ANALYSIS OF ERRORS IN INDIRECT

OBSERVATIONS

Analysis of indirect observations

LOPOV Law of Propagation of Variance (Error)

z z ( x1 x1 ) ( x2 x 2 )
Z
X 1
x1
2
Z

In matrix form:

Z

X2
x2

Z A x AT
A = Z Z

x
1 2

X2 1 X 1 X 2

X 2X1 X 2

Z Z2

Matrix A:
Linear function, A = [c1 c2 cn]
Non-linear function,

Z 1
Z 1
x
x 2
1
Z 2
A = Z 2
x
x 2
1

........ .......

Z m Z m
x 2
x1

Z 1
x n

Z 2
x n

......

Z m
xn

It can be shown that LOPOV;

2

Z
Z

X 1
X 2 ......
Xn
x1
x2

xn

2
Z

where

X 1X 2 0

Derive the standard deviation of mean S x

Mean
Std deviation y1=y2= =yn = S

S
n

Example
10.560m 0.012m
A

x1

120.370m 0.015m
x2

Find length AC (Z) and its standard deviation ( Z )

Z = x1 + x2
= 10.560 + 120.370
= 130.93m

Z
2
Z X 1
x1

Z

X2
x2

(1)(0.012)2 (1)(0.015)2 0.019

LengthAC 130.93m 0.019m

120.370m 0.015m

10.560m 0.012m

x1

x2

Find length AC and its standard deviation

Z = x1 + x2

Z A X AT
A 1 1

1
A
1
T

X2 1 X 1 X 2

2
X 2 X 1 X 2

2
0

0
.
012
=

2
0
0
.
015

2
4

3
.
7
x
10
Z Z

AC 3.7 x10 4 0.019

LengthAC 130.93m 0.019m

A straight line PT was measured in sections and the measured length with its
standard deviation are shown in the following table. In matrix form, compute the
standard deviations of the length PT.

Sections

Length
(m)

Standard deviation
(m)

PQ

157.694

0.018

QR

381.978

0.024

RS

182.124

0.018

ST

227.325

0.024

Z = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
Answer = 949.121m +/- 0.042m

Z = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
A(1x4)
1

Sigx(4x4)
0.000324
0
0
0

At(4x1)
1
1
1
1

Z A X AT

949.121

0
0.000576
0
0

0
0
0.000324
0

0
0
0
0.000576

Asigx(1x4)
0.000324 0.000576 0.000324 0.000576
ASigxAt(1x1)
0.0018
std dev

0.042

Find the area of a circle and its error

R = 37.163m 0.021m

A R 2 (37.163) 2 4338.818m2
A

R
R

2
A

A
2R 2 (37.163) 233.502
R

(233.502)(0.021)2 4.904m2

Answer = 4338.818 +/- 4.904 sq m

A = pi()*R
A(1x1)
233.502

sigr(1x1)
0.000441

At(1x1)
233.502

Asigr(1x1)
0.102974
AsigrAt(1x1)
24.04473
std dev

4.904

The elevation difference from points A to B is 10.560m 0.012m

If the elevation of point A above mean sea level is 120.370m 0.015m
(i) Calculate the elevation of point B above mean sea level
(ii) Calculate the standard deviation of elevation of point B

H B H A AB
Answer = 130.930 +/- 0.019m

Hb = Ha + dH =

130.93

A(1x2)
1

At(2x1)
1
1
Asig(1x2)
0.000225 0.000144
AsigAt(1x1)
0.000369
std dev

0.019

sig(2x2)
0.000225
0
0 0.000144

As shown above, the distance between points B and C cannot be directly

measured as it was obstructed by the building. However, it was possible to
measure distances AB, AC and the horizontal angle A.
If the measured distance AB = 154.338m 0.063m, distance AC = 136.729m
0.063m and angle A = 800 50 37 15, compute the distance BC and its
standard deviations.
Note that BC2 = AC2 + AB2 2(AC)(AB)Cos A

Answer = 189.206 +/- 0.058m

L1
L2
a

154.338
136.729
80-50-37

L3
rho

189.206
206265.000

A(1x3)
0.701

0.593

+/-

80.84361
1.410987

(deg)
(rad)

110.111

At(3x1)
0.701
0.593

Asig(1x3)
0.002781

110.111

AsigAt(1x1)
0.003

0.063
0.063
15

sig(3x3)
0.003969
0
0

0.002353

m
m
(")

0
0
0.003969
0
0
5.28849E-09

5.82318E-07
std dev
0.058

A
F

D
B
E

C
Back
Stn.

Inst. Stn.

Fore
Stn.

A
B
C
D

B
C
D
E

C
D
E
F

Measured
angles

Standard
deviation
()
(0
)
89-17-22
4.2
109-27-05
5.1
283-33-52
5.3
117-35-19
4.5

The clockwise angles of an open traverse ABCDEF were measured using a

Total Station. The measured angles and its standard deviations are as shown
in the table. Knowing the bearing of AB as 2020 16 37 and standard
deviation of 3.5, compute the bearing of BC, CD, DE and EF and their
standard deviations.

Y
S

S 305.35m 0.07m

4 0 00 ' 0 0 01'
D

The slope distance (S) and vertical angle ( ) between points X and Y
were measured and their results are as shown;

i.

Calculate the horizontal distance (D) between

points X and Y and its standard deviation in matrix
form.

D sCos

ii.

If the error in the horizontal distance (D) is

considered too large, determine whether the slope
distance or the vertical angle needs to be
measured more precisely.

The distance (d) and bearing (b) of a traverse line PQ are as follows:

d = 456.87m 0.02m

b = 23 35'26"09"
0

In matrix form, calculate the coordinates of point Q and its standard

deviation given the coordinates of point P as
Easting P = 100.00m 0.05m
Northing P =

200.00m 0.05m

Answer:
Easting Q = 282.838 0.054
Northing Q = 618.689 0.054

RANDOM ERRORS
IN ANGLE AND DISTANCE
OBSERVATIONS

SOURCES OF RANDOM ERRORS IN HORIZONTAL ANGLE

OBSERVATIONS
Instrument setup/centring and leveling
Target setup/centring
Circle reading
Target pointing

REDUCTION OF ERRORS
Errors in instrument leveling, reading and pointing can be reduced by
increasing the number of angle repetitions.
Errors in instrument and target setup can be reduced by increasing the sight
distances

READING ERRORS
Quality of the instruments optic
The smallest division of the circle
Operator abilities

POINTING ERRORS
Quality of the instruments telescope optic
Target size
Operator abilities to bisect cross-wire on a target
Weather condition

TARGET CENTRING ERRORS

Environmental condition
Optical plummet
Quality of the optics
Plumbob centring
Personal abilities

INSTRUMENT CENTRING ERRORS

Quality of instrument and optics

Optical plummet
Plumbob centring
Personal abilities
Quality of tripod

Angle measurement error:

Reading error ()

Pointing error ()

Target centring (rad)

D3

Instrument centring (rad)

D1

r
p
i

Note: x 206265 to convert (rad) to ()

D2

r2 p2 t2 i2
D32 D12 D22 2D1D2Cos

p
t

er

ep

D12 D22
et
D1 D2

D3
D1 D2 2

ei

D32 D12 D22 2D1D2Cos

r2 p2 t2 i2

Note: p = 206265 to convert (rad) to ()

Example

An angle is measured four (4) times using a Total Station. The observer reading
error is1 and pointing error of 1.5. The observers centering error of the target
0.001m and centering error of instrument is 0.001m. The horizontal distance
from instrument to backsight target is 76.505m and foresight target 105.765m.
The measured angle is 650 37 12.

Calculate the standard deviation in the measured angle.

p
t

er

ep

D12 D22
et ( p)
D1 D2

D3
i
ei ( p)
D1D2 2
D3 D D 2D1D2Cos
2

2
1

2
2

r2 p2 t2 i2

Error due to reading = 0.71

Error due to pointing = 1.06
Error due to target centring = 3.33
Error due to Instrument centering = 1.84 ; D3 = 101.780m
Combined error = 4.01

SOURCES OF RANDOM ERRORS IN ELECTRONIC DISTANCE

OBSERVATIONS
Instrumental errors : constant error (a) and scalar error (b) specified as

(a b)
Target and instrument centring

ppm

Error in Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

D i2 t2 a 2 D *b2
Constant error (a)
Scalar error (b) in ppm 10 6
Instrument centring error

Target centring error

Distance measured (D)

Exercise

A Total Station with instrumental error (5mm + 10 ppm)

was used to measure a distance of 138.340m The
centering error of instrument is 0.001m and centering
error of reflector is 0.003m. Calculate the total error in
the measured distance.

D a D * b 0.006m
2
i

2
t