes from
simple faith in Christ (not external rites).
- Humbly going about life, until

2. Archbishop Albert
- Wittenberg within Archdiocese of Magdeburg.
- Albert, Archbishop of Magdeburg wants to also be
Archbishop of Mainz.
- To hold both offices required special permission
from Pope Leo X.
- Leo demands huge fee for granting permission
(short on funds for new St. Peters Basilica).
- Albert borrows from Fugger banking family of
Augsburg to pay Leos fee.
- How can Albert raise money to pay back the loan?

3. The Indulgence Controversy

- Leo authorizes Albert to sell indulgences in order to pay back Fuggers.
- St. Peters to be funded, in part, through this indirect sale of indulgences.
- An indulgence, in Catholic theology, is a special forgiveness for a sin.
- Belief was that Saints in heaven had a surplus of merits which they could
share with sinners.
- Sale of indulgences = buying forgiveness for yourself or a deceased relative.
- Viewed at time as a ticket to heavenfor a price.
- Dominican Friar John Tetzel put in charge of sales drive, even draws up
price chart & sells indulgences for future sins.
- Preys on ill-educated peasants, declaring As soon as coin in coffer pings,
the soul from Purgatory springs!
- Goes from town to town in Saxony, selling indulgences, when word reaches
Luther of the practice

4. The Ninety-Five Theses

- 1517: Luther writes down his objections to
the sale of indulgences.
- Posts Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of
Indulgences on cathedral doors (maybe).
- His 95 points of argument quickly published
& countless copies spread throughout Germany.
- Luther living in a post-Gutenberg world a key
factor in his success.
- Luthers position in the 95 Theses:
1. Indulgences undermined the seriousness of
the sacrament of penance
2. Indulgences competed with preaching of Gospel
3. No biblical basis for practice of indulgences
(fundamental idea of ML's argument)
- Luthers critics charge that denial of indulgences
equal denial of the Pope who authorized them.
- 1519: Luther denies authority of the Pope in a
public debate.
- Pope gives Luther 2 years to recant or be excommunicated.
- Luther publicly burns the warning letter

5. Charles V (r. 1519-1556)

- Others wage war; you, Austria, marry.
- Hapsburgs renowned for gaining new lands by
marrying female heirs & inheriting their domains.
- Principle best embodied in Emperor Charles V.
- Maternal grandparents were Ferdinand & Isabella,
from whom he inherited Spain & New World colonies.
- Father was ruler of Austria, Burgundy, Flanders,
Bohemia, Naples, and HRE.
-1519: Inherits these vast domains at 19, seeing himself
as destined to unite Europe under one emperor (him).
- Two obstacles: France & the 300+ Princes of the HRE.
- If Charles could forge HRE into real country, his dream
could be achieved.
- German Nobility resists him, many seeing Luthers new
movement as a chance to undermine Charles.
- As King of Spain, he must support Church and cannot
compromise with Luther.
- Quickly embroiled in wars with France, also.
- Seeks to deal with Luther quickly.

6. The Diet of Worms

- 1521: Charles summons Diet of Worms to resolve the controversy over Luther.
- Promises his uncle (& Luthers prince) Frederick of Saxony that Luther will
not be harmed.
- Luther can trust promise to Frederick, knows he will be safe.
- Luther questioned before Princes of HRE & Charles, asked to recant.
- Asks for day to consider & word his answer properly, spends night praying.
- Next day, refuses to recant & denies authority of the Pope.
- Ends with (in German) Here I stand; I can do no other. God help me. Amen.
- Luther leaves Worms, Charles issues Edict of Worms declaring him an outlaw.
- Frederick has men kidnap Luther on road home, hides him in Wartburg Castle.
- Luther, now in hiding, begins German translation of Bible.

7. The Peasants War

-1524: Uprising of German peasants & poor town
dwellers, mostly in southern & western Germany.
- Demands mostly political & economic, but revolt
sparked by Luthers revolt.
- Mostly demanded lower taxes, impartial courts, &
abolishing of serfdom.
- Luther condemns revolt, contributing to its demise.
-1525: Peasant army crushed by Swabian League,
revolt lingers in Austria to 1526.
- About 100,000 peasants killed in the fighting overall.
- Largest popular uprising in Europe until 1789.

8. Thomas Mntzer
- Radical preacher, originally a follower of Luther.
- Soon adopted radical ideas, demanding overthrow of
existing social order.
-1524: Made leader of town of Muehlhausen where he
sets up a communist theocracy.
- 1525: Captured in battle & beheaded.
- A Communist/Socialist icon in Germany.

9. The Confession of Augsburg

-1521-1530: Luther works out basic ideas that
become basis of Protestant Christianity.
- Many German princes & town governments
adopt his ideas.
-1530: Charles V calls Diet of Augsburg, asks
for written statement of Protestant beliefs.
- Presented by Protestant Princes in 28 articles.
- Confession of Augsburg formalized Lutheran
beliefs; Three broad, basic concepts:
1. Predestination/Salvation by Faith
- Catholics believe people get to heaven by
faith & performance of good works & rites.
- Catholics say people have free will to sin or
not to sin, then God judges you.
- Luther says salvation is by faith alone.
- God arbitrarily picks who to save without
regard to good works or sacraments.
- Luther rejects free will based on Gods
omnipotence.
- Notion of free will vs. fate still a debated topic.

2. Scriptural Authority

- Catholics hold that the Bible & teachings/traditions of the Church are the
sources of religious authority.
- Luther says only the Word of God, as revealed by Scripture, is valid along with
individual conscience.
- Thus: No mass, no celibate clergy, no monasteries, no pilgrimages, etc.
3. The Priesthood of All Believers
- Catholics say the Church is the Priests.
- Luther says the Church is made up of all believers.
- Everyone theoretically equal in Protestantism, and a priest not technically
needed to get to heaven.

Part Three: The Reformation Spreads

1. Switzerland (Zwingli)
- 1519: A parallel Reformation begins in Switzerland
influenced by Luther & led by Ulrich Zwingli.
- Elected Peoples Priest in Zurich, declares he will
only follow Scripture.
- Cities in Switzerland begin converting to Protestant,
established new religion in large areas of the country.
- 1524: Catholic-loyal region form League of the Five
Cantons to combat Protestantism.
- 1529: Zwingli meets with Luther at Marburg Colloquy,
establish agreement on 14 points.
- Split over issue of Eucharist (Zwingli sees as merely
symbolic).
- 1531: Zwingli killed in battle fighting the Five Cantons.

2. Switzerland (Calvin)
-1533: Parisian lawyer John Calvin becomes Protestant.
- Heavily influenced by legal training (God = Lawgiver &
Supreme Judge, His law His greatest gift).
- 1536: Publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion:
1. Absolute sovereignty of God, absolute weakness of
man (cornerstone of Calvinism)
2. Free will does not exist.
3. God decided at beginning of time who will be saved
(Predestination); cannot work to influence Him.
- Critics ever since call Calvinism pessimistic & fatalistic.
- Seemed a return to Old Testament in many way,
eliminating all music & art of Catholic ceremonies.
- The Calvinist, however, believed that he was one of the
saved & took comfort in that.
- 1541: Calvin invited by citizens of Geneva, Switzerland
to help reform the city to Protestantism.

- In Geneva, Calvin leads a movement to create a

model Christian society.
- To be ruled by God through civil magistrates.
- 1541: Publishes Genevan Catechism, series of
questions & answers for people to memorize.
- Also forms civil government, Genevan Consistory.
- Body of laymen plus Company of Pastors with
Calvin at the head.
- Regulated & monitored personal conduct to an
unprecedented degree.
- Absence from church, dancing, card playing, &
even family quarrels could be punished.
- Men viewed as holy & moral, women sinful, & single
women dangerous.
-1542-46: 76 people banished & 58 executed for more
serious crimes (heresy, witchcraft, adultery, etc.)
- Spanish humanist Michael Servetus burned at stake
in Geneva for denying the Trinity.
- Geneva would nonetheless be an inspiration for
future Calvinist groups

3. Scandinavia
- Denmark & Sweden are first Monarchies to convert
to Protestantism (Lutheranism).
- Swedish King Gustav Vasa already feuding with the
Pope, severs relations with Papacy in 1523.
-1527: Swedish Parliament adopts Lutheranism, gives
all church property to the King.
- Bloodless & without fuss (leave it to the Swedes).
- In Denmark, Frederick I tolerated Lutherans but did
not convert.
- Following Fredericks death in 1533, brief civil war
between Catholics & Lutherans ensues.
-1536: Fredericks Lutheran son Christian III becomes
King, establishes Lutheranism as official religion.
- Christian tolerant to Priests & Nuns, allowing them
to stay in Churches & Monasteries until their deaths.
- All Church property eventually to devolve back to
the Crown.

4. The Netherlands
- Luther had almost no impact among the Dutch, but
new forms of Protestantism did.
- Many Dutch begin practicing Anabaptism.
- Originated in Switzerland in 1521; Basic beliefs:
1. Baptism for believers only (adults).
2. No official clergy required, but all Christians
should read Bible & be guided conscience.
3 No taking of oaths or working as a magistrate.
4 Non-violence & Pacifism; no military service.

- Sometimes wore plain clothes, spoke & acted

differently, or lived communally.
- Often persecuted, & deeply unpopular.
- Modern descendents include Quakers, Amish, etc.
- In the 1560s, Calvinism begins to take root in the
Low Countries.
- Under domain of Spanish, who harshly persecute.
- 1568: Calvinist leader William the Silent begins long
rebellion against Spanish & to establish Calvinism.
- Becomes basis of Dutch Reformed Church.

5. Scotland
- Led by John Knox, a student of Calvins.
- Scottish switch to Protestant partly motivated by
desire to curb French influence.
- 1560: Scotland under regime of French Mary of Guise.
- Mary had been married to James V, who died in 1542.
- Ruled as regent for her daughter Mary Queen of Scots,
then also Queen of France.
- Many in Scotland fear they are about to become a
province of France.
- Nobles ally with growing Protestant movement amid armed
rebellion against French rule.
- 1560: Scottish Reformation Parliament meets.
- Passes Papal Jurisdiction Act, declaring that Pope has no
authority in Scotland.
- Parliament bans the Catholic Mass & approves a new
Confession of Faith drawn up by a council of ministers.
- Becomes basis of Presbyterian branch of Protestantism.

Part Four: The English Reformation

1. Enter the Tudors
-1485: Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, defeats
unpopular Richard III in Battle of Bosworth Field.
- Declares himself King Henry VII, marrying Richards
niece Elizabeth York to cement his claim.
- Ends long-running War of the Roses between York
& Lancaster families (Tudors part of Lancasters)
- Establishes new dynasty, the Tudors, which will rule
England until 1603.

2. The Next Generation

- Henry fathers 4 kids who survive childhood: Arthur
(the oldest), Henry, Mary (marries King of France), &
Margaret (marries James IV of Scotland).
- Arthur marries Catherine of Aragon, daughter of
Ferdinand & Isabella of Spain.
- Arthur dies 4 months later, leaving Henry the new heir.
- Prince Henry obtains permission from Pope Julius II to
marry his brothers widow (which is given).

3. Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547)

- One of the most influential & controversial monarchs
in British history.
- His reign & its aftermath a time of upheaval & change.
- A strong personality able to bully Parliament into
giving him what he wanted.
- Early on, a staunch Catholic (Defender of the Faith).
- His personal life became a driver of events.
- 1516: Daughter Mary Tudor is born, the only child of
his first marriage to survive until adulthood.
- 1525: Wife now 40, unlikely to produce a male heir.
- Also, Henry having affair with young Anne Boleyn &
wants marriage to her.
- Applies to Pope Clement VII for an annulment of his
marriage to Catherine.
- Said Julius II should not have approved the marriage.
- Pope hesitant to grant annulment, not wanting to make
Julius look bad or to give Protestants ammunition.
- Also, under attack by HRE Charles VCatherines aunt.

4. Out with Catherine....

- Henrys wanting a new marriage not simply about
wanting a boy.
- Legitimately concerned about a new civil war if he does
not leave a male heir.
- Pope meanwhile drags out process, forbids Henry from
taking any action until decision is reached.
- Henry knows pope unlikely to grant annulment.
-1530: Henrys Lord Chancellor Cardinal Thomas Wolsey
blamed & fired.
- Replaced with scholarly Sir Thomas More.
- More at first supports Henry but opposes him when he
later denies authority of the Pope.
- 1532: More resigns, replaced with Thomas Cromwell.

5. In with Anne.
- 1533: Henry weds the pregnant Anne.
- Could no longer wait & risk the unborn child being born
a bastard (and thus ineligible for the throne).
- Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declares the
marriage valid.

6. The Final Break

- Henry moves swiftly to complete break with Rome.
- Act of Succession (1533) declares Mary a bastard &
says any child of Henry & Anne the heir.
- Parliament also forbids appeals to Rome, resulting in
Pope excommunicating Henry & Cranmer.
- Pope also declares Henrys new marriage invalid.
- Parliament passes series of measures:
1. Act of Supremacy (1534): Said the King was the only
head of the Church of England.
2. Ecclesiastical Appointments Act (1534): Gave King
the right to nominate Bishops for clergy to elect.
3. Treasons Act (1534): Made it a capital crime to
question the Act of Supremacy.
- 1535: Thomas More executed under Treasons Act.
- Followed in 1536 by Dissolution of the Monasteries.
- Monasteries broken-up, the property to Henry.
- New Anglican Church keeps most Catholic theology,
Henry moves to suppress radical Protestant reform.
- 1539: Six Articles re-affirm Catholic ideas such as
transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, & confession.
- 1543: Reading of the Bible by common people banned.

6. The Honeymoon is Over...

- Meanwhile, the marriage of Henry & Anne soon
deteriorates.
- Sept 1533: Anne gives birth to a girl, Elizabeth,
disappointing Henry.
- Annes violent temper annoying Henry, as well.
- By 1534, Henry seeking way to get rid of Anne to
marry Jane Seymour.
- Two miscarriages of male children also upsets
Henry, who decides on harsh course of action.
- May 1536: Anne arrested on charges of adultery,
incest, & High Treason.
- Evidence pretty-thin, but Henry controls courts
& Anne found guilty and beheaded.
- Henry marries Jane ten days later.

7. Wives Three through Six

- Parliament passes Act of Succession (1536) declaring
Janes kids the heir & both Mary & Elizabeth bastards.
- Oct 1537: Jane gives birth to a boy, Edward, but dies two
weeks later of infection.
-1540: Henry marries German Anne of Cleves, but finds her
unattractive, regrets marriage, & seeks annulment.
- Anne #2 smartly does not oppose & goes along with it.
- Given a title and a castle for her cooperation.
- Chancellor Cromwell executed for arranging the marriage.
- Henry at once marries Catherine Howard (Anne Boleyns
first cousin).
- Catherine #2 soon has an affair, resulting in execution in
1542 when Henry finds out.
- 1543: Henry marries wealthy widow Catherine Parr.
- Catherine #3 survives Henry, even convincing him to
reconcile with his daughters.
- 1544: New Act of Succession puts Mary & Elizabeth back
in line for throne behind Edward.
- 1547: Henry, by then grossly obese, finally dies; women of
England breath gigantic sigh of relief.

8. Edward VI (r. 1547 1553)

Henry followed by 10 year-old son via Jane Seymour.
Uncle Edward Seymour runs country as regent.
King trusted Archbishop Cranmer, supports his efforts to
further the Reformation in England.
Images banned in Church, Clerical Celibacy ended, & the
traditional mass ended.
Reforms unpopular with both traditionalists & Calvinist
types who want to go even farther (Puritans).
1553: King becomes ill, soon clear he will die.
Edwards Catholic sister Mary becoming Queen = bad
news for his Protestant advisors.
Advisors convince Ed to name his Protestant cousin
Lady Jane Grey his successor.
Contradicted Succession Act of 1543 & not approved by
Parliament, however.
July 6: Edward dies, a succession crisis follows along
religious lines

9. The Nine Days Queen

16 year-old Jane Grey the granddaughter of Henry VIIIs
sister Margaret Tudor.
Pressured by father-in-law & husband to accept Edwards
appointment.
July 10: Takes up residence in Tower of London (typical
home of English monarchs awaiting coronation).
Mary in Suffolk outside London, gathering supporters.
July 19: Mary enters London, declared queen by Parliament.
Jane arrested, later executed for High Treason.

10. Mary I (r. 1553 1558)

Mary re-establishes Catholicism in England, appoints
Catholic Bishop Stephen Gardiner Lord Chancellor.
Protestant laws of Edward & Henry repealed.
1554: Mary marries cousin Phillip II of Spain, leading to
revolts around the country.
Duke of Suffolk leads revolt on behalf of his daughter
Jane Grey, leading to the execution of both.
Revolts followed by the Marian Persecutions targeting
English Protestants.
Approximately 800 wealthy Protestants flee country,
284 more executed for religious reasons.
The source of her nickname Bloody Mary.
1557: Phillip persuades her to support Spain in his war
against France.
An unpopular blunder, ending with England losing Calais,
its last continental possession.
Mary suffers through two phantom pregnancies, soon
ill and dying.
1558:. Childless Mary dies, throne passing to half-sister
Elizabeth

11. Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)

The final Tudor monarch, and the most successful.
England a second-rate power upon her accession, a
first-rank power by end of her reign.
Smarter than her father and just as ruthless.
Comes to power in precarious position, considered a
bastard by Catholic and Catholic powers.
Catholics consider her cousin Mary Queen of Scots the
rightful heir.
Builds power with Machiavellian subtly & skill.
Elizabeth adopts motto Video et Taceo (I see and am
silent).
Careful to keep enemies from knowing her thoughts and
views on anything (never showed her hand).
Used status as a single woman to keep enemies at bay.
Potential enemies in France & Spain hoped to marry her
& obtain England.
Let them think she was open to idea.
Gave her years to establish her reign, repair finances, &
build up her military.

12. The Elizabethan Settlement

Elizabeths response to the religious divisions in England.
Relied on advisors Sir William Cecil & Sir Nicholas Bacon.
Set out in Settlement in two acts of Parliament:
1. Act of Supremacy of 1559
- Re-established Church of Englands independence.
- Declared Elizabeth the head of Church of England.
2. Act of Uniformity of 1559
- Forced people to attend Anglican services.
- Mandated the use of the Book of Common Prayer.
- Retained a good deal of Catholic doctrine & rite.
Also avoided harsh measures against Catholics, ending
religious strife in England for a nearly a century.
A group of strident Protestants think her reforms not
enough (Puritans).
Puritans would eventually come into conflict with
Anglicanism, leading to English Civil War in 1640.

Part Five: The Counter-Reformation

Catholics respond to Reformation with Counter-Reformation, also
called the Catholic Reformation.
A comprehensive movement consisting of 3 main elements:
1. Doctrine & Reform
1545: Pope Paul III calls Council of Trent.
Commission of Cardinals tasked with institutional reform.
Would need to address multiple issues of corruption in the Church.
Also sought to reconcile with Protestants, who are invited.
Charles V wanted Protestants there, but efforts blocked by France which
wanted to keep his realm divided & weak.

 The Tridentine Decrees reaffirm Catholic theology & practice, re-stating basic
tenants of Catholicism & rejecting compromise with Protestants.
Official Roman Catechism written, still considered authoritative by Catholics.
Corrected worst abuses and corruption within Church:
- Ended practices of Pluralism, Absenteeism, & Simony.
- Clerical ignorance in rural parishes addressed through establishment of
seminaries in every diocese.
- New generation of seminary-trained priests tended to live more in-line with
Church teachings, including celibacy.

2. New Religious Orders

Many religious orders exist within Catholic Church.
Sub-groups of clergy with different rules & goals.
New orders established to reinvigorate the Church &
combat Protestants.
Would strengthen rural parishes, combat Church
corruption, & serve as good examples.
Major ones:
A. The Capuchins
- An offshoot of the Franciscans.
- Focused on life of austerity & care for the poor.
- Wore brown robes the color of a certain popular
and streamed milk beverage...
B. The Ursulines
- An order of Nuns.
- Concentrated on the education of girls & the care of
the sick and needy.

C. The Society of Jesus (the Jesuits)

-

The most important of the new religious orders.

The front-line soldiers of the Counter-Reformation.
1534: Founded by Basque former-soldier Ignatius Loyola.
Loyola wounded in leg, during recovery decides to
pursue spiritual life.
Attends University of Paris & gains core of followers.
1540: Given Papal approval, establishing their Order.
Order organized around military lines, led by a Superior
General (Loyola the first)
Answerable only to Pope, saw themselves as Spiritual
soldiers against heresy and Protestantism.
Entrants undergo 4-week period of silent meditation based on
Loyolas book Spiritual Exercises.
Set high standards of Academic preparation for entry, also.
Jesuits took fight to Protestants in number of ways:

A. Education
- Jesuits establish 74 schools throughout Europe by 1556.
- Teach Catholic theology but also Classical Studies.
- Languages, art, sciences, & rhetoric/law all taught.
- Meant to spread Catholic perspective to educated class.
- Instrumental in winning back Poland, Lithuania, &
Hungary to Catholicism.
- Jesuits colleges now in over 100 nations.
- Examples: Loyola, Georgetown, Boston College, etc.
B. Missions Abroad
- Jesuits seek new converts outside Europe.
- Travel to China, Goa, & Japan (varying levels of success).
- Jesuits in S. America combat abuses by Spanish rulers.
C. Political Activities
- Jesuits serve as personal priests (confessors) to Catholic
rulers in Europe.
- Able to advance Catholic agenda, taught to go very easy
on royal sins to keep them happily Catholic.

3. Decrees on Art & Music

- Council of Trent affirms role of art & music in religion.
- Important elements which attract common man.
- Art & music to be supported, used to wow commoners.
- Exaggerated styles of Mannerism & later Baroque in
painting, sculpture, & architecture develop.
- Art also more regulated, however.
- Excessive nudity & paganism discouraged.
- 1565: Underwear ordered painted into Michelangelos
Last Judgment.

4. Doctrinal Discipline
-1542: Congregation of the Holy Office established.
- Had jurisdiction over Roman Inquisition.
- A committee of 6 cardinals with power to punish heretics.
- Established Index of Prohibited Books (list of books
Catholics forbidden to read).

 Catholic Reformation largely successful.

Limits losses mostly to N. Germany, Netherlands, Scandinavia, & Britain.
Most Church corruption ended, Catholicism strengthened in the areas
it holds onto.