Manual Eaa203 Makmal Struktur Ringan

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE
S1 CURVED BAR TEST
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
Figure 1
OBJECTIVES OF THE EXPERIMENTS
The objectives of the experiments is to measure the deflections of a set of curved
bars, of known geometry. Then to compare the empirical data with values calculated from
theory.
THE APPARATUS
1
The apparatus is illustrated in Figure 1. It consist of a set of four specimens

arranged upon a bench mounted baseboard. The specimens consists of a quadrant, a davit
and a semi-circle. These may be loaded in a turn by dead weights and the horizontal and
vertical deflections measured by dial indicators. The apparatus is protected by a clear
guard. Access to the specimens is via the ends of the apparatus around the guard fascia.
THEORY
Stress and deflection problems in circular ring and curved bars of narrow rectangular
cross section are best described by polar co-ordinates. The position of a point in the
middle of a plane is defined by the distance from the origin O and by angle between r
and a certain axis Ox fixed in the plane.
Bending of Curved Bars by a Force at the End

A bar with a narrow cross section and a circular axis is constrained at the lower
end and bent by a force F applied at the upper end in a radial direction. The bending
moment at any cross section is proportional to sin , and the normal stress , according
to elementary theory on the bending of curved bars, is proportional to the bending
moment. Assuming that this also holds for the exact solution we find that the stress
function should be proportional to sin , taking:1
1 2
2
r r r 2
2
2
r
1 1 2
1
r 2
r r
r r r
(a)
= (r) sin
(b)
we find that (r) must satisfy the following ordinary differential equation
d2 1 d
1
2
2
r dr r
dr
d 2 f 1 df
f
2 0
2
r dr r
dr
(c)
After transforming into a linear equation with constant co-efficient the general solution
is :f(r) = A r3 + B
1
+ C r + D r log r
r
(d)
Where A, B, C, D are constants of integration and must be determined from the boundary
conditions. This solution may be substituted into (b) for the stress function and using the
general formula (a) we find the following expressions for the stress components:1 1 2
2B D
2
2 Ar 3 sin
2
r r r
r
r
2
2B D
2 6 Ar 3 sin
r
r
r
(*)
1
2B D
2 Ar 3 cos
r r
r
r
The inner and outer boundaries are free from external forces so r r 0 for r = a and
r = b or from equations (*) :-
2B D
2 Aa 3
0
a
a
2B D
2 Ab 3
0
b
b
(e)
The last boundry condition is that the shearing forces on the upper and of the bar should
equal the applied force F. Take the width as unity or F as the load per unit width we
obtain :b
r d
1
1
dr
2r r
r
= Ar 2
or
B
C D log r F
r2
h
b2 a2
2 2
a h
A b 2 a 2 B
D log
b
F
a
(f)
from equations (e) and (f) we get :A
F
2N
Fa 2 b 2
2N
2
2
2
2
in which N a b a b log
F 2
a b2
N
(g)
b
a
Substituting the values (g) of the constants into equation (*) we can get expressions for
the stress components.
1 1 2
2B D
2
2 Ar
sin
2
r r r
r3
r
2
2B D
2 6 Ar 3 sin
r
r
r
1
2B D
r
2 Ar 3 cos
r r
r
r
(**)
For the upper end of the bar where 0 , we get : 0

r
F
N
a 2b 2 1 2
a b 2
3
r
r
(h)
for the lower end

2
r 0
F
N
3r
a 2b 2
1
a2 b2
3
r
r
(k)
Displacements of the Bar

Now consider the displacements due to the applied force F. The stress components
(*) can be written as:u sin
r
E
2B
D
2 Ar 1 3v r 3 1 v r 1 v
v
r u
(l)
u
v v
r r r
By integrating the first equation we obtain :-
sin
E
2
Ar 1 3v r 2 1 v D1 v log r f
(m)
f is a function of only.
Substitute (m) into the second equation (l) with the expression for and integrate.
cos
E
2
Ar 5 v) r 2 1 v D log r 1 v D1 v f d F (r )
(n)
In which F(r) is a function of r only. Substituting now into the third equation (l) we
obtain :4 D cos
f d f rF (r ) F r E
'
'
which is satisfied by putting :5

f
F(r) = Hr
D
cos k sin l cos
E
(p)
in which H,K and L are arbitrary constants, determined from the conditions of constraint.
The components of displacement from (m) and (n) are then :-
2D
sin
cos
E
E
1 v
2
D1 v log r A1 3v r B r 2
k sin L cos
2D
cos
B 1 v
sin
A 5 v r 2
D1 v log r
2
E
E
r
D 1 v
cos K cos L sin Hr
E
(q)
The radial deflection of the upper end of the bar is obtained by putting 0 in the
expression for u.
(u ) 0 L
(r)
The constant L is obtained from the condition for the built in end. For
v 0,
v
0 hence from the second of equations (q)
r
D
L
H 0
E
we have
2
(s)
Using (g) the deflection of the upper end is therefore

(u ) 0
D
F a 2 h 2
l
E a 2 h 2 a 2 h 2 log
a
(15)
When b approaches a and the depth of the bar h=b-a is small in comparison to a we can
use :log
b
b
b 1 b 2 1 b3
log 1
.....
a
a
a 2 a 2 3 a3
Substituting this in the equation of deflection of the upper (**) which is
D
F a 2 h 2
l
E a 2 h 2 a 2 h 2 log
a
and neglecting terms of higher order we obtain:(u ) 0
(u ) 0
3a 3 F
Eh 3
which co-incides with the elementary formula for this case.
Standard Deflection Equations for the Specimens

General :- E for steel = 207 GN/m2
(**)

I
bd 3
where b = beam width and d= beam depth
12
Semi-Circle
R = 100mm d = 3.175mm b = 12.7mm MAX. LOAD 10N
v
Wr 3
2 EI
7Wr 3
4 EI
Davit
R = 100mm L = 100mm d = 3.175mm b = 12.7mm MAX. LOAD 10N
v
Wr 2 r
(
+ L)
4
EI
WrL
Wr 3
+
(r +L)
EI
2 EI
Quadrant
R = 100mm d = 3.175mm b = 12.7mm MAX. LOAD 15N
v =
Wr 3
4 EI
Wr 3
2 EI
r
a
(a)
Semi circle
(b)
Davit
(c)
Quadrant
PROCEDURE
The experimental procedure is essentially the same for all the specimens. Place
the stirrup onto the bar end; the ring stirrup is captive. Adjust the dial indicators so that
they bear onto the special round end of the specimen to be tested. The dial gauge is
mounted on an x-y-z system capable of wide range of adjustment. The dial gauges for the
ring are fixed in place. Ensure that the ring rests against the stop on the left of the bracket.
The vertical ring dial gauge should have the load stirrup between its anvil and the ring
specimen.
Now place the load hanger onto the stirrup. Tap it lightly with a fore finger and
then note the dial indicator readings. Then add a load weight to the hanger. Again tap
lightly and note the readings. Keep adding weights up to the maximum recommended
load for each specimen as given in Standard Deflection Equations for the Specimens.
The horizontal measurement on a semicircle will require extra care. This is the
weakest specimen and thus has the greatest deflections for the lowest forces. The return
spring within the dial gauge is strong enough to limit the specimen deflection and thus
give false readings. Gently use a finger or small screwdriver to lift the dial gauge
spindle away from the specimen until it only just touches the specimen end. Then note
the reading. It may require two people, one to move the spindle and one more to take the
reading. If this technique is not used, errors of 20% may be incurred.
It is good experimental practice to calculate the expected values from theory
before performing the experiments. This method not only gives you an idea of what to
expect but also enables a cross check to be undertaken during the experiment. Thus any
potential doubtful points can be checked during experiments.
RESULTS
Tabulate your results as shown below and add the theoretical prediction by using
the Standard Deflection Equations for the Specimens.
Specimen
Load
Theoretical Values
H
Dial Gauge Reading

h
V
Then plot a graph of deflection against load clearly distinguishing between theory
and experiment.
CONCLUSIONS
Comment on the agreement between theory and experiment. Account for any
discrepancies and suggest possible remedies.
Appendix 1
Examples of Experimental Results
10
Figure 1: Semicircle
Figure 2: Davit
11
Figure 3: Quadrant
12
S1 CURVED BAR TEST FORM
S1 DATA SHEETS
Name:
Matrix No. :
Experiment Date :
____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Data Sheet 1
(a)
Semi-Circle Curved Bar

Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
Average
Width (mm)
Thick (mm)
Radius (mm)
Moment of inertia
(mm4)
Load
(N)
0
2
4
6
8
10
Vertical Deflection, v
(mm)
Horizontal Deflection, H
(mm)
Load
(N)
0
2
4
6
8
10
(mm)
(mm)
13
Data Sheet 2
(b)
Davit
Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
Average
Width (mm)
Thick (mm)
Radius (mm)
Moment of inertia
(mm4)
Load
(N)
0
2
4
6
8
10
(mm)
(mm)
Load
(N)
0
2
4
6
8
10
(mm)
(mm)
Data Sheet 3
14
(c)
Quadrant
Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
Average
Width (mm)
Thick (mm)
Radius (mm)
Moment of inertia
(mm4)
Load
(N)
0
2
4
6
8
10
(mm)
(mm)
Load
(N)
0
2
4
6
8
10
(mm)
(mm)
15
S2 CONTINUOUS BEAM TEST

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
Figure 1
The objectives of this experiment are to find the support reactions and central moment for
a simply supported continuous beam and to compare them with values predicted from
theory.
16
THE APPARATUS
The apparatus is illustrated in Figure 1. It consists of a frame to which three support
brackets are attached. These may be set at any point along the frame. The bracket position
is shown by a pointer which reads directly onto the scale on the top of the frame. Each
bracket has a spring balance with a fine screw adjuster and a stirrup to hold the test beam.
Additional stirrups are provided to attach hangers for a point load. Alternatively the beam
may be loaded with the saddle weights to provide a uniformly distributed load. The
number and spacing of the saddle weights will determine the loading per meter. An
additional bracket is provided which is used to accurately determine the position of the
applied loads.
THEORY
A beam which rest on more than two supports is said to be continuous and an
example is illustrated below.
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
17
Changes of curvature occur in each span due to negative bending moments at

each support. In the example above, the supports are taken to be at different levels from a
horizontal datum AB. The loading on the beam is such that the free and fixing moments
diagrams are shown in Figure 2 and with the resultant shown in Figure 4. The are of the
resultant diagram on the span 1 and A1 and its centroid is x 1 from vertical line through
the left hand support. The area on the diagram for span 2 and A2 with the centroid x
2 from a vertical line through the right hand support.
If we know a tangent to the beam at the central support. Let be the angle between the
tangent and the horizontal, then:
z0
= A1 x1
EI
= v1 v0 + 1
= A2 x 2 = - 2 + (v1 v2)
EI
-z2
v1 v0
v1 v 2
A x
A x
and 1 1 =- 2 2 +
1
2
EI1
EI 2
(1)
v1 v 0
v1 v 2
A x
A x
EI
so, 1 1 + 2 2 =
+
1
2
1
2
(2)
when all the supports are level. v0 = v1 = v2 and so :A1 x1

A2 x 2
+
=0
(3)
1
2
If the areas of the free bending moment diagrams are S 1 and S2 and the centroid of S1 is at
the distance x1 from vertical through the left hand support, and similarly for S 2 where the
distance is x2.Then from equation (3) above :-
1
1
S x M 2 -
1 1
0
1
M1 M o
21

1
2
3
1
M M M 2 2 2
S 2 x2 2 2 2 1
2
2
2
2
3
18
(4)
s1 x1
s2 x2
M 0 1
M1
M 2 2
+
( 1 + 2) =0
1
2
6
3
6
(5)
Thus: Sx S x
Mo1 2 M 1 (1 2 ) M 2 2 6 1 1 2 2
2
1
(6)
Clapeyrons Theorem
Sx S x
Mo1 2 M 1 (1 2 ) M 2 2 6 1 1 2 2
2
1
The above is Clapeyrons theorem of three moments to which some simplifications are
usually made to in corporate physical phenomena of the beam to aid solution.
If the beam is simply supported then, M0 = M2 = 0 and the equation (6) reduces to:M1 =
3
( 1 2 )
s1 x1
s2 x2
+
1
2
(7)
Consider the following example in Figure 5 :w1
w2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
Figure 5
We have a beam on three supports where M A and MC =0. The bending moment diagram is
shown in Figure 6
19
w11
4
B MB
Figure 6
If we take moments about B for the left hand portion of the beam, in order to determine
the fixing moment at B we find:M(B) +
w11
- Ra 1
2
(8)
w
. So from the bending moment
4
The maximum bending moment for a point load is

diagram we get:S1 =
w11 1
x
4
2
S2 =
1
x1 = 2
w2 2
4
2
2
2
x2 = 2
(9)
The above data enables us to evaluate equation (7) to give us a value for M B from theory
whilst equation (8) yields a value from our experimental data.
Now consider equation (8) which may be written as:w1 1
- MB
2
Ra 1 =
Ra
w1
2
(10)
MB
1
(11)
If we take moments about B for the right hand part of the beam in a similar manner, we
find that:RC
w2
2
MB
2
(12)
Now resolve vertically to determine the reaction at B:

20
Ra + R b + R c = w 1 + w 2
Rb = w 1 + w 2 - Ra - R c
(13)
From equation (11) and (12), we obtain:Rb = w1 + w2 - w1/2 + MB/ 1 - w2/2 + MB/ 2
(14)
Thus:
1
1
1 2
Rb
= 0.5 ( w1 + w2) + MB
(15)
By using equations 1,12 & 15, we can compare calculated reactions with those found
from experiments.
PROCEDURE
Set the two outer brackets to a convenient position, say 0 and 1200 mm. Next set
the middle bracket to 500mm. Ensure that both top and bottom clamp bars are engaged
with the frame. Tighten the clamp levers sufficient to hold the bracket in position- do not
over tighten.
Place some stirrups on the beam and then place a stirrup over each spring balance
hook. Move the stirrup along the beam as necessary so that the spring balance hangs
vertically.
A wide variety of loads can be applied. First of all, try w 1 = 20N at 250mm and
load w2 = 40N at 850mm. Use the position bracket to set the load in the correct position.
Now remove the loads and their hangers, but leave the stirrup in position.
Set the beam level by sighting along the top surface of the beam next to each
stirrup and adjusting the spring adjuster until the same reading is visible on the scale on
the bracket behind the spring balances.
21
Take initial reading of each spring balance and note this value. Now apply the
loads to the beam. If you think the stirrup may have moved, check its position with the
position bracket.
After loading again, adjust the screw adjusters to set the beam level. It does NOT
have to be at the same scale reading as in the unloaded condition. All that is necessary is
that all three suspension points are at the same height.
Now read the spring balances and note your observations.
RESULTS
Tabulate your results as shown below.
Spring balance
1
2
3
Initial Reading
Final Reading
Actual Reading
Note the actual reading is the final initial readings.

Draw a diagram of the beam with the positon of the supports and the values of the loads
applied.
Figure 7
From the diagram (Figure 7) we see that, in this example
1
250mm
2
2
350mm
2
w1 =20N
w2 =40N
22
Thus, by evaluating equations (9) we get

S1= 0.625
S2=2.45
x1 0.25
x 2 0.35
Which can now be substituted into equation (7) to obtain a theoritical value of the
moment at the central support.
3
0.625x 0.25 2.45x 0.35
0.5 0.8
0.5
0.8
Mb
= 3.84Nm
Our experimental observations yield:Ra= 2N
Rb= 43N
Rc= 14.5N
If we use equation (8) for the right hand half of the beam we obtain : 40 x 0.7
14.5x 0.7
2
Mb
= 3.85Nm
This compares very well with that predicted from theory. Now to compare the reactions.
Equation (11) gives :-
Ra=
20 3.84
2
0.5
= 2.32N
Equation (12) gives:Rc=
40 3.84
2
0.7
= 14.5N
To obtain Rb we may use either equations (13) or (15). (13) yields:Rb
= 20 + 40 - 2.32 - 14.5
= 43.18N
23
Conclusions
Comment on the agreement between theory and experiment. Account for any
discrepencies and suggest possible remidies.
S2 CONTINUOUS BEAM TEST FORM

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
Name
:
Matrix No.
:
Experiment Date :
S2 DATA SHEETS
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
RESULT
Data Sheet 1 (w1= 20N, w2= 40N)
24
Dial Gauge
Intial Reading
Final Reading
Actual Reading
1
2
3
Actual Reading = Final Reading Initial Reading
Reaction
Theoritical Value
Experimental
Value
% Difference
Final Reading
Actual Reading
Ra
RB
Rc
MB

Dial Gauge
Intial Reading
1
2
3
Reaction
Theoritical Value
Experimental
Value
Ra
RB
Rc
MB
25
% Difference
Dial Gauge
Intial Reading
Final Reading
Actual Reading
1
2
3
Reaction
Theoritical Value
Experimental
Value
% Difference
Ra
RB
Rc
MB
S3 SAG AND TENSION TEST FOR CABLE

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
26
Figure 1

The objective of the experiments is to investigate a cable suspended between two
points subjected to different conditions of load, tension, sag and support height.
THE APPARATUS
The apparatus is illustrated in Figure 1. It consist of two brackets, one being a
mirror image of the other (almost). The cable is attached at either end to spring balance
which fitted to an adjuster. The cable passes over pulleys to aid in setting up different
configurations. In addition, the right hand pillar can be moved along the base of the
apparatus. The cable is loaded by weights which clip onto the cable. The position of the
cable may be measured by using the horizontal scale on the apparatus and the try-square
provided.
27
Theory
Flexible cables are commonly used for a wide range of applications such as
electricity transmission lines, cableways and suspension bridges.Consider a flexible
cablE of constant section with a loading of w per unit length. The loading is uniformly
distributed over the length of the cable on a horizontal base as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2
The end of the cables, A and B are at different heights above the lowest point,O
which is taken as the origin coordinate. If we section the cable at the origin and draw a
free body diagram for the right hand portion, we find that equilibrium is satisfied by the
triangle of forces TB, T0 dan WX1. (refer to Figure 3).
28
Figure 3
The position of the lowest point O, and also x 1 is not known. To determine x1 we take
moments about B:
x1
T0y2 wx1 2 = 0
[1]
Which may be written as:wx 2
y =
2T0
[2]
where x and y are the coordinate of any point on the cable relative to 0. Equation [2] is
the equation of a parabola which is thus the shape taken up by the cable.
If we consider the case where A and B are at the same height then y1 = y2 and due
to symmetry the lowest point O is in the middle of the span. Thus, x1=
. Equation [2]
2
can be written as:

y =
w2
8T0
[3]
where y is also known as the sag. Equation (3) may be simply rearranged to determine
the horizontal tension, T0.
To
w2
8y
[4]
29
The length of the wire can be determined by considering an element of the curve
of length s, then:dy
dx
ds = dx 1
from equation [3] and [4] we obtain:

dy wx 8 xy
2
dx
T0
so,
so,
64 x 2 y 2
ds = dx 1 +
4
32 x 2 y 2
ds dx 1 +
4
If we intergrate from x=0 to x=
1/ 2
and multiply by 2, we obtain:2
8y2
1 1+ 2
31
[5]
If we again consider the free body diagram and resolve horizontally, we obtain:-T0 + TB cos 0
[6]
From which the tensile force in the cable at any point is given by:
T =
T0
cos
[7]
As we are often not given To we may approach the same question, that of the maximum
and minimum tensions, by resolving vertically.
TB sin - wx1 = 0
y2
sin
however
[8]
y 22 x1
1
2
Hence,
30

2 1/ 2
x1

2
y2
( y2
TB wx1
[9]
The value of TA may be obtained by substituting the appropriate x and y values into
equation [9]. The minimum value of tension at 0 may be obtained by subtituting y 2 and
x1 into equation [2].
If we require a certain stress level the tension is divided by the cross sectional area, a of
the cable as we assume that the stress is uniformly distributed across the section. Thus:
T
a
[10]
We may know consider an alternative case to the one above. A cable is

freely suspended between two points A and B. It is subjected to a uniform loading of w
per unit lenght along the wire. This may be due to self weight or to some extra external
load such ice or snow. The result of such loading is to cause tension in wire itself. The
cable cannot sustain any bending moment thus at any given point the axis of the wire
must co-incide with the direction of the tension force within the wire. Consider the free
body diagram as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4
For horizontal equilibrium, we obtain:T cos = T0
[11]
31
Vertical Equilibrium:T sin = ws
[12]
If we eliminate the slope of the wire at C , we obtain:2
To
w2 s 2
1
T2
T2
T2
or
[13]
To2 + w2s2
which is the equilibrium equation for the wire.

The shape of the wire may be obtained by eliminating T from equations [11] and
[12]:
S
T0 tan
w
[14]
The above equation, (14), describes the catenary

The maximum tension again occurs at the supports A and B. If the wire is
then
m long,
s=
and T = Tmax at s =
.
2
2
Tmax
w22
2
= To
1/ 2
[15]
PROCEDURE
The end bracket spacing, cable sag and suspension point heights will be given in
the experiments. The cable is loaded by the special weights which have a small hook in
one end. Hook the weight over the cable from the front. Twist the weight anti clockwise
and again pass the open end of the hook over the cable as shown in Figure 5. This
procedure will effectively get a cable loop around the hook. On releasing the weight the
hook will be at about 45o to the cable when viewed from the top. To move the weight on
the table twist it so that the hook is that 90o to the cable. Hold the cable in one hand on
the side to which the weight is to be moved. Gentle pressure will then slide the weight
along the cable. Again release to lock in position. A little practice will show how rapidly a
weight can be placed onto the cable and moved.
32
Figure 5
Experiment 1: Variation of Tension with Sag
This experiment is to investigate how the tension in the cable varies as the sag is
adjusted.
Set the two top pulleys to the same height by using the combination square. Set
the span of the cable to 1m. Slacken the toggle clamps move the scale bar so that the zero
mark is where the cable leaves the pulley. Use the square to aid in positioning. Clamp the
left hand toggle clamp. As required move the right hand bracket by slackening the two
knurled nuts and move the bracket along the base. Again use the square to position the
bracket then tighten the knurled nuts and the toggle clamp. Now place some weights on
the cable at a horizontal pitch of say 100mm. Use the square to assist and start at the left
hand end. Some adjustment may be necessary when adjusting the sag and when adding
the final weights.
Tabulate your results as below:Sag
25
50
100
150
Tension from
spring balance
9.7
5.4
2.19
2.15
x1
y2
TB
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.25
0.05
0.1
0.15
10.0
5.1
2.7
2.0
33
200mm
1.7
0.5
0.2
1.6
With the weights at 100mm spacing , we have a loading of 2N/m, so w = 2. The span is
fixed at 1m so x1 = 0.5TB is then calculated from equation (9).
Figure 6
The sag is easily adjusted by moving the bottom left-hand pulley. Further adjustment can
be obtained by using the spring balance adjusters.
Experiment 2 - Shape of the Cable

Use the same cable loading as in previous experiment and this time measure the x,
y coordinates of the cable using the scale and combination square.
y
y
Scale
(from
(from
x1
y
Square
y
(Distance) Square
Eqn.2)
Eqn.2)
0
100
200
300
400
500
200
162
135
115
103
100
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
62
35
15
3
0
100
64
36
16
4
0
34
200
144
102
74
55
50
150
94
52
24
5
0
150
96
54
24
6
0
600
700
800
900
1000
103
115
136
161
200
100
200
300
400
500
3
15
36
61
100
4
16
36
64
100
55
74
103
145
200
5
24
53
95
150
6
24
54
96
150
Note: To is first calculated for each experiment using the span, sag and loading, w. Use
equation [4]. Equation [2] is then used to determine the theoretical values of the y
coordinate for every x coordinate.
Theoretical and experimental points are co-incident on the scale of the graph.
Figure 7
Conclusions
1. How well do your experimental result agree with theoretical predictions?
2. Are the differences between the parabolic form and the catenary form significant?
35
S3 SAG AND TENSION TEST FOR CABLE

FORM

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
36
S3 Name :
Matrix No.:
Experiment Date :
DATA SHEETS
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Data Sheet 1 Variation of Tension with sag

Cable Length,
Left Support Height, h1
Right Support Height, h2
Uniformly Distributed Load, w
Sag
(mm)
= 1m
=
=
=
Tension
(Dial gauge)
Left
Right
Average
40
60
80
100
120
Data Sheet 2 Cable Shape

Set 1:-
Scale
(Distance)
Square
x1
y
(from
Eqn.2)
0
100
200
300
400
37
x1
(mm)
y2
(mm)
TB
(Eqn. 9)
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Set 2:-
Scale
(Distance)
Square
x1
y
(from
Eqn.2)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
S4 EXPERIMENTS ON STRUTS WITH SIMPLE GEOMETRY

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
38

(i)
Determination of flexural rigidity ( EI ) of the strut /column.
(ii)
Demonstration of crippled shape.
(iii)
Determination of load - deflection curves and crippling load for a strut with
various end conditions.
APPARATUS
39
Figure 1
Checklist
Code
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
12
15
Item
Guide Rods
RH cross support
RH cross member
Centre cross member
LH cross member
Load cell and cross support
Legs 4 off
Stirrup
Dial gauge
50 gm hanger
THEORY
Introduction
A compression member whose length is considerably greater than the least radius
of gyration of the cross-section is called a column or strut. The two words are now taken
40
to have the same meaning but originally a column was taken to be vertical. The terms
PILLAR and STANCHION are also used to describe vertical columns.
Critical Loads for Struts
The theory which follows is known as Eulers theory and is based on the
following assumption:i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
the strut is initially perfectly straight

the strut is applied axially
the length is large compared to the radius of gyration
the assumptions made in the theory of bending apply.
Case 1: Critical Load for a strut with both ends pin jointed (hinged)
This case is also referred to as that for a strut position fixed at each end. One end , at
least must be assumed free to move in the direction of application of the load. Neither
end can move laterally but there is no rotational constraint at either end.
Assume that the strut takes up the deflected form shown in Figure 2. Let the deflection at
a point C on the center line of the strut be y.
Figure 2
The bending moment at C is:

M Py
[1]
From the theory of bending :
41

2
M
d y
EI
dx 2
[2]
By substituting equation[2] into equation [1] gives:

d2y
Py
2
dx
EI
[3]
d2y
a2 y 0
dx 2
[4]
Whence,
where
a2
P
EI
This is a second order homogeneous differential equation for which the

solution is:
y= C cos ax + D sin ax
[5]
Differentiating [5], the slope is given by:
dy
aC sin ax aDkosax
dx
[6]
The slope is zero when x is zero therefore from equation [6], D must be
zero and the equation reduces to:dy
aC sin ax
dx
[6a]
And equation [5] reduces to:

y C cos ax
[5a]
The maximum deflection occurs, y occurs at mid-span and therefore

from equation [5a], C y ' and hence,
[7]
y y ' cos ax
At the two ends of the strut, y is zero, therefore:-
42

aL
y cos
0
2
[8]
aL
For y to have a real value, cos
must be zero. The only solution of
practical importance is that for which:aL
2
2
Thus,
a2
2
L2
[9]
2 EI
L2
[10]
Hence,
If the strut bends and just remains bent under the action of load P then
P is the EULER CRIPPLING LOAD i.e:
P' 2
EI
L2
[11]
The Euler formula can be applied only to ideal struts and one
would expect the actual crippling load to be lower than P because a
practical strut is never absolutely straight. Also, in practice there will
be some eccentricity of the load.
The Euler formula takes no account of direct stress, a state of
affairs which is acceptable in the case of long slender struts but
definitely not acceptable in the case of short stocky struts (short and
stocky is the exact opposite of long and slender) in which case it is the
compressive stress that is of prime importance.
Case 2 : Critical Load for a strut with one end clamped and other end free
Referring to Figure 3 and assuming that P is the critical load i.e the load at which
instability occurs, the moment induced at the fixed end will be:-
43
M= Pe
(1)
At a distance x from the fixed end let the deflection of the strut be y then the
bending moment at this point will be P(e-y) and from the theory of bending:
M
P (e y ) d 2y
2
EI
EI
dx
(2)
Whence
d 2y Py Pe
dx 2 EI EI
(3)
Figure 3
The solution of this second order differential equation is
y= e + C sin ax + D cos ax
where a2 =
P
EI
(4)
and C & D are constants of integration
Now y = 0 when x = 0, therefore D = -e

Also
dy
0 when x=0
dx
Whence,
y= e(1- cos ax)
(5)
At the free and of the strut y=e and x = L which, substituted into equation (5) gives:-e cos aL =0
(6)
If e is non-zero then cos aL must be zero in which case:aL=
3
2
etc.
44
which gives the least value of P to be:-
2 EI P '
4 L2
4
Where P '
(7)
2 EI
L
2
Note that the crippling load given by equation (7) is exactly one quarter that given by
2 EI
equation P '
. It can be deduced therefore that equivalent length of a strut with
L2
one end hinged and the other clamped is 2L (ie a strut with both ends hinged and length
2L has the same crippling load).
The mid-span deflection will be given by setting x
L
in equation (5):2
aL
)
2
P
e(1 cos
)
2 P
y ' e(1 cos
(8)
Case 3 : Critical Load for a strut with both ends clamped

Referring to Figure 4, the theory follows the same procedure as in Case 1 except
that in the present case a bending moment M ' is induced at each of end of the strut due
to clamping.
45
At the point C, the bending moment is :M= M ' Py

Hence,
Let,
(1)
d 2 y M ' Py
dx 2
EI EI
(2)
P
M'
a 2 and y
Y
EI
P
then equation (2) can be written as:-
d 2 y d 2Y
a 2Y
dx 2
dx 2
(3)
Figure 4
Equation (3) is of exactly the same form as equation (3) (Case 1) and its solution is
therefore :Y= C cos ax + D sin ax
(4)
Hence,
y= C cos ax + D sin ax +
M'
P
(5)
The constants of integration C and D are found using the end conditions of zero slope and
zero deflection and the condition of zero slope at mid span.
46
Differentiating (5) gives,

dy
Ca sin ax Da cos ax
dx
(6)
At x= 0 dy/dx =0
Thus, D=0 and equation (5) becomes :y= C cos ax +
M'
P
(7)
At x= 0 and y= y
Hence, C= y '
M'
P
(8)
Substituting equation (8) and (7) gives the equation of the deflected centerline of strut :y= y '
M'
M'
cos ax +
P
P
(9)
Now, since the slope at the ends must be always be zero differentiating (9) and equating
to zero gives:0= - y '
M'
sin (aL/2)
P
(10)
M'
y '
=0 implies that the maximum deflection is constant for all loads. ( This include
P
zero load and therefore the strut remains straight).

The alternative solution of equation (10) is that sin (aL/2) is zero in which case
aL/2= and the crippling load is:4 2 EI
4P'
L2
(11)
The crippling load given by equation (11) is the same as that for a pin-ended strut of
length L/2.
4.0
A.
PROCEDURE
Determination of Flexural Rigidity
The part numbers referred to are indicated in Figure 1.

47
(i)
Having selected the required strut, set the knife edge to the
correct position by moving the rear specimen beam to a position
so that the strut can rest on the knife edges near to its ends.
(ii)
Attach the dial gauge to the vertical pillar. Remove the ball end
from the dial gauge stem and exchange it with the flat end which
will be found screwed into the top of the stem.
(iii)
Release the central cross member and slide it to a position so

that the dial gauge stem is mid-way between the knife edges.
(iv)
Rest the strut on the knife edges with equal overhang at each
end and the dial gauge positioned on its centre-line.
(v)
Open the latch of the stirrup, and thread it onto the strut. Close
the latch and position the stirrup so that the foot of the dial
gauge rests on the flat cut- out in the top of the latch.
(vi)
Attach the weight hanger to the stirrup
(vii)
Measure the span carefully and check that the dial gauge is at
mid-span.
(viii) Adjust the dial gauge to read zero then attach loads to the
hanger reading the dial gauge after each increment. Tap the top
of the dial gauge stem gently before taking each reading.
(ix)
Plot a graph of load against dial gauge reading. (Remember that

each division on the dial gauge scale presents 0.1mm
deflection).
(x)
From the slope of a graph of loads against deflection, which

should be linear passing through the origin, determine the value
of EI and compare this with the value obtained assuming E= 2 x
1011 N/m2.
Typical Result
48
Strut No. 6 width 19mm, thickness 3.2mm, length 550mm, span

450mm
RESULTS
LOAD
(g)
GAUGE
READIN
G (div.)
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
2.5
4.8
7.0
9.1
11.3
13.4
15.5
17.6
The graph of load against dial gauge reading is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Load against deflection for strut No. 6
49
Examples of Calculations
For a simply supported beam with appoint load at mid-span the
deflection under the load is given by:
y
WL3
48 EI
Therefore the flexural rigidity is given by:EI
W L3
x
y 48
From the graph:W

800 x 9.81
4.59kN / m
y
1.71
0.453
EI 4.59 x103x
8.71Nm 2
48
bd 3
I
4.5x10 11 m 4
12
1011
E 8.71x
1.94 x1011N / m 2
4.5
B.
Demonstration of Crippled Shape
(i)
Ensure that the clamps of the specimen holders are tightened.
(ii)
Select the required strut and adjust the rear specimen beam to
the correct position and insert the dowels pins.
(iii)
Turn the dial gauge so that the stem does not impede the
insertion of the strut.
(iv)
Examine carefully the strut carefully straighten if it necessary.

Inserts the strut with its ends in the vee grooves of the
specimen holders. The edge of the strut will rest against the
stops at the bottom of the holders. It may be necessary to
unscrew the loading knob to reduce the load to zero after the
strut is inserted.
50
(v)
Lay the meter rule across the specimen holders in order to find
the mid- span point on the strut. Turn the dial gauge so that its
stem is perpendicular to the strut and the foot (ball end) is on
the axis of the strut. Release the two locks on the central cross
member and set it so that the dial gauge will measure the midspan deflection of the strut.
(vi)
Adjust the meter rule so that the mid-span reading is a

convenient whole number (e.g 30cm). It might be convenient to
fix the rule with adhesive tape so that the original position is
not accidentally lost.
(vii)
Adjust the bezel of the dial gauge to indicate zero.
(viii) Slacken the locks on the central cross member and slide it
carefully towards one end by 2cm increments. At each increment
read the dial gauge.(Note: It is not possible to take
measurements close to the ends of the strut).
(ix)
Repeat (viii) sliding the cross member towards the other end.
This establishes the original shape of the strut and allows for any
miss- alignment of the specimen holders.
(x)
Apply a load to a strut biasing the deflection away from the dial
gauge. A suitable load is one which gives a central deflection of
about 60 divisions (6mm).
(xi)
Repeat steps (viii) & (ix) checking frequently that the load
remains constant.
(xii)
Repeat the experiment for the strut with the right hand end
pinned and the left hand end clamped. It is necessary to adjust
the rear cross member in order to use the clamp.
(xiii) Repeat the experiment for the strut with both ends clamped. It is
again necessary to adjust the rear cross member.
(xiv) Plot graphs and analyze the results
51
S4 EXPERIMENTS ON STRUTS WITH SIMPLE GEOMETRY

FORM

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
S4- DATA SHEETS

Data Sheet 1
Type of
Specimen
Length
(mm)
1
Thick
(mm)
Avera
ge
Width
(mm)
Avera
ge
Avera
ge
ALUMINIU
M
STEEL
BRASS
Data Sheet 2
Dial gauge Reading (mm)
Type of
Specimen
Load, P(N)
100
200
300
52
400
500
600
700
800
ALUMINIUM
STEEL
BRASS
Appendix
Figure 6: Shape of loaded strut. Test No. 1

d= dial gauge reading
x= distance from centre
53

Appendix

54
S5 THREE HINGED ARCH TEST

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
Figure 1: Three Hinged Arch Apparatus
55
INTRODUCTION
The three hinged arch is commonly used for medium span bridges where the
abutments are on ground liable to settle under the end reactions. Being a statically
determinate structure the analysis is simple, and the temperature changes are
accommodated without additional stresses being set up.
The model symmetrical arch used in this experiment shows the typical
construction with a circular arch rib supporting spandrels on which the flat road deck is
carried. The elevation of the arch rib is a compromise between affording headroom under
the bridge and the line of thrust of all the loads as near to the arch shape as possible.
For a uniformly distributed load the best theoretical shape for the arch is a
parabola. A heavy point load at quarter span causes the greatest divergence of the line of
thrust from the arch centre line.
It would be unusual to find an unsymmetrical arch in real life, but their analysis,
brings a greater understanding of the forces acting in arches and portal frames. Hence, the
experiment provides an opportunity to study the interaction of the horizontal and vertical
reaction for an unsymmetrical three pinned structures.
ACCESSORIES
The complete set of accessories (Figure 1) consists of:1- HST.401 Short bridge section
1- HST.402 L.H. bridge section
1- HST.403 R.H. bridge section
1- HST.404 bracket assembly
1- HST.405 track plate assembly
1- HST.406 Reaction load hanger
1- HST.409 Rolling Load (50N & 25N)
Optional extras
4 sets HST.408 Uniformly Distributed Load of 25N per set.
56
APPARATUS
The model bridges are made up from cast aluminium sections hinged at the
crown. The right hand section is 500mm span, 200mm rise and 725mm radius with a pair
of ball bearings at the springing. The left hand section of the symmetrical arch has the
same span and rise: for the unsymmetrical model it has a span of 250mm, 125mm and
312.5mm. Both left hand sections can be pinned at the springing to bracket fixed to the
vertical side of the HST.1 frame. The right hand bearing runs on a horizontal track plate
fitted with a true span maker and a system for applying a horizontal force toward the
center of the arch.
Two types of loading are available. The one consist of a set of steel bars to
stimulate a uniformly distributed load. The other is a pair of a set of steel bars to
stimulate a vertical load (supplied standard).
OBJECTIVES
A set of experiments can be carried out to investigate:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
The value of the horizontal thrust at the arch springing

The line of thrust of the arch
The influence line for the horizontal thrust
The reaction locus
THEORY
For a symmetrical three pinned arch the application of the overall conditions of
equilibrium yields two equations for a vertical load as shown (Figure 2):Moment about A
P.x VB.L = 0
Vertical Equilibrium
P- VB- VA = 0
To find the horizontal thrust an extra equation can be written because the moment at C is
0.
Moments about C for right hand section
HBh VB.L = 0
It can be seen that VB is a linear function of the load position x, hence H is also a linear
function of x.
57
Figure 2 : Symmetrical Three Pinned Arch

When the three pinned structure is unsymmetrical (Figure 3) the approach is the same
but the solution of the equations is more complicated
Moments about A
P.x VB.L + HB(hB hA) = 0
Vertical Equilibrium
P VB VA = 0
HBhB VB.B = 0
As before, horizontal equilibrium
HA HB = 0
For a uniformly distributed load, w over all the span of a symmetrical arch
Moments about A
w.L. L VB. L = 0
VB = wL = VA
w.L.L + HBh VB.L = 0
HB = wL2 / 8h
58
Figure 3: Unsymmetrical Three Pinned Arch

PROCEDURE
Part 1
Set up the symmetrical arch as shown in the diagram above, checking that the
span is 1m. The span is measured from the left hand pin to the marker on the track plate
for the right hand bearing. Add weights to the reaction load hanger to balance the self
weight of the bridge, so that the axis is in line with the span marker. Treat this as the
datum for the experiment.
Take the 50N load and place it over the left hand springing, where it should have
no effect on the horizontal reaction. Move the load hanger to restore the bridge to its true
span. Repeat this across the bridge until 50N load is over the right hand springing.
Join the two rolling loads 100mm apart with the coupling link provided and for
two or three positions of this composite load find the horizontal reaction. Using the
special distributed load bars or loose weights lay three or four different values of
uniformly distributed load across the whole span and find the horizontal reaction.
Part 2
Set up the unsymmetrical bridge: the left hand springing should be 177mm above
bottom members of the frame, and the span is 750mm. Add weights to the reaction load
hanger to balance the self weight of the bridge. Treat this as a datum for the experiment.
Place the 50N load 50mm from the left hand springing and add weights to the
reaction load hanger to find the value of horizontal thrust that restores the bridge to its
true span. Move the load 50mm to the right and find the new reaction, repeating this until
the load is at the crown pin. Then change the load movement to 100mm rightward, carry
until the bridge has been transverse by the load.
59
Join the two rolling loads with the coupling link and position the load where it is
expected to cause the maximum horizontal reaction and the corresponding position of the
load. By adjusting the load position and the horizontal reaction, find the maximum
horizontal reaction and the corresponding position of the load.
Take a uniformly distributed load 500mm long and of 50N total weight, a repeat
the foregoing procedure to find the maximum horizontal reaction and the corresponding
position of the uniform loading which is shorter than the span of the bridge.
RESULTS
Plot an influence line for the experimental value of horizontal reaction on each of the
bridges. Add the theoretical influence line for a 50N load crossing the bridge.
Use the influence line to predict the horizontal reaction for the various loading placed on
the bridges and compare them with the experimental values.
For one of the composite loadings used in Part 1 , make scale drawing of the arch centre
line and construct the forces diagram in a similar way to the following Figure 4 below :-
Figure 4
60
S5 THREE HINGED ARCH TEST FORM

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
S5 DATA SHEETS
CASE 1 : Symmetrical Arch
Length of Arch
Height of left support
Height of right support
Height of Arch
Vertical reaction (self weight)
Point Load
Rolling Load System
Uniformly Distributed Load
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Data Sheet 1 : Point Load 50 N

SN
Location of point load

from left support
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0
200
400
500
600
800
1000
Horizontal
Thrust
61
Maximum
Horizontal
Thrust
Influence Line
Ordinate
Data Sheet 2: Rolling Load 75 N

SN

from left support
1
2
3
300
400
500
Horizontal
Thrust
Maximum
Horizontal
Thrust
Influence Line
Ordinate
Horizontal
Thrust
Maximum
Horizontal
Thrust
Influence Line
Ordinate
Horizontal
Thrust
Maximum
Horizontal
Thrust
Influence Line
Ordinate
Data Sheet 3: Uniformly Distributed Load 75 N/m

SN

from left support
1
2
3
100
250
400
CASE 2 : Unsymmetrical Arch

Length of Arch
Height of left support
Height of right support
Height of Arch
Vertical reaction (self weight)
Point Load
Rolling Load System
Uniformly Distributed Load
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Data Sheet 1: Point Load 50 N

SN

from left support
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0
125
250
375
500
625
750
62
Data Sheet 2: Rolling Load 75 N

SN

from left support
1
2
3
200
250
300
Horizontal
Thrust
Maximum
Horizontal
Thrust
Influence Line
Ordinate
Maximum
Horizontal
Thrust
Influence Line
Ordinate
Data Sheet 3 : Uniformly Distributed Load 75 N/m

SN

from left support
1
2
3
50
100
150
Horizontal
Thrust
63
S6 INFLUENCE LINE TEST FOR BEAM

DEFLECTION

ENGINEERING CAMPUS

The objectives of the experiments are to find the influence line for
beam and to compare them with value predicted from theory.
INTRODUCTION
Influence line for the deflection of a point on a beam is a line showing
the relationship between the deflection of that point and the position of
application of a unit load acting on the beam. The deflection of the
point due to the application of any load to the beam is obtained by
applying the principle of superposition after multiplying the ordinate of
the influence line by the magnitude of the load. (See the example
which of application of the influence line for w=5).
64
APPARATUS
Two load cells, dial gauge, load hanger, weights and one beam
PROCEDURE
EXPERIMENT 1
Before starting the experiment, measure the length of the beam and
mark it at mid span and at the -span points for easy reference.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
Choose a suitable reading on the upper scale of the apparatus

for the mid-span of the beam. (One of the 10cm markers is most
convenient).
Set one of the load cells so that it is spans to the left of the
marker chosen in step 1. (Do not forget to take account of any
offset in the position cursor).
Set up the second load cell spans to the right of the mid span
reading. Lock the knife edge.
Place the beam in position with span overhangs at either end.
Position two hangers equidistant from the mid- point of the
beam. (The cursors may press lightly against the scale).
Place a dial gauge in position on the upper cross member so that
the ball end rests on the centre-line of the beam immediately
above the left hand support. Check that the stem is vertical and
the bottom O-ring has been moved down the stem. Adjust the
dial gauge to read zero and then lock the bezel in position. Move
the dial gauge to a position above the right hand support, check
that the beam is parallel to the cross member. Then adjust the
height of the knife edge so that the dial gauge reads zero.
Remove the dial gauge and unlock knife edges. Adjust the load
cell indicators to read zero.
Apply loads to the hangers in a systematic manner, tap the beam
very gently and take readings of the load cells.
Process the results and plot graphs to illustrate the theory.
Vary the value of W for chosen value a and b (Figure 1) and
record the dial gauge readings.
65
h
b
a
L/4
L/4
L/4
L/4
Distance,a=200mm
Distance,b=(refer to Figure 1.1 Figure 1.5)
Figure 1: Schematic of Experimental Set-up
11)
12)
13)
14)
For each set of readings, determine the mean deflection per

increment (see the result).
Plot the influence line for unit load. The unit may be defined as
the incremental load.
Apply load system and compare the measured deflection with
that given by calculation based on superposition and the
influence line.
The value of k can be calculated as follows:
k = deflection / 5N load
= { (h at w = 5) ( h at w = 0 ) 5 ] +
{ (h at w = 10) (h at w = 5 )} 5 .etc.
where :-
h = deflection(mm)
a = 200mm
These results can be presented in graphical form as Figure 2
66
Figure 2: Influence line for W= 5N and W = 10N

CONCLUSIONS:
Comment on the agreement between theory and experiment. Account
for any discrepancies and suggest possible remedies.
APPENDIX 1
EXPERIMENT 2
Example of Application of the Influence Line For W=5
10 N applied at b
= 450 mm together with 5N at b= 250 mm.
Deflection due to 10 N = 2 x k at 450 mm
Deflection due to 5 N
= k at 250 mm
Total Deflection
= 2 x k at 450 mm + k at 250 mm
Measured Deflection is then compared with the total deflection obtain
above. It should be found that the figures are in close agreement.
5 N applied at b
Deflection due to 5N
Deflection due to 10N
Total Deflection
= 400 mm together with 10N at b= 200 mm.

= k at 400 mm
= 2 x k at 200 mm
= k at 400 mm + k at 200 mm
The measured deflection is should be very close agreement with the

total deflection.
10N
5N
Dial gauge
67
200mm
Load cell
450mm
L/4
L/4
L/4
L/4
Set 1
Figure 1.1
5N
10N
Dial gauge
200mm
350mm
450mm
L/4
L/4
Load cell
L/4
L/4
Set 2
Figure 1.2
5N 5N 5N
Dial gauge
200mm
350mm
450mm
68
Load cell
L/4
L/4
L/4
L/4
Set 3
Figure 1.3
5N 10N 5N
Dial gauge
200mm
350mm
450mm
L/4
L/4
Load cell
L/4
L/4
Set 4
Figure 1.4
10N 10N 10N
Dial gauge
200mm
350mm
450mm
69
Load cell
L/4
L/4
L/4
L/4
Set 5
Figure 1.5
S6 INFLUENCE LINE TEST FOR BEAM DEFLECTION

FORM

ENGINEERING CAMPUS
S6- DATA SHEETS

Name
:
_____________________________________________________
Matrix No.
:
_____________________________________________________
Experiment Date :
_____________________________________________________
Group
:
_____________________________________________________
Data Sheet 1
Type of
Specimen
Length, L (mm)
2
3
Beam
70
Average
Data Sheet 2
b (mm)
W (N)
0
5
10
15
20
25
K
450
h
400
h
350
h
300
h
250
h
200
h
where :h= deflection (mm)

Data Sheet 3
Experiment 2
Theoritical
Deflection
Experimental
Deflection
Set 1
Set 2
Set 3
Set 4
Set 5
71
% Difference

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EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

S1 CURVED BAR TEST

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

The apparatus is illustrated in Figure 1. It consist of a set of four specimens

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

Bending of Curved Bars by a Force at the End

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

from equations (e) and (f) we get :A

For the upper end of the bar where 0 , we get : 0

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

for the lower end

Displacements of the Bar

By integrating the first equation we obtain :-

which is satisfied by putting :5

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Using (g) the deflection of the upper end is therefore

Substituting this in the equation of deflection of the upper (**) which is

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and neglecting terms of higher order we obtain:(u ) 0

which co-incides with the elementary formula for this case.

Standard Deflection Equations for the Specimens

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Dial Gauge Reading

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S1 CURVED BAR TEST FORM

Semi-Circle Curved Bar

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EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

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S2 CONTINUOUS BEAM TEST

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

Changes of curvature occur in each span due to negative bending moments at

when all the supports are level. v0 = v1 = v2 and so :A1 x1

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Consider the following example in Figure 5 :w1

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The maximum bending moment for a point load is

Now resolve vertically to determine the reaction at B:

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Note the actual reading is the final initial readings.

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Thus, by evaluating equations (9) we get

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S2 CONTINUOUS BEAM TEST FORM

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

Data Sheet 2 (w1= 40N, w2= 20N)

Data Sheet 3 (w1= 30N, w2= 40N)

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

S3 SAG AND TENSION TEST FOR CABLE

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EAA 203 LIGHT STRUCTURE

OBJECTIVES OF THE EXPERIMENTS

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