Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(GIS)
Chi-Farn Chen
CSRSR NCU
tel: 03-4227151-57624
fax: 03-4254908
e-mail: cfchen@csrsr.ncu.edu.tw
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Data model =
limited representation of reality
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Data Model
Reality is too complex for even the most
sophisticated GIS software, so in order to
represent reality in a spatial database, a
simplification of reality is created. This
simplification is known as a data model.
In a data model, reality is represented by
geometry and attributes.
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Spatial Data
(VECTOR)
Real World
Source: Defense Mapping School
National Imagery and Mapping Agency
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Raster
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Vector Format
Data are associated with points, lines, or areas
Points are located by coordinates
Lines are described by a series of points join-the-dots-books
(Arcs nodes, vertices)
Areas are described by a series of lines enclosing
the area.
(Polygons)
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Vector Format
Any attributes (name or code) can be associated
with a point, line or polygon.
Data are stored in two files:
a file containing information of coordinates
a file containing information of the attributes
A third file contains information needed to link
positional data with their attributes (Identifier).
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5
4
2
3
X
Point
1
2
3
4
5
Coordinates Table
ID
x
y
1
3
2
1
4
1
1
2
3
2
Point
1
2
3
4
5
Attributes Table
ID
model
a
b
b
a
c
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year
90
90
80
70
70
Raster Format
Data are divided into cell, pixels (picture elements)
Pixels are organized in arrays
Row and Column Numbers (coordinates) are used
to identify the location of the pixel within the
array.
Each pixel has a single value (attribute)
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Raster Format
column
8
pixel:
Coordinate: (2,9)
Attribute: 8
row
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GIS Vector
Format
(X,Y)
Coordinate in space
GIS Raster
Format
Pixel Located
in an Array
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GIS Vector
Format
GIS Raster
Format
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GIS Vector
Format
GIS Raster
Format
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Vector Model
Vector model uses discrete points, lines and/or areas
corresponding to discrete objects with name or code
number of attributes.
Raster Model
Raster model uses regularly spaced grid cells in specific
sequence. An element of the grid cell is called a pixel
(picture element). The conventional sequence is row by row
from the top to bottom and then column by column from
the left to the right. Every location is given in two
dimensional image coordinates; row number and column
number, which contains a single value of attributes.
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Raster
Raster formats are efficient
when comparing information
among arrays with the same
cell size.
Raster files are generally
very large because each cell
occupies a separate line of
data, only one attribute can
be assigned to each cell, and
cell sizes are relatively small.
Raster representations are
relatively
coarse
and
imprecise.
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Vector Model
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Vector Model
There are different models to store and manage
vector information. Each of them has different
advantages and disadvantages.
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no topology
z
z
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No Topology
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Sliver Polygons
Sliver polygons are small, narrow polygon
features that inevitably appear along
borders of polygons following the overlay of
two or more geographic data sets.
Often occur when a shared boundary arc is
digitized twice.
Should be removed, but difficult to find.
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Sliver Polygons
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z
z
Topology
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Topology:
A GIS topology is a set of rules and behaviors
that model how points, lines, polygons share
geometry. For example, adjacent features,
such as two countries, share a common edge.
Simple definition:
Topology stores the relationships of one
spatial element with respect to another.
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Topology:
Topology is a mathematical approach that
allows us to structure data based on the
principles of feature adjacency and feature
connectivity.
It is in fact the mathematical method used to
define spatial relationships. Without a
topologic data structure in a vector based GIS
most data manipulation and analysis
functions would not be practical or feasible.
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Defining Topology
Topology :
the spatial relationships between features in a GIS
Do polygons overlap?
Do lines intersect or connect?
Are points located near each other?
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Topology:
Three main concepts
Connectivity
Arc-node topology
Definition of areas / Containment
Polygon-arc topology
Adjacency/Contiguity
Left/right topology
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Area:
Arcs that connect to surround an area define a polygon
Containment:
Accounts for polygons within polygons islands
Describing which landscape features are located within, or intersect, the boundary of
polygons
Adjacency:
The identification of adjacent polygons by recording the left-hand and right-hand
polygons.
Arcs have direction and left and right sides
Describing a landscape features neighbor
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Concept of Topology
Topology distinguishes GIS data models from nontopological data models supported by many CAD, mapping
and graphics systems
Topology refers to knowledge about relative spatial
positioning of features.
knowledge about how features are connected and which features
are adjacent to each other.
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Topology Concept I
Arc-node topology is how Arc/INFO keeps track
of which arcs are connected to other arcs through
shared nodes (nodes are endpoints of arcs). It
defines length, direction, and connectivity for arcs.
Topology Concept II
Polygon-arc topology expresses the relationship
between the arc features and the polygon features
for which the arcs create boundaries. It defines
area and adjacency. Arcs or a set of arcs that form
a closed figure define the area of a polygon. Two
polygons are adjacent if they share an arc. Polygons
are stored as a list of arcs to avoid redundancy.
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2
3
6
7
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vertex
vertex vertex
node
Connectivity
Arc-node topology
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Definition of areas
Polygon-arc topology
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Adjacency/Contiguity
Left/right topology
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ARC
F_node
Vertex
T_node
3.2, 5.2
1, 5.2
1,3
1,3
3.2, 5.2
1,2
3.5,2 4.2,2.7
5.2,2.7
F_node
T_node
R_poly
L_poly
External
External
External
External
Node
Arcs
1,2
1,2
Arcs
1, 2
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Topology Review
Topology is the spatial relationship between
connecting or adjacent features in a geographic
data layer.
A procedure used by the computer to explicitly define
and store the spatial relationships between connecting
or adjacent coverage features.
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Topology Review
If a map is stretched and distorted, some
properties change:
Distances
Angles
Relative proximities
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Topology Review
Other properties (topological properties) remain
constant after distortion:
Adjacency
Containment
Connectivity
Areas remain areas, lines remain lines, points
remain points
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Topology Review
z
Topology Review
Vector Topology helps deal with:
slivers
overshoots
dangles
Not sharing border
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Address Matching
Address Matching or Geocoding:
A list of addresses is converted to
points on a map by referencing them
to a special street network.
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Address Matching
Address Matching or Geocoding:
Two input files and one output file
Input:
A database (dbf) file that has the address list that
needs to be geocoded.
A geographic base file or reference layer (commonly
street layer) that will spatially reference the address
location with the address database (input1).
Output:
This will be a point file that will hold the geocoded
address locations with an attribute file that shows the
full address and the matching accuracy.
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to
Geographic maps
TIGER Streets
ZIP Codes
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Raster Model
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Raster Model
z
conceptually simplest
cells can be recursively divided into
cells of same shape
4-connected neighborhood (above,
below, left, right)
all neighboring cells are
equidistant
rectangular
triangulated irregular
network (tin):
vector model used to represent
continuous surfaces (elevation)
more later under vector
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pixel:
Coordinate: (2,9)
Attribute: 3
Resolution
(pixel size)
choose raster pixel size 1/2 the length (1/4 the area)
of smallest feature to map (smallest feature called
minimum mapping unit or resel--resolution element)
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Assignment scheme
The value of a cell may be:
z
z
z
z
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Assignment scheme
Line assignment
Polygon assignment
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Water dominates
Edges separate
W W
W G
W E
W W
W W
W E
W W
W G
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Raster Data
z Each
z Scanned
zB
maps
z Color
aerial photos
z Satellite
images
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A A A D D D
D D D B B B
B B B B B B
C C C C D D
D D D B B B
Uncompressed:
AAADDDDDDBBBB
BBBBBCCCCDDDD
DBBBBBAAAA
Run-Length Encoded:
3A6D9B4C5D5B4A
B B A A A A
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Data Compression
Runlength Compression (for single layer)
Full Matrix--162 bytes
111111122222222223
111111122222222233
111111122222222333
111111222222223333
111113333333333333
111113333333333333
111113333333333333
111333333333333333
111333333333333333
Basic Quadtree
Structure
11
11
0
13
12
10
13
12
200
201
210
211
200
201
210
211
202
203
212
213
202
203
212
213
2
22
23
2
22
23
G = Gray W = White
Quadtree Compression:
G0,G10,G11,G12,W13,G200,G201,G210,G211,W202,W203,W212,
W213,W22,W23,W3
NOTE: There are many variations of the quadtree compression.
The one above represents one of the most basic.
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Data Compression
Quad Tree Representation (for single layer)
Essentially involves compression applied to both row and column.
3.25
3.5
2.5
4
4
2
3
4
4
2
1 1
1
1 1 1 1
1
I
1,0,1,1
III 0,0,0,1
II 1
IV 0
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B
B
Veg
Soil
III
IV
II
150 160
120 140
Note that we start in lower left.
Upper left is alternative.
File 1: Veg
File 2: Soil
File 3: El.
Elevation
A,B,B,B
I,II,III,IV
120,140,150,160
A,B,I,II,120,140 B,B,III,IV,150,160
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Geodatabase
DB2 with its Spatial type
Informix with its Spatial type
SQL Server
Oracle
Oracle with Spatial or Locator
Personal geodatabases (Microsoft
Access)
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Image File
World File
image.tif
image.tfw
image.bmp image.bpw
image.bil image.blw
image.jpg
image.jpw
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Viewing File
Most importantly, file information includes organizing it so
that people can logically use it without having to know
anything about its physical structure.
The difference between logical and physical:
LOGICAL VIEW
PHYSICAL VIEW
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Metadata
Metadata is data about data
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Metadata
Allows a producer to fully describe a dataset so
that users can understand the assumptions and
limitations
and
evaluate
the
dataset's
applicability for their intended use.
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What is Metadata?
Metadata should contain possible answers for the following
questions:
Who collected the original data and who is responsible for the
dataset?
What is the purpose of the dataset?
What will users find from this dataset?
What elements are mandatory and what are optional?
What terminology standard and scales have used in this dataset?
How can users access to the dataset?
What geographic area(s) does this dataset cover?
What type of transfer protocol is needed to receive the dataset?
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What is Metadata?
Resume of spatial data
Who?
When?
How?
What?
Where?
Cost?
Purpose?
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[IDEN] Identification
[TIT] Title: What is the name of the data set?
[AUT] Author: Who developed the data set?
[COV] Area Coverage: What geographic area does it cover?
[THE] Themes: What themes of information does it include?
[CUR] Currentness: How current are the data?
[RES] Restriction: Are there restrictions on accessing or using the data?
[QUAL] Data Quality
[ACC] Accuracy: What is the positional and attribute accuracy?
[COM] Completeness: Are the data complete?
[LCO] Logical Consistency: Were the consistency of data verified?
[LIN] Lineage: What data were used to create the data set, and what
processes were applied to those sources?
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[DIST] Distribution
[DIS] Distributor: From whom can one obtain the data?
[ENTI] Entity and Attributes Information
[FEA] Features: What geographic features are included (roads, houses,
elevation, temperature)?
[ATT] Attributes: What characteristics of those features are included?
(lengths, widths, heights)
[AVA] Attribute Values: What parameters are used to represent the
characteristics of features?
[FOR] Formats: What formats are available?
[MED] Media: What media are available?
[ONL] Online: Are the data available online?
[PRI] Price: What is the price of the data?
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OGC has been working very closely with ISO/TC 211 in identifying the
overlap and division of labor in mutual work programs. The formation of
the ISO/TC 211 - OGC coordination group is a result of such efforts.
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Field
Type
Byte 0
HDWord
Char[6]
Byte 6
IPACK (Bits)
Short int
Byte 8
NBands
Short int
Byte 10
UnUsed
Char[6]
Byte 16
IColumn
int
Byte 20
IRow
int
Byte 24
XStart
int
Byte 28
YStart
int
Byte 32
UnUsed
Char[56]
Byte 88
MapType
Short int
Byte 90
NClass
Short int
Byte 92
UnUsed
Char[14]
Byte 106
IAUTYP
Short int
Byte 108
ACRE
float
Byte 112
XMap
float
Byte 116
YMap
float
Byte 120
XCell
float
Byte 124
YCell
float
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Data Exchange
Spatial Data Transfer System (SDTS)
SDTS, a new transfer format developed by the US government,
was designed to handle all types of geographic data. SDTS
can be either binary or ASCII but is generally binary.
Virtually all geographic concepts can be encoded in SDTS,
including coordinate information, complex attribute
information, and display information. This versatility causes
a corresponding increase in complexity. To simplify things,
several standard subsets of SDTS have been adopted. The
first of these, the Topological Vector Profile (TVP), is used to
store certain types of vector maps. SDTS can also be used for
raster information. Not much data is available in SDTS
format at this time, nor do many software systems support it.
However, it will be the foundation of the US National Spatial
Data Infrastructure (NSDI). Its importance will increase as
more NSDI data becomes available.
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