IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT

RELATIONSHIP
"Why are things like this? What is the effect, or result,
of this?" and "What causes this?"--These questions guide
authors as they analyze or argue about causal relationships,
such as "What is the effect of a college education on income?"
View fascinating reports on various cause/effect topics and
then explore your own causal relationship. Improve your
critical thinking skills.
Unlike explanations of processes, which follow a
chronological order of events, cause and effect texts are
deeply speculative and tentative, relying on causal reasoning
and argument. Your purpose is to answer:
Why are things like this?
What is the effect, or result, of this?
What is the cause of this?
Analyzing cause-and-effect relationships requires you
to question how different parts and sequences interact with
each other over time, which is often more difficult than
reporting a chronological order of events, as you do when
describing a process.
The cause-and-effect relationship is a basic thinking
skill and text structure for all types of reading and subject

areas. Readers understand that in-text events happen

(effects), along with the reason why they happen (causes).
When students recognize this relationship, comprehension is
increased. Students use the understanding of this
relationship in social studies, science, all school subjects, and
day-to-day living, whether watching TV, playing games, or
in friendships.

Definition of Cause and

Effect
Think about when you woke up today. In all likelihood,
you were probably woken up by the sound of an alarm
clock. The loud sound of the alarm was the cause. Without
the alarm, you probably would have overslept. In this
scenario, the alarm had the effect of you waking up at a
certain time. This is what we mean by cause and effect.
A cause-effect relationship is a relationship in which
one event (the cause) makes another event happen (the
effect). One cause can have several effects. For example, let's
say you were conducting an experiment using regular high
school students with no athletic ability. The purpose of our
experiment is to see if becoming an all-star athlete would
increase their attractiveness and popularity ratings among
other high school students.
A cause is why an event happens. An effect is an event
that happens because of a cause.

Suppose that your results showed that not only did the
students view the all-star athletes as more attractive and
popular, but the self-confidence of the athletes also
improved. Here we see that one cause (having the status of
an all-star athlete) has two effects (increased self-confidence
and higher attractiveness ratings among other students).

Cause-Effect Criteria
In order to establish a cause-effect relationship, three
criteria must be met. The first criterion is that the cause has
to occur before the effect. This is also known as temporal
precedence. In the example above, the students had to
become all-star athletes before their attractiveness ratings
and self-confidence improved. For example, let's say that you
were conducting an experiment to see if making a loud noise
would cause newborns to cry. In this example, the loud noise
would have to occur before the newborns cried. In both
examples, the causes occurred before the effects, so the first
criterion was met.
Second, whenever the cause happens, the effect must
also occur. Consequently, if the cause does not happen, then
the effect must not take place. The strength of the cause also
determines the strength of the effect. Think about the
example with the all-star athlete. The research study found
that popularity and self-confidence did not increase for the
students who did not become all-star athletes. Let's assume
we also found that the better the student's rankings in sports;

that is, the stronger they became in athletics compared to

their peers, the more popular and confident the student
became. For this example, criterion two is met.
Let's say that for our newborn experiment we found
that as soon as the loud noise occurred, the newborn cried
and that the newborns did not cry in absence of the sound.
We also found that the louder the sound, the louder the
newborn cried. In this example, we see that the strength of
the loud sound also determines how hard the newborn cries.
Again, criterion two has been met for this example.
The final criterion is that there are no other factors that
can explain the relationship between the cause and effect.

Why Write About Causes and

Effects?
Human beings ask why perhaps more than any other
question. When we listen to the nightly news and hear about
the atrocities of war, we wonder, "What causes the hatred?"
When we read about the violence plaguing our country, we
ask, "Why does the United States lead the world in violent
crimes?" When we read studies that indicate that 28 percent
of women in America have been raped and that the
occurrence of date rape is rising on college campuses, we
ask, "Why is this happening?" When we read about
environmental problems such as the depletion of the ozone

layer, we wonder, "Why don't we do something about it?"

Whenever we make decisions in our daily lives, we ask
ourselves, "Why should I do this?"
On a daily basis, we seek to understand why events
occurred by identifying the factors that led up to them. For
example, if you were not doing well in school and on
homework assignments, you might ask, "Did my high school
class(es) sufficiently prepare me for this class? Am I studying
long enough? Am I taking effective lecture notes? Am I
paying too much attention to the course texts and too little to
the instructor's lectures? How is my attendance? Is my parttime job interfering too much with my school work? Am I
using my time to study effectively? Are some of my friends
having a negative influence on my study habits? Am I taking
too many courses or putting too much time into another
course? What can I do to improve my memory or study
skills?" After asking these and other questions, you would
eventually be able to identify a variety of causes for your
poor performance, and once you recognize the causal
relationship, you can set about realistically to improve your
grade.
Cause-and-effect assignments are among the most
interesting writing projects that you will tackle in school and
in professional life. In school, teachers frequently assign
process assignments. For example, humanities professors
may ask for an analysis of what causes particular music
genres or artistic genres to capture the imagination of

popular culture; history professors, the impact of cultures on

world history; social science professors, the effects of
inventions on culture or the effect of gun control laws on
violent homicide rates; business professors, the effects of
changes in the interest rates on the economy.
Cause-and-effect texts are extremely common in
professions--particularly the sciences, where researchers
employ the scientific method to seek out cause-and-effect
relationships. Writers commonly focus on analyzing causes
or effects. A medical writer, for example, might explore the
effects of a poor diet or the causes of a disease. A lawyer
might argue the effect of an accident on his client. A sports
writer might analyze why a team continues its losing or
winning streak.

Diverse Rhetorical Situations

The purpose of many cause-and-effect texts is to
explain the effects or causes of something. And the tone of
these texts tends to be dispassionate and objective. In
complex situations, however, the writer's purpose may shift
from explaining to speculating or even arguing about an
interpretation. Sometimes writers argue about a particular
cause or effect because they want to sell you something or
because they want to change your mind on a policy or
interpretation.

People write about causes and effects for a variety of

communication situations, and they employ a variety of
media. The shape and content of cause-and-effect reports
tend to be more diverse than the shape and content of texts
that explain subjects, concepts, or processes, as suggested in
the table below.

Purposes

Speculate
Explain
Satirize
Argue
Sell

Audiences

Voices

Media

Advertisements
Mass market
Listserv
First
audience
messages
person
Decision makers
Essays
Passionate
Researchers
Newspapers
Objective
Individuals
Magazines
Academic
Consumers
Editorials
Web sites
Videos

Rhetorical Analysis of Cause

and Effect Texts
Consider the context, audience, purpose, and media
invoked by the following readings. Also examine how ideas
are developed in these texts. Are assertions grounded in
personal
experience,
interviews
with
authorities,
questionnaires, Internet and library research, or empirical
research?

GHB on Campus: A subtext of a larger Web site created to

educate readers about the dangers of GHB, this page
summarizes the deadly effects of GHB on college campuses
and urges readers to forward a listserv message to their
friends, which reveals the deadly effects of GHB.
Interestingly, a sidebar seeks readers' input to a survey on
GHB usage on college campuses. On the Project GHB home
page, the authors explain that Mr. and Mrs. Short ridges
began the site following the death of their son to a GHB
overdose: This GHB website started out as a quick project
with the sole purpose of getting some truth about GHB on
the Internet. In doing their original searches for GHB on the
Internet, the Short ridges found that most websites advocate
its use, etc. Some Internet pages about GHB have seemingly
educated reports about GHB. They offer recipes, kits for sale,
and tips for "safe" experiences.
Rewards for Justice Program: Prevention of Terrorism
Advertising Campaign: The US Government summarizes
the successful effects of its rewards program for preventing
terrorism. Its purpose appears to be to defend the program,
advertise its effectiveness, and outline future rewards.
College graduation rate below 50 percent: Written by a
reporter for CNN.com, this texts summarizes academic
research conducted by the Council for Aid to Education. The
research analyzed why 52 percent of students in public
colleges and 45 percent of students in private colleges failed

to graduate in 2000. The researcher focused on greater access

to college as the cause for the high dropout rate, suggesting
that students who are being accepted into college are not
prepared and that colleges need to do more to help these
students succeed. The author's tone/voice is impersonal and
objective. The audience for the original research study was
universities, while this report is written for a broader
audience--readers of CNN's online education pages.
The Impact of Arts Education on Workforce
Preparation.Sponsored by the National Governors
Association, this report's primary audience is US governors.
The purpose of this summary appears to be to encourage
governors to fund arts education. This summary highlights
conclusions
found
in
a
lengthier
review
of
research: www.nga.org/cda/files/050102ARTSED.pdf
This brief summary seems to present the other study's
results as fact as opposed to speculation or argument based
on
empirical
research:
The arts provide one alternative for states looking to build
the workforce of tomorrow -- a choice growing in popularity
and esteem. The arts can provide effective learning
opportunities to the general student population, yielding
increased academic performance, reduced absenteeism, and
better skill-building. An even more compelling advantage is
the striking success of arts-based educational programs
among disadvantaged populations, especially at-risk and
incarcerated youth.

Women's Love/Hate Relationship With the Internet: This

analysis of the effects of gender on Internet usage begins
with a strong, personal voice, yet this student writer quickly
abandons the personal voice and adopts the more objective,
passive, detached voice of the social scientist. Her chief
purpose is to analyze barriers women face to using the
Internet and outline ways to overcome these barriers. The
writer has created a Web site to support her essay, including
several bibliographies.
The State of the World's Children by UNICEF: Mixing
evocative pictures with extremely detailed analyses of the
effects of poor nutrition on the world's children, UNICEF
offers an informative and persuasive account of how
countries and communities can and should help their
children. Although this document is available on the Web, it
lacks internal navigation links. Readers cannot tell how long
the document is, either.
It's About Oil by Ted Rall.: Ted Rall's editorial, which
appeared in the San Francisco Chronicle, argues that our
attack on Afghanistan is best linked to America's oil needs
rather than the September 11th attacks: Finally the Bushiest
have the perfect excuse to do what the United States has
wanted to do all along -- invade and/or install an old-school
puppet regime in Kabul.
Urban Legend: Cause and Effect.: Written anonymously, this
humorous account frequently passes across listservs and
usenets, explaining, for example, the relationship between

the Imperial Roman war chariot and the United States

standard railroad gauge: The United States standard railroad
gauge of 4 feet, 8.5 inches derives from the original
specification for an Imperial Roman war chariot.
The Dead Grandmother/Exam Syndrome and the Potential
Downfall of American Society by Mike Adams: Written for
a university audience, Mike Adams pokes fun at social
science methods and students' "grandmother" problems:
Overall, a student who is failing a class and has a final
coming up is more than 50 times more likely to lose a family
member than an A student not facing any exams.

Focus
When dealing with causes and effects, it is important to
keep to a narrow topic. Time constraints and resources
should always be kept in mind when pursuing a topic.
Example:
To find the reasons for world hunger would take years
of research and/or tons of hours, so focus on a specific entity
of a broad topic. Perhaps you could identify one country's
efforts over the past few years.
Writers often bring focus to their work by claiming
cause-and-effect relationships upfront, in their introductions.
These "thesis statements" guide the writer and reader
throughout the document. And they also offer clues as to the
writer's voice, tone, and persona. Consider, for example, this

tongue-in-cheek
analysis
of
the
The
Dead
Grandmother/Exam Syndrome and the Potential Downfall
Of American Society.
The basic problem can be stated very simply: A student's
grandmother is far more likely to die suddenly just before the
student takes an exam, than at any other time of year.
While this idea has long been a matter of conjecture or merely
a part of the folklore of college teaching, I can now confirm
that the phenomenon is real. For over twenty years I have
collected data on this supposed relationship, and have not
only confirmed what most faculty had suspected, but also
found some additional aspects of this process that are of
potential importance to the future of the country. The results
presented in this report provide a chilling picture and should
waken the profession and the general public to a serious
health and sociological problem before it is too late.

Development
Critical readers such as your instructors are quick to
recognize shallow reasoning. College instructors expect you
to cite multiple causes or effects when you are addressing a
complex phenomenon. For example, if you were exploring
the effects of TV on children, your readers would most likely
expect you to do more than attack the violence as being
unethical or immoral. Likewise, if you were analyzing the
causes of our nation's high divorce rates, your instructors
would expect you to do more than cite troubles with

finances

as

the

cause

of

divorces.

To help you develop a stronger sense of the level of detail

your readers need to understand a particular cause-andeffect relationship, consider conducting research. What have
others reported about the particular cause-and-effect
relationship you are exploring? Read about what others have
speculated
or
reported
about
your
topic.
Below are some additional suggestions for developing your
cause-and-effect report.

Check for Post Hoc Fallacies

Critical readers will expect you to develop the
reasoning that demonstrates the cause and effect
relationship isn't due to chance. Academic readers are
reluctant to assume causality between two actions because
they are trained to identify post hoc ("after this") fallacies.
Essentially a post hoc fallacy occurs when an author assumes
Event B was caused by Event A simply because it followed
Event A; the connection is false because it is equally possible
that Event B was caused by some other factor. For example,
let us suppose that Bill has been jilted by his girlfriend
Laura. Because Laura argued with Bill last Friday night that
he never spent any money on her and that she always has to
pay for their dates, Bill might assume that she left him
because he was cheap. However, this might not be the true
reason for Laura's dumping Bill. In fact, it could be that

Laura was tired of Bill's negative view of life. Perhaps she

truly left Bill because she found him to be insensitive, boring,
and uncommunicative.

Identify Sufficient and

Necessary Causes
In some instances you may be able to explain an effect
by identifying sufficient causes and necessary causes.
A sufficient cause is one that can cause the effect to take
place. By itself, a sufficient cause can explain a phenomenon
or trend. For instance, in order for someone to contract the
AIDS virus, any of the following forms of contact is a
sufficient cause:
A previously infected patient's bodily fluids must enter
the uninfected person's body through either an open sore,
Sexual conduct, Or a contaminated instrument such as a
needle.
Frequently more than one sufficient cause is necessary
to explain a phenomenon or trend. Three or four causes, for
example, may be necessary to explain an effect. You cannot
say, for example, that all one needs is a match to start a fire.
You also need oxygen and something to burn. When
describing physical phenomena such as how acid rain is
produced, you may have little difficulty identifying sufficient

causes. Explaining human behavior is rarely so simple, of

course.

Identify Remote/Speculative
Causes
When we face complicated questions and problems, we
often are unable to identify sufficient causes so we must
speculate about necessary causesthose causes that can
result in the effect. For instance, no single cause precipitated
the collapse of the Soviet Union, yet we could speculate that
hunger, poor economic conditions, alienation from
communism, and political corruption were all remote causes.
Because academic readers are sensitive to the complexity of
most issues, they generally do not expect you to offer
sufficient causes for complex problems. Instead, they expect
you to speculate about possible causes and effects, while
limiting the scope of your claims with qualifiers such as
"usually," "may," "possible," "sometimes" or "most." No
simple answer, no sufficient cause, can explain, for example,
why some people become violent criminals or serial killers
while others devote themselves to feeding the hungry or
serving the helpless.

Establish an Appropriate
Voice

You can choose from a range of tones, personas and

voices. Some writers choose a contentious, argumentative
tone. See, for example, Ted Rall'sits About Oil. In this short
piece, Rall traces the reasons behind America's financial
support for the Taliban from the 1980s to 1999, citing a
variety of statistics and international political policies.
Sometimes writers will soften their tone, perhaps assuming a
milder persona than they actually feel, because they fear
providing the information in a more straightforward,
argumentative way would cause readers to look elsewhere.
For example, in Tropical Forests and Climate Change, the
Canadian Development Agency offers a terrifying, wellresearched analysis of global warming, yet softens its
message with this caveat in the introduction:
Climate change predictions are difficult because of the
complexity of the atmosphere and the interaction of the
many variables involved.

Humanize Abstract Issues

No matter how technical your subject is, you should
keep in mind that you are writing to other people. When you
sense that the human story is being lost in abstract figures or
academic jargon, consider adding an anecdote of how the
problem you are discussing affects particular people. For
example, Melissa Henderson, a student writer, began her
report on the effect of crack on babies with the following

portrayal of a newborn, which she composed after reading

numerous essays about the effect of crack cocaine on human
fetuses:
Lying restlessly under the warm lights like a McDonald's Big
Mac, Baby Doe fights with all of his three pounds of strength
to stay alive. Because he was born prematurely, Baby Doe has
an array of tubes and wires extending from his frail body
which constantly monitor his heartbeat, drain excess fluid
from his lungs and alert hospital personnel in the event he
stops breathing. As he lies in the aseptic incubator his rigid
little arms and legs twitch and jerk as though a steady
current of electricity coursed through his veins. Suddenly,
without warning or provocation, he begins to cry a
mournful, inconsolable wail that continues steadily without
an end in sight. As the nurses try to comfort the tiny infant
with loving touches and soothing whispers, Baby Doe's overwrought nervous system can no longer cope. Suffering from
sensory overload, he withdraws into the security offered in a
long, deep slumber. Welcome to the world, Baby Doe, your
mother
is
a
crack
cocaine
addict.
As you write drafts of your causal report, consider
incorporating an anecdotethat is, a brief story about how
people are influenced by your subject. For example, if you
are researching the effects of a sluggish economy on our
nation's poor, you might want to flesh out your statistics by
depicting the story of how one homeless family lost their
jobs, income, medical benefits, house, community, and hope.

Use Visuals
Although visuals are not required--in fact, many causeand-effect texts do not use visuals--readers appreciate
visuals, particularly ones that explain the cause-and-effect
relationship being addressed. Consider, for example, this
visual from the United States Environmental Protection
Agency's Web site on Global Warming:
Readers particularly appreciate tables and graphs.
Critical readers will often skim through a document's tables
before reading the text:
Visuals can be used to influence readers at an emotional
level. For example, at Project GHB's Tragedy Page, each
picture links to an obituary, which tells the personal story of
how these young people overdosed on GHB.

Organization
When analyzing causal relationships, you must reveal
to readers how different parts and sequences interact with
each other over time. Rather than merely reporting the order
of events in chronological fashion as we do when describing
a process, you need to identify the specific reasons behind
the effects or causes. Your organization needs to reflect the
logic of your analysis. This is often difficult because a single
cause can result in many different effects. Likewise, an effect
can have multiple causes.

For example, even a simple effect such as a minor car

accident can have multiple causes. Yes, we could say that
John D. caused the accident because he was driving while
intoxicated. Yet if we knew more about John D.'s state of
mindif we knew, for instance, that he wasn't watching
where he was going because he was thinking about his
wife's threat to leave himthen we could identify additional
causes for the accident. It could very well be that he was
exhausted after a sleepless night. Or perhaps his personal
predicament had nothing to do with the accident: Maybe the
loss of his job that morning or his failure to have faulty
brakes replaced is a more significant cause for the accident.
If we get really carried away with our reasoning, we could
say that his former employers were responsible. After all,
John D. would not have lost his job if the automobile
manufacturer he worked for had not closed three of its
American plants and moved manufacturing of some parts to
plants in Mexico, Hong Kong, and Japan. In addition, we
could also find potential causes for the accident by
considering the other driver, Susan K. Maybe she rushed into
the busy intersection expecting everyone else to make room
for her because she was already late for an in-class exam.
Perhaps if Susan K. had not consumed four pots of coffee,
she would have been mellower, more cautious, and less
willing to risk her life to get to school on time.

Use Formatting to Highlight

Your Organization

You can emphasize the most emphatic elements of your

analysis by using headings and subheadings. A quick scan of
any of the cause-and-effect readings highlights the
popularity of headings. For example, below are the headings
used by the Canadian International Development Agency for
their essay on Tropical Forests and Climate Change.

Is the world's climate changing?

How are we causing climate change?
Impact of climate change on forests
Climate change convention and the Kyoto protocol
Forestry's role in mitigating climate change
Carbon trading markets
Conclusions
You may also want to play with the formatting of your text to
highlight the reasoning behind your causal analysis.
Consider, for example, the Canadian International
Development Agency's Tropical Forests and Climate Change.
These authors used callouts to define climate change terms
that readers may not understand and they used call out
boxes to emphasize important points in their essay:
The Sustainable Forest Management Project in Cameroon, Trees
for Tomorrow in Jamaica, and the Arenal Conservation and
Development Project are CIDA-supported projects that work
towards enhancing forest management in developing countries.
Expanding the area of forest cover by establishing tree plantations,

agro forestry plantings, or analog forests enlarges the capacity of

the terrestrial carbon sink. Trees are composed of approximately 50
percent carbon which they extract from the atmosphere during
photosynthesis. The rate of carbon sequestration depends on the
growth characteristics of the species, the conditions for growth
where the tree is planted, and the density of the tree's wood. It is
greatest in the younger stages of tree growth, between 20 to 50
years. Growth rates on commercial plantations in the tropics have
been improving steadily as the results of tree improvement research
have been applied. The technology to establish fast-growing
plantations exists, as does the global expertise for establishing
them. Growth rates of more than 30 cubic meters/hectare/year are
now commonplace for intensive industrial pulp plantations in the
tropics and FAO estimates that there are between 1.5 million and
2.0 million hectares of tree plantations established every year.
You may find it helpful to visually represent the structure of your
argument, perhaps even including your organizational map as a
visual for readers. For example, consider the following screenshot
from the EPA's site on global warming. From this image, you
understand four topics are being addressed and you understand the
questions that guide the EPA's causal analysis:
Introduce the Topic: Typically, texts that explore cause-andeffect relationships summarize the author's position upfront,
in the introduction (see General to the Specific Strategies).
For example, back in 1985, Joseph K. Skinner began his
influential essay "Big Mac and the Tropical Forests" with this
dramatic opening--two sentences that immediately focus

your attention on the causal connection he explicates

throughout his essay: Hello, fast-food chains. Goodbye,
tropical forests. However, you may want to avoid explicit
thesis sentences and forecasting statements if your subject is
likely to threaten the beliefs of your audience or if it is an
inherently emotional subject. You may occasionally find it
important to establish a credible persona first by reviewing
what your readers are likely to believe about a causal
relationship and then by stating your own opinion.
For example, assume you are writing an essay against
spanking children. Now if your audience believes that
spanking children is the proper way to discipline them, and
if you claim in the introduction of the essay that spanking
children may result in their becoming criminals, then your
readers might assume you are an oddball and dismiss your
essay. Yet if you intelligently discuss some of the reasons
why parents and psychologists recommend spanking and
then introduce extensive research from prominent journals
and reports that all violent criminals were spanked as
children, your readers might be more willing to listen to
your reasoning
Style: When grappling with difficult issues and concepts,
your prose can understandably become unclear, dull, or
cluttered. Eventually, though, as you continue to revise your
drafts and further refine your message, you need to cut away
the superfluous words, redundancies, and needless
abstractions. You can make your language more interesting
and more understandable by eliminating needless jargon;

passive voice; lengthy, redundant sentences; or pompous and

archaic language.
Provide Descriptive, Sensory Language: You can help your
readers imagine your subject better by appealing to their
senses. Whenever possible, describe how an object looks,
sounds, tastes, feels, or smells. For example, in this excerpt
from Carl Sagan's powerful essay on the effects of a nuclear
war, "The Nuclear Winter," notice how Sagan appeals to our
visual sense in his description of the effect of a single nuclear
bomb
on
a
city:
In a 2 megaton explosion over a fairly large city, buildings
would be vaporized, people reduced to atoms and shadows,
outlying structures blown down like matchsticks and raging
fires ignited. And if the bomb exploded on the ground, an
enormous crater, like those that can be seen through a
telescope on the surface of the Moon, would be all that
remained where midtown once had been.
The lifeblood of effective writing is concrete and sensory
language. A word, properly placed, can create a tone that
angers or inspires a reader. Knowing the power of language
to promote change, effective writers are selective in their use
of concrete wordswords that represent actual physical
things like "chair" and "house"and sensory wordswords
that appeal to our five senses. Selecting the right word or
group of words is a crucial step in drawing your readers into
your work so that they can fully understand your vision and

ideas. Note the masterful use of concrete and sensory words

in this passage from a Newsweek essay, "Don't Go in the
Water":
"Black mayonnaise": The problem for most landlubbers, of
course, is that most of the effects of coastal pollution are hard
to see. Bays and estuaries that are now in jeopardyBoston
Harbor, for example, or even San Francisco Bayare still
delightful to look at from shore. What is happening
underwater is quite another matter, and it is not for the
squeamish. Scuba divers talk of swimming through clouds
of toilet paper and half-dissolved feces, of bay bottoms
covered by a foul and toxic combination of sediment, sewage
and petrochemical waste appropriately known as "black
mayonnaise." Fishermen haul in lobsters and crab [sic]
covered with mysterious "burn holes" and fish whose fins are
rotting off. Offshore, marine biologists track massive tides of
algae blooms fed by nitrate and phosphate pollution
colonies of floating microorganisms that, once dead, strangle
fish by stripping the water of its life giving oxygen.
In addition to selecting an abundance of distinctive concrete
words (such as sediment, sewage, and nitrate) and sensory
words (foul, burn holes, feces) the authors have used
powerful images and metaphors. Even more potent is the
image of "black mayonnaise." Can you imagine biting into a
sandwich
spread
with
such
poison?
When Speculating, Use Qualifying Language: When

addressing complex issues and processes, you adopt an

appropriate speculative voice by using words like "may
cause" or "could also."Lorem ipsum dolor sit
ametconsectetuer.
Useful Qualifying Words and Phrases: may, might, usually
typically, perhaps, can, I believe it seems likely. As an
example of carefully chosen qualifying words, consider the
following passage from the US EPA's Web site on global
warming impacts:
Rising global temperatures are expected to raise sea level,
and change precipitation and other local climate conditions.
Changing regional climate could alter forests, crop yields,
and water supplies. It could also affect human health,
animals, and many types of ecosystems. Deserts may expand
into existing rangelands, and features of some of our
National Parks may be permanently altered.
Most of the United States is expected to warm, although
sulfates may limit warming in some areas. Scientists
currently are unable to determine which parts of the United
States will become wetter or drier, but there is likely to be an
overall trend toward increased precipitation and
evaporation, more intense rainstorms, and drier soils.
Unfortunately, many of the potentially most important
impacts depend upon whether rainfall increases or

decreases, which cannot be reliably projected for specific

areas.

FINDING THE MAIN IDEA

How Can I Locate the Main Idea?
Once you can find the topic, you are ready to find the
main idea. The main idea is the point of the paragraph. It is
the most important thought about the topic.

To figure out the main idea, ask yourself this question:

What is being said about the person, thing, or idea (the
topic)?
The author can locate the main idea in different places
within a paragraph. The main idea is usually a sentence, and
it is usually the first sentence. The writer then uses the rest of
the paragraph to support the main idea.
Let's use the paragraph below as an example. First find
the topic, then look for the main idea.
Summer is a wonderful time to spend at West Beach. It is a beach
with light- colored, soft sand. The coastline goes on for a long way
and many people enjoy walking along it. Children like to play in
the surf and walk along the rocks that are visible at low tide. This
is a fun beach for people of all ages.

In this paragraph:
THE TOPIC IS WEST BEACH
THE MAIN IDEA (WHAT THE WRITER IS SAYING
ABOUT THE TOPIC) IS THAT SUMMER IS A
WONDERFUL TIME AT WEST BEACH
Here is another example:

The movie Apollo 13 was a blockbuster for the summer of 1995. It

is an exciting story about space exploration. In the movie, the
astronauts get in trouble while they are trying to return to Earth.
People in the audience are on the edge of their seats waiting to see
what happens. What makes it even more exciting is that it is a true
story.
In this paragraph:
THE TOPIC IS THE MOVIE APOLLO 13
THE MAIN IDEA IS IN THE FIRST SENTENCE: APOLLO
13 WAS A BLOCKBUSTER FOR THE SUMMER OF 1995
While the main idea is usually in the first sentence, the
next most common placement is in the last sentence of a
paragraph. The author gives supporting information first
and then makes the point in the last sentence.
Here's a paragraph we can use as an example. Try to
locate the topic and the main idea.
Most teenagers and young adults do not know what they want to
do for the rest of their lives. It is a big decision. There are a number
of things you can do to narrow the choices. For example you can
take an interest test, do some research on your own about a career,
try volunteer work in the field in which you are interested, or "jobshadow", in which you spend a day with a person who is
working in a field that interests you. These are just a few helpful
ideas as you begin to choose a career.

In this paragraph:
THE TOPIC IS JOBS OR CAREER CHOICES
THE MAIN IDEA IS A FEW IDEAS TO HELP THE READER
CHOOSE A CAREER
Finally, an author might put the main idea in the middle of a
paragraph. The author will spend a few sentences
introducing the topic, present the main idea, then spend the
rest of the paragraph supporting it. This can make the main
idea more difficult to find.
See if you can find the topic and main idea in the paragraph
below.
The United States seems to be in love with the idea of going out to
eat. Because of this, a real variety of restaurants has come about
specializing in all kinds of foods. McDonald's is the king of a
subgroup of restaurants called fast-food restaurants. Chances are,
no matter where you live, there is a McDonald's restaurant near
you. There are even McDonald's in the Soviet Union. Now
McDonald's is trying something new. It is called McDonald's
Express and there is a test site in Peabody, Massachusetts. It is
part of a Mobil gas station. This allows you to fill up with gas and
fill up on food at the same time. What will they think of next?
In this paragraph:
THE TOPIC IS MCDONALD'S
THE MAIN IDEA IS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE
PARAGRAPH, IN THE THIRD SENTENCE: MCDONALD'S
IS THE KING OF FAST FOOD

USING APPROPRIATE CONJUNCTIONS IN

SENTENCES

Key Points
The presence of coordination is often signaled by the
appearance of a coordinator (coordinating conjunction), e.g.
and; or; but (in English).
The words "and" and "or" are the most frequently
occurring coordinators in English. Coordinators, like "but,"
"as well as," and "then," occur less frequently, and have
unique properties.
Coordination is not limited to coordinating just
constituents, but rather it is quite capable of coordinating
non-constituent strings.
There is a limitation on material that precedes the
conjuncts of a coordinate structure that restricts the ensuing
material.
The dependent clause is called a "subordinate clause,"
and the independent clause is called the "main clause" or
matrix clause.
Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by
subordinators (subordinate conjunctions) such as: after;
because; before; if; so that; that; when; while.
Depending on the number of coordinators used,
coordinate structures can be classified as syndetic, asyndetic,
or polysyndetic.

One coordinate structure can easily be nested inside

another.
There are many instances of coordination where the
coordinated strings are not alike.
Coordination is not limited to coordinating just
constituents, but rather it is quite capable of coordinating
non-constituent strings.
Gapping is an ellipsis mechanism that seems to occur in
coordinate structures only.
Coordination is sensitive to the linear order of words.
There is a limitation on material that precedes the conjuncts
of a coordinate structure that does restrict the material that
follows it.
The coordinate structure constraint is the property of
coordinate structures that prevents extraction of a single
conjunct or from a single conjunct.
If extraction occurs out of both conjuncts in a like
fashion, the coordinate structure is acceptable. This trait of
coordination is referred to as the across-the-board constraint.
In pseudo-coordinative constructions, the coordinator,
generally and, appears to have a subordinating function.

The pseudo-coordinative construction is limited to a

few verbs. In English, these verbs are typically go, try, and
sit.
A
typical
property
of
pseudo-coordinative
constructions is that, unlike ordinary coordination, they
appear to violate the across-the-board extraction property.
Subordination
is
a
principle
hierarchical organization of linguistic units.

of

the

The syntactic units of sentences are often either

subordinate or coordinate to each other.
One clause is subordinate to another if it depends on it.
The dependent clause is called a subordinate clause and the
independent clause is called the main clause (matrix clause).
Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by subordinators
(subordinate conjunctions) such as: after, because, before, if,
so that, that, when, while, etc.
The subordinate unit is called the dependent, and the
superordinate unit the head.

Conjunctions explained

A conjunction is a part of speech that functions as a

connector between two sentences, clauses, phrases, or
words.

We often use conjunctions in speech without

realizing it. In writing, they can be effectively used in lieu of

starting a new sentence. The proper use of conjunctions
allows for more natural flow and rhythm in your writing.
The improper use of conjunctions often results in writing
that sounds choppy and disjointed.

Look at the following three sentences, for example: "I

went to the store. They didn't have apples. They also didn't
have hot sauce." While technically not incorrect, these
sentences would sound much better as one sentence joined
together by conjunctions. "I went to the store, but they had
neither apples nor hot sauce."

The previous sentence used two different types of

conjunctions: coordinating and correlative. Many people
aren't even aware there are two types, but in an editor's
world, there are major differences between the two.

Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are the most common form

of conjunctions. They are so pervasive in the English
language that they are used in nearly every sentence or
paragraph in some form or another. Despite the frequency of
these conjunctions, their use still results in common ESL
mistakes. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in total
and it is very likely youve heard all of them many times
today. While you may not be able to list them off the top of
your head, there is a very simple mnemonic that can help
you to remember them:

FANBOYS.
F for
A and
N nor
B but
O or
Y yet
S so

These seven words function to connect two or more

items of equal syntactic importance. These items can be
words, sentences, or clauses. However, there is a risk
associated with using coordinators, as they can lead to what
is known as a run-on sentence. This is a sentence that is too
heavy

and

contains

multiple

subjects.

Coordinating

conjunctions can lead to rambling and nonsensical sentences

if you are not careful; use them sparingly. If you've used
more than two coordinating conjunctions in one sentence,
you've likely got a run-on sentence.

Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are slightly more obscure, but
you have undoubtedly come across them in your daily
speech. A correlative conjunction, as its name implies, is a
pair of conjunctions that are joined together to combine two
relative parts of speech.

"It was either me or him."

In this sentence, "either" and "or" are the correlative
conjunctions.

They

bind

"me"

and

"him"

together,

insinuating an inclusive relationship. The following are the

primary correlative conjunctions in the English language:

Not only but also

as in: She was not only mean, but

also rude.

Neithernor

as in: They were neither fun nor

exciting.

Bothand

as in: He was both pleased and

surprised.

Whetheror

as in: He was not sure whether he

was winning or losing.

Notbut

as in: They did not want to waste the

day, but they stayed inside.

Correlative conjunctions often function as comparative

devices. While this is not their sole function, it is the most
common context in which you will see them.

Terms
Subordinate conjunction
Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators,
are conjunctions that conjoin an independent clause and a
dependent clause. The most common subordinating
conjunctions in the English language include after, although,
as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because,
before, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though,
unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever,
and while.

Coordinating conjunction
Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are
conjunctions that join two or more items of equal syntactic
importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences.
coordinator.
In grammar, a coordinator is a part of speech that
connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together.

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

In your career as a student, youll encounter many
different kinds of writing assignments, each with its own
requirements. One of the most common is the
comparison/contrast essay, in which you focus on the ways
in which certain things or ideasusually two of themare
similar to (this is the comparison) and/or different from (this
is the contrast) one another. By assigning such essays, your
instructors are encouraging you to make connections
between texts or ideas, engage in critical thinking, and go
beyond mere description or summary to generate interesting
analysis: when you reflect on similarities and differences,
you gain a deeper understanding of the items you are
comparing, their relationship to each other, and what is most
important about them.

Recognizing
Comparison/Contrast in
Assignments
Some assignments use wordslike compare, contrast,
similarities, and differencesthat make it easy for you to see
that they are asking you to compare and/or contrast. Here
are a few hypothetical examples:

Compare and contrast Fryes and Bartkys accounts of

oppression.
Compare WWI to WWII, identifying similarities in the
causes, development, and outcomes of the wars.
Contrast Wordsworth and Coleridge; what are the
major differences in their poetry?
Notice that some topics ask only for comparison, others
only for contrast, and others for both.
But its not always so easy to tell whether an
assignment is asking you to include comparison/contrast.
And in some cases, comparison/contrast is only part of
the essayyou begin by comparing and/or contrasting two
or more things and then use what youve learned to
construct an argument or evaluation. Consider these
examples, noticing the language that is used to ask for the
comparison/contrast and whether the comparison/contrast
is only one part of a larger assignment:
Choose a particular idea or theme, such as romantic
love, death, or nature, and consider how it is treated in two
Romantic poems.
How do the different authors we have studied so far
define and describe oppression?

Compare Fryes and Bartkys accounts of oppression.

What does each imply about womens collusion in their own
oppression? Which is more accurate?
In the texts weve studied, soldiers who served in
different wars offer differing accounts of their experiences
and feelings both during and after the fighting. What
commonalities are there in these accounts? What factors do
you think are responsible for their differences?
You may want to check out our handout
on Understanding Assignments for additional tips.

Using Comparison/Contrast
for All Kinds of Writing
Projects
Sometimes you may want to use comparison/contrast
techniques in your own pre-writing work to get ideas that
you can later use for an argument, even if
comparison/contrast isnt an official requirement for the
paper youre writing. For example, if you wanted to argue
that Fryes account of oppression is better than both de
Beauvoirs and Bartkys, comparing and contrasting the
main arguments of those three authors might help you
construct your evaluationeven though the topic may not
have asked for comparison/contrast and the lists of

similarities and differences you generate may not appear

anywhere in the final draft of your paper.

Discovering Similarities and

Differences
Making a Venn diagram or a chart can help you quickly
and efficiently compare and contrast two or more things or
ideas. To make a Venn diagram, simply draw some
overlapping circles, one circle for each item youre
considering. In the central area where they overlap, list the
traits the two items have in common. Assign each one of the
areas that doesnt overlap; in those areas, you can list the
traits that make the things different. Heres a very simple
example, using two pizza places:
To make a chart, figure out what criteria you want to
focus on in comparing the items. Along the left side of the
page, list each of the criteria. Across the top, list the names of
the items. You should then have a box per item for each
criterion; you can fill the boxes in and then survey what
youve discovered. Heres an example, this time using three
pizza places:
Peppers
Location
Price
Delivery
Ingredients

Amante

Papa Johns

Service
Seating/eating
in
Coupons
As you generate points of comparison, consider the
purpose and content of the assignment and the focus of the
class. What do you think the professor wants you to learn by
doing this comparison/contrast? How does it fit with what
you have been studying so far and with the other
assignments in the course? Are there any clues about what to
focus on in the assignment itself?
Here are some general questions about different types
of things you might have to compare. These are by no means
complete or definitive lists; theyre just here to give you some
ideasyou can generate your own questions for these and
other types of comparison. You may want to begin by using
the questions reporters traditionally ask: Who? What?
Where? When? Why? How? If youre talking about objects,
you might also consider general properties like size, shape,
color, sound, weight, taste, texture, smell, number, duration,
and location.
Two historical periods or events
When did they occurdo you know the date(s) and
duration? What happened or changed during each? Why are
they significant? What kinds of work did people do? What
kinds of relationships did they have? What did they value?

What kinds of governments were there? Who were

important people involved? What caused events in these
periods, and what consequences did they have later on?
Two ideas or theories
What are they about? Did they originate at some particular
time? Who created them? Who uses or defends them? What
is the central focus, claim, or goal of each? What conclusions
do
they
offer?
How
are
they
applied
to
situations/people/things/etc.? Which seems more plausible
to you, and why? How broad is their scope? What kind of
evidence is usually offered for them?
Two pieces of writing or art
What are their titles? What do they describe or depict? What
is their tone or mood? What is their form? Who created
them? When were they created? Why do you think they
were created as they were? What themes do they address?
Do you think one is of higher quality or greater merit than
the other(s)and if so, why? For writing: what plot,
characterization, setting, theme, tone, and type of narration
are used?
Two people
Where are they from? How old are they? What is the gender,
race, class, etc. of each? What, if anything, are they known
for? Do they have any relationship to each other? What are
they like? What did/do they do? What do they believe? Why

are they interesting? What stands out most about each of

them?

Deciding What to Focus On

By now you have probably generated a huge list of
similarities and differencescongratulations! Next you must
decide which of them are interesting, important, and
relevant enough to be included in your paper. Ask yourself
these questions:

Whats relevant to the assignment?

Whats relevant to the course?
Whats interesting and informative?
What matters to the argument you are going to make?
Whats basic or central (and needs to be mentioned
even if obvious)?

Overall, whats more importantthe similarities or the

differences?
Suppose that you are writing a paper comparing two
novels. For most literature classes, the fact that they both use
Calson type (a kind of typeface, like the fonts you may use in
your writing) is not going to be relevant, nor is the fact that
one of them has a few illustrations and the other has none;
literature classes are more likely to focus on subjects like
characterization, plot, setting, the writers style and
intentions, language, central themes, and so forth. However,

if you were writing a paper for a class on typesetting or on

how illustrations are used to enhance novels, the typeface
and presence or absence of illustrations might be absolutely
critical to include in your final paper.
Sometimes a particular point of comparison or contrast
might be relevant but not terribly revealing or interesting.
For example, if you are writing a paper about Wordsworths
Tintern Abbey and Coleridges Frost at Midnight,
pointing out that they both have nature as a central theme is
relevant (comparisons of poetry often talk about themes) but
not terribly interesting; your class has probably already had
many discussions about the Romantic poets fondness for
nature. Talking about the different ways nature is depicted
or the different aspects of nature that are emphasized might
be more interesting and show a more sophisticated
understanding of the poems.
YOUR THESIS
The thesis of your comparison/contrast paper is very
important: it can help you create a focused argument and
give your reader a road map so she/he doesnt get lost in the
sea of points you are about to make. As in any paper, you
will want to replace vague reports of your general topic (for
example, This paper will compare and contrast two pizza
places, or Peppers and Amante are similar in some ways
and different in others, or Peppers and Amante are similar
in many ways, but they have one major difference) with
something more detailed and specific. For example, you

might say, Peppers and Amante have similar prices and

ingredients, but their atmospheres and willingness to deliver
set them apart.
Be careful, thoughalthough this thesis is fairly
specific and does propose a simple argument (that
atmosphere and delivery make the two pizza places
different), your instructor will often be looking for a bit more
analysis. In this case, the obvious question is So what? Why
should anyone care that Peppers and Amante are different
in this way? One might also wonder why the writer chose
those two particular pizza places to comparewhy not Papa
Johns, Dominos, or Pizza Hut? Again, thinking about the
context the class provides may help you answer such
questions and make a stronger argument. Heres a revision
of the thesis mentioned earlier:
Peppers and Amante both offer a greater variety of
ingredients than other Chapel Hill/Carrboro pizza places
(and than any of the national chains), but the funky, lively
atmosphere at Peppers makes it a better place to give
visiting friends and family a taste of local culture.
You may find our handout Constructing
Statements useful at this stage.
ORGANIZING YOUR PAPER
There are many different ways to
comparison/contrast essay. Here are two:

Thesis

organize

Subject-by-subject:
Begin by saying everything you have to say about the first
subject you are discussing, then move on and make all the
points you want to make about the second subject (and after
that, the third, and so on, if youre comparing/contrasting
more than two things). If the paper is short, you might be
able to fit all of your points about each item into a single
paragraph, but its more likely that youd have several
paragraphs
per
item.
Using
our
pizza
place
comparison/contrast as an example, after the introduction,
you might have a paragraph about the ingredients available
at Peppers, a paragraph about its location, and a paragraph
about its ambience. Then youd have three similar
paragraphs about Amante, followed by your conclusion.
The danger of this subject-by-subject organization is
that your paper will simply be a list of points: a certain
number of points (in my example, three) about one subject,
then a certain number of points about another. This is
usually not what college instructors are looking for in a
papergenerally they want you to compare or contrast two
or more things very directly, rather than just listing the traits
the things have and leaving it up to the reader to reflect on
how those traits are similar or different and why those
similarities or differences matter. Thus, if you use the
subject-by-subject form, you will probably want to have a
very strong, analytical thesis and at least one body
paragraph that ties all of your different points together.

A subject-by-subject structure can be a logical choice if

you are writing what is sometimes called a lens
comparison, in which you use one subject or item (which
isnt really your main topic) to better understand another
item (which is). For example, you might be asked to compare
a poem youve already covered thoroughly in class with one
you are reading on your own. It might make sense to give a
brief summary of your main ideas about the first poem (this
would be your first subject, the lens), and then spend most
of your paper discussing how those points are similar to or
different from your ideas about the second.

Point-by-point:
Rather than addressing things one subject at a time, you may
wish to talk about one point of comparison at a time. There
are two main ways this might play out, depending on how
much you have to say about each of the things you are
comparing. If you have just a little, you might, in a single
paragraph,
discuss
how
a
certain
point
of
comparison/contrast relates to all the items you are
discussing. For example, I might describe, in one paragraph,
what the prices are like at both Peppers and Amante; in the
next paragraph, I might compare the ingredients available;
in a third, I might contrast the atmospheres of the two
restaurants.

If I had a bit more to say about the items I was

comparing/contrasting, I might devote a whole paragraph to
how each point relates to each item. For example, I might
have a whole paragraph about the clientele at Peppers,
followed by a whole paragraph about the clientele at
Amante; then I would move on and do two more paragraphs
discussing my next point of comparison/contrastlike the
ingredients available at each restaurant.
There are no hard and fast rules about organizing a
comparison/contrast paper, of course. Just be sure that your
reader can easily tell whats going on! Be aware, too, of the
placement of your different points. If you are writing a
comparison/contrast in service of an argument, keep in
mind that the last point you make is the one you are leaving
your reader with. For example, if I am trying to argue that
Amante is better than Peppers, I should end with a contrast
that leaves Amante sounding good, rather than with a point
of comparison that I have to admit makes Peppers look
better. If youve decided that the differences between the
items youre comparing/contrasting are most important,
youll want to end with the differencesand vice versa, if
the similarities seem most important to you.
Our handout on Organization can help you write good
topic sentences and transitions and make sure that you have
a good overall structure in place for your paper.
CUE WORDS AND OTHER TIPS

To help your reader keep track of where you are in the

comparison/contrast, youll want to be sure that
your transitions and topic sentences are especially strong.
Your thesis should already have given the reader an idea of
the points youll be making and the organization youll be
using, but you can help her/him out with some extra cues.
The following words may be helpful to you in signaling
your intentions:
like, similar to, also, unlike, similarly, in the same way,
likewise, again, compared to, in contrast, in like manner,
contrasted with, on the contrary, however, although, yet,
even though, still, but, nevertheless, conversely, at the same
time, regardless, despite, while, on the one hand on the
other hand.
For example, you might have a topic sentence like one of
these:
Compared to Peppers, Amante is quiet.
Like Amante, Peppers offers fresh garlic as a topping.
Despite their different locations (downtown Chapel Hill and
downtown Carrboro), Peppers and Amante are both fairly
easy to get to.

WHY TEACH CHARACTER TRAITS

Character analysis offers an easy way to add rigor to
any literature discussion. Character trait studies actively
engage students and help them develop an understanding of
characters motives. Studying character traits teaches
students how to make appropriate inferences from facts.
Furthermore, students deepen their understanding of
literature by learning to support their opinions with details
from the selection. Students enjoy debating and discussing
character traits as their vocabularies develop. As a teacher,
youll enjoy the fact that these printables can be used

repeatedly throughout the year simply by focusing on

different characters and traits.

Common Core State

Standards for Literature
The lessons in Analyzing Character Traits are perfect
for helping you teach Common Core Literature Standards in
Grades 3 through 5. The character development component
of each standard below can be taught using some or all of
the materials in this packet. However, in order to teach all
aspects of each standard, youll need to find additional
resources for the other topics described by that standard
such as story settings and events.

Grade 3 - 5 Standards That Reference Character

Development
Grade 3 RL 3.3 Describe characters in a story (e.g., their
traits, motivations, or feelings) and explain how their
actions contribute to the sequence of events.
Grade 4 RL 4.3 Describe in depth a character, setting, or
event in a story or drama, drawing on specific details in
the text (e.g., a characters thoughts, words, or actions).

 Grade 5 RL 5.3 Compare and contrast two or more

characters, settings, or events in a story or drama,
drawing on specific details in the text (e.g., how
characters interact).

Step-by-Step Lessons for

Analyzing Character Traits
1. Advanced Preparation - Locate several short read-aloud
books with memorable characters. Youll find a bibliography
of suggested books on page 22. In addition, you can use
short selections from a basal reading text. Biographies work
well for character trait lessons, but fictional characters can
also provide a rich source of discussion. Duplicate a
Character Trait list for each student. Youll find two versions
on pages 6 and 7. You may want to duplicate the list on
colored paper and laminate it since your students will be
referring to this list frequently throughout the year. Its also
helpful to locate individual dry erase boards and markers for
each student. Many of the lessons involve active
participation, and dry erase boards are an easy way to
involve all students.
2. Introduction to Character Traits - Begin by explaining the
term character trait. A simple definition might be the
personal qualities that a character demonstrates such as
bravery or loyalty. Ask students to think of a character from
a recent book and name one character trait that describes the
person. Randomly call on students or have them write their

responses on individual dry erase boards to show you. In

general, physical qualities like height or hair color are not
considered to be character traits.
3. Emotions versus Character Traits - Some students may be
confused about the difference between emotions and
character traits. Explain that the two terms are similar, but
emotions can change from moment to moment, while
character traits are developed over time. For example, a
character may generally exhibit the trait of cheerfulness, yet
he or she may feel the emotion of sadness when a friend
moves away.
4. Distribute Character Trait List - Distribute one copy of
the character trait list to each student. Emphasize that they
need to store this list in a safe place and take care of it
because they will be using it repeatedly throughout the year.
Ask them to read over the words, but dont stop to explain
the meaning of each one. Later youll be focusing on a new
word each day as you discuss characters in stories and
biographies.
5. Character Clues Overview - Now ask students how they
think authors reveal a characters personality to readers.
Point out that authors seldom use character trait words to
describe characters; instead, they include clues throughout
the selection. Display the Character Clues overview on page
6 and discuss each type of clue with your students. As you
discuss the difference between action clues, verbal clues, and

other clues, ask them to cite examples from books or stories

you have recently read.
6. Character Trait Analysis - Immediately after introducing
the Character Clues overview page, display the Character
Clues graphic organizer on a overhead projector or
whiteboard. Read aloud a short book such as Tacky the
Penguin and ask students to brainstorm a list of character
trait words that describe the main character. If their
Character Trait list is laminated, they can circle the words on
that list. If not, they can write them on a dry erase board or
add to a class list on an interactive whiteboard. Then choose
one character trait and write it in the center of the graphic
organizer. Read through the book another time, asking
students to notice actions, words, and other clues that
support this trait. Add their ideas to the class graphic
organizer. Dont worry if you cant find a detail for every
category. In this case, you might want to use the graphic
organizer several times with different characters to reinforce
the concept of character clues.
7. Daily Character Trait - This lesson is designed to take
place during 15-minute daily mini-lessons over a period of
several weeks. During that time, your students will develop
a character reference chart. Distribute copies of the Character
Trait Reference on page 10 and display a copy for the class.
Each day read a short selection or refer to a character in
a chapter book. Identify a character trait that applies to the

main character, making sure its one that your students

might not already know, such as gullible or ambitious. Write
the word in the first column and explain the meaning of the
word. Have students help you write a definition for the
second column. Then have students brainstorm clues from
the selection that support this character trait and record
them in the Literary Examples column. Add one word a day
to the chart until youve introduced all of the challenging
words on the character trait list.
8. Character Trait Sorting - To check for understanding,
place students in teams of three or four and give each team
one copy of the Character Trait Sorting map on page 11 and a
set of character trait word cards. Use the cards on page 12 or
create your own with the template on page 13. Students cut
the cards apart and stack them face down in the middle of
the chart. One by one, they take turns flipping over a card,
reading it aloud, and discussing it with the team. The team
decides if the trait is generally thought of as a positive
attribute or a negative attribute and the card is placed face
up in the appropriate spot. If its neither positive or negative,
they place it in the Neutral box. If they dont know the
meaning, they place it in the Unknown section. Students
take turns flipping over and placing the cards so that
everyone participates equally. Finally, discuss the team
answers as a class. An alternate strategy would be to stop
and have a team discussion after every word is placed on the
sorting map. This will keep each discussion short and

focused, preventing students from becoming bored during

one long class discussion.
9. Basic Character Map - After students are comfortable
with most of the words on their Character Trait list, its time
to revisit the concept that a single character often displays
numerous character traits. The Character Map graphic
organizer on page 15 is an excellent tool for working with
this idea. Complete directions for introducing the Character
Map to your students can be found on page 14. You can also
find a completed example based on the book Goldie Socks
and the Three Liberians on page 16.
10. Character Comparisons - Comparing characters is
another way to deepen understanding about character traits
and motives. Use the Comparing Characters Venn diagram
on page 17 to compare two characters from the same story or
characters from different stories. Students can even compare
characters with themselves. Allow students to use physical
attributes as well as character traits to describe each
character.
11. Character Development - In some stories and
biographies, the main character undergoes a significant
transformation as a result of an event or interaction with
another character. The Character Development map on page
18 offers a way to analyze a character before and after the
change takes place. You may want to use the instructional
sequence on page 14 to introduce this graphic organizer. Its

always best to introduce a new graphic organizer to the

entire class or a guided reading group before assigning it to
individuals to complete alone.
12. Character Trait Challenge - As a culminating activity,
involve your students in the Character Trait Challenge.
Students work in teams of three or four to create a team
poster displaying the character traits of a significant
character from a biography or other literary selection.
Character Traits:
absent-minded, adventurous, ambitious, argumentative
bashful , bold, bossy, brave, busy
caring,
careless,
cautious,
cheerful,
clumsy,
compassionate, conceited, confident, considerate,
content, courageous, cranky, creative, critical, cruel,
curious,
dainty, daring, dedicated, defiant, demanding,
determined, devious, dreamer
energetic, even-tempered
friendly, fun-loving
generous, gentle, gullible
handsome, happy, hard-working, helpful, heroic, hones,
humble, humorous
imaginative,
impatient,
independent,
innocent
,intelligent, inventive
joyful
lazy, leader, logical, lovable, loving, loyal
malicious, mannerly, messy, methodical, mischievous

obedient, outgoing, optimistic

patient, patriotic, persistent, pessimistic, polite, proud
reckless, reserved, resourceful, respectful, rude
selfish, serious, shy, sly, sneaky, spoiled, stingy,
stubborn, studious, successful, suspicious
thoughtful, timid,
unruly, unselfish, witty

Character Clues
Authors reveal character traits by providing clues in the text.
Action Clues - Character traits are revealed through the
actions and reactions of the character. Good readers carefully
observe how the character behaves to make inferences about
character traits. Example: Standing up to a bully shows
courage.
Verbal Clues - Character traits are revealed by what the
character says and how those words are delivered.
Sometimes clues can be found in what characters say about
each other. Example: A character who yells, No! Were
going to do it my way! might be considered bossy.
Other Clues - Character traits can be revealed by other clues
such as physical appearance, how the character dresses,
where he or she lives, interests and hobbies, and so on.
Example: A tiny girl who wears frilly dresses might be
considered dainty.

DESCRIBING SETTING

Eudora Welty said, "Every story would be another story,

and unrecognizable if it took up its characters and plot and
happened somewhere else... Fiction depends for its life on
place. Place is the crossroads of circumstance, the proving
ground of, What happened? Who's here? Who's coming?..."
Writers describe the world they know. Sights, sounds, colors,
and textures are all vividly painted in words as an artist
paints images on canvas. A writer imagines a story to be
happening in a place that is rooted in his or her mind. The
location of a story's actions, along with the time in which it
occurs, is the setting.
Setting is created by language. How many or how few
details we learn is up to the author. Many authors leave a lot
of these details up to the reader's imagination.
What Setting Tells Us
In William Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily," the narrator
carefully describes the house that Miss Emily lives in. This
description helps us picture a decaying Mississippi town in
the post-Civil War South. We also learn about Miss Emily's
resistance to change.
It was a big, squarish frame house that had once been
white, decorated with cupolas and spires and scrolled
balconies in the heavily lightsome style of the seventies, set
on what had once been our most select street. But garages
and cotton gins had encroached and obliterated even the

august names of that neighborhood; only Miss Emily's house

was left, lifting its stubborn and coquettish decay above the
cotton wagons and the gasoline pumps--an eyesore among
eyesores.
Later we enter the house itself and, eventually, end up
inside one particular room. The physical details of the
setting become linked with the values, ideals, and attitudes
of that place in different times.
Setting can add an important dimension of meaning,
reflecting character and embodying theme.
Notice how the details of the setting provide the clues for
solving the murder in "A Jury of Her Peers." As a result, they
illuminate the deeper meaning of the story.
Theme
What exactly is this elusive thing called theme?
The theme of a fable is its moral. The theme of a parable
is its teaching. The theme of a piece of fiction is its view
about life and how people behave.
In fiction, the theme is not intended to teach or preach.
In fact, it is not presented directly at all. You extract it from
the characters, action, and setting that make up the story. In
other words, you must figure out the theme yourself.
The writer's task is to communicate on a common ground
with the reader. Although the particulars of your experience

may be different from the details of the story, the general

underlying truths behind the story may be just the
connection that both you and the writer are seeking.
Finding the Theme
Here are some ways to uncover the theme in a story:
Check out the title. Sometimes it tells you a lot about the
theme.
Notice repeating patterns and symbols. Sometimes
these lead you to the theme.
What allusions are made throughout the story?
What are the details and particulars in the story? What
greater meaning may they have?
Remember that theme, plot, and structure are
inseparable, all helping to inform and reflect back on each
other. Also, be aware that a theme we determine from a story
never completely explains the story. It is simply one of the
elements that make up the whole.
The play version of Susan Glaspell's "A Jury of Her
Peers" is called Trifles. What do both titles suggest about the
theme?

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SENTENCE

A common weakness in writing is the lack of varied
sentences. Becoming aware of three general types of
sentences--simple, compound, and complex--can help you
vary the sentences in your writing.
The most effective writing uses a variety of the sentence
types explained below.
1. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence has the most basic elements that
make it a sentence: a subject, a verb, and a completed
thought.
Examples of simple sentences include the following:
Joe waited for the train.
"Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb
The train was late.
"The train" = subject, "was" = verb
Mary and Samantha took the bus.
"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "took" = verb

I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.

"I" = subject, "looked" = verb
Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station early but
waited until noon for the bus.
"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "arrived" and
"waited" = compound verb
Tip: If you use many simple sentences in an essay, you
should consider revising some of the sentences into
compound or complex sentences (explained below).
The use of compound subjects, compound verbs,
prepositional phrases (such as "at the bus station"), and other
elements help lengthen simple sentences, but simple
sentences often are short. The use of too many simple
sentences can make writing "choppy" and can prevent the
writing from flowing smoothly.
A simple sentence can also be referred to as
an independent clause. It is referred to as "independent"
because, while it might be part of a compound or complex
sentence, it can also stand by itself as a complete sentence.
2. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of
two independent clauses (or complete sentences) connected
to one another with a coordinating conjunction.

Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think

of the words

"FAN BOYS":
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Examples of compound sentences include the following:
Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.
I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they
arrived at the station before noon and left on the bus before I
arrived.
Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before
noon, and they left on the bus before I arrived.
Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did
not see them at the bus station.
Tip: If you rely heavily on compound sentences in an essay,
you should consider revising some of them into complex
sentences (explained below).

Coordinating conjunctions are useful for connecting

sentences, but compound sentences often are overused.
While coordinating conjunctions can indicate some type of
relationship between the two independent clauses in the
sentence, they sometimes do not indicate much of a
relationship. The word "and," for example, only adds one
independent clause to another, without indicating how the
two parts of a sentence are logically related. Too many
compound sentences that use "and" can weaken writing.
Clearer and more specific relationships can be established
through the use of complex sentences.
3. Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is made up of an independent
clause and one or more dependent clauses connected to it. A
dependent clause is similar to an independent clause, or
complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that
would make it a complete sentence.
Examples of dependent clauses include the following:
because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station
before noo while he waited at the train station after they left
on the bus

Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone

as a sentence, but they can be added to an independent
clause to form a complex sentence.

Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions.

Below are some of the most common subordinating
conjunctions:
after
although
as
because
before
even though
if
since
though
unless
until
when
whenever
whereas
wherever
while

A complex sentence joins an independent clause with

one or more dependent clauses.
The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence,
followed by the independent clause, as in the following:
Tip: When the dependent clause comes first, a comma
should be used to separate the two clauses.
Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station
before noon, I did not see them at the station.
While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that
the train was late.
After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized
that Joe was waiting at the train station.
Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the
sentence, followed by the dependent clause, as in the
following:
Tip: When the independent clause comes first, a comma
should not be used to separate the two clauses.
I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha
arrived at the bus station before noon.
Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the
train station.
Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the
train station after they left on the bus.

Complex sentences are often more effective than

compound sentences because a complex sentence indicates
clearer and more specific relationships between the main
parts of the sentence. The word "before," for instance, tells
readers that one thing occurs before another. A word such as
"although" conveys a more complex relationship than a word
such as "and" conveys.
The term periodic sentence is used to refer to a
complex sentence beginning with a dependent clause and
ending with an independent clause, as in "While he waited
at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late."
Periodic sentences can be especially effective because the
completed thought occurs at the end of it, so the first part of
the sentence can build up to the meaning that comes at the
end.
Beginning Sentences with "And" or "Because"
Should you begin a sentence with "and" or "but" (or one of
the other coordinating conjunctions)?
The short answer is "no." You should avoid beginning a
sentence with "and," "or," "but," or the other coordinating
conjunctions. These words generally are used to join together
parts of a sentence, not to begin a new sentence.
However, such sentences can be used effectively. Because
sentences beginning with these words stand out, they are

sometimes used for emphasis. If you use sentences

beginning with one of the coordinating conjunctions, you
should use these sentences sparingly and carefully.
Should you begin a sentence with "because"?
There is nothing wrong with beginning a sentence with
"because."
Perhaps some students are told not to begin a sentence with
"because" to avoid sentence fragments (something like
"Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station
before noon" is a sentence fragment), but it is perfectly
acceptable to begin a sentence with "because" as long as the
sentence is complete (as in "Because Mary and Samantha
arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see them at
the station.)

SEQUENCING EVENTS
What Is It?
Sequencing is one of many skills that contributes to
students' ability to comprehend what they read. Sequencing
refers to the identification of the components of a story, such
as the beginning, middle, and end, and also to the ability to
retell the events within a given text in the order in which
they occurred.
The ability to sequence events in a text is a key
comprehension strategy, especially for narrative texts.
Finding meaning in a text depends on the ability to
understand and place the details, the sequence of events,
within some larger contextthe beginning, middle, and end
of a story. The ordering of events in a story, along with
connecting words such as once upon a time, then, later,
afterwards, and in the end, are good examples of textual

features, an understanding of which gives the reader a way

of integrating the story's individual parts into its larger
frameworkand thereby understanding the author's
purpose.
Why Is It Important?
As students listen to or read text, they are best served if
they can understand the information as it is presented and
then recall it at a later point. Beginning readers and those
that have not had much opportunity to work on their
sequencing skills have a tendency to retell a story by starting
with the end, since it is the part that they read or heard most
recently. Even more experienced readers may re-tell a story
by focusing primarily on the sections that were most
appealing to them rather than by giving a more complete
picture of the events that occurred. (Fox and Allen, 1983)
Practicing sequencing helps remedy both of these
issues and makes this aspect of reading comprehension
second nature. If students are encouraged to identify the
parts of a story, for instance, they will be better able to retell
it to someone else, as it is a more manageable task to think of
a story in piecesthe beginning, middle, and endrather
than try to recall it as one large chunk. Sequencing activities
also provide an opportunity for students to examine text and
story structure, which, in turn, strengthens their writing
skills.
How Can You Make It Happen?

Sequencing is a skill that can be incorporated into any

subject area, but it is often associated with teaching early
readers. When selecting a text for a sequencing activity, start
with a piece that contains distinct events; has a clear
beginning, middle, and end; and that lends itself to being
retold. Familiar examples of such stories include fairy tales
and fables.
A variety of ways exist to help students hone their
sequencing skills. Below are some ideas for practicing
sequencing in the context of a read-aloud story or during
independent reading.
Read Aloud
Prior to reading a story aloud, remind students that they will
be working on their sequencing skills. Depending on your
lesson, you might say, "As we read, let's think about what
happens during the beginning, middle, and end of the story,"
or "After we finish reading, we're going to try to retell the
story."
As you read, pause frequently to ask students to
identify the events in the story and to encourage them to
think about when the beginning gives way to the middle and
the middle transitions to the end.
Once you have read the story, make lists with students
about the events that occurred, trying to arrange them
sequentially. Sentence strips work well for this type of

activity, since events can be written on individual strips and

then rearranged as necessary to put the events in the correct
order. Let students use these lists or strips as reminders as
they retell the story by acting it out with puppets, for
instance.
Independent Reading
Begin by reminding students that they will be working
on their sequencing skills. One strategy that may be helpful
is to give students pieces of paper and pencils to use as they
read. Students can write page numbers and a few words to
remind them of important events in the story. For instance, a
student who is reading Goldilocks and the Three Bears in order
to retell it may jot down:
Goldilocks comes in
She eats the porridge
She breaks the chair
She falls asleep
The bears come home
This list doesn't tell the whole story, but it does provide
the key elements, in order, and would serve as a good
outline for someone wanting to retell it themselves. If this
procedure is new to students, model it before asking them to
do it on their own, using a read aloud story and recording
your own ideas in a think aloud style to show students how
to do this on their own.

Once students have completed reading, give them

opportunities to write about their stories' sequences in
a reading journal, to discuss their stories with partners, or to
retell them to family members for homework.
Taking Sequencing to the Next Level
Students will benefit from a variety of experiences with
sequencing. Practice sequencing in different ways and with a
variety of texts. Make games of sequencing practice by
photocopying a short story, mixing the pages up, and asking
students to reassemble them in the correct order (be sure to
take the page numbers off the pages for this activity!). This
type of activity can also be done with pictures by giving
students a set of illustrations that tell a story or show a
familiar step-by-step procedure, such as making a sandwich
or getting dressed. Students then assemble the pictures so
that the steps are in a logical order.

Older students who are being asked to retell a story can

participate in self-evaluation by tape recording themselves as
they do so. This technique allows students not only to
practice the retelling but to listen to themselves and evaluate
their own performances. Questions students can think about
during this self-assessment include: Did I include the

important aspects of the story? Are there any elements I

should have included? Will my retelling make sense to
someone who isn't familiar with the story?

Students can also expand on their retelling skills by

rewriting plays they have read or heard and then performing
those plays for their classmates or another class. This
provides students with opportunities to think about
sequencing in the roles of both readers and writers.
When Can You Use It?
Reading
Students can sharpen their sequencing skills as they
read independently, participate in small group reading
activities, or listen to you read a story. Before reading a
longer story with students, make charts labeled, "beginning,"
"middle," and "end." Pause after each section of the story to
discuss what has happened and to record information on
your charts.
Writing
Sequencing is an important skill in writing. One way
for students to plan their writing is by creating an outline or

a graphic organizer before beginning a piece. This provides

opportunities for students to think about the sequence of
events in a story they wish to tell or the most logical
sequence in which to provide information in a nonfiction
piece.
Math
Math provides many opportunities for students to think
about a process for solving a given type of problem. This
process can be thought of as a sequence of steps. Students
can list the steps of a process, such as finding a common
denominator for a pair of fractions, and work with partners
to follow those steps while solving applicable problems.
Social Studies
As students study history, they are often asked to keep
track of series of events. Sequencing is a critical skill for this
type of learning. Students can practice this skill by creating
timelines showing the order of events. Students who are not
yet involved in the study of historical events can still practice
their sequencing skills by creating personal timelines,
illustrating the course of their own lives.
Science

Science experiments provide a great opportunity for

honing sequencing skills. Not only can students practice
following a sequence of steps to investigate a particular
concept but many experiments provide a dramatic way for
students to try to take a set of mixed-up instructions and put
them in a logical sequence. Students may find that some
experiments can only be done in a specific order while others
can be done in a variety of sequences. For instance, one
experiment to investigate the chemical reaction between
acids and bases involves pouring a small amount of baking
soda into a balloon. Vinegar is then added to the balloon.
The gas produced by the reaction between the baking soda
and the vinegar inflates the balloon. Students might extend
this experiment by altering the sequence of the steps. Ask
them if the results are same if they put the vinegar in the
balloon first, for example.

FORMULATING A CONCLUDING
SENTENCE FOR A PARAGRAPH
Why is a concluding sentence important in a
paragraph? It is needed to show that the writer has
completed what he wants to say and to leave in the reader's
mind a final statement of the paragraph's main idea.
What is a concluding sentence? It pulls together or
summarizes the main idea of the paragraph, usually in a
single sentence. The concluding sentence also provides a
definite ending point for the paragraph.
What can you do to make sure that your concluding
sentence is effective, that it restates the main idea and makes
the
reader
feel
that
the paragraph is complete? Just follow these suggestions the
next time you write a paragraph: 1. End the paragraph with a concluding sentence that
summarizes or restates the main idea as expressed in the
topic sentence.

Example: (topic sentence) -A grandfather is a very special

person who has all of the good characteristics of a father but
none of the faults.
Example: (concluding sentence) -He will go to any length to
plan special family gatherings at which grandfather is truly a
grandfather.
(This sentence provides a good conclusion by restating the
topic sentence.)
2. Make sure that the concluding sentence does not
introduce another subject that is not covered by the
paragraph, which includes the concluding sentence.
(Introducing another subject, which is not covered by the
paragraph, will confuse the reader and weaken the ending.)
3. Remember to tailor the conclusion to the type of
paragraph you are writing. (The conclusion for each kind of
paragraph should be handled differently.) Suggestions for
concluding each major type of paragraph are summarized
below:
A. In a "comparison/contrast" paragraph, include in the
concluding sentence both of the subjects being
compared/contrasted. This approach will reinforce the
controlling idea of the topic sentence --in this case, the sharp
contrast between two football coaches, "Bud" Wilkinson and
"Bear" Bryant.

Example: (concluding sentence) -The fact that these

contrasting figures were two of the most successful coaches
in football history proves that there is more than one way to
inspire a football team.
B. In a "descriptive" paragraph, use a concluding sentence to
draw details together into a unifying impression, which
restates the impression contained in the topic sentence. In a
paragraph describing someone whose appearance radiated
an easy-going sense of humor, the concluding statement
could be stated as follows:
Example: (concluding sentence) -Joe had the kind of laidback humor that could brighten anyone's day.
C. In a division/classification" paragraph, which classifies
or breaks a topic into component parts, use a concluding
sentence to focus the reader's attention on the topic as a
whole, not on the last of the component parts discussed in
the body of the paragraph. In a paragraph which analyzes
the various ways to drive a one-man jet boat --sitting
position, standing position, and kneeling position --the
writer should conclude it with a statement that ties all of the
parts (the whole paragraph) together.
Example: (concluding sentence) -The position you choose for
operating a jet boat will depend on weather conditions. (This
conclusion addresses all of the~ positions discussed in the
paragraph.) As this example shows, don't end your

division/classification paragraph with a final detail

concerning only a part of your analysis. Instead, formulate a
concluding sentence that refers to the whole paragraph.
D. In a paragraph, which explains through the use of
examples, the writer must supply a strong concluding
sentence. This sentence should not be just another example
--it should restate the topic sentence (controlling idea) and
summarize all of the examples the writer has included in the
paragraph. In a paragraph, which uses examples to explain
how quickly a reputation can be destroyed, the conclusion
should restate the same idea.
Example: (concluding sentence) -Reputation is, indeed, a
fragile thing. It takes years to build but only a moment to
lose. (This sentence restates the paragraph's main idea, not
just one of the examples that the writer uses to show how
fragile a reputation actually is.)
E. In a "narrative" paragraph~ which tells a story with a
definite point the writer needs a concluding sentence to
reinforce the point being made. In a story, which is intended
to show, how smart a particular horse is the concluding
sentence might be stated as follows:
Example: (concluding sentence) - I'll agree that horses are
beautiful but I'll never be convinced that they are stupid;
Silver and I know better. (It's easy to see how the Lone
Ranger feels when you read that conclusion.)

In all of these examples, the concluding sentence leaves

the reader with a restatement of the paragraph's main idea.
Without a good concluding sentence, the writer cannot end a
paragraph effectively.
Four kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1.

The Thats My Story and Im Sticking to It

Conclusion.
This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually
painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People
write this kind of conclusion when they cant think of
anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick
Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American
education, proving that education was a major force for
social change with regard to slavery.

2.

The Sherlock Holmes Conclusion.

Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first
time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this
strategy if you dont want to give everything away too
early in your paper. You may think it would be more
dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and
then wow him with your main idea, as in a Sherlock

Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a

mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an
academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up
front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous
incidents from the book but never says what these
incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on
education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates,
Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the
slaveholders power and also an important step toward
freedom.

3.

The America the Beautiful/I Am Woman/We

Shall Overcome Conclusion.
This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make
its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality
may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with
the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated
commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a
more fitting tribute to the topic. Example: Because of the
efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass,
countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that
is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for
others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.

4.

The Grab Bag Conclusion.

This kind of conclusion includes extra information that
the writer found or thought of but couldnt integrate into
the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details
that you discovered after hours of research and thought,
but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of
an

otherwise-well-organized

essay

can

just

create

confusion. Example: In addition to being an educational

pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case
study for masculinity in the American South. He also
offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave
resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His
relationships with female relatives reveal the importance
of family in the slave community.

LEARNING WORDS FROM CONTEXT CLUES

You know that a large vocabulary is very useful. It
helps you talk more interestingly and makes a good

impression on other people. It helps you read faster and with

more understanding. And it has also been found that your
power to think clearly grows as your knowledge of words
grows.
Does that mean that you should keep a dictionary
chained to your wrist to look up new words you hear or
read? Its one way. But there is another way to learn new
words. You have used it all your life. Here it is. Listen for
words you dont know. Suppose someone calls you
diabolical, for example. You want to know whether thats
good or bad. What do you do? You could say Whats that?
And let the other person feel superior. You could say How
do you spell it? And whisk out your pocket dictionary. You
could ask How diabolical am I? so that you can get another
clue to the meaning.
If you choose the last method, you are trying to learn
from context clues. Each time you hear or read a word in a
different sentence, you get more information about what it
means. Finally, you have an idea in your mind about what
the word means. You have learned from the context of the
word. The context is simply the words or ideas around your
unknown word. Using context clues as your read is
important for two reasons.
1. If you skip over the meaning of unfamiliar words, you
may come to the end of the passage you are reading with a
very fuzzy idea of what you have read. On the other hand, if
you stop and look up every word you dont know, you may

become irritated at the slow rate of your reading and stop

altogether.
So, if you can be alert to context clues and figure out
meanings as you read, you will help your speed as well as
your comprehension.
2. In Section III on using the dictionary, you learned that
even when you use the dictionary it is often necessary to
read several definitions of a word before you can find the
one that fits the meaning of the sentence.
So you will have to be alert to context clues even when
you use the dictionary. Four Context Clues (Examples,
Definitions, Descriptive words, Opposites)
EXAMPLES
The context of a word will sometimes give examples
that will give you a pretty clear idea of meaning. Suppose
you want to know the meaning of the word gestures in the
paragraph below. How many examples are given in the
paragraph?
Some dogs can be trained to respond to gestures
instead of sounds; for example, a hand pointing in a certain
direction, an open hand, palm down, or arms outstretched
can be used to mean go sit or come to a well-trained dog.

The number of examples given is ________________.

R:devread/064/065/Packets/ Learning Words From Context
Clues.doc
Look for words like for example, for instance, such as ,
like that signal examples are coming.
DEFINITIONS
Sometimes the writer will save you the trouble of
looking up a word by defining it for you. Underline the
words in the following sentences that signal you that some
sort of a definition is going to follow. Often this kind of
definition will not sound much like a dictionary definition.
It is a fact that a large number of small businesses fail
because the owner hasnt enough capital to tide him over
slack periods and emergencies that is, it takes
a certain amount of working money to keep a business
going.
When you see expressions like that is or means, you
will know to watch for a definition of some kind. A second
kind of definition is what is called an appositive. An
appositive is just a phrase that follows a word and explains
it. But instead of being introduced by one of the definitiontype expressions, this kind of phrase is set off on both sides
by commas.
Circle the appositive in the sentence below.

An aquarium needs scavenger fish, swimming garbage

collectors, to keep the tank clean.
DESCRIPTIVE WORDS
You can sometimes piece together the meaning of a
word by a little straight detective work. Look at the
underlined word. Now which words in the following
description help you understand the meaning of the
underlined word?
The first impression that crossed my mind was that the
woman was obese. Her clothing was stretched across her
vast surface of skin like a lumpy balloon stretched to the
bursting point.

REFERENCES:
Identifying cause and effect relationship
http://writingcommons.org/index.php/open-text/genres/academicwriting/causes-effects
http://study.com/academy/lesson/cause-and-effect-relationshipdefinition-examples-quiz.html
https://www.thedailycafe.com/articles/recognize-and-explaincause-and-effect-relationshipsassessment
http://educators.brainpop.com/bp-jr-topic/cause-and-effect/
Finding the Main Idea
http://www.landmarkoutreach.org/publications/spotlight/findingmain-idea
Using Conjunctions in a Sentences
https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writingtextbook/overview-of-english-grammar-parts-of-speech250/conjunctions-293/conjunctions-coordination-correlationconjunction-and-subordination-130-10365/
http://www.scribendi.com/advice/the_functions_of_conjunctions.e
n.html
Comparing and Contrasting
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/comparing-andcontrasting/

Character Traits
http://www.learner.org/interactives/literature/read/theme2.html
Different Types of Sentence
http://www2.ivcc.edu/rambo/eng1001/sentences.htm
Sequencing Events
https://www.teachervision.com/skill-builder/readingcomprehension/48779.html
Formulating Conclusions
http://aacc.edu/supportcenter/file/formulatingaconcludingsentenc
eforapar.pdf
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/conclusions/
Defining Words Through Context
https://www.sinclair.edu/centers/tlc/pub/handouts_worksheets/rea
ding/learning_words_from_context_clues.pdf

English
Commu
nication
Skills 3

Submitted By:
Ricel Crizia L. Galindez