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Module IV
Automated process planning: Process planning, general methodology of group technology, code
structures of variant and generative process planning methods,
A1 in process planning, process planning software.
DISCLAIMER
These notes are not the ultimate look-up for Model and University exams. Students are advised to read the
references mentioned at the end thoroughly for the exams

Process Planning
Process planning is concerned with the preparation of route sheets that list the sequence of operations
and work centers require to produce the product and its components. Products and their components
are designed to perform certain specific functions. Every product has some design specifications
which ensure its functionality aspects. The task of manufacturing is to produce components such that
they meet design specifications. Process planning acts as a bridge between design and manufacturing
by translating design specifications into manufacturing process details. It refers to a set of instructions
that are used to make a component or a part so that the design specifications are met, therefore it is
major determinant of manufacturing cost and profitability of products. Process planning answers the
questions regarding required information and activities involved in transforming raw materials into a
finished product. The process starts with the selection of raw material and ends with the completion of
part. The development of process plans involves mainly a set of following activities;

Analysis of part requirements

Selection of raw work piece
Selection of manufacturing operations and their sequences
Selection of machine tools
Selection of tools, tool holding devices, work holding devices and inspection equipments
Selection of manufacturing conditions i.e. cutting speed, feed and depth of cut.

Manufacturing firms try to automate the task of process planning using CAPP systems due to many
limitations of manual process planning.
Approaches to Process Planing
(1) The manual experience-based planning method
(2) Computer Aided Process Planning (Automated Process Planing)

The manual experience-based planning method:

The manual experience-based process planning is most widely used. It is mainly based on a
manufacturing engineer's experience and knowledge of production facilities, equipment, their
capabilities, processes, and tooling. The major problem with this approach is that it is time consuming
and developed plans may not be consistent and optimum. The feasibility of developed process plan is
dependent on many factors such as availability of machine tools, scheduling and machine allocation
etc. Computer aided process planning is developed to overcome this problems to some extent.

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These includes:
Tied to personal experience
and knowledge of planner of production facilities, equipment, their Capabilities, process and
tooling. This results in inconsistent plans.
Manual process planning is time consuming and slow.
Slow in responding to changes in product design and production.

Computer Aided Process Planning (Automated Process Planning)

The primary purpose of process planning is to translate the design requirements into manufacturing
process details. This suggests a system in which design information is processed by the process
planning system to generate manufacturing process details. CAPP integrates and optimizes system
performance into the inter-organizational flow. For example, when one changes the design, it must be
able to fall back on CAPP module to generate manufacturing process and cost estimates for these
design changes. Similarly, in case of machine breakdown on the shop floor, CAPP must generate the
alternative actions so that most economical solution can be adopted in the given situation. A typical
CAPP frame-work is shown in figure below.

CAPP is the application of computer to assist the human process planer in the process planning
function. In its lowest form it will reduce the time and effort required to prepare process plans and
provide more consistent process plan. In its most advanced state, it will provide the automated
interface between CAD and CAM and in the process achieve the complete integration with in
CAD/CAM.
Advantages Over Manual Experience-based Process Planning

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The uses of computers in process plan have following advantages over manual experience-based
process planning :
(i) It can systematically produce accurate and consistent process plans.
(ii) It leads to the reduction of cost and lead times of process plan.
(iii) Skill requirement of process planer are reduced to develop feasible process plan.
(iv) Interfacing of software for cost, manufacturing lead time estimation, and work standards can
easily be done.
(v) Leads to the increased productivity of process planar.
With the emergence of CIM as predominate thrust area in discrete part industries process planning has
received significant attention, because it is the link between CAD and CAM. Hence, computer aided
process planning (CAPP) has become a necessary and vital objective of CIM system.
Steps Involved in CAPP
Now-a-days, rapid progress is being made in the automation of actual production process and also the
product design element. However, the interface between design and production presents the greatest
difficulty in accomplishing integration. CAPP has the potential to achieve this integration. In general,
a complete CAPP system has following steps :
(i) Design input
(ii) Material selection
(iii) Process selection
(iv) Process sequencing
(v) Machine and tool selection
(vi) Intermediate surface determination
(vii) Fixture selection
(viii) Machining parameter selection
(ix) Cost/time estimation
(x) Plan preparation
(xi) Mc tape image generation.
(i)

Identify the machinable volumes called pockets by taking the difference of blank size and the finished
component size. For each of the pocket attach the necessary technological details relevant for
manufacturing. The blank size if not given directly can be identified as the largest volume that completely
encloses the finished component.

(ii) Do a preliminary sorting of the pockets in order of levels that clearly indicate the likely se quence in the final process plan.
(iii) Examine the pockets for any possibility of combining so that the machining operations could be
reduced.
(iv) Select the machine tool that can be used for each of the identified pockets. Minimise the total
number of machine tools required. This may have to be modified recursively based on the
operation sequence selected.
(v) Identify the process sequence required for the machining of each of the po cket based on the
technological requirements. Help may be obtained in the shape of canned sequences based on the
technological parameters. Any possible alternate plans can also be identified at this stage.
(vi) For each of the pocket and the operation decided, select the cutting tool required.
(vii) Obtain the optimum cutting process parameters (speed, feed, number of passes and depth of cut)

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for each of the pocket, tool and the operation combination identified in the earlier steps.
(viii) Sort the operations on the basis of machine tool and cutting tool. Sequence the operations on the
basis of machine tool and cutting tool by making use of the heuristic rules for the purpose.
(ix) Evaluate the machining time and idle time involved in the production of the component. Select the
final process plan based on the lowest cost or machining time.
(x) Present the final results in any suitable form such as
Process sheet (alpha numeric)
Process pictures
Machining simulation steps
CLDATA or CNC part program

CAPP MODEL
CAD System

Preprocessor

Knowledg
e
Input

CAPP Model

CAPP

Output

Planning Rules

Postprocessor

Production Planning
& Scheduling

CAPP System Architecture

CAD System

Machining Knowledge Base

Preprocessor

Machining Selection Module

Constraint Application Module

Process Plan Generation

Module

Constraint
Creation Module

Manufacturing Knowledge
Base

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APPROACHES TO COMPUTER-AIDED PROCESS PLANNING

In recent days, several computer-aided process planning systems are available for use for a variety of
manufacturing operation.
These systems can broadly be clarified into two categories :
(i) Variant computer aided process planning method.
(ii) Generative computer aided process planning method.
The details of these are explained in next subsections.
The variant CAPP method
In variant CAPP approach, a process plan for a new part is created by recalling, identifying and
retrieving an existing plan for a similar part and making necessary modifications for the new part.
Sometimes, the process plans are developed for parts representing a fmily of parts called 'master
parts'. The similarities in design attributes and manufacturing methods are exploited for the purpose of
formation of part families. A number of methods have been developed for part family formation using
coding and classification schemes of group technology (GT), similarity-coefficient based algorithms
and mathematical programming models.
The variant process planning approach can be realized as a four step process;
1. Definition of coding scheme
2. Grouping parts into part families
3. Development of a standard process plan
4. Retrieval and modification of standard process plan
A number of variant process planning schemes have been developed and are in use. One of the most
widely used CAPP system is CAM-I developed by McDonnell-Douglas Automation Company. This
system can be used to generate process plan for rotational, prismatic and sheet-metal parts.
This has evolved out of the traditional manual process planning method. A process plan for a new
part is created by identifying and retrieving an existing plan for a similar part, followed by the
necessary modifications to adapt it to the new part.
It is based on GT principles, i.e., part classification and coding. These coding allow the CAPP
system to select a baseline process plan for the part family and accomplish about 90% of the planning
work. The planner adds the remaining 10% of the planning by modifying the baseline plan.
If the code of the part does not match with the codes stored in the database, a new process plan must
be generated manually and then entered into database to create a new baseline process plan for future
use.
Advantages and limitations of Variant CAPP
Investment in hardware and software is not much.
The system offers a shorter development time and lower manpower consumption to develop process
plan.
The system is very reliable and reasonable in real production environments for small and medium
size companies.
Quality of process plan depends on knowledge and background of process planner.

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The general steps for data retrieval modification are as follows :

Establishing the Coding Scheme
A variant system usually begins with building a classification and coding scheme. Because,
classification and coding provide a relatively easy way to identify similarity among existing and new
parts. Today, several classification and coding systems are commercially available. In some extreme
cases, a new coding scheme may be developed. If variant CAPP is preferred than it is useful for a
company to look into several commercially available coding and classification systems (e.g.
DCLASS, JD-CAPP etc.). Now, it is compared with companies before developing their own coding
and classification system. Because using an existing system can save tremendous development time
and manpower.
(i) Form the Part Families by Grouping Parts
The whole idea of GT lies into group numerous parts into a manageable number of part families. One
of the key issues in forming part families is that all parts in the same family should have common and
easily identifiable machined features. As a standard process plan are attached with each part family,
thereby reducing the total number of standard process plans.
(ii) Develop Standard Process Plans

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After formation of part families, standard process plan is developed for each part families based on
common part features. The standard plan should be as simple as possible but detailed enough to
distinguish it from other.
(iii) Retrieve and Modify the Standard Plans for New Parts
Step1 to step 3 are often referred as preparatory work. Each time when a new part enters the systems,
it is designed and coded based on its feature, using the coding and classification scheme, and than
assigned to a part family. The part should be similar to its fellow parts in the same family. Also,
familys standard plan should represent the basic set of processes that the part has to go through. In
order to generate detailed process routes and operation sheets to this part, the standard plan is
retrieved from the data
Advantages and Disadvantages of Variant CAPP
Following advantages are associated with variant process planning approach:
(i) Processing and evaluation of complicated activities and managerial issues are done in an efficient
manner. Hence lead to the reduction of time and labour requirement.
(ii) Structuring manufacturing knowledge of the process plans to companys needs through
standardized procedures.
(iii) Reduced development and hardware cost and shorter development time. This is an essential issue
for small and medium scale companies, where product variety is not so high and process planner are
interested in establishing their own process planning research activities.
Disadvantages of Variant Process Planning Approach
Following disadvantages are associated with variant process planning approach
(i) It is difficult to maintain consistency during editing.
(ii) Proper accommodation of various combinations of attributes such as material, geometry, size,
precision, quality, alternate processing sequence and machine loading among many other factors are
difficult.
(iii) The quality of the final process plan largely depends on the knowledge and experience of process
planner. The dependency on process planner is one of the major shortcomings of variant process
planning.
The generative CAPP method
In generative process planning, process plans are generated by means of decision logic, formulas,
technology algorithms, and geometry based data to perform uniquely processing decisions. Main aim
is to convert a part from raw material to finished state. Hence, generative process plan may be defined
as a system that synthesizes process information in order to create a process plan for a new component
automatically.
Generative process plan mainly consists of two major components :
(i) Geometry based coding scheme.
(ii) Proportional knowledge in the form of decision logic and data.
Process plans are generated by means of decision logics, formulas, algorithms, and geometry based
data that are built or fed as input to the system.
Format of input
Text input (interactive)
Graphical input (from CAD models)

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First key: to develop decision rules appropriate for the part to be processed. These rules are specified
using decision trees, logical statements, such as if-then-else, or artificial intelligence approaches with
object oriented programming.
Second key: Finding out the data related to part to drive the planning. Simple forms of generative
CAPP systems may be driven by GT codes.

A pure generative system can produce a complete process plan from part classification and
other design data which does not require any further modification or manual interaction.

In generating such plans, initial state of the part (stock) must be defined in order to reach the final
state i.e., finished part.
Forward or backward planning can be done.
Forward and backward planning apparently appear to be similar but they effect programming
significantly. The requirement and the results in of a setup in forward planning are the results and
requirements , respectively, of the set up in backward planning.
Forward planning suffers from conditioning problems; the results of a setup affects the next set up.
In backward planning, conditioning problems are eliminated because setups are selected to satisfy
the initial requirements only.
The generative CAPP has all the advantages of variant CAPP however it has an additional advantage
that it is fully automatic and a up-to-date process plan is generated at each time.
It requires major revisions if a new equipment or processing capabilities became available.
The development of the system in the beginning is a difficult.
Geometry-based Coding Scheme
All the geometric features for all process such as related surfaces, feature dimension, locations, on the
features are defined by geometry based coding scheme. The level of detail is much greater in
generative system than a variant system.
For example, various details such as rough and finished state of the part are provided to transform into
desired state.
Proportional Knowledge in the Form of Decision Logic and Data
Process knowledge in the form of decision logic and data are used for matching of part geometry
requirement with the manufacturing capabilities. All the methods mentioned above is performed
automatically.
Operation instruction sets are automatically generated to help the operators to run the machines in
case of manual operation. NC codes are automatically generated, when numerically controlled
machines are used

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Manufacturing knowledge plays a vital role in process planning. The process of acquisition and
documentation of manufacturing knowledge is a recurring dynamic phenomenon. In addition, there
are various sources of manufacturing knowledge such experience of manufacturing personnel,
handbooks, supplier of machine tools, tools, jigs and fixtures materials, inspection equipment and
customers etc. Hence, in order to understand manufacturing information, ensuring its clarity and
providing a framework for future modification, it is not only necessary but also inevitable to develop a
good knowledge structure from wide spectrum of knowledge. Flowchart, decision trees, decision
tables, algorithms, concepts of unit machined surfaces, pattern recognition techniques, and artificial
intelligent based tools are used to serve the purpose. A brief discussion on decision table is given
below.
The basic elements of decision tables are condition, action and rules. They are represented in the form
of allocation matrix. Figure 9.4 is one such representation where condition states the goal that we
want to achieve and action states the operation that we have to perform. On the basis of experience the
expert rules are formed by entry values to establish the relationship between condition and action.
Table 9.1 is one such representation where entry are of Boolean-types (true, false, dont care).
Similarly, in Table 9.2, continuous value type entries are shown.

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The decision making process works as follow.

For a particular set of condition entries, look for its corresponding rule from that rule determine the
action.

Advantages of Generative Process Plan

Generative process plans have a number of advantages. Among the major ones are the following :
(i) They rely less on group technology code numbers since the process, usually uses decision tree to
categorize parts into families.
(ii) Maintenance and updating of stored process plans are largely unnecessary. Since, any plan may be
quickly regenerated by processing through the tree. Indeed, many argue that with generable systems,
process plans should not be stored since if the process is changed, and out-of-dated process plan might
find its way back into the system.
(iii) The process logic rules however must be maintained up to dated and ready for use. This provides
the process planner with an assurance that the processes generated will reflect state-of-the-art
technology.

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Variant or Generative, Which to Use?

What CAPP approach (Variant or Generative) is better? This question has been constantly asked but,
there is no definite answer to it.
Generally speaking, a variant system is better for manufacturing setting where similar parts are
manufactured repetitively. Because parts are similar, Group Technology can easily be implemented
and shows quick and significant return on investment (ROI). Because similar parts are produced
repetitively, process plan can be retrieved, slightly modified and used, without going through too
much trouble. On the other hand, generative process planning is better suited for a manufacturing
environment in which part does not exhibit too much similarity and new part are introduced on a
regular basis. In this case, benefits cannot be gained from Group Technology due to dissimilarity of
parts. Because, new parts are regularly introduced, historical data does not have too much value to the
process planner. However, aforementioned approach is a rough guideline for selecting the appropriate
CAPP approach.

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GROUP TECHNOLOGY
Group technology is a manufacturing philosophy in which similar parts are identified and
grouped together to take advantage of their similarities in manufacturing and design. Similar parts are
arranged into part families. Each family would possess similar design and manufacturing
characteristics. Hence processing of each member of a given family would be similar and this results
in manufacturing efficiencies. These efficiencies are achieved in the form of reduced set-up times,
lower in-process inventories, better scheduling, improved tool control and the use of standardized
process plans. The design retrieval system is a manifestation of group technology principle applied to
the design function. To implement such a system some form of parts classification and coding is
required.

Part classification and coding is concerned with identifying the similarities among parts and
relating these similarities to a coding system. Part similarities are of three types:

i. Design attributes (such as geometric shape and size)

ii. Manufacturing attributes (sequence of processing steps required to make the part)
iii. Design and manufacturing attributes (combination of the design and manufacturing attributes)

When implementing a parts classification and coding system most companies elect to purchase a
commercially available package rather than develop their own. The following factors are considered
in selecting a parts coding and classification system:

Objective

Scope and application

Costs and time

Adaptability to other systems

Management problems

Overview of Group Technology (GT)

Parts in the medium production quantity range are usually made in batches
Disadvantages of batch production:
Downtime for changeovers
High inventory carrying costs
GT minimizes these disadvantages by recognizing that although the parts are
different, there
are groups of parts that possess similarities

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GT exploits the part similarities by utilizing similar processes and tooling to produce
them
GT can be implemented by manual or automated techniques
When automated, the term flexible manufacturing system is often applied

Group Technology Defined

An approach to manufacturing in which similar parts are identified and grouped
together in order to take advantage of their similarities in design and production
Similarities among parts permit them to be classified into part families
In each part family, processing steps are similar
The improvement is typically achieved by organizing the production facilities into
manufacturing cells that specialize in production of certain part families
Part Family
A group of parts that possess similarities in geometric shape and size, or in the
processing steps
used in their manufacture
Part families are a central feature of group technology
There are always differences among parts in a family
But the similarities are close enough that the parts can be grouped into the same
family
MANUFACTURING RESOURCE, GROUPS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Following are the six characteristics for effective grouping
1. The Team. Groups contain a specified team of workers who solely or generally form the group.
2. Product. Groups produce a specified family or set of products. In an assembly depart ment, the
products are assembled. In a machine shop these products will be machine parts e.g. in foundry products
will be casting.

3. Facilities. Groups are equipped with a specified set of machines and/or other production
equipment, which are used solely or generally in group.
4. Group layout. The facilities are laid out together in one area reserved for the group.
5. Independence. The group should, as far as possible, be independent of each other.
6. Size. The group should be limited to restrict the number of workers per group of 6 to 15 workers has
been widely recommended. Larger group up to 35 workers may be necessary for technology reasons in some
cases.

GROUPING PARTS INTO FAMILIES

The biggest single obstacle in changing over to group technology from a traditional shop is the problem of
grouping parts into families. There are three general methods for solving this problem. All the three
methods are time consuming and involve the analysis of much data by properly trained personnel. The
methods are

(i) Visual inspection

(ii) Production flow analysis (PFA)
(iii) Component classification and coding system (a) By design features (b) By production
features

(i) Visual Inspection. The visual inspection method is the least sophisticated and least expensive
method. It involves the classification of parts into families by looking at either the physical parts or
photographs and arranging them into similar groupings. This method is generally considered to be the
least accurate of the three.

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(ii) Production Flow Analysis (11FA). Production flow analysis (PFA) method, was developed by J.L.
Burbidge. PFA is a method of indentifying part families and associated machine tool groupings by analyzing the
route sheets for parts produced in a given shop. It groups together the parts that have similar operation sequences
and machine routings. The disadvantage of PFA is that it accepts the validity of existing route sheets, with no
consideration given to whether these process plans are logical or consistent.

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The classical GT cell allows parts to move from any machine to any other machine. Flow is not
Unidirectional. However, since machines are located in close proximity short and fast transfer
is possible.

The GT center may be appropriate when large machines have already been located and cannot be
moved, or product mix and part families are dynamic and would require frequent relayout. Then,
machines may be located as in a process layout by using functional departments (job shops), but
each machine is dedicated to producing only certain Part families. This way, only the tooling and
control advantages of GT can be achieved. Compared to a GT cell layout, increased material
handling is necessary.

(iii) Components classification and coding system. This method is the most time consuming and complicated of the three methods. However, it is the most frequently
applied method and is generally recognised to be the most powerful of the three. This
method of grouping parts into families involves an examinations of the individual design
and/or manufacturing attributes of each part. The attributes of the parts are uniquely
identified by means of a code number. This classification and coding may be carried out
on the entire list of active parts of the firm, or a sampling process may be used to establish
the part families.
Many parts classification and coding system have been developed throughout the world,
and there are several commercially available packages being sold to industrial
concerns. It should be noted that none of them has been universally adopted. One of the
reason for this is that a classification and coding system should be custom - engineered for a
given company or industry. One system may be best for one company while another
system is more suited to another company.
(a) The Opitz Classification System. This classification and coding system for parts was
developed by H. Opitz of the University of Aachen in West Germany. It represents one of the
pioneering efforts in the GT area and is perhaps the best known of the classification and coding
schemes.
The Opitz coding system has the following digit sequence :

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The basic code consists of 9 digit, which can be extended by adding four more digits. The first nine
digits are intended to convey both design and manufacturing data. The first five digits, 12345, are
called the "Form Code" and describe the primary design attribute of the part. The next four digits,
6789, constitute the "Supplementary Code". It indicates some of the attribute that would be of use to
manufacturing (Dimensions. Work Material, Starting Raw Work Piece Shape and Accuracy).The
extra four digits. ABCD are referred to as the "Secondary Code" and are intended to identify the
production operation type and sequence. The secondary code can be designed by the firm to serve its
own particular needs.

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(b) The MICLASS System: MICLASS stand for Metal Institute Classification System arid was
developed by TNO, the Netherland's Organisation for Applied Scientific Research. It was started in
Europe in 1969. The MICLASS system was developed to help automation and standardize a number
of designs, production, and management functions. These include

Standardization of engineering drawings

Retries al of drawings according to classification number
Standardization of process routing
Automated process planning
Selection of parts for processing on particular groups of machine tools
Machine tool investment analysis

The MICLASS classification number can range from 12 to 30 digits. The first 12 digits are a universal
code that can be applied to any part and up to 18 additional digits can be used to code data that are
specific to the particular company or industry.
For example, lot size, company drawing no., piece time, machine tool te be used, cost data and
operation sequence might be included in the 18 supplementary digits. The work part attributes coded
in the first 18 digits of the MICLASS number are as follows.

One of the unique features of the MICLASS system is that parts can be coded using a computer
interactively. To classify a given part design, the user responds to a series of questions asked by the
computer. The number of questions depends on the complexity of the part. For a simple part, as few
as seven questions are needed to classify the part. For an average part, number of questions ranges
between 10 and 20. On the basis of the responses to its questions, the computer assigns a code number
to the part.

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(c) The CODE System. The CODE system is a parts classification and coding system developed and
marketed by Manufacturing Data System. Inc. (MDSI) of Ann Arbor, Michigan. Its most universal
application is in design engineering for retrieval of part design data, but it also has applications in
manufacturing process planning, purchasing, tool design, and inventory control.
The CODE number has eight digits. For each digit there are 16 possible values (Zero through 9 and A
through F) which are used to describe the part's design and manufacturing characteristics.
1st Digit indicates the basic geometry of the part and is called the major division of the CODE system.
This digit would be used to specify whether the shape was a cylinder, flat piece, block, or other. The
interpretation of the remaining seven digits depends on the value of first digit, but these remaining
digits from a chain-type structure. Hence the CODE system possesses a hybrid structure.
2 nd and 3 rd Digit provide additional information concerning the basic geometry and manufacturing
process for the part.

and 6th digits specify secondary manufacturing processes such as threads grooves, slots
and so forth.
th
7 and 8th Digits are used to indicate overall size of the part (e .g . Diameter and Length of the
turned part) by classifying it into one of 16 size ranges for each of two dimension.
4th5

th

Fig. 19.3.Coding a component by the CODE system.

For example : Coding the component given in Fig. 19.3 is to be found out by code system and is given
as under :

So that the code for a given component is 13188D75

19.4.1. (i) Coding System Structure. Parts coding scheme consists of a sequence of symbols that
identify the part's design and/or manufacturing attributes. The symbols in the code can be all numeric,

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all alphabetic, or a combination of both types. However, most of the classification and coding system
use number digits only. There are three basics code structures used in GT application:
(a)

Hierarchical Code Structure

(b)

Poly Code Structure

(c)
Hybrid Code Structure, a combination of hierarchical and polycode structures known as
decision - Tree coding.
(a) Hierarchical Code Structure. With the hierarchical structure, the interpretation of each
succeeding symbol depends on the value of the preceding symbols. Other names commonly used for
this structure are monocode and tree structure. The hierarchical code provides a relatively compact
structure which conveys much information about the part in a limited number of digits.

(b) Poly Code Structure. In the poly code structure, the interpretation of each symbol in the sequence
is fixed and does not depend on the value of preceding digits. Another name commonly given to this
structure is chain type structure. The problem associated with poly code is that they tend to be
relatively long. On the other hand, the use of a polycode allows for convenient identification of
specific part attributes. This can be helpful in recognizing parts with similar processing requirements.
To illustrate the difference between the hierarchical structure and chain-type structure, consider a twodigit code, such as 15 or 25. Suppose that the first digit stands for the general part shape. The symbol,
1 means round work part and 2 means flat rectangular geometry. In a hierarchical code structure, the
interpretation of the second digit would depend on the value of first digit. If, preceded by 1, the 5
might indicate some length/diameter ratio, and by 2, the 5 might be interpreted to specify some
overall length. In the chain-type code structure, the symbol 5 would be interpreted the same way
regardless of the value of the first digit. For example, it might indicate overall part length, or whether
the part is rotational or rectangular.
(c) Decision - Tree Codes. Most of the commercial parts coding system used in industry are a
combination of two pure structures. The hybrid structure is an attempt to achieve the best features of
monocodes and polycodes. Within each of these shorter chains, the digits are independent, but one or
more symbols in the complete code number are used to classify the part population into groups, as in
the hierarchical structure. This hybrid coding seems to best serve the needs of both design and
production.

Part Design Attributes

Major dimensions
Basic external shape
Basic internal shape
Length/diameter ratio
Material type
Part function
Tolerances
Surface finish

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Part Manufacturing Attributes

Major process
Operation sequence
Batch size
Annual production
Machine tools
Cutting tools
Material type
Benefits of Group Technology

Standardization of tooling, fixtures, and setups is encouraged

Material handling is reduced
Parts are moved within a machine cell rather than entire factory
Process planning and production scheduling are simplified
Work-in-process and manufacturing lead time are reduced
Improved worker satisfaction in a GT cell
Higher quality work

Problems in Group Technology

Identifying the part families (the biggest problem)
If the plant makes 10,000 different parts, reviewing all of the part drawings and
grouping
the parts into families is a substantial task
Rearranging production machines in the plant into the appropriate machine cells
It takes time to plan and accomplish this rearrangement, and the machines are not
producing during the changeover

Artificial Intelligence in Process Planning

Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of computer science focusing on creating machines that
can engage on behaviors that humans consider intelligent. The ability to create intelligent
machines has intrigued humans since ancient times, and today with the advent of the
computer and 50 years of research into AI programming techniques, the dream of smart
machines is becoming a reality. Researchers are creating systems which can mimic human
thought, understand speech, beat the best human chessplayer, and countless other feats never
before possible. Find out how the military is applying AI logic to its hi-tech systems, and how
in the near future Artificial Intelligence may impact our lives.
AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents" where an
intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its
chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science
and engineering of making intelligent machines." Artificial intelligence takes the intelligence
of humans, such as perception, natural language processing, problem solving and planning,

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learning and adaptation, and acting on the environment and applies them with machines,
systems, and virtual objects.
Use of AI in PP
The use of artificial intelligence has proved to be beneficial in various areas since the mid1960s. Recently, more and more studies on AI applications to manufacturing systems have
been reported. Process planning is one of the areas to which artificial intelligence can be
successfully applied. AI techniques which may have a substantial influence on process
planning include:
Natural language processing
Voice/speech recognition
Pattern recognition and
Expert systems
Natural Language Processing
Formal communication between users and computers is designed to be more considerate of
computers than humans. Users must enter data in a pre-defined, rigid format without any
flexibility. Therefore even a minor error in data entry may lead to a confusing result. Natural
language processors have been developed to solve this problem, by allowing humans to
communicate with computers in formal English. Natural language understanding could be
applied to both variant and generative process planning systems. In a variant system, a natural
language interface would be convenient to the user in entering, retrieving and editing the data
and process plans.
For instance, a user may request:
Give me all the parts in part family 1.
What are those parts in part family 1?
List all the parts which belong to part family 1.
The computer should be able to interpret these lexically different sentences as having the
same meaning. As to a generative system, although in the long run the shape, tolerance, and
surface finish for a part can be directed from a CAD's database, it would be advantageous if
the user could enter the required data in English.
Pattern Recognition
Pattern recognition is another AI technique that can contribute to process planning. One can
use this technique to design a pattern-directed expert system[29], or apply it to design an
interface scheme to communicate with a CAD's database such that the computer can access
the position, the dimension and machining requirements of each shape entity in order to
recognise the work piece that it is going to plan. Several different schemes are being used to
resolve the pattern recognition problem. Algorithms have been developed which can
construct a 3D object from 2D drawings under certain assumptions. These algorithms,
however, work well only within narrow ranges; there is no universal algorithm to resolve this
type of problem.

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Speech/Voice Recognition
Speech recognition, also known as voice data entry, involves translating spoken languages
into machine-readable forms[30]. Because speech is the natural method of communication
amongst human beings, the use of speech I/O technology at the man-machine interface
accommodates the machine to the user rather than forcing the user to conform to the
computer. Therefore, voice recognition will very probably surpass mouse interface and CRT
usage in the near future. Process planning would then benefit more from this technique than
from natural language
processing.
Expert Systems
Expert systems are probably the most promising AI technique for process planners. An expert
system gains its name from the fact that the system contains massive domain-specific
knowledge designed to successfully solve problems in a field which would normally be
thought of as requiring a human expert. An expert system approach is ideally suited to[31]:
ill-structured problems;
problems which can be formulated analytically but for which the number
of alternative solutions is large;
situations where the domain knowledge is vast and relevant knowledge must
be used selectively;
problems where the solution is related to human expertise.
An ideal process planning expert system should be equipped with domain knowledge such
that it can behave like an experienced process planner in preparing plans.
Expert Systems Approach to Process Planning
Early research in APP has provided a basic structure for process planning analysis. However,
an expert system technique may replace traditional approaches for the following reasons:
(1) Various factors influence process selection and sequencing; currently, it is not obvious
what all of these factors are, nor what their effects might be.
(2) During the development of an APP system, it would be necessary to make extensive
modification of the facts and decision logic. This can be done more easily in an expert system
structure than in a conventional program.
(3) Decision trees and decision tables, as usually used in a traditional generative APP system,
work effectively only for simple processes. If one wants a fully automated process planning
function, intelligent reasoning must be performed.
(4) Expert process planning systems can be designed to accumulate knowledge as time goes
by, which is more appropriate for a process planning function that requires considerable
experiential knowledge.

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Ideally, an expert system, able to emulate human thinking, reasoning, and behavior, should
consist of most of the following components :
a language processor that manages user-system inferences;
domain-related facts;
domain-related rules for drawing inferences;
an interpreter that controls and executes the rules;
a justifier that explains the system's action or reasoning;
a consistency enforcer that maintains a consistent representation of the
emerging solution;
a scheduler that arranges the order of rules to be executed;
a blackboard or working space where intermediate hypotheses and decision making that the
system manipulates can be stored.

The actual system architecture depends on the special needs of each application arena. For
example, in order to design a perfect APP system, a CAD database, a machining database, a
CAD interpreter, and a process plan generator should be included in the system. A conceptual
framework for designing such an expert system for process planning purposes is given in
Figure F, where:
a CAD interpreter extracts geometric data from a CAD data base;
a machining database is used to store the machine tool and tooling information;
domain-specific facts and rules are stored in a knowledge base;
an inference/control module serves as the mechanism to interpret, schedule

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and resolve conflicts among candidate rules; and

a queries/answers processor manages the interaction between users and
the system.
For a computer to emulate human experience and access domain-specific facts, the experts'
knowledge and facts must be extracted, represented and organized in a specific format that
the computer can recognize. One of the popular representing methods is production rule or
production system. The basic idea of production systems is that the database (or rule base)
consists of rules, called productions, in the form of IF-THEN or CONDITION-ACTION
pairs. Three components are normally required for a product system:
rule bases, which are a set of productions;
context; a short-term memory buffer-like data structure, which is to be
matched by the left-hand side of productions; and
inference engine (or interpreter), which controls the system's activities.

Figure F
A typical system built according to the above framework, using a rule-based approach,
should be able to function as follows:
(1) Knowledge is extracted from experienced process planners and stored in a rule base in
CONDITION-ACTION pairs.
(2) When one starts the system, the control program will first examine the left-hand side of a
rule. If the condition matches the input, the right-hand side of this rule is triggered, i.e. put

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into action. At the same time, this piece of action is accumulated with inputs and the
condition-match procedure continues.
(3) The inference terminates whenever a satisfactory result (succeeded) or
a conflict (failed) is generated.
(4) A process plan based on the successful result is prepared and displayed (or printed).

Process Planning Software

Programming Language
The choice of language for expert systems, although not as critical as other issues because of
the variety of programming languages available [37], should not be neglected. At the lowest
level, an expert system can be programmed in a high-level programming language, such as
FORTRAN, PASCAL, BASIC or C. A builder using this type of tool must write everything
from scratch which is very time consuming; however, some sort of flexibility is retained. At
the other extreme, an expert system can be built via an environment called an expert system
shell (EMYCIN and OPS5 are examples). This type of tool, which has blocks or subroutines
built in internally, can save time for the system builder, but does not offer much flexibility for
selection. Their functions are normally limited to certain specific systems that can be
constructed. At the middle of the range are those AI-oriented languages such as LISP or
PROLOG, which usually provide the logic for facilitating the tasks of acquiring knowledge
and building an inference engine. Many early expert systems were constructed using this type
of language. Among the existing expert APP systems, GARI uses LISP, and SIPP and
AGMPO utilize PROLOG. TOM and EXCAP are coded in PASCAL, and the system used by
Preiss and Kaplansky is written in FORTRAN 77.
Manufacturing Software: Scheduling & Production Planning
The PIMSS production software toolset provides advanced planning and optimization
functionality, including manufacturing capacity planning, master production scheduling and
factory scheduling:
Production Planning Systems manufacturing software - factory planning systems production scheduler
Advanced Manufacturing Planning real-time production planning system - JIT
manufacturing planning
Production Capacity Planning master schedule - capacity planning - batch scheduling capacity planner
Material Planning & MRP material planning - MRP systems - production order
scheduling
Strategic Production System strategic optimization - production schedule analysis plant planning

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Lean Manufacturing Software manufacturing ERP software - factory & production

optimization
PIMSS (Process Industry Manufacturing Scheduling System) offers an integrated solution
spanning the manufacturing supply chain, ranging from long term strategic optimization to
real-time manufacturing scheduling. PIMSS is the fastest production scheduler on the market
and is capable of automatically planning and optimizing very large manufacturing
operations in seconds. Its flexibility enables it to model highly complex production processes
accurately without the need for approximation or compromise on performance.
PIMSS maintains high customer service levels while minimizing inventory and maximizing
manufacturing efficiency. PIMSS is designed for manufacturing operations that process
1000s of products in an environment where minimizing changeovers and balancing resource
usage are vital.
MJC's advanced manufacturing software is particularly applicable to operations which
produce short shelf-life or fast-turnover goods against a backdrop of tight order fulfillment
windows and increased demand for flexibility from the customer.
The PIMSS production planning software takes into account:

Demands & orders: actual or forecast orders by customer and due date(s); branded
& own label volumes;
Ideal stock levels: taken as a constraint or calculated by the production system;
Materials planning: raw materials planning requirements, as a constraint or
calculated by PIMSS;
Labour planning: shift patterns, break cover, rosters, skills, teams, working time
constraints, cost calculation;
Process capacities: by product/type, machines & packing/bottling areas, plant
scheduling constraints;
Machine routing: links to secondary processes, fixed production order scheduling,
product scheduling sequences;
Work in progress: intermediate products, core blends, inter-factory, on-line/off-line
packing, assembly planning;
Master scheduling: batch planning, master production schedule constraints (color,
formers, moulds, etc.);
Factory scheduling constraints: product mix changes, plan size, pack size,
packaging material, product type, etc.

MJC- Process Planning & Optimization

MJC's process planning software is designed for large production and manufacturing
operations which need to manage complex processing lines and facilities. Our manufacturing
process optimization tools include:

Advanced process control software: real-time planning of manufacturing operations

taking account of feedback from production control (e.g. SCADA), process
automation software and inventory management systems.

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Process planning tools: automated scheduling of manufacturing lines and factories,

keeping stock levels within defined limits while optimizing production capacity and
throughput.
Capacity planning: strategic forward planning of production and related process
control to assess long-term throughput and availability profiles along the supply
chain.
Process scheduling: modelling and production process optimization to improve
efficiency and customer service levels.

Our process control software is applicable to all large manufacturing operations, particularly
those which produce high-turnover or short shelf life goods. The planning tools can model
complex multi-stage (and multi-site) automated processes and inter-linking lines.
Aras Solutions | Manufacturing Process Planning
Aras Manufacturing Process Planning ensures information accuracy and quality for
manufacturing processes by providing a reliable, single version of the truth in a secure, online
location. Users throughout Engineering, Production Control, Manufacturing and Quality rely
on Aras as the source of official, released information about production processes and related
technical data.
Manufacturing Process Planning:

Automates and manages all the information and processes required to manufacture
parts, assemble final products and conduct product quality inspections
Provides revision and version control of manufacturing process plans, production
routing, product descriptions, operation sequencing, tooling assets, and set-up and
run-time instructions
Ensures the accuracy of Lean Six Sigma methods and integrates with ERP systems for
business analytics and more

SMARTer Manager's
SMARTer Manager offers a wide range of capabilities and a more complete manufacturing
management software solution than any other manufacturing software technology.
Unparalleled functionality at a fraction of the cost and the ability to implement, execute and
operate across any manufacturing enterprise with one single solution. SMARTer Manager's
innovative applications are completely scalable for job shops or larger product oriented
organizations.
Reference:
1. Principles of Automation and Advanced Manufacturing Systems- Dr. K.C. Jain
2. CAD/CAM-Concepts and Applications- Chennakesava R. Alavala
3. CAD/CAM- M Groover, E. Zinners
4. Computer Aided Manufacturing-P.N Rao, N.K. Tewari, T.K. Kundra
5. CAD/CAM-P.N Rao

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