NTPC O&M Conference

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GO GREEN GO SOLAR – A CASE STUDY
R K Sikri 1 , P Harisinghaney 2, K R C Murty 3, S K Singh 4 & B Kamath 5
Abstract
The combined cycle gas turbines (419.30 MW) at NTPC Anta had been operating at base load
since 20.01.1989. The peak load capacity of the steam turbine is not fully utilized during the
course of normal operation. This gap in capacity led to the idea of integrating solar field to the
existing steam cycle with an objective to utilise the full capacity of steam turbine. The average
DNI (Direct Normal Irradiation), which is the fuel for concentrated solar thermal power, was
observed as annual average of 2090 kWh/m² at Anta site. This is comparable to the southern part
of Spain (Europe), where such solar plants of 20-50 MW capacity are already in operation. The
feasibility study was carried out at Anta to integrate a solar plant and risk evaluation was carried
out. A number of integration options were explored, however, it emerged that installation of stand
alone solar plant of 15 MWe with proven parabolic trough technology is most appropriate and
technically feasible option for the available land of approx 175 Acres at NTPC Anta. This solar
thermal based power station will be first of its kind in India which shall give a boost for adding
Green Solar Power in the country.
1. Introduction
Anta Gas Power Plant is a Combined Cycle Power Plant (CCPP), which consists of three
gas turbines of 88.7 MW capacity each and a condensing steam turbine of 153.28 MW and
having a peak load capacity of 164.14 MW. Thus, the total installed capacity is
419.38 MW. The gas turbine generally operates at base load and the peak load capacity of
the steam turbine is not utilized on an average 10 MW during the course of normal
operation. This originally led to the idea to find a way to improve the loading factor of the
machine by adding a solar collector field and integrating solar generated steam into the
existing steam cycle.
It was observed that the solar conditions (Direct Normal Irradiation of 2090 kWh/m²) are
comparable with the southern part of Spain (Europe), where a number of stand-alone solar
power plants are under operation and many more are under construction at the moment.
Therefore it was envisaged that a solar energy based power plant will be technically viable
at NTPC Anta.
2. Solar Technology
Technologies for solar energy based power projects are broadly classified as Solar Photo
Voltaic & Solar Thermal.
___________________________________________________________________________
1. M r R K Sikri is working as General Manager in REDG department (rksikri@ntpc.co.in )
2. M r P Harisinghaney is working as Addl General Manager in REDG depart ment (pharisinghaney@ntpceoc.co.in)
3. M r K R C Murty is working as Addl General Manager in OS depart ment (krcmurty@ntpceoc.co.in)
4. M r S K Singh is working as Dy General Manager in OS department (sanjaysingh@ntpceoc.co.in)
5. M r B Kamath is working as Dy General Manager in REDG department (bkamath@ntpceoc.co.in)
19
2.1. Solar Photovoltaic (SPV)
These technologies convert solar energy falling on to a photovoltaic (PV) cell can be
utilised for generating DC electricity which is then converted into AC thru inverters. This
technology has several variants based on the type of photovoltaic materials used. Tracking
and concentrating systems are also used to focus sunlight on to the PV modules to
improve the system efficiency. Application of PV systems is generally limited to rooftops
on residential and commercial buildings, though utility scale plants are also coming up in
India.
2.2. Solar Thermal or Concentrated Solar Powe r (CSP)

Here, solar energy is focused through various types of mirrors to heat a working fluid and
produce steam (directly or indirectly), which is used to generate electricity as in a
conventional power block. CSP technology is better suited for utility scale power plants as
compared to SPV technologies due to higher output. These technologies, characterised by
the type of mirror used to collect solar energy, are of following four types:
2.2.1. Parabolic trough is a well established and most proven CSP technology and commercial
plants upto 80 MW size are in
operation.
In this, parabolic trough shaped mirrors
collect and reflect the solar energy onto
receiver tubes positioned along the
focal line of parabolic mirrors. Troughs
are made to rotate on a north-south axis
to track the sun from east to west. Heat
transfer fluid (synthetic oil), suitable
for temperatures upto 360 deg C,
flowing through these receiver tubes is
used to generate steam at 40 bar
through steam generators and drive
turbine to generate electricity.
Fig 1: Solar parabolic trough
2.2.2. Solar Towers deploy numerous large number of flat sun tracking mirrors, known as
heliostats, to focus sunlight onto a fixed receiver mounted on a tower. The heliostats track
the sun on two axes. The central receiver can achieve very high concentrations of solar
irradiation thus resulting in extremely high temperature for the operating fluid. Most of the
concepts for solar tower utilize a Rankine cycle as power conversion process. Heat of the
absorber coolant is transferred in separate heat exchangers to a water/steam cycle as in
conventional steam power plants. Direct steam generation, without any intermediate fluid,
is also possible. Steam parameters upto 100 bars and 560 deg C are achievable.
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Spain has several solar tower
systems operating or under
construction. Maximum size of
power plant in operation is 20
MW. Most of the installed pilot
and demo solar tower facilities
have thermal storage facility
incorporated to improve the
dispatchability of the power.
Nevertheless these storage
required higher initial investment
costs and more land. Fig 2: Aerial view of solar tower power plant
2.2.3. Linear Fresnel technology uses a reflector made of several slices of mirrors with small
curvature approximating a parabola. Mirrors are mounted on trackers and configured to
reflect sunlight onto a receiver tube fixed in space above these mirrors. These Fresnel
reflectors offer direct steam generation and thus omit intermediate heat transfer fluid.
These systems have

lower investment costs
and also lower optical
performance as
compared to parabolic
trough collectors. This
technology is in
developmental stage
and some small
experimental systems
have been installed.
Fig 3 : Linear Fresnel
2.2.4. Solar Dish: The parabolic shaped dish tracks the sun, through a two axis movement,
continuously to gather the solar energy and point focuses the same onto a thermal receiver
(mounted at the focal point) to heat up the fluid. Heat from the thermal receiver is used to
produce electricity through a Stirling Engine.
Dish technology is modular and

produces relatively small amount of
electricity compared to other CSP
technologies – typically in the range
of 10 to 25 kW which results in
high capital costs. Distributed dish
concept with common power
conversion unit was also adopted in
eighties but is not the focus of
development any more due to heat
loss during heat transportation over
long distances.
Fig 4 : Solar dish with Sterling engine
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2.3. A comparison of various CSP technologies is given in Table-I below.
Table-I - Comparison of Solar Thermal (CSP) Technologies
Parameters Parabolic Solar Fresnel Solar Dis h with
Trough Tower Reflector Sterling engine
Solar radiation required Generally sites with annual average DNI larger than
1800 kWh/m²
Land Requirement 7 7-10 7 7
(Acres / MW)
Typical shape of solar Rectangle Rectangle Rectangle Rectangle
plant
Water requirement Typically 4m3 / MWhr No water
requirement
Maximum Temperature 400 °C 560 °C 400 °C 800 °C
Efficiency ~ 14% ~ 22% ~13% ~ 22-24%
Typical CUF 22-25%
Plant cost High Lower than Lower than Very High
parabolic parabolic
trough trough
Largest plant size 80 MW 20 MW 5 MW Demo
Development Status Proven Mature Demonstration Demonstration
3. Anta solar plant details
3.1. Land Details
The proposed land as shown in the layout is 1000 M X 700 M (approx 175 Acres). The
collector arrangement and power block shall be as shown below:
Area for power block etc.
Fig 5: Arrangement of solar field & power block
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3.2. Solar Energy
3.2.1. Solar Map by NREL
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden Colorado, USA has
prepared a DNI map of Asia with a 40km resolution (http://swera.unep.net). This map
does not provide specific information for Anta.
Fig 6: DNI map of Asia from NREL
3.2.2. Solar Data from DLR, Ge rmany

As per SOLEMI (http://www.solemi.de/) data from DLR, Germany following are the
Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) for Anta:
yearly sums DNI_satellite (kWh/m²) Anta

2500
2213 2170
2010 2040 2011 2082 2036
2000
1500
kWh/m²
1000
500
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Fig 7: Yearly DNI data for Anta
The mean annual sum of DNI for Anta for the years 1999 to 2005 was 2080 kWh/m². This
value is quite comparable to sites in southern Spain, where CSP plants are currently under
construction (e.g. for Andasol mean annual sum of DNI is 2201 kWh/m²). Sites with
annual sum of DNI larger than 1800 kWh/m² is generally considered as potential sites for
CSP.
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3.2.3. NASA DATA
NASA ( http://eosweb.larc.NASA.gov/sse/) data for Anta which reports an annual average
DNI value of 5.46 kWh/m²day, which is equivalent to an annual sum of 1993
kWh/m²year. This is 4.2% lower than 2080 kWh/m²year from the DLR satellite data.
3.2.4. Solar data from METEONORM
In this particular case the annual sum of DNI from METEONORM (
http://www.meteonorm.com/) for Anta is 2090 kWh/m²year which is almost the same as
from DLR satellite data.
3.2.5. Comparison of solar radiation from different sources
METEONORM DLR Satellite data (mean) NASA data
250
monthly sum of DNI in kWh/m²
200
150
100
50
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Fig 8: Monthly sum of DNI for Anta from three different sources
4. Integration Issues
Following integration issues were considered, discussed & deliberated in details and the
outcome is tabulated as follows
Table II : Integration issues
Sl Option Brief description Implications Risks
1. Solar Steam 80 TPH solar • All the 3 HRSG’s • Max generation would be
integration into steam is equally will require major limited by max steam
HP drum of injected into the modification flow permitted in steam
each of 3 HP drums of all 3 • Steam flow in turbine.
existing HRSGs HRSG will increase • It would be difficult to
HRSGs substantially determine contribution of
solar steam generation
for tariff purposes
2. Solar Steam 80 TPH solar • All the 3 HRSG’s • Max generation would be
integration in steam at 70 bar will require major limited by max steam
to HP super pressure, 370°C is modification flow permitted in steam
heater of each equally injected • Steam flow in the turbine.
of 3 existing into super heater HRSG will be • It would be difficult to
HRSGs inlet headers of substantially determine contribution of
all 3 HRSGs increased. solar steam generation
for tariff purposes
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Sl Option Brief description Implications Risks
3. Solar Steam at 80 TPH solar • Large • Possibility of water
370°C steam at 70 bar Temperature ingress in HP turbine
integration in pressure, 370°C is difference • Load fluctuations
to HP main mixed in the HP between solar during cloud passing
steam header main steam steam and HP etc.
(485°C) before header (485°C) steam from
steam turbine before steam HRSG.
turbine with
suitable mixing
arrangement.
4. Solar steam 80 TPH solar • Separate fired • Additional fossil fuel
with separately steam at 70 bar, superheater would consumption
fired super 370°C is need • Contribution of solar
heater and superheated in a supplementary steam generation for
integrating into separately fired heating by gas- tariff purposes.
HP main steam super heater fired burners. This
header before would increase
steam turbine fossil fuel
consumption at
low efficiency.
5. New back 80 TPH solar • Max generation • Max generation would
pressure steam steam at 30 bar, would be limited be limited by max
turbine (BPST) 370°C is by steam flow steam flow permitted
integrated at introduced into permitted in in LP Turbine.
existing LP new BPST. condenser.
main steam • Large quantity of
header BPT exhaust
steam needs to be
dumped.
6. New 80 TPH solar • Max generation • New pedestal close to
condensing steam at 30 bar, would be limited the existing STG is
steam turbine 370°C is by steam flow almost impossible.
integrated at introduced in to a permitted in
existing new condensing condenser.
condenser. steam turbine
(CST).
Hence, it was decided to implement a stand alone solar thermal plant of 15 MWe capacity.
5. Proposed Anta solar plant details

5.1. Parabolic Trough Collector:
A parabolic trough collector generally is made up of identical 12 m long sub modules so
called Solar Collector Elements (SCE). Each module comprises 28 parabolic reflector
panels (RPs) - 7 along the horizontal axis between pylons and 4 in a vertical cross-section.
Each reflector panel is supported on the structure at four points on its backside.
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Fig 9: View of a collector unit
5.2. Heat Collecting Ele ments:
In the case of parabolic trough power plants the receivers (also called heat collecting
elements (HCE)) are absorber tubes. Situated in the focal line of the troughs they intercept
the concentrated solar radiation and transfer it to the heat transfer fluid (HTF) circulated
through them. A typical absorber for high temperature applications consists of a steel tube
inside a glass envelope with sealing at the ends and an evacuated annulus. Metallic
substances designed to absorb gas molecules that permeate into the vacuum, are placed in
the annulus. The actual absorber tubes are made of stainless steel with an outside selective
coating such as Cermet, a heat resistant material made of ceramic and sintered metal
applied to a surface.
bellow compensating
thermal extension selective absorber coating
on steel tube
evacuated annulus
getter to glass-to-metal-seal
maintain vacuum glass tube with
anti-reflective coating
Fig 10: Schematic sketch of an evacuated absorber tube
5.3. Oil circulation system

An intermediate heat transfer fluid (HTF) will be heated in the receiver tubes of the solar
field and the hot HTF flow will be pumped through the solar heat exchangers consisting of
a pre-heater, an evaporator and a superheater, which serve to transfer heat to the Rankine
cycle.
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Fig 11: Typical conceptual layout of a HTF system
5.4. Heat exchange system
The feed water temperature for the solar steam generator is assumed to be 48°C at a
pressure of ~40 bar and the steam outlet temperature is 360°C at a pressure of ~35 bar,
which corresponds to superheated steam. Therefore the solar steam generator will
presumably consist of three single heat exchangers: one pre-heater, one evaporator and
one superheater. These heat exchangers are of the shell-and-tube type with water/steam at
the shell side and hot HTF at the tube side. The feed water mass flow rate to the solar
steam generator will be controlled via inlet valves in order to keep a constant fluid level
within the evaporator.
The generation of superheated steam using a parabolic trough field with HTF is a proven
technology and common at the existing as well as at new CSP plants which are under
construction in Spain. Superheated steam generated from the solar heat generator will be
fed to condensing steam turbine to produce solar electricity.
Fig 12: HTF/steam heat exchangers
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5.5. Evacuation of Power
The generated power will be evacuated at 220 kV level through the 220 kV switchyard of
NTPC Anta at a distance of 1.2 km from the proposed solar power station. The 220 kV
switchyard of NTPC Anta is connected to the Northern grid.
For evacuating this power the generated voltage of 11 kV will be connected by a 1.2 KM
long cable from Generator Circuit Breaker to 25 MVA, 220kV/ 11kV (at nominal tap)
Generator Transformer. An extra Bay will be constructed at the existing 220 kV
switchyard for accommodating the above line.
5.6. Start up powe r

The Start up Auxiliary power shall be drawn on the same 220 kV line through the
Generator Transformer for which Generator Circuit Breaker has been provided in the
scheme. The start up power/aux. power will be drawn at 415 V Bus fed through a 2 MVA
Station Aux. Transformer (11 kV/415 V).
The above 415 V Auxiliary power Bus will also be provided by an alternate supply from
existing NTPC Anta Plant to meet any emergency situation on account of outage of the
220 kV line or Generator Transformer.
The emergency power back up through adequate rating DG set will also be provided to
meet any eventuality due to complete power black out. The required DC system with
adequate rated battery bank backed up with float cum boost charger will also be provided
to take care of the DC load requirement.
5.7. Wate r require ments

Total raw water consumption is estimated to be around 193000 m3 per annum. This shall
be used for the following purposes
· Make up for condenser cooling.
· Make-up for steam/condensate cycle.
· Service & drinking purpose
· Fire fighting
· Collector cleaning
Margin is available in the allocation of water for NTPC Anta Combined Cycle Power
Plant, which shall be used to meet the additional requirements for the solar power plant.
DM water required for the solar plant shall be drawn from the existing DM plant.
6.0 Plant capacity

Table III : Anta solar plant details
Parameter Value Unit
Area 175 Acres
Solar radiation (DNI) 2090 kWh/m²/year
Aperture area of solar field 147150 m²
Design gross efficiency 30 %
Annual thermal output from solar field 139643 MWh
Design net electrical output 15 MWe
Annual net electrical output from annual performance model 32163 MWh
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7.0 Conclusion
Implementation of 15 MW Solar parabolic trough based thermal power plant at NTPC

Anta shall be the first solar thermal power plant of this capacity in India.
References
· Copeland R.J. and Ullman J.(1983), Comparative Ranking of Thermal Storage

Systems, Volume I – for Water/Steam, organic Fluid, and Air/Brayton Solar
Thermal Collector- Receivers, SERI/TR 631-1283, Solar Energy Research Institute,
Golden, Colorado.
· Hu E., Mills, D.R., Morrison, G.L. and LeLievre P. (2003), “ Solar power boosting
of fossil fuelled power plants”, Proc. International Solar Energy Congress, Goteborg,
Sweden, 2003.
· Mills D.R and Morrison G.L.(1999). “Compact linear Fresnel reflector solar thermal
powerplants”, Solar Energy, 68, pp 263 – 283.
· Mills D.R., Morrison G.L and Le Lievre,P.(2004), “ Multi- Tower Line Focus
Fresnel Array Project”, Submitted to ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering.
· National Renewable Energy Laboratory Report NREL/SR-550-3444, 1617

ColeBoulevard, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393, USA.
· NREL (2003), Assessment of Parabolic Trough and Power Tower Solar Technology
· FR / DPR of Solar Anta Project, 2009
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SCR DeNOx technology on coal-fired boilers
by:
Peter Lindenhoff, MSc & Hans Jensen-Holm, Ph.D,

Environmental Catalyst Department
Haldor Tops øe A/S
Lyngby, Denmark.
Introduction
The emission of nitrogen oxides, or NOx, is a major global pollution problem. The damaging
effect of nitrogen oxides on health and environment is substantial. NOx contributes to acid rain
and ensuing destruction of coastal and fresh-water life, and to forest death. NOx further helps
form ground-level ozone, bringing about the health-threatening yellowish smog in urban areas.
Fossil-fuel combustion produces several oxides of nitrogen, most notably nitrogen oxide, NO,
and nitrogen dioxide, NO2. Various technologies have been developed to control emissions of
nitrogen oxides, working by either reducing the initial formation or removing the produc ed nitro-
gen oxides from the flue gas.
At high temperature gaseous ammonia will react with nitrogen oxides to produce elemental ni-
trogen and water vapour. In the presence of a catalyst, a lower reaction temperature, typically
250°C-450°C, can be us ed. Both versions of the process – with and without a catalyst – are
used commercially. They are known as SCR, Selective Catalytic Reduction, and S NCR, Selec-
tive Non-Cat alytic Reduction, respectively. The NOx removal rates with SNCR are limited, typi-
cally around 50 per cent whereas reduction of NOx over a vanadium catalyst can yield removal
rates in excess of 95 per cent.
The SCR process is by far the predominant choice of technology. It has been applied to a variety
of applications since the 1970s including flue gases from boilers, refinery off-gas combustion,
gas and diesel engines, gas turbines and chemical process gas streams.
Coal is an import ant source of fuel at power plants worldwide, also in P.R. China that has vast
coal resources. With the increasing number of coal-fired power plants that results from the rapid-
growing economy, flue-gas cleaning becomes increasingly important to protect the environment.
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The Selective Catalytic Reduction process
In the Selective Catalytic Reduction (S CR) process, NOx is reduced by ammonia to form harm-
less nitrogen and water vapour without creating any secondary pollutants.
The main components of the SCR system basically consist of a reactor wit h the catalyst and an
ammonia storage and injection system. In coal-fired power plants, the SCR system is normally
located between the boiler economiser and the air preheat er to provide an optimum temperature
of 350°C-400°C in the DeNOx reactor. Locating the SCR system after dust removal and flue gas
desulphurisation requires costly reheating of the flue gas and is only applied when special con-
siderations points to this solution, e.g. lack of space or high levels of catalyst poisons in the flue
gas.
The NOx-reducing agent can be either anhydrous ammonia under pressure or it can be an
aqueous ammonia solution at atmospheric pressure. A solution of urea can also be used if war-
ranted by safety. The ammonia is evaporated in a heated evaporator and is subsequently diluted
with air or a flue gas side stream before it is injected into the flue gas duct upstream the S CR
reactor.
The SCR process requires precise control of the ammonia injection rat e. Insufficient injection
results in low conversion of NOx and an injection rate which is too high results in an undesirable
release of unconverted ammonia to the atmosphere referred to as ammonia slip.
The injection of the ammonia-air mixture normally takes place through a grid of nozzles in order
to achieve a uniform mixing of the ammonia with the flue gas. A homogeneous distribution of the
ammonia in the flue gas is of crucial importance to achieve efficient NOx conversion. Uneven
ammonia distribution can cause poor performance of the SCR unit because some portions of the
flue gas are over-treated with ammonia, resulting in higher ammonia slip whereas other portions
of the flue gas is under-t reat ed, resulting in a lower than designed DeNOx efficiency. The re-
quirements to mixing become increasingly import ant as demands to NOx removal efficiency and
low ammonia slip become more stringent. Today, 90-95% NOx reduction with just 2 ppm ammo-
nia slip is not unusual.
To ensure efficient optimum mixing, the distance from the AIG (Ammonia Injection Grid) to the
catalyst should be as long as possible. Long mixing distance is costly and therefore a system of
one or more static mixers may be placed in the flue gas duct to enhance the mixing. However,
static mixers introduce an additional pressure loss which is not desirable.
®
Tops øe has developed a proprietary mixing system, the STARMIXE R (Figure 1), consisting of
®
circular disks with four peaks forming a star. The S TARMIXE R is installed angled in the flue-
Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

purpose other than for which it has been issued, and may not be used by
or disclosed to third parties without written approval of Haldor T opsøe A/S.
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gas stream which creat es vortices behind the disks. This provides a close-to-perfect mixing with
a minimal pressure loss.
Figure 1 : The Topsøe proprietary STAR MIXER ® system as seen in a flow model
A prerequisite for the catalyst to perform at its best is the proper design of the SCR reactor, gas
channels and the ammonia injection and mixing system. In a high-dust DeNOx unit, care must
be taken to ensure an even gas flow rate and fly ash distribution across the reactor in order to
avert damage to the catalyst in the form of plugging or erosion.
Use of gas-flow modelling by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) or in physical scale models
has proven an efficient and often necessary tool to accomplish these goals. The general objec-
tives of the model work are to ensure a high degree of velocity uniformity upstream the ammonia
injection and at the entrance to the catalyst layers and to verify proper mixing of ammonia into
the flue gas. The model work further assists in optimising the layout of ducts, reactor and neces-
sary flow control devices to minimise overall pressure loss and to ensure that formation of dust
deposits is not be promoted.
The SCR catalyst
The SCR catalyst material is based on a porous titanium-dioxide (TiO2 ) carrier material in which
the catalytically active components in the form of vanadium pent oxide (V 2O5 ) combined wit h
-
tungsten trioxide (WO3) are dispersed. To provide a large gas contact area with a minimum
pressure loss, the catalysts are provided as monolithic elements containing a large number of
®
parallel channels. Topsøe’s DNX catalyst is delivered in standard-sized single cassettes. The
cassettes are grouped in modules on a metal frame for easy installation in the SCR reactor (
Figure 2).
The catalyst is offered in a number of different models wit h varying channel size (often referred
to as pitch), wall thickness and varying chemical composition adapted to specific operating con-
ditions. The choice of pitch and wall thickness for a given SCR installation is determined mainly

32
by the dust content of the flue gas. For low-dust applications, channel sizes of 2-4 mm with e.g.
0.4 mm wall thickness are selected. Larger-channel catalysts (7-10 mm pitch) with minimum 0.8
mm wall thickness should be selected for operation in dust-laden gas es in units on coal-fired
boilers.
Flue gas
NH3
Figure 2 Monolithic catalyst elements are grouped in modules on a metal frame for
easy installation
The required catalyst volume and thereby the size of the reactor depends on the catalyst activity,
the NOx concentration in the flue gas and the desired NOx reduction efficiency, the acceptable
ammonia slip and the operating temperature.
Oxidation of SO2
Sulphur is an omnipresent component of both coal and oil and results in a significant environ-
mental impact when combusted. At the high temperat ures found in utility boilers virtually all fuel-
bound sulphur is released as sulphur dioxide, SO2 and a small fraction, generally 1-2%, of the
SO2 is further convert ed to sulphur trioxide, SO3, in the combustion proc ess.
It is a general fact that the active component in the SCR catalyst, vanadium pentoxide, is also
catalysing the formation of SO3 from SO2. The SO3 will react with residual ammonia to form am-
monia bis ulphate, ABS, which can cause fouling and corrosion of the air preheat er. Also, SO3
will react with water vapour as the flue gas cools down and forms sulphuric acid mist which can-

33
not be removed in common FGDs and therefore ends up in the stack as a visible, opaque
plume.
Obviously, the amount of SO3 formed over the catalyst should therefore be minimised. The
choice of S CR catalyst and the selection of the operating conditions are therefore crucial to the
power plant owner.
The SO2-oxidation reaction occurs on the catalyst according to the following reaction scheme:
SO2 + ½ O2 ® SO3
st
At the SO2 concentrations encountered in practise, the reaction can be considered as a 1 order
reaction. This means that the amount of SO3 formed across the catalyst is directly proportional to
the partial pressure of SO2 or, in other words, that the perc entage of SO2 converted is independ-
ent of the SO2 concentration in the flue gas. The reaction rate depends strongly on temperature,
the higher temperature, the higher rate of SO2 oxidation. The general expression can be written:
E
- rSO2 = k × P × c SO2 × exp( - ) (1)
RT
in which P denotes the total pressure, k is a constant which depends on the catalyst type, c SO2 is
the concentration of SO2, E is a constant (the so-called activation energy), R is a constant (“gas
constant”), and T is the absolut e temperature.
From the reaction rate equation follows that total pressure has a large influence on the rate of
SO2 oxidation; at 3 bar the SO2 oxidation is three times the SO2 oxidation at 1 bar pressure. The
exponential temperature dependency corresponds roughly to a doubling of the SO2 oxidation per
each 35-40°C increase in temperature.
SO3 in the flue gas will react with residual ammonia, forming ammonium bisulphate, ABS:
SO3 + NH3 + H2O ® NH4 HSO4
The amount of ABS formed and thereby the ABS dew point depends on the concentrations of
SO3 and ammonia. As an approximation the ABS dew point increases by 7°C for each doubling
of the concentration of either of the two components. This means that if the concentration of SO3
increases to the double, then the ABS dew point will be maintained if the ammonia concent ration
is simultaneously halved.
As shown in Figure 3there are two possible ways of controlling the SO2 oxidation: By varying the
percentage of vanadium in the catalyst or by limiting the temperature. Most often the tempera-

34
ture is not a variable in power plants and the designer of an SCR DeNOx unit will therefore have
to carefully adjust the catalyst properties to reach his goal.
DeNOx
Activity
High-vanadium type
Low-vanadium type SO2
250 300 350 400 450

Temperature, °C
Figure 3 DeNOx activity and SO2 o xidation characteristics
Figure 3 explains the designer’s dilemma: Reducing the SO2 oxidation by lowering the percent-
age of vanadium in the catalyst also lowers the specific activity and the total catalyst volume will
therefore inc reas e and the plant become more costly.
As illustrated in Figure 4 the DeNOx reaction takes place on the internal surface in the pores of
the catalyst and, by some approximation, the activity, A DeNOx , becomes
ADeNOx = k1 ´ AS ´ C a ´ h (2)
AS denotes the active superficial area, further increased by the porosity of the titanium dioxide,
a
C is the percentage of vanadium in the catalysts raised to a power less than 1, expressing that
the DeNOx activity is not directly proportional to the vanadium content of. η is an effectiveness
factor accounting for the resistance towards diffusion of NOx and ammonia to the catalyst’s ac-
tive sites.
In contrast, the oxidation of SO2 is not limited by diffusion and SO2 can diffuse into the clusters
of primary TiO2 particles whic h appear as islands in the catalyst, cf. Figure 4. The oxidation thus
takes place in the entire catalyst mass and the SO2-oxidation activity, ASO2, can be expressed by
ASO2 = k 2 ´ W ´ C (3)

35
in which ASO2 is the activity towards SO2 oxidation and W is the bulk density of the catalyst. It
follows from the above that the best possible SCR catalyst for a coal-fired power plant minimises
the ratio ASO2/ADeNOx :
ASO2 k2 W 1
= ´ ´ C 1- a ´ (4)
ADeNOx k1 AS h
®
A special way of manufacturing the Topsøe DNX catalyst allows for careful control of the pore
structure within the catalyst which is optimised with a tri-modal pore-size distribution as shown in
Figure 4.
FLUE GAS
CATALYST WALL
NO
N2
NO
NO N2
SO2 SO3 N2
TiO2
Micro pore Meso pore Macro pore
®
Figure 4 : Pore structure of Topsøe DNX SCR catalyst
By having large macro-pores in addition to the meso- and micro-pores the access to the interior
of the catalyst is enhanc ed and the effectiveness factor η is thereby maximised. The elaborated
pore system further increases the porosity, providing a high ratio bet ween the active surface
area and the catalyst bulk density, i.e. AS/W. The combined effect gives the lowest possible SO2
oxidation as per equation (4).

36
Tops øe is capable of tailor-making catalysts for any level of sulphur in the fuel and can therefore
provide the best compromise between NOx removal and SO2 oxidation. Tops øe has demon-
strated excellent performance toget her with low SO2 oxidation under industrial conditions and
has provided guarantees for SO2 oxidation down to 0.1%.
Catalyst degradation
In high-dust SCR units on coal-fired boilers a gradual degradation of the catalyst with loss of
activity occurs, primarily due to exposure to the fly ash. A number of factors contribute to the
deterioration of the catalyst performance, determining its useful life:
- Chemical impact of fly ash components on the active sites, usually referred to as poisoning.
- Fouling of the catalyst surface by very fine ash particles, physically blocking the access to
the active sites of the catalyst or reducing the active surface area
- Plugging of catalyst channels reducing the effective volume of the installed catalyst
- Erosion by abrasive components in the fly ash in case of inappropriat e flue gas velocities in
the SCR reactor
Obviously, an extensive knowledge of how these factors affect catalyst performance is essential
in selection of the optimum catalyst type.
Chemical poisoning is formally chemisorption of components on the active sites of the catalyst
resulting in loss of activity. Aerosols of alkali metals as sodium and potassium are of prime con-
cern.
Fouling is a physical blockage of the catalyst pore system by aerosols or other sub-micron ash
particles. Pore condensation of gaseous compounds of e.g. arsenic from the flue gas can also
block the access to the active sites of the catalyst. Some Chinese coals and Powder River Basin
(PRB), a US sub-bit uminous coal-type, have very high contents of calcium oxide, being sul-
phated in the SO2/SO3 containing flue gas and forming fouling layers of calcium sulphate on the
catalyst surface.
The ability of a catalyst to accommodate poisons without serious decline of activity strongly de-
pends on the porosity and the pore structure of the catalyst. The catalyst should not only provide
a high porosity but preferably have a broad pore-size distribution, i.e. the porosity should be
made up from pores of different sizes.
Figure 5 shows how a catalyst being exposed to calcium containing fly ash has developed a
dense lay er of calcium sulphate which impedes diffusion of NOx in the flue gas to the active
sites in the interior of the catalyst.

37
CaSO 4 FOULING LAYER
Figure 5: Scanning electron microscopy shows a fouling layer of calcium sulphate on

the catalyst surface
.
The conversion of NOx on a catalyst takes place on both the inner and outer surfac es of the
catalyst. As the outer catalyst surface easily fouls by calcium, access to the interior becomes
even more important as illustrated in Figure 6.
®
The ability of the Topsøe DNX catalyst to withstand fouling with fly ash relies on a key charac -
teristic of the catalyst: The tri-modal pore structure. The larger-sized pores, macro pores, serve
to ensure access to the active interior of the catalyst even if large amounts of poisons have been
deposited on the catalyst. They further enhance gas-phase diffusion of NOx and ammonia into
the catalyst and thereby the overall catalyst activity.
The presenc e of medium-size pores, meso-pores, ensures an efficient internal distribution of the
reactants to the immense net work of micro-pores which provide a very high active surface area
necessary for the catalyst activity. In comparis on, a catalyst with a homogeneous micro-pore
structure bec omes effectively blocked by fouling agents whereas in a catalyst with a tri-modal
pore structure, access remains available via macro- and meso-pores.
®
Tops øe’s DNX catalysts have been developed to maximise the resistance of the catalyst to-
wards calcium in fly ash. The unique pore structure is a result of selected titania raw materials
combined with cont rolled drying and calcination processes in a fully automated catalyst manu-
facture.

38
FLUE GAS
NO
NO
NO
N2
Homoporous Pore System Tri-modal Pore System

Figure 6: The benefits of meso- and macro-pores during conditions of significant sur-
face fouling.
Experience
A few examples from Haldor Tops øe’s SCR DeNOx projects on coal-fired boilers in P.R. China
may illustrate some of the design issues treated above.
Yangcheng Thermal Power Plant
Yangcheng TPP Unit 8 is a 600 MWe boiler at Yangcheng, Shanxi Province. It burns anthracite
from Shanxi Yangcheng Shine mine. The boiler has been equipped with SCR DeNOx and was
commissioned in first half of 2007. Haldor Tops øe A/S was the supplier of the catalyst and sys-
tem design including physical flow model tests for verification of design.
The design of the SCR system includes a reactor bypass and posed a challenge in the system
design to avoid ash drop-out in front of the bypass dampers and in the reactor. To ensure even
flow distribution in the reactor and also at the air preheater inlet to minimise the risk of ash drop-

39
out at low-load conditions, the model work showed it necessary to install flow conditioning de-
vices in the reactor outlet duct.
1. ECO outlet
2. Upstream AIG
3. Dow nstream AIG
4. Dow nstream last
3)
catalyst layer
5. APH inlet flange 2)
4)
1)
5)
Figure 7: The DeNOx reactor bypass posed a challenge in system design and re-
quired careful model work.
Guangdong Guohua Yuedian, Taishan Thermal Power Plant
The Taishan TPP is a 5 × 600 MWe coal-fired power station firing domestic coals. Unit 5 in-
cludes an SCR system which was commissioned in 2006. KC Cottrell was the system supplier
and Haldor Tops øe A/S was the supplier of the catalyst and system design including physical
flow model tests for verification of design of critical components.
Special care was taken in the selection of catalyst due to a very high calcium content of the ash
(approximately 29% CaO). As described above, a catalyst with a tri-modal pore structure has a
high resistance to fouling from high calcium content in the ash. A pore structure that includes
macro pores ensures access to the active sites even with a large amount of gypsum on the sur-
face of the catalyst.
The ash cont ent of the coal ranges from 8% to 13%. This ash content is relatively low, resulting
3
in approximately 15 g/Nm fly ash in the flue gas to the SCR. However, due to the very high cal-
cium content, a relatively larger catalyst pitch, 7.2 mm, was installed to minimise the risk of plug-
ging.

40
Figure 8: Taishan TPP. The STARMIXER ® is shown in green in a 3D-model of the
SCR system on Unit 5.
Significant design issues had to be addressed for the reactor layout, chief among them the de-
sign of the ammonia injection grid (AIG). The design of the unit was targeted for 94% NOx re-
duction with just 3 ppm ammonia slip. Consequently, the distribution of the ammonia into the flue
gas needed to closely match the distribution of NOx, as the reaction proceeds on a 1:1 molar
®
basis. The use of Tops øe’s STARMIXE R system combined with careful flow modelling (Figure
8) enabled design of a system pressure loss of less than 339 Pa in spite of the high mixing effi-
ciency required to ac hieve a NOx conversion of 94%.
A performance test in November 2006 demonstrated a NOx conversion at BMCR load of 93-
95% with approximately 1 ppm ammonia slip, well within the guarantee performance. Inspection
of the S CR after months of operation showed no signs of fly-ash deposits (see Figure 9) demon-
strating that close-to-perfect flow conditions have been achieved in the reactor.

41
Figure 9 Inspection of the SCR reactor at Taishan TPP after 6 months of operation. The
reactor as well as the catalyst is very clean with no signs of fly ash deposits.
Fujian Huadian Kemen TPP
Units 3 and 4 at the coal-fired Fujian Huadian Kemen power plant are being retrofitted with SCR
DeNOx, scheduled for start-up in 2008, by Shanghai Longking Environmental Protection Co.,
®
Ltd. As for the Taishan TPP, the S TARMIXER has been applied for the ammonia-flue gas mix-
ing to achieve an efficient mixing of the ammonia into the flue gas with a minimum of pressure
drop. An ammonia-t o-NOx ratio distribution with less than 3% standard deviation at the inlet to
the catalyst layer was demonstrated by CFD modelling as well as in a gas-flow model study.
Taiyuan Iron and Steel Co., TISCO
The Taiyuan Iron and Steel Company, TIS CO, thermal power station in Shanxi Province com-
prises two 300 MWe coal-fired boilers. The boilers are being retrofitted with SCR DeNOx plants,
scheduled for commissioning in 2008. Guangzhou Tinci Sahne Environmental Engineering Co.,
Ltd. supplies the system while Tops øe has been the supplier of the S CR catalyst, the basic en-
gineering design including flow modelling by CFD as well as in a scale model, and the STA R-
®
MIXER ammonia injection mixing system.
The design coal has a high ash content resulting in very high dust content in the flue gas, up to
3
40 g/Nm . This was taken into consideration in the design of the reactor and in the selection of
catalyst. A high dust load in the SCR reactor implies a risk of erosion of the catalyst. However,
erosion can in far most cases be ascribed to improper flow conditions in the SCR reactor, caus-
ing:

42
- areas high gas velocity
- areas with high ash load
- areas in which the flow angle deviates significantly from vertical
rd
The wear of the catalyst is proportional to the gas linear velocity raised to the 3 power. The
reactor cross section was therefore designed to provide a relatively low velocity, approx. 4.0 m/s.
It is not unusual to apply a velocity of 5 m/s or more in high-dust SCR’s with a more modest dust
3
content of 15-20 g/Nm .
Because of the high amount of fly ash, Topsøe’s DNX-HD catalyst type with a 9-mm pitch and a
1.0-mm wall thickness was selected. This large-pitch catalyst has a high void fraction which
minimises a risk of plugging of the catalyst channels: The high void combined also serves to
minimise any risk of erosion by reducing the linear gas velocity in the catalyst channels.
The SCR system at TIS CO furt hermore has been designed with strict requirements to the flow
conditions at the inlet to the catalyst layers, allowing a maximum ±25% deviation from average
linear velocity and a maximum 20° deviation from vertical flow direction. The flow model work
provided the design of flow guide vanes to achieve these goals and verified that the conditions
are fulfilled. Homogenizers are inserted at the 90° bend at the top of the riser to guide the gas
flow, minimize pressure losses, and retain uniformity of flow at inlet to the reactor. A 10-vane
st
cascade was found to be necessary to obt ain a sufficiently uniform velocity field at inlet to the 1
catalyst layer. A side-view drawing is shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10: Flow conditioning devices in the SCR system at TISCO TPP

43
Conclusion
NOx emission regulations become ever stricter. To achieve high DeNOx efficiencies with mini-
mum ammonia slip in SCR DeNOx units operating in high-dust position on coal-fired boilers,
careful selection of the catalyst model and proper system design is crucial.
High ash contents of the coal must be considered in selection of catalyst channel size (pitch)
and wall thickness. Presence of calcium or ot her constituents that can chemically or physically
impact the catalyst must be considered in prospected deactivation rates. A highly porous cata-
®
lyst with a diverse pore structure as the Tops øe DNX catalysts provides a high tolerance to
poisoning.
Gas flow modelling is a necessary tool in verifying the proper design of high-dust SCR units. The
modelling can be made by Comput ational Fluid Dy namics (CFD) modelling or by the use of
physical scale models. The application of physical flow model study in the design phase will
accomplish verification of uniform gas velocity distribution and layout of nec essary flow condi-
tioning devic es and evaluation of dust precipitation and distribution.

44
PROSPECTUS OF MINERAL CARBONATION OF FLY ASH FOR
CO2 SEQUESTRATION AND ITS EFFECT ON AGRICULTURE
S.D. Muduli1 , B.D. Nayak2 and N. K. Dhal2

Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar
Council of scientific and industrial Research (CSIR)
1- Research scholar, IMMT BBSR
2- Scientist, IMMT BBSR
Contacting author - surabhidipali@gmail.com
Abstract
En rich ment of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is mainly due to combustion of fossil fuel,
which has increased the effect of green house gases and global warming. Fixation of CO2 fro m at mosphere in
the form of solid carbonates appears to be an option for reduction of atmospheric CO2 concentration. The
thermal power p lant industries produce million tons of coal fly ash each year which consists of fine particles
of burnt raw materials and some trace elements. Although a fraction of this is used for beneficial agricultural
application, the industries dispose off several million tones annually in piles, quarries and landfills. Mineral
carbonation is a process of chemical reaction in which minerals or its residues consisting of lime and magnesia
become a source of carbonation. The material fly ash and gypsum both are industrial wastes and causes
disposal problem leading to environmental pollution. Gypsum is a calciu m bearing material and fly ash is a
silica and alu mina containing material. Co mb ination of these materials provides a favorable ingredient for
mineral carbonation. Mixing of fly ash and gypsum develops alkaline condition which pro motes dissolution of
silica and alu mina of fly ash. In the process of dissolution fly ash reacts with gypsum to form many hydrated
intermediate unstable phases like Ettringite and hydrated calciu m alu minum silicate structure, by subsequent
interaction and absorption of Co2 fro m the atmosphere these unstable intermediate phases break to stable
carbonate structure like calcite and Meionite. In fly ash and gypsum mixture it has been observed that the
reaction phases are hydrated calcium alu minu m silico carbonates which are formed in the reaction process by
absorbing CO2 fro m the atmosphere. The combination of fly ash and gypsum in long term storage under
atmospheric condition become a site for capturing atmospheric CO2 . The bulk use of this carbonated ash was
carried out in agricu ltural purpose to exp lore the feasibility of utilizing fly ash in improving the productivity of
an acid lateritic soil through pot culture study. With this concept field experiments were conducted in
med icinal plant garden sites in two fast growing tree species i.e. Acacia mangium and Dalbergia sisso in
carbonated ash, fly ash and garden soil. Taking various parameters like PH, EC, and WHC into consideration,
the periodical growth rate of both the plants of carbonated ash showed better response. The present paper will
highlight the growth performance and sustainable use of fly ash in agricu lture.
Key words: - CO2 sequestration, mineral carbonation, industrial waste, environ mental pollution.
45
INTRODUCTION
In recent years the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased significantly and reached to 384
ppm in 2007 (1). The steep increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration is alarming and it has been attributed as
a major factor in the increase of earth’s temperature. More than 7 Gtons of anthropogenic CO2 are released to
the atmosphere including a major contribution fro m the production of steel by the steel works each year (2).
The CO2 causes about 6-29% of the green house effect on the earth (3), as a result it helps in global warming
and climate change. To min imize CO2 emission mineral carbonation is a process by which carbon dioxide is
absorbed from the at mosphere and stored indefinitely. M ineral carbonation is an interesting concept which
involves permanent storage of CO2 in silicate materials and alkaline solid materials as carbonate minerals.
Alkaline solid materials are naturally carbonated by absorbing atmospheric CO2 because these solids contain a
variety of thermodynamically unstable oxides, hydroxides, and silicate materials that can capture and convert
CO2 into carbonates. Till date the majority of mineral carbonation research has examined in mined silicate
minerals (1, 4). The o xide mineral sources are readily available through the reuse of industrial solid wastes
and residues. The end product of sequestration may be amendable for beneficial re-use in construction
material, agricultural etc.
The thermal power plant industries produce millions tons of coal fly ash each year which consists of
fine particles of burnt raw materials and some trace elements. Although a fraction of this is used for beneficial
agricultural applicat ion, the industries dispose off several million tones annually in p iles, quarries and
landfills. Earlier workers have expressed increased concern over environmental pollution associated with the
improper management of fly ash and gypsum. Therefore waste neutralization through sequestration may be an
encouraging means to both capture carbon and mit igate the possible adverse health and environmental effects
posed by improper disposal of fly ash and gypsum. Fly ash has a vast potential for use in agriculture as an
amend ment especially due to its physical condition which are conductive for plant growth as well as due to the
presence of macro and micro nutrients in it. Soil properties as influenced by fly application have been studied
by several workers (5). Fly ash, wh ich can be acid ic or alkaline depending on the source, can be used to buffer
the soil pH (6). Application of fly ash for increasing the pH of acidic soils (7) and imp roving soil texture (8)
was investigated for agronomic benefits (9, 10) and improving the nutrient status of soil (11,12). Agricultural
utilizat ion of fly ash has been proposed because of its considerable content of K, Ca, Mg, S and P (10, 13, 14).
Fly ash addition generally increases plant growth and nutrient uptake (15). Basing on the concept of
phytoremediat ion (16) two fast growing tree species i.e. Acacia mangium and Dalbergia sisso had been
selected for pot culture study.
This paper represents the study of the feasibility of CO2 capture through fly ash and gypsum mixture
and identifies the conditions that appear to improve the extent of sequestration. Here authors have observed
the feasibility of utilizing this carbonated fly ash in improving the productivity of an acid lateritic soil through
pot culture study
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Fly ash collected from Power Plants and the gypsum brought from Phosphate producing industries
were used as experimental raw material. The chemical compositions of both the raw materials were shown in
the table -1. Carbonated ash was prepared by mixing fly ash and gypsum with the help of an alkali activator in
wet condition. The mineralog ical co mposition of the raw material was determined by X-ray diffraction
method (Fig-1&2). Thermal analysis of carbonated ash has been carried out to observe the breaking of
carbonation phase (Fig-3). The field experiment was set up inside the medicinal green of Institute of Minerals
and Materials Technology. The Acacia mangium and Dalbergia sisso seedling were p lanted in rep licates in the
pot. During the experiment; three types of substrates were chosen to investigate the feasibility of plant growth
(i) garden soil serving as control (G); (ii) original fly ash (O); and (iii) carbonated ash. The physical
characteristics of the substrates are studied by standard methods and shown in the Table-2. The plants were
allo wed to grow in open environment and watered at regular intervals to keep the soil saturated. After 180
days of transplantation, the plants were studied for the changes in pattern of growth (Table-3). A ll the
photographs of plants during seedling and after 180 days are shown in (Fig -4).
46
RES ULTS
Table – 1 (X - ray fluorescence anal ysis of raw materials)
Major components Fl y ash (wt % ) Gypsum (wt % )
SiO2 59.03 -
Al2 O3 25.86 0.5
Fe2 O3 5.81 0.55
TiO2 1.71 -
CaO 1.07 32.5
MgO 0.68 -
K2 O 1.89 -
Na2 O 0.07 -
P2 O5 0.72 0.45
SO4 - 54.6
F2 - 0.25
Fig-1 (X- ray Diffraction study of fly ash)
Fig-2 (X- ray Diffraction study of carbonated ash)
47
Fig-3 (Thermal anal ysis of carbonated ash)
Table-2 (Physical characteristics of substrate)

Substrate pH Conducti vity Water hol ding
(µs/cm) Capacity (% )
Garden soil (G) 5.0 97 56
Fly ash (O) 6.9 108 66
Carbonated ash (M) 7.7 118 67
Table- (3 Di fferent growth parameters of Pl ants)

Name of pl ant Type of treatment During seedling After 180 days
Height (cm) Girth (cm) Height (cm) Girth (cm)

A. mangium Garden soil (G) 35 2 41 3
Fly ash (O) 33 2 43 4
Carbonated ash (M) 30 2 157 6
D. Sisso Garden soil (G) 36 2 46 3
Fly ash (O) 30 2 53 4
Carbonated ash (M) 38 2 78 6
DISCUSS ION
Analysis of X-ray diffraction of the mixture of fly ash, gypsum, water and chemical booster after 30
days of atmospheric exposure shows intermed iate reaction process of calciu m alu minu m silicate hydrate
phases. The sample examined by DTA/TG indicates a major weight loss at 165o C and 710o C. The weight loss
at 165o C is due to the loss of structural water creating an intermediate phase like ettringite. The loss at 710o C
is due to the decomposition of Carbonate phase that forms in the reaction process. The X-ray Diffract ion and
DTA/TG analysis shows that there is appreciable formation of carbonate phases. From the experiment it is
observed that calcium carbonate has detected in significant amount which is in form of calcite and meionite
(calciu m alu minu m silicate sulphate and carbonate). Carbonation of fly ash begins by addition of CaSO4 to the
mixtu re that is followed by the diffusion of calciu m fro m gypsum wh ich develops an alkaline condition and
promotes in dissolution of silica and alu mina of fly ash. By subsequent interaction and absorption of CO2 fro m
atmosphere these unstable intermediate phases breaks to stable carbonate structures. After that the carbonated
ash had been used for agricultural purpose. Both the fast growing tree species survived 100% in all three
substrates, but carbonated ash showed the better growth response. Carbonated ash is relatively alkaline than
fly ash followed by garden soil. Water holding capacity of carbonated ash is comparatively better than other
two substrates. It is found that after carbonation and presence of major micronutrients agricultural production
enhances. From the field experiment it is observed that growth of Acacia mangium and Dalbergia sisso
seedling in carbonated ash is better, wh ich ind icates mineral carbonation of fly ash can absorb atmospheric
carbon dioxide and be reutilized in agriculture under waste management programme creating amp le scope for
further study.
48
Plantation of Acacia mangium and Dalbergia sisso seedlings
Acacia mangium in garden soil Acacia mangium in carbonated ash
Dalbergia sisso in garden soil Dalbergia sisso in acti vated ash
Fig – 4
49
CONCLUS ION
The present study reveals that the chemical co mposition of fly ash and gypsum create a suitable
condition for atmospheric CO2 sequestration. In this process hydration mechanisms are involved through
intermediate unstable phases. The main hydration product detected in the mixture is calcite and meonite.
The incorporation of fly ash and gypsum mixture through mineral carbonation contribute as a good
substrate for agriculture. The prospect of mineral carbonation of fly ash for carbon dioxide sequestration
and its use in agriculture is a better option for sustainable management of fly ash.
REFERENCES
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in carbonate minerals, Energy, 20: 1153-1170.
2. Liu, Z.: Zhao, J., 2000, Contribution of carbonate rock weathering to the atmospheric CO2 sink.
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EA GM EB>2.0.CO: 2 [Retrived on 1st may 2006].
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sequestration by direct mineral carbonation: Process mineralogy of feed and products , Minerals &
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760429. US Depart ment of Co mmerce, Sp ringfield, VA : 504–515.
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fro m fly ash amended soils. Water, Air Soil Pollut. 12: 247– 254.
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soils. J. Environ. Qual. 6 3: 267– 270.
9. Plank, C.O., Martens, D.C., Hallock, D.L., 1975. Effect of soil application of fly ash on chemical
composition and yield of corn (Zea mays L.) and on chemical co mposition of displaced soil
solutions. Plant Soil 42: 465–476.
10. Adriano, D.C., Page, A.L., Elseewi, A.A., Chang, A.C., St raughan, I., 1980. Utilization and
disposal of fly ash and other coal residues in terrestrial ecosystems: a review. J. Environ. Qual. 9:
333–344.
11. Schnappinger Jr., M.G, Martens, D.C., Plank, C.O., 1975. Zinc availability as influenced by
application of fly ash to soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 9: 258–261.
12. Rautaray, S.K., Ghosh, B.C., Mittra, B.N., 2003. Effect of fly ash, organic wastes and chemical
fertilizers on yield, nutrient uptake, heavy metal content and residual fertility in a rice-mustard
cropping sequence under acid lateritic soils. Bioresour. Technol. 90: 275– 283.
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coal-fired power plants with special reference to environmental impacts. Residue Rev. 71: 83–
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14. Singh, S.N., Kulshreshtha, K., Ahmad, K.J., 1997. Impact of fly ash soil amendment on seed
germination, seedling growth and metal co mposition of Vicia faba L. Ecological Eng. 9: 203–208.
15. Aitken, R.L., Campbell, D.J., Bell, L.C., 1984. Properties of Australian fly ash relevant to their
agronomic utilization. Aust. J. So il Res. 22: 443–453.
16. I. A lkorta, J. Hernández-Allica, J.M. Becerril, I. A mezaga, I. A lbizu, C. Garbisu, (2004). Recent
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50
Nanotechnology for Solar industry
Anish Priyadarshi1,a , Sachin Jain2 , Balpreet Singh Ahulwalia3
1
Director Carlsys Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
2
Director of Nanotech Training in Extra Edge Infomedia Pvt. Ltd.
3
Research scientist, University of Tromso Norway
a
Corresponding Author: anish@carlsys.com.sg
Abstract:
The COP15 United Nations Climate Change Conference Copenhagen, is just the starting. It’s the
matter of time that we (human race) will ‘realize’ and thus ‘unanimously’ agree the damage to
our climate is real and must be tackle immediately. This will soon lead us to amend and replace
convention technology with clean energy alternatives. Thus a country progress in coming decades
will largely depend on how advance and prepared one is with clean energy. India is among on the
country which has head start in clean energy alternatives including solar energy, hydrogen,
nuclear and others. The funding and proposals announcement for solar energy by the Government
of India reflects the push and eagerness of India to be among world leaders in solar energy.
Noticeably, Prime Minister of India Dr. Manmohan Singh, launched India's solar energy mission,
January 2010, and is one of its eight core national missions under a national action plan on
climate change. The country aims to generate 20,000 megawatts (MW) of electricity from the sun
by 2020. India plans a network of 'solar valleys', generating the know-how to realise India's solar
energy ambitions, has been mooted by its.
Introduction:
The amount of sun energy that hits the earth in an hour is more than required by entire
civilizations in the world for entire year! This showcase the power and opportunities one
can achieve from solar energy. Solar cells harness the sunlight by converting solar
radiations into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Solar cells are made of
semiconducting material often silicon. The fundamental physics behind solar cell is to
enable light energy via photons to excite and knock out electrons. The direction of the
flowing electrons can be controlled by doping impurities in silicon like phosphorus and
boron. Thus the flow of electrons under this restriction can generate electricity.
However, it is only in last decade that solar energy is thought to be economically feasible,
compatible and efficient that it can answer world’s energy crisis. Only one thing has
made this possible: Nanotechnology and Nanoscience. It will be correct to state that
‘Nanotechology has made solar energy feasible, efficient and cheaper’. Nanotechnology
51
fabrication and investigation equipments and technology to generate nanoparticles and
nano- films/coating have enhanced the solar conversion efficiency. Employing novel thin-
films coating and doping has further provided a new dimension to solar energy.
Nanotechnogy tools enable state-of-art fabrication required for solar energy and
nanotechnology inspection tools allow us to probe the process.
Solar Energy: The Challenges
Cost is the main challenge for solar energy. Present status of solar cell manufacturing
costs, it is projected to produce electricity at a cost which is around 3 to 6 times higher
than current prices. Thus present solar cell solution is not capable of competing with the
fossil fuels. The present major challenges and drawback of solar cells technology is on its
limited efficiencies and high manufacturing cost. Efficiency of solar cells is given by the
ration of amount of usable energy generated from the cell solar cell to the amount of
incident solar energy. The inefficiency of solar cells to convert light energy to usable
energy lies on the fact the solar radiation is broad-band containing all the wavelengths.
Different wavelengths of light reflect different ‘energy’ of individual photon. For a solar
cell an ‘exact’ energy (band-gap energy) is required to knock-out electron by incident
photon. As solar cells are artificially- manufactured to work on defined-energy levels,
thus all incident photons which does not match this value is either wasted (lower energy)
or partially used (higher energy, the excess energy after knocking out the electron is
wasted as heat), limiting the efficiency of solar cell. This wastage of solar radiation can
easily amount upto 70% of the radiations.
Nanotechnology: Solutions and Future
In last couple of decades, Nanotechnology and Nanoscience has enabled us to dream of

sustainable and cost-effective solar energy. By fabricating novel materials, or engineering
materials in a novel has enhanced the solar efficiency. Scientist has reported the solar cell
with efficiency as high as around 25 percent [1]. Moreover nanotechnology has also
allowed cheaper fabrication of solar cells. Researcher has reported novel plastic solar
cells reducing the cost significantly [2]. However plastic solar cells have far less
52
efficiency less than 2%, but scientist are hopeful to enhance the efficiency of plastic solar
cell.
Scientist has proposed a technique to harness the higher energy (which is conventionally
wasted as heat energy) of the incident photon to knock second electron employing novel
nanocrystals of lead and selenium [3]. Researchers are hopeful that nanocrystal can
enable almost 60% solar conversion efficiency! Thus the future looks bright with
nanotechnology. At the same time, Nanotechnology also allows investigation of novel
materials to reduce the cost significantly as reported in this research paper [4].
Storage of solar energy is also an area of on-going intensive research. Scientist tackles
this problem by looking solutions in two domains. First is nanotechnology driven novel
materials such as superconducting magnets, capacitors with enhanced usage could be
used for storage applications [5]. Another possible solution is bio- inspired process of
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process by which plants convert or store the solar
energy in the chemical bonds of the molecules. Plants employ sunlight to generate food
and by mimicking the process to store and convert the solar energy to usable energy is an
area of great on-going research.
Conclusion:
It could still be scientific fiction that one day we can have our house painted with Nano-
particles that can absorb, store and use solar cell to drive appliances of our homes. Or a
small panel on top of our car which is only required fuel to drive it for thousands of
miles. Even though today’s solar cell technology is not ripe enough to replace deep
rooted fossil fuel network, but as we all know fossil fuel wont last long and solar energy
will last till sun lasts! Nanotechnogy has just allowed us to envisage a clean, climate-
friendly and cost-effective alternative energy.
53
Acknowledge ments
Authors like to thanks support of OmScientific Private Limited [6], who are pioneers in
India on Nanotechnolgy High-end Equipments distributors and Nanotechnolgy
consulting.
References
1. Paul Preuss. “An unexpected discovery could yield a full spectrum solar cell.” Research
News. Berkeley Lab. 18 November 2002.
1. <http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/MSD-full-spectrum-solar-cell.html>.
2. Sanders, Bob. “Cheap, Plastic Solar Cells May Be On The Horizon.” UC Berkeley
Campus News. 28 March 2002.
<http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2002/03/28_solar.html>.
3. Schaller, R.D., and V.I. Klimov. 2004. High Efficiency Carrier Multiplication in PbSe
Nanocrystals: Implications for Solar Energy Conversion. Physical Review Letters
92(18): 186601-1 - 186601-4. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.186601
4. Lewis, N.S. 2007. Toward Cost-Effective Solar Energy Use. Science 315(5813): 798-
801. DOI: 10.1126/science.1137014.
5. Ranjan, V., et al. 2007. Phase Equilibria in High Energy Density PVDF-Based
Polymers. Physical Review Letters 99: 047801-1 - 047801-4. DOI:
10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.047801
6. www.omscientific.com
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EMERGING TRENDS IN PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
OF STEAM TURBINE
G.C.Misra, AGM (STE) BHEL, Haridwar

Sanjoy Bhattacharya, Manager (STE) BHEL, Haridwar
Preetam Singh, Engineer (STE) BHEL, Haridwar
SYNOPSIS:
Thermal power plants are main source of electricity generation since long time in which Steam Turbine
play a very important role. Various measures to enhance t he perf ormance of the Steam Turbine, which
is a challenge to Steam Turbine designer, are described in this paper.
Steam Turbine improvement solutions are typically defined by their ability to increase electrical output
and thermal efficiency by application of the latest technologies. The performance of steam cycle can be
improved either by using new generation steam turbines in upc oming thermal power projects or by
replacing the flow path of running sets with new and improvised c omponents. This will also result in
reduction of thermal as well as pollutant emission. In this paper, various ratings and subsequent
improvements carried out by BHE L is illustrated. Latest trends in the development of Steam Turbine,
which encompasses many advance features using State of Art engineering tools, are described. For
achieving improvement in the performance, application of advanc e blading, reduction in primary and
secondary looses, increas e in Reheat steam temperature , extraction from HP t urbine, supercritical
parameters, overload valve, series condens ers have been discussed. Ease of maintenance,
compactness of equipments and quick ups are other s alient features incorporat ed in the set developed
by BHEL. To meet the rapid power demands as foreseen in the various five years plan, BHEL Haridwar
has initiated various proactive measures to augment the manufacturing capacity of the plant. This will
enable BHE L Haridwar to manufacture and timely delivery of Steam Turbine sets of high performance
and qualit y in the time to come.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Power is the key ingredient for economic growth of a country. From a meager 1330 MW
capacity at the time of independence of India, generation capacity has grown steadily to
1,55,859 MW by Nov 2009. For a country of size like India with population of over 100 crores,
the per capita power available is very inadequate which hampers the development in the
country. Realizing this fact, Government of India has embarked upon to add 1,75,000 MW
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capacity in the 11th & 12th five year plans, out of which 78% will be thermal power. For 13th
five year plan (2017-2022), government of India proposed that only supercritical thermal sets
will be installed in the country. The objective of faster addition cannot be achieved by the
present unit rating of 210/ 250 MW for near load centre power plants and 500 MW for base
load plants. Need of the hour is higher capacity sets. While creating newer capacities cost of
power generation, performance and environmental issues are also getting major focus.
To take care of these two aspects, high level of thermal efficiency is demanded from new
thermal generating units. With the dual objective of bridging up demand and supply gap at
faster pace and achieving higher efficiency, high power committee constituted by Government
of India under the leadership of Central Electricity Authority have recommended installation of
660 & 800 MW sets utilizing supercritical technology.
BHEL, a global player in the power sector business has made a significant contribution in
developing the country's thermal power generating capacity. Steam Turbine along with
matching Turbo generator, Condenser, LP Heaters, C & I, System engineering and Auxiliaries
constitutes major supplies from BHEL, Haridwar. Since the commissioning of the first steam
turbine in 1973, BHEL Haridwar plant has manufactured and supplied more than 200 steam
turbines for the various rating of conventional power plants as well as combined cycle power
plants. Over the years the design of turbines has been continuously improved upon and steps
have been taken to introduce new type/variants of steam turbines to meet the continuously
changing market requirements. In line with this new ratings of 270MW and 525MW have been
introduced with the prime objective of reducing cost per MW. Further, to gain advantage of
CEA recommendation of 500+20% rating, BHEL Hardwar has developed the largest rating of
600MW with subcritical parameters. Also to keep pace with the latest developments and
emerging market requirements, BHEL has equipped itself with the design and technology to
supply steam turbine for 660 MW & 800 MW sets with Supercritical parameters.
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2.0 NEW RATINGS DEVELOPED:
2.1 270 MW sets:
The 270 MW set consists of separate HP, IP & LP modules as in conventional 250 set. HP
Turbine is of single flow design with double shell construction. Outer casing is of barrel type
design. IP Turbine has casing mounted valves unlike the conventional 250 sets. Electro-
hydraulic governing system utilizing high fluid pressure is envisaged for the regulation of
turbine. LP turbine is of double flow design. Presently BHEL has more than 17 sets of orders of
this rating in hand and many more are expected in the near future.
Fig.1: 270 MW set
2.2 525 MW sets:
The 525 MW set has separate HP, IP & LP modules as in conventional 500 set. HP, IP & LP
with improvised flow Path. Turbines are similar to the 500 sets in operation across the country.
The turbine is equipped with electro-hydraulic governing system backed up with hydro-
mechanical system. BHEL has already received many orders of this rating.
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Fig.2: 525 MW set
2.3 600MW sets:
The 600 MW set is based on the proven modules of HP & IP being used in conventional 500
MW & LP module in use for conventional 250 MW set. It is a four cylinder machine, having
one cylinder each of HP & IP and two cylinders of LP.
Fig.3: 600 MW set
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To further boost up the customer’s confidence, design of 600 MW has been vetted by our
collaborator. The fact that this unit rating has got overwhelming acceptance from the utilities
may be judged by order received for more than 14 sets within a short span. BHEL is offering
two variants of 600 MW. One variant is designed for higher Reheat temperature and 7 Heaters
cycle (one additional extraction from HP Turbine intermediate stage). Other variant is designed
with 6 Heater cycle having Reheat temperature same as conventional 500 MW thermal set.
This variant is economical one and is being offered in many projects.
3.0 STEAM TURBINES WITH SUPERCRITICAL PARAMETERS:
221.2 bar (225.6 ata) pressure and 374.15 0 C temperature is called critical point of water/steam
because at these parameters water changes to steam phase instantaneously (without any latent
heat of evaporation). The steam turbines utilizing main steam pressure above this critical
pressure are called super-critical turbines. Further increased steam conditions of 310 bar (316.2
ata) or over and 600 0 C or over are called ultra super-critical turbines. The fact that thermal
efficiency of power cycle can be most effectively improved by raising the main and reheat
steam condition was known from early times; however materials with adequate creep properties
had been main constraint in adopting higher steam parameters. High creep rupture strength,
resistance to oxidation, high toughness, good weldability and resistance to embrittlement are
the essential characteristic for the materials for application at high temperature. In order to with
stand exceedingly high pressure, the walls of casing and valves are adequately thickened.
3.1 Super-critical parameters and unit size
With the transition from sub-critical to super-critical pressure and increased steam temperature
the efficiency of the unit improves (or heat rate is reduced), however, the capital cost increases.
The reduction of the heat rate leads to reduced fuel consumption resulting in cost savings over
the entire service life of the power plant. The capitalized savings compared with additional
investment cost justify economic viability. Both fuel cost and additional investment cost/MW
reduces due to improved efficiency and reduction in cost/MW, if the unit size is also increased.
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The overall result shows the clear economic advantage of the super-critical with increase in unit
rating above 500 MW. The thermal and Air Pollutant emissions per unit of generation is less in
super-critical sets as compared to sub-critical sets.
3.2 Present status
A global overview of new and upcoming power stations indicate trend towards super-critical
steam parameters for large capacity units above 500 MW. A large number of sets above 500
MW are operating successfully or are under commissioning with steam conditions up to 300
bar (306 ata), 593 0 C. Further developments are under way to use ultra super-critical parameters
up to 350 bar (357 ata) & 650 0 C.
3.3 Steam Turbines for Advance Steam Conditions
The design of steam turbines employing supercritical steam parameters is not much different
from the steam turbines with sub-critical parameters. Specific design changes are however
needed in HP &IP turbine modules, main and reheat valves and their pipe connections which
are exposed to elevated steam parameters. Realizing the higher efficiency as well as
maintaining the higher reliability and availability is the prime criteria for the design of these
turbines. Turbine design has to ensure that life of turbine and operational flexibility i.e. start up
and loading capability of machine should in no way get affected by use of higher parameters.
BHEL, Hardwar has acquired engineering and manufacturing know-how from M/s Siemens
AG, Germany under technical collaboration agreement for steam turbines with supercritical
steam parameters. The details of super critical steam turbine configuration for 660 MW & 800
MW rating are discussed in the following paras of the paper.
3.4 TURBINE DESIGN FEATURES
A view of a large capacity steam turbine with super-critical steam parameters is shown in Fig. 4
(660 MW) & Fig. 5 (800 MW). It features tandem compounded separate HP, IP and LP
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modules. LP turbine modules may be one or more depending upon exhaust area requirements
corresponding to capacity and back pressure. Modular principle is employed for the design of
turbine cylinders which enable them to be used for a range of output and steam conditions by
virtue of built- in flexibility in the design. It also promotes reliability and availability as time
tested and well proven standard components are used as far as possible. All bearing pedestals
are mounted directly on to the foundation separate from casings and only one bearing is
positioned between two cylinders thereby leading to a compact design. Steam from IP turbine
exhaust is carried to LP section through a single cross over pipe. All extraction connections for
regenerative feed heaters and gland seal connections from casings are provided in the lower
halves to facilitate maintenance. A brief account of the major assemblies with focus on unique
features which enable the turbine suitable for advanced steam conditions is given as under.
Fig. 4 660 MW steam turbine
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3.4.1 HP turbine
HP turbine is of single flow design with double shell construction (Fig.6). Outer casing is of
barrel type which makes design ideal for higher steam conditions. Barrel shape eliminates the
heavy horizontal joint flange, resulting in reduced stresses and thermo-elastic design due to
rotational symmetry thereby allowing higher main steam pressure and temperature. Steam
flows into the turbine through two horizontally located main stop and control valves.
HP turbine is designed with full arc admission and impulse blading for first stage with tilted
guide blades (Fig. 7) to expand the steam to pressure and temperature value lower than that
would be achieved with a 50 % reaction stage. This arrangement leads to minimizing the rotor
temperature, there by reducing the resulting stresses at highly stressed admission zone.
Fig. 5 800 MW steam turbine
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Fig. 6 Barrel type HP turbine
Fig. 7 HP turbine with tilted stationary blades
3.4.2 IP turbine
IP Turbine section is of double flow design with horizontally split double shell casings (Fig.
8). Reheated steam enters the turbine through two admission parts in the lower casing half and
expands to LP inlet condition. As in HP turbine a tilted first stage guide blade arrangement with
impulse blading is envisaged to achieve higher efficiency and reduce temperature at admission
zone. In addition a heat shield with vortex cooling is also mounted at the inlet section (Fig. 9).
This admission design lowers the rotor center temperature. The cooling steam flow through
four properly sized tangential holes (nozzles) and cools the rotor dynamically since the vortex
steam temperature is low due to its expansion to high kinetic energy level. A significant
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temperature reduction is achieved by this arrangement. IP rotor is machined from single piece
integral forging and built without through core hole which helps in reducing the stresses in inlet
zone.
3.4.3 LP turbine
Double flow, multi shell construction is used for the design of LP turbine (Fig. 10). Steam is
admitted through a single connection at top. LP outer casing is welded to condenser which rests
on the base plate. As a result weight of LP outer casing is not transmitted to turbine foundation.
LP inner casing is supported on the horizontal arms that extend from pedestals and pass
through outer casing. The supporting pedestal arm and outer casing are connected through a
Fig. 8 IP turbine
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Fig. 9 IP turbine with tilted stationary blades and heat shield with vortex cooling
compensator (Fig. 11). The steam inlet connection at admission section is likewise connected to
LP inner casing through a compensator. This arrangement makes the LP inner casing
independent of outer casing which prevents the outer casing distortions from being transferred
to LP inner casing.
Fig .10 Cross Section of LP Turbine Fig. 11 LP Turbine Inner Casing

Support
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3.4.4 Blading
New generation blading consisting of 3DS blades in HP,IP initial stages; cylindrical profile
TX-blades in HP,IP middle and LP drum stages; twisted profile F-blades in HP,IP rear stages
and advance LP blading for last three stages with Banana guide blades are envisaged for the
turbine.
3.4.5 Turbine governing system
As large capacity units are employed for base load operation, turbine is equipped with throttle
type governing system. Electro- hydraulic governing system utilizing high fluid pressure (160
bar) is envisaged for regulation of turbine. Use of high pressure reduces the size of actuators &
bulky oil piping leading to compact and simplified plant layout. In addition, replacement of
many mechanical equipments of low pressure system by state of the art electronics in new
system would benefit in faster response & higher redundancy.
4.0 BHEL PREPAREDNESS FOR SUPPLY OF SUPERCRITICAL THERMAL SETS
BHEL jointly with Siemens has recently received order for supply of 2 Nos. supercritical steam
turbines of 660 MW rating for NTPC Barh and 3 Nos. 660 MW rating turbine for JP Bara
Thermal Power station. A typical 660 MW thermal set offered by BHEL comprise of three
cylinders HP, IP & LP.
BHEL has also prepared for highest Unit Size of 800 MW with supercritical technology. This
comprises of HP Turbine, IP Turbine and two No. LP Turbines. BHEL had already signed
MOU with TNEB, KPCL, MPPGCL for supply of these thermal sets at different sites in
Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
The capacity of the Haridwar Plant as well as overall capacity of BHEL is being augmented in
the coming years from existing 10,000 MW to 20,000 MW by 2010-11. In Haridwar plant
extension of New Blade manufacturing shop and Turbine manufacturing shop is under process
which is likely to be get completed very soon.
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Similarly, the modernization and installation of new facilities taking place at Haridwar plant for
manufacturing and testing of 660 MW and 800 MW turbogenerator. These modern capital
intensive facilities contribute in a great way to deliver quality product to esteem customer and
to build Nation’s power infrastructure.
5.0 CONCLUSION
Fuel and energy prices are continuously rising. With the present trend of energy prices and
scarcity of hydrocarbon resources lowering energy requirement is a top priority. Energy
conservation benefits depend on the adopting minor or major modifications and using the latest
technology.
Growing interest in enviornmental protection and making best use of available resources, the
trend in coal fired steam power plant world over is toward higher efficiency through employing
advance steam parameters. Further, as coal based power generation is going to remain
backbone of power generation in India, super-critical steam turbines of 660 MW & 800 MW
rating for base load power plants are necessary to achieve the desired rate of capacity addition
and also to improve the efficiency of power generation and to minimize pollutant emissions. To
meet the challenges of growing demand & enhanced targets BHEL Haridwar has undertaken
major initiative to augment the existing manufacturing facilities in a big way. This
upgradation/augmentation is also planned to meet the requirements of supercritical sets in
future.
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Gas Turbine Parts Clinic - When Scrap could turn to cash…
Author : By Phili p Letman, Director of IGT, After Market Sales, Pratt and Whitney Power Systems,
400 Main Street, Buil ding G, East Hartford, CT 06108, U.S.A, email: Philip.letman@pw.utc.com
Introduction:
As more and more pressure’s are put on Power Plants to reduce costs, users are looking more and more
toward ways of increasing the life of h igh cost parts. One of the easiest, quickest and beneficial ways has
proven to be re-evaluating what parts you have in storage under the scrap label. What was seen as a non-
repairable item 3 to 5 years ago may now have an approved and tested repair. Today’s advances in
coatings, cooling, welding, brazing and blending can put life back in to many of these parts. To begin with
some of field collected data and the operating GT operating regime has been shown in the picture 1.
Picture 1 : Field history of a turbine type
Platform
Cracking/Separation Tip Shroud Cracking Platform Cracking TE Cracking
s
Tip Shroud
Airfoil Cracking Curling/Separation
TE Cracking Platform
Spallation/Oxidation
Welding
More advanced welding including ‘Laser” and “Hot Bo x” methods as now being used across the industry
to allow far more aggressive repairs to be carried out which can extended limits to cracks and wall
thickness.
At the far end of the scale these latest weld methods now allow repairs on Single Crystal on both Blades
and Vanes. Where the standard used to be any cracks in Single Crystal resulted in scrap, new weld methods
have now put life back in to the parts saving the users mult i million pounds on scrap replacement.
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Picture 2 - Blend and weld single crystal blades
Picture 3: Hot box Welding
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Trailing edge cracking from cooling holes and the base plates.
As firing temps increase, blades have become more advanced regarding coatings and cooling channels.
This has resulted in crack propagation from the trailing edge along the base plate. As these areas where in
the fillet and Blade area previous weld or braze repairs where not deemed as safe.
The alternative now is highly controlled trailing edge blending to remove cracks that do not affect air flow,
deflection or performance of the blade. These repairs have now been carried out and test on a wide rang of
turbine both High and low temperature mach ines.
Minimum wall thickness

Both blades and vanes suffer fro m being deemed scrap due to Minimu m wall thickness which has occurred
on first outages. New methods of coupon and insert repairs are now available by using welding and braze
or a combination of both. Again these methods have been tested in turbines and have proved to be very
affective repairs.
Hot spots and cooling

As turbine firing temps increase airflow cooling becomes key to keeping the part in a serviceable condition
when operating and helping the reparability during the repair cycles. New advances in cooling methods and
better understand of cooling patterns and flow can now be used to lessen the heat stress and creep features
seen in current parts being removed from turbines. Additional cooling holes and redirecting existing
cooling flow has become the standard practices with many repair scopes. Platform cooling can help blades
in both peaker and base load operations in reducing cracking and breakdown of the platform area. Proven
advanced welding methods have increase repair limits and increased repair areas around the platform and
base of the blade previously regarded as non repairable.
Shroud lift
A common cause of early life scrap on shrouded blades was an issue of shroud lift due to creep as well as
blade lean and twist. Again with new heat treatments and shroud improvement methods used to reduce the
mass of the shroud as well as lessen creep have again been used and tested in turbines and again saved
users millions of dollars in scrap replacement.
Picture 4 : CMM Dimensional Comparison to OEM Buckets
Airfoil leaning
towards SS
OEM
Run Bucket
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Picture 5 : Creep growth Dimensional Inspection
2nd Stage Bucket
Shroud
Lift
1 of 92 scrap due to shroud creep

Point #3, Shroud Creep is 0.040”
greater than nominal
Shroud
Profile
Modification
Cutter
Tooth
Removed
Shroud
Profile
Modification
Blade Tip Burn and rub

Extended repairs and limits have decreased the number of parts that scrap for this condition. Where any
crack that went belo w the squealer plate was a reason for scrap more advanced weld ing methods have
allo wed deeper repairs and in some case full tip cap replacement is now beco me test and proven.
Heat treatment
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Better understanding how materials react to high temps and how they can be heat treated to reduce stress
and brittleness in the material are now allo wing life extended repairs and heat solutions. Creep relief is a
major factor when trying to return parts back into service.
This type of treatment is vital when addressing aggressive weld repairs and shroud lift issues.
Materials
Using different advanced welding materials fro m the base materials when welding and brazing is giving
better resistance to corrosion and creep during the operation which give the part a better chance of repair on
the next outage.
By rep lacing the worn/burnt away materials with a mo re creep and heat resistance alternatives the part
stands a better chance of repair during the next repair cycle.
Summary
As users demand better value from there parts and repairs provider new and extended repair and tolerances
are being brought to the market. Advanced coating, weld ing and inspection methods not only continue to
increase the life of existing serviceable parts but are putting life back in to parts that where deemed
scrap/non repairable at 1st and 2nd outage periods.
There is no magic fix for all but working closely with proven experienced repair sources could be one of
the ways of driving down the ever increasing cost of O & M maintenance of your turbines.
(Note: The information contained herein, while presented in good faith, is provided for informative
purposes only. The views expressed here are truly in the author’s individual capacity. Neither PWPS nor
any person associated with it, makes any expressed or implied representation or warranty with respect to
sufficiency, accuracy, completeness and reasonableness of the information set forth in the document).
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O & M Management Instruments
Basis for a successful O & M Strategy
Dr. Franz Bauer and Dr. Claudia Weise, VGB PowerTech e.V.
Klinkestraße 27-31, 45136 Essen, Germany
Introduction
A successful O & M strategy is determined by an optimal use of the given technology,
the staff expertise and the access to a state of the art process management system.
Major focus in this context is what kind of management instruments have to be
available to manage the whole O&M process successfully, i.e. meeting the targets,
criteria and tools for analysing, assessing the plant operation and finally for concluding
and deciding the right measures for achieving the planned plant performance in a
competitive market. This means that only these plants will be coping with the
challenges which are imposed and consequently necessary to pursue the plant
operation and maintenance in the appropriate manner.
The ´performance´ is the key element which has to be defined and to be measured and
determined by the access to state of the art management instruments.
In the following chapters a general overview will be given about the broad experience
available within the VGB community in this area especially by using ´best practise´
management tools.
VGB PowerTech e. V. (VGB) is - as the European technical association for power and
heat generation - a voluntary association of companies for which power and heat
generation - i. e. power plant operation as well as the appropriate technique - is an
important basis of their business. VGB is dealing with all questions regarding power
and heat generation (renewable, fossil, nuclear) with their contiguous issues of
environmental protection.
The main focus of work is:

· Compilation of technical competence and services for VGB member companies
in the range of:
o Power plant concepts
o Fuel technology and firing systems
o Steam generators
o Steam and gas turbines
o Generators, electrical engineering, I&C, and IT
o Materials and civil engineering
o Operational and maintenance management
o Environmental technology, chemistry, safety and health
· Operational services in the range of:
o Technical consulting
o Damage analysis and material test laboratory
o Monitoring of construction and assembly/quality monitoring
o Chemical investigations
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· Compilation of technical standards as:
o Re-organisation of the operational monitoring
o VGB guidelines
o VGB instruction sheets
· Co-ordination of projects and R&D measures
· Technical lobbying
· Information and publication of technical reports
· Organisation of congresses, symposia and conferences, technical exhibitions,
seminars and workshops
· Training and further vocational training of power plant personnel.
Figure 1: Overview about the VGB community
Management Instruments
According to outcome of the VGB activities the following listing of the instruments
required for managing the overall O&M process is concentrated on the main elements
with the necessary description understanding the philosophy of O&M instruments.
§ Process Control & Instrumentation System

§ Special on-line measurement devices
§ ´well defined´ set of plant operation data
§ Data base for collecting/providing/supporting incidents, damages etc.
§ ´well selected´ set of performance indicators
§ Algorithm for evaluation and assessment
§ Incentive mechanism
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Process Control & Instrumentation System
The basis of any O&M management instrument is the state of the art control &
instrumentation system which allows the registering, recording and reporting all data
needed for the application of the follow-up tools. The access to such a basic system is
the basis for modern O & M management instruments.
Special on-line measurement devices

In addition to the control & instrumentation system the installation of special
measurement devices is necessary and completing the effectiveness of the given I & C
system. The purpose is to measure specific behaviour of components that are
representative for the later-on O&M philosophy and strategy. Examples are the on-line
coal quality measurement or the installation of stress gauges or vibration monitoring
instruments for life time assessment of the plant components. The objectives is either
the operation optimisation or the identification respectively prevention of failures or
damages.
´well defined´ set of plant operation data

The meaning of ´well defined´ is that a deliberated selection of plant data has to be
collected for the interpretation, analysis and determination of performance indicators.
The basic data for condition monitoring are typical examples.
Data Base for incidents, damages etc.

Supplementary to the ńormal´ and ´specific´ registration of plant data a software aided
data base has to be available in order perform the required analysis. Those tools
collect, select and compile and concentrate the data ready for analysis.
´well selected´ Set of Performance Indicators

The centre of O&M management instruments is a ´well selected´ set of Performance
Indicators. ´Well selected´ means that only indicators will be defined which are relevant
for the conclusions and decisions necessary for achieving a top plant performance. Key
examples are:
§ Plant and component efficiency

§ Planned und unscheduled outage distinguished in components and systems
§ Life time constraints as a function of operation history
§ Incidents/accidents
- Human health
- Operation, maintenance
- Any other issue
§ Human resources resp. staff requirements
An example for broad data base in this respect is the VGB Statistic “Performance
Indicators” called KISSY. In the liberalised energy market the evaluation of the capacity
of an own power plant compared to other power plants (benchmarking) is of great
importance. Strategic tools to optimize the capacity of a power plant in competition are:
102
§ compilation of availability data and evaluation of performance indicators
§ comparison of indicators of a single plant with the indicators of several plants of
the same type.
The power plant information system KISSY of VGB is the tool, which treats these
questions efficiently. It currently contains availability data and performance indicators
from over 9,760 plant years of German and European power plants. The elaborated
performance indicators are defined and analysed in the VGB Guideline “Fundamentals
and systematics of availability determination for Thermal Power Plants” (VGB RV 808).
The new kind of operating power plants initiated by the liberalised market requires the
consideration of further performance indicators. KISSY enables to extend the field of
performance indicators substantially. The intended extension will comprise:
§ indicators for commercial availability

§ damage- and condition-oriented indicators.
The data base system KISSY enables the online input of data via Internet by
authorised users. Standardised reports about the evaluation of performance indicator
figures and analysis of non-availability of power plant components in ten year periods
are also available.
Figure 2: Overview about the recorded power plants within in the VGB KISSY-System
103
Algorithm for Evaluation and Assessment
Out of the analysis of the data base system and the plant operation history the
performance indicators have to be finally calculated. The results of the condition
monitoring consisting of pressurised equipment and rotating machinery have to be
processed. At the end a reliable set of compiled data prepares the ground for a
reasoned decision-making process.
Incentive Mechanism
At the end the basis of excellence in plant performance are the skills and expertise of
the plant staff and management team. Therefore an incentive mechanism has to be
installed in order motivate the personnel and to set the ´right´ targets needed for an
optimal use of the O&M management system with its instruments.
Conclusions & Decisions

Finally what has been the goal of all these exercises? The goal has been to provide
data, criteria and instruments to gain any information concerning optimal plant
performance by providing the appropriate instruments in order to manage the whole
chain of operation and maintenance issues in an electric power plant. The final purpose
is to conclude and decide on:
§ Identification of generic incidents or failures

§ Prevention of possible failures by applying the right measures
§ Determination of the maintenance strategy
§ Implementation of the according spare part philosophy
§ Identification of the potential for improvements
§ Installation of an appropriate operation & maintenance regime
§ Recognition of staff training requirements
Finally it has to be emphasised that the access to state of the art O&M management
instruments is not a short cut to excellence in power plant operation and maintenance.
It is more a long enduring process of permanent insisting work requesting high
personal skills based and efforts to be spent on well established technologies and
instruments. At the end it is an optimal balance between technology, process
management and personal skills.
The targeted enhancement of the plant efficiency by the application of state of the art
technology is only possible on the basis of reliable well-proven management
instruments.
Contact:
Dr. Franz Bauer Dr. Claudia Weise
franz.bauer@vgb.org claudia.weise@vgb.org
www.vgb.org
104
OPTIMISING PLANT ECONOMICS USING FRONTIER ANALYSIS
R.C. Patnaik
DGM (MTP), NTPC-Simhadri
Amitava Roy
DGM (OS-SIIS), NTPC-CC
Harkiran Singh
Sr. Mgr. (CBE), NTPC-CC
INTRODUCTION
NTPC today is a “Leading utility in the Indian P ower Sector”. In future NTPC aims at becoming
“One of the best utilities in the world”. For realiz ation of this goal, among other things,
performance leadership is essential. Having achieved positions of distinction through concerted
efforts in the areas of physical performance like Generation, AVF, PLF etc. NTP C power stations
shall equally look forward to superior financial performance.
Maximising shareholders wealth is one of the strategic vision of NTP C. NTP C’s Asset
Management philosophy also aims at maximization of value and wealth. Out of the eight
corporate objectives whic h act as links bet ween NTP C’s Vision, Mission and the functional
strategies, two of the following corporate objectives mention about cost orientation.
Performance Leadership : To operate and maintain NTP C stations at par with the best-run
utilities in the world with respect to availability, reliability,
efficiency, productivity and cost
Financial Soundness : To continuously strive for reduction in cost of power generation

by improving operating practices
The methods available for superior financial performance and improved bottom line are:
1. Cost leadership (lower cost among peers)

2. Differentiation (s pecial feature in product)
As differentiation is not applicable to electricity, cost leadership is the natural choice. Cost focus
can fetch cost-leadership. Focus is also essential to optimize plant’s overall economics. The
strategy followed by some of the forward-looking utilities is to benchmark and to optimize their
economics using the latest in statistical methods.
For operating units, O&M Cost is considered to be one pot ential area. However conventional
measures of optimizing O&M Cost are not rewarding on a sustainable basis. In fact, efforts to
minimize O&M Cost may sometimes have detrimental effects on the availability, plant
performance and overall plant economics.
Since availability and O&M Cost are related on long t erm basis, optimum availability where worth
of availability is highest is a matter of interest. For eac h unit operating in its own environment,
there is a point beyond which increasing availability is no longer cost effective. It is called the
point of diminishing return at which extra expenditure on O&M to improve availability does not
generate equal value.
The point, at which the minimum cost of an additional increase of availability equals to the
incremental value of that increase, is called the “Optimum Economic A vailability” of the unit at any
particular point of time as both the cost and value of availability change over time. Optimum
Economic A vailability which targets at an availability, where the worth of the availability is the
highest and a corresponding O&M Cost is used by utilities for optimizing their plant economics.
105
Operating the plant at any other point may lead t o sub-optimal plant economics with
consequential detrimental effects on its financial performance and bottom line.
BENCHMARKI NG
For any scientific cost reduction exercise, the first step is to ascertain the current position of the
plant’s performance among others in business. Benchmarking with a reliable database is one of
the effective ways of not only ascertaining our position among the comparable units but also to
get an insight into t he possibilities - what others have achieved. With this knowledge, cost targets
can be set and efforts can be put to achieve these as others have already demonstrated that
these are achievable.
Today, most of the NTPC plants have 200 MW and 500 MW size units. Therefore, NTPC has
benchmarked performance of its well performing 200 MW and 500 MW coal units with equivalent
units among scientifically constituted peer group from a large database. S election of NTP C units
was based on stations having only 200 MW and only 500 MW units and ready availability of data
for undertaking global comparative studies. Accordingly one NTP C station having four 200 MW
units and one NTP C station having two 500 MW units were selected.
The benc hmarking proc ess began with collecting information on unit design characteristics and
historical availability parameters. This information was the basis for calculating the individual
year and multi-year availability indices. In the benchmarking assessments, five-year averages
were used. Using of five-year averages smoothes the variations that occur in yearly statistics.
Also, power stations in the database have different philosophies about scheduling major
overhauls. Some schedule their overhauls on a 3, 5, 7, or 10-year cycle. To normalise the
differing frequency of major overhauls, rolling averages covering a time span of five years have
proven to be satisfactory.
For the purpose of benc hmarking, unit level physical performance data and station level cost data
was considered. The design data and performance data for t hese t wo stations for five years was
collected. Instead of using any assumption t o arrive at a group of peers, advanced statistical
methods were used to det ermine which factors are most important in determining the best peer
group. Peer selection of the candidate units was done from a large and reliable global databas e.
Benchmarking exercise was carried out among the peers t o compare the position of the
candidate (NTPC) units and stations among peer units and stations.
Peer group formation
Peer group selection is the most import ant step before any comparative benchmarking study.
Since apples should be compared with apples, selection should be based on close similarity in
design and operating condition as far as possible. The group size should be large enough so that
data of the peer group is statistically valid.
The benchmarking process simultaneously considered the impact of design and operational
variables on the reliability of an electric generating unit or group of similar units. The process
used the design characteristics and operational factors of the target unit groups as its starting
point. The result was a statistically valid group of units having similar design and operational
variables. Within the peer unit grouping, the units are not exactly the same, but they are not
different enough to be different. Proper selection of design and operational variables was the key
in defining an appropriate peer group. The benchmarking process provided a repeatable,
statistically valid means of defining the peer group.
Ideally, the peer s election exercise should have been done for each individual candidate units.
However, for simplicity all the units of the same NTP C plant were grouped together for the
purpose of selection of peers. The five year average performance and cost indices of all four 200
MW units were averaged to arrive at the five-year average of one representative 200 MW unit of
106
NTPC. Similarly, the five year average performance and cost indices of both 500 MW units were
averaged to arrive at the five-y ear average of one representative 500 MW unit of NTP C.
Therefore, instead of six, (i.e., four for 200 MW and t wo for 500 MW candidat e units) the peer
selection was completed in two (one each for 200 MW and 500 MW) sets of ex ercises.
Accordingly from a large databas e of 260 utilities having installed capacity of 7,60,000 MW and
around 5,300 units, peers were selected based on similarity in design and operating conditions (44
types of continuous and class variables were selected for signific ance analysis) using statistical
tools such as A NOVA (Analysis of V ariance) Proc edure, Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test and the Median
Procedure.
The Primary varianc e test for selection of the most statistically valid design or operational factor
was the Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test. In case of more t han one factor having maximum Wilcoxon
significance, the ANOVA Procedure was used, followed by the Median Procedure so that peer
selection was made on the basis of signific ant design and performance aspects (Table-1).
Table - 1
Significant Significant
Step 500 MW 200 MW
items items
Step-0 Database – 5300 Units Database – 5300 Units
Step-1 All fossil units – 1482 All fossil units – 1482
Step-2 26 items Sub-critical – 1079 26 items Sub-critical – 1079
Step-3 19 items NOF>73.92 - 540 19 items NOF>73.92 - 540
Step-4 12 items Balanced Draft – 488 12 items Balanced Draft – 488
Step-5 13 items No Gas Recirculation – 406 13 items Gas Recirculation – 82
Step-6 5 items Tandem compounded – 346 9 items ESP after APH - 40
Step-7 7 items POF<8.15 – 281 4 items (Coal fired
Step-8 4 items Cooling Towers – 79 POF<10
Step-9 7 items Vintage – 38 Name plate rating) – 31
Step-10 3 items Indoor turbine – 34 (Stop) (Stop)
(NOF – Net Output Factor, POF – Planned Outage Factor)
Performance benchmarking
Performance benchmarking using physical parameters like AVF, PLF, PO and FO on five year
average basis was carried out between candidat e (NTPC) units among peer units from the global
database (34 peers for 500 MW units 1&2, 31 peers for 200 MW units 1 t o 4). The res ults are
tabulated in Table – 2.
Table – 2
UNIT AVF PLF PO FO

(L IS B) (L IS B) (L IS B) (L IS B)
500 MW Unit #1 5/34 1/34 15/34 3/34
500 MW Unit #2 14/34 4/34 29/34 1/34
200 MW Unit #1 2/31 4/31 4/31 1/31
200 MW Unit #2 4/31 3/31 8/31 1/31
200 MW Unit #3 6/31 5/31 12/31 1/31
200 MW Unit #4 5/31 6/31 10/31 1/31
(L IS B – Lower is better)
Cost / producti vity benchmarking
107
Cost benchmarking is a powerful tool as it provides insights into the “possible”. It provides lot of
useful competitive information. However the difficulty with cost benchmarking is due to cost data
not being generally made available in public domain and henc e is very difficult to obtain.
Moreover, cost data, as available is often not sufficiently granular for component level
comparis on.
In the instant case, cost data of investor owned and regulated companies was only available in
public domain. Cost dat a of public-owned utilities and independent power companies was not
available for comparative study as there is no legal compulsion for them to make their cost data
public.
Accordingly, from the available database, peer selection for candidate stations was carried out on
the basis of fuel fired, similarity in size, stations having multiple units and plants operating as
base load stations only.
Cost benchmarking using non-fuel production expenses was carried out bet ween c andidate
(NTP C) stations and their peer stations from the global database (25 peers for NTP C 2X500 MW
station, 26 peers for NTP C 4X200 MW station) on a five year average basis. Since cost data of
peers was in US Dollars, notified annual average currency conversion factors from INR to USD
was used.
Similarly, productivity benchmarking using Installed Capacity in MW, five year average generation
in MWH and five year average no. of employees was carried out between candidate (NTP C)
stations among t heir peer stations from the global database (25 peers for NTPC 2X500 MW
station, 22 peers for NTP C 4X200 MW station because of availability of data). The results are
tabulated in Table – 3.
Table - 3
O&M COS T/ O&M COS T/ MW/ MWH/

STA TION MW MWHR EMPLOYEE EMPLOYEE
(L IS B) (L IS B) (H IS B) (H IS B)
2X500 MW 5/25 4/25 2/25 2/25
4X200 MW 19/26 15/26 1/22 1/22
(L IS B – Lower is better; H IS B – Higher is better)
FRONTI ER ANALYSIS
A new statistical technique called frontier analysis makes it possible to estimate the point at which
plant’s total cost is minimum so as to enable the plant to set aggressive yet achievable targets for
availability and O&M Cost.
Since AVF and O&M Cost have long-term relationship, for the purpose of comparison five year
average AVF and O&M Cost were taken. Cost comparisons were made after bringing all costs to
a comparative plat form by eliminating variation effects on costs.
One of the most difficult tasks in Cost Benchmarking is to determine the cost versus availability
relationship. When availability is plotted against O&M Cost for a group of properly benchmarked
plants, the result is often a wide scatter of data points. It resembles a shotgun pattern with poor
linear regression. By using " frontier analysis", we get the Top Quartile (lowest 25%) and Top
Decile (lowest 10%) plotted where 25% or 10% respectively of the data points lie below the
frontier curves.
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Top Quartile Top Decile
Frontier Frontier
75% of data points are abov e the curv e 90% of data points are abov e the curv e
O&M Costs O&M Costs O&M Costs
25% of data points are below the curv e 10% of data points are below the curv e
Availability 100% Availability 100% Availability 100%
Plants on the left side of the frontier curve have lower availability with the same O&M Cost as the
frontier plants on the right side. S uch plants can improve their availability without increasing their
O&M Cost and try to move to the right. On t he other hand plants with the s ame availability but
higher O&M Costs are not achieving their full potential of economic performance. Such plants
could decrease their tot al cost without decreasing their availability and try to move towards the
bottom.
Posi tioning candidate on cost frontier
Having drawn the frontier curve for availability-cost for the peer stations, the position of the
candidate stations is marked on the availability-cost plane. If the candidate station lies outside the
curve, it is considered to be comfortably placed. If the availability-cost point for any candidate
station is inside the frontier curve, then there exists scope for coming out of the frontier by moving
to the bottom (i.e., reducing cost for the same availability) or by moving to the right (i.e., improving
availability with the same cost).
CURRENT POSITION
X HIGH AVAIL ABILITY

TOP DECILE FRONTIER OF PEERS HIGH COST
TOP DECILE FRONTIER OF PEERS
O&M COST TOP DECIL E FRONTIER
PRESENT POSITION
X X
DESIRED POSITION 2
O&M Costs O&M Costs
O&M Costs
X
DESIRED POSITION 1 NOT MUCH SCOPE FOR MOVING TO RIGHT
SCOPE EXISTS FOR MOVING DOW N
When candidate stations were placed on the frontier plane, in all cases, they occupied positions
of high availability and high O&M Cost inside t he top decile frontier. Accordingly to move out of
the frontier curve, bet ween improving availability (i.e., moving to the right) and reducing cost (i.e.,
moving to the bottom), reducing cost for the same availability was the choice.
O&M COST COMPONENTS
Cost of O&M has two distinct components, pro-active and reactive. Expenditures on preventive
maintenance are basically pro-active in nature whereas expenditure on corrective maintenance
comprise the reactive maintenance cost. Typically, low pro-active costs can result in low
availability and high reactive costs. Whereas high pro-active costs (provided preventive
maintenance efforts are effective) lead to high availability. As a plant’s availability approaches
100%, its reactive costs move towards zero (no unavailability mean few breakdowns), but its pro-
active costs become exponentially higher.
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O&M C OS T – P R O AC T IVE T OT AL O&M C OS T
O&M C OS T - R E AC T IVE
TOTAL O&M COST
O&M Costs
Pr oactive O&M Costs
O&M Costs Reactive
PREVENTIVE
BREAK DOWN
Pr oactive Reactive
It may appear that plants must target for an availability corresponding to the point where O&M
cost curve is at the lowest. While doing so, another cost, the cost of unavailability also needs to
be considered along wit h the total O&M cost.
COST OF UNAVAILABILITY
The cost of unavailability is a cost, or a possible revenue not realized since the plant was not
available. For a generating unit in a regulat ed environment, cost of unavailability can be the
replacement cost. For a merchant power plant in a competitive environment, it represents lost
opportunity and lost profitability. For a plant with power purchase agreement, the c ost of
unavailability is det ermined by the terms and conditions of the PPA. Obviously, at 100%
availability this unavailability cost is zero and typically (though not always) varies linearly.
C O S T OF UN-AV AIL AB IL IT Y T OT AL C O S T O F AVAIL AB IL IT Y

BY ADDING THE COST OF UNAVAILABILITY CURVE TO THE FRONTIER, WE
GET THE TOTAL COST OF AVAILABILITY
COST OF UNAVAILABILIT Y IS ZERO W HEN AVAIL ABILITY IS 100% ,

INCREASES LINEARLY W ITH REDUCTION IN AVAIL ABILITY
Total O&M Cost +
Unavailability Cost
Total O&M Cost Cost of

Cost of
Unavailability O&M Costs Unavailability
Cost Of Cost Of
Unavailability Unavailability
Fixed cost / Prof it

Contribution margin
Incentiv e/Disincentiv e
Availability 100% Availability 100%
TOTAL OF O&M COST AND COST OF UNAV AILABILITY
By adding the frontier O&M cost curve and the cost of unavailability curve yields t he tot al cost
curve. The bottom of this t otal cost curve shall be t he economic goal of the plant called the
“Optimum Economic A vailability”. By dropping a vertical line from the lowest point of this total cost
curve, it intersects the total O&M cost curve, pro-active cost curve, cost of unavailability line,
reactive cost line and availability line.
Under given circumstances, this defines the target availability and components of O&M cost
targets for optimum economical performance. It can be seen that Optimum Economic A vailability
is a dynamic target that changes as a function of the plant’s technical, operational and economic
environment.
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Total O&M Cost +
Unavailability Cost
Total O&M Cost

Cost of
O&M Costs Unavailability
Cost Of
Unavailability Diminishing
return
Reactive
Pr oactive C ost Tar get
Pr oactive
Optimum Economic Av ailability

Reactive Cost Tar get
Availability 100%
SETTING TARGETS FOR AV AILABILITY & O&M COST
The plant being benchmark ed needs to determine its reactive and pro-active O&M Costs as a
part of the analysis. Determining eac h unit’s optimum economic availability is a necessary first
step for focusing on contribution margin at various availability levels thereby enabling plants to
optimize the market value of availability and the cost associated in achieving it.
All other things remaining same, if cost of unavailability is higher, higher availability is economical
as financial gains due to additional availability justifies the extra expenditure in O&M. Similarly if
the cost of unavailability is lower, lower annual availability makes more economic sense.
Accordingly, the plant may set targets for A vailability (where the worth of availability is maximum)
and corresponding Reactive (expenditures on Breakdown, Reliability and Exception) and
Proactive (expenditures on preventive maintenance and overhauls) components of O&M Cost for
optimizing the plant economics for minimum total cost and maximum profit margins.
REFERENCES
1. Benchmarking seminar materials from Mr. G. Michael Curley, Mr. Robert R. Richwine
and Mr. Don Bennet at Atlanta, Georgia during 13-17.07. 2009
2. Maximising availability may not optimize plant economics – Mr. Robert R. Richwine
111
Collaborative Study with JICA on Enhancing Efficiency of
Indian Power Plants
A.K. Arora, S Prasad, Alok Gupta
1. Background of collaboration:
CenPEEP – NTP C is implementing a joint collaborative project namely ‘Study on Enhancing
Efficiency of Operating Thermal Power Plants in NTPC-India’ in association with Japan
International Cooperation Agency. Under ‘India – Japan Energy Dialogue’, an agreement was
signed bet ween Japan International cooperation Agency (JICA ), Ministry of Power (GOI) and
NTPC, in October, 2008 to implement the aforementioned efficiency improvement project.
JICA has formed a Consortium of three Utilities, J-Power (Electric Power Development Co.
Ltd), Kyushu Electric Power Co. Ltd and Chugoku Electric Power Co Ltd to implement the
project in India. The Study started with Kick-off Workshop in Jan’09 covering level of
efficiency achieved in Japan and technology & practices in use to achieve these levels. The
Study project duration is from Jan 2009 to Oct 2010 and draft Study Report is expected in
Feb 2010. JICA has also associated many Japanese service providers in addition to the
Study team for demo of new techniques. The paper aims at sharing the contents of on going
Study and new techniques demonstrated.
2. Objectives
a. To improve the efficiency of coal-fired thermal power stations of NTPC in India on

sustainable basis
b. To trans fer the requisite technologies necessary to achieve the above objective.
3. Acti vities under the Study
The Study comprised of the following activities:

· Selection of candidate power plants based on age, performance and no of similar
units - Singrauli, Rihand, Vindhyachal, Korba and Unchahar
· Performance A nalysis with the help of operating data and equipment performance
tests – JICA Study Team and CenPEEP team visited stations for discussions and
carried out Field tests at Singrauli Unit 4, Korba Unit 6 and Rihand Unit 2 in Oct’09.
· Demonstration of Helium leak buster at Singrauli - Assessment of the amount of air
leak into condenser
· Demonstration of Yat esmeter techniques for pumps performance assessment at
Rihand, Korba & Singrauli
· Boiler inspection and RLA (tubes and headers ), Remaining life assessment of boiler
tubes – Demonstration carried out at Singrauli and Unchahar in Oct/Nov’09.
· Condition Assessment – Trans formers & Generators using available test data at
stations
· Assessment of main control system for up gradation at Unchahar Unit 3
· Visit of NTP C Team for in-depth training on ‘Periodic Ins pection’ and ‘Efficiency
Management’ in Japan.
· Financial analysis & Preparation of CDM application
· Seminars for technology transfer and workshops
112
4.0 New Technique Demonstrations
Some of the new techniques for efficiency assessment, diagnostics and improvement
demonstrated under the Study are described below.
4.1 Boiler RLA Technique s

A nine member team from Kyuden S angyo, Japan carried out demonstration of Boiler
RLA techniques at Singrauli U6 & Unchahar U2 in Oct/Nov’09 as per Table 1.
Table 1
Techniques Demonstration Areas
Visual Inspection Water walls, Super heater Header & tubes, Re heater
Header & tubes
Thickness Measurement Water walls, SH tubes, RH tubes
Penetrant Testing (DP T) Platen SH Header Stub joints,
Ultrasonic Testing SH Header
SUS Scale Deposit Austenitic tube bends in bottom portion of S H & RH coils
TOFD Final SH Header
Replica Inspection SH Header, RH Header, Main Steam Line (Near the stop
valve weld joint), De-super heater Pipes
Sample Tube Inspection & 3 SH Tube & 3 RH Tube samples from the coils in high
Creep Rupture Test temperature zone
1) Adherence to Safety Guidelines

Level of safety consciousness is very high in Japanese workers with focus on safe
working in every aspect during the work on the equipment.
Daily Safety meetings are held in

the mornings before starting the
work. The need for safety is
highlighted and the areas of
concern observed on previous
days are specifically discussed.
· All personnel wear boiler suits with safety belts, safety shoes, nose masks, ear
plugs etc. before going to boiler
· During overhauls in Japan, Safety nets are provided at every 2 m elevation in
boilers & names of all persons entering boiler are marked on a white board
outside the entry point and are ticked off on ret urn.
Error!
An Oxygen meter is used to O2 Meter
assess oxygen level in boiler
before ent ry. The permissible
value is 18%
One way to improve safety standards in our stations is to initiate mandatory

‘Awareness Trainings by Safety Offic ers’ before unit overhauls in all stations. Also
Safety Offic ers need to monitor and ens ure ‘A vailability’ & ‘distribution’ of the safety
items in stores.
113
2) New RLA Techniques
Two new ins pection techniques were demonstrated by Japanese teams as following.
a) Inspection of SUS scale deposits in SH & RH tube s
Test Equipment Calibration Measurement
Oxide scale of austenitic stainless steel tubes used for SH & RH tubes exfoliate with
long term operation of boilers. An unconventional method that does not use radiation
has been developed to detect magnetic scales inside the nonmagnetic tubes. This
equipment detects the magnetic scale as electrical signal based on the principle of
induction depending on the deposit volume as the magnetic scale permeability does
not vary much. This method is fast and safe compared to conventional technique.
b) Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)

Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) method of Ultrasonic inspection is a sensitive and
accurate method for nondestructive testing of welds for defects. The visualization &
sizing of flaws is done by diffraction method in seam & girth welds in headers.
A pair of probes as shown below is used to manually scan across the weld line.
Depending upon pipe thickness & diameter TOFD instrument setting is done for
frequency, angle & spacing.
TOFD Inspection
TOFD provides a true measure of the flaw size and is used to detect & characterize
fabrication or base metal flaws, macro cracking and full length digital imaging.
3) Other Salient Learnings

a) Visual Inspection & Thickne ss Measurement
Visual inspection was carried out in Water walls, Super heater Header & tubes, Re
heater Header & tubes for identific ation of any apparent distortion, swelling, damages
etc. Tube thickness measurement in different areas in water walls, SH & RH was
done by use of ultrasonic thickness gauge with A – scan (DMS mak e Krautkramer).
JICA team used SS curved

Error! reference blocks for initial
calibration for checking probe
wear. We use flat reference
blocks and can use curved
reference blocks for inc reasing
Thickness reliability of testing.
Visual Measureme
Inspection nt
114
b) Dye Penetration Testing
Use of DP T for detection of c racks on stub joints in Platen S H header was demonstrated
at the two stations. DPT is widely used in our boilers, but the inspection teams do not
have fine tools for smooth removal & blending of surface.
Use of fine grinder for

verification & elimination of
shallow defects can help
increase reliability and
reduce inspection time.
Buffing Tool Bristle Brush Cleaning
c) Ultra sonic inspection

Ultrasonic inspection of circumferential weld at Final SH header was demonstrated
.
For the initial calibration of the probe, reference
sample of same material as the header was used
unlike the standard reference used for all materials
in India. We can also adopt this practice for
increases accuracy and reliability in inspections.
d) Replica Sampling
Replica samples were taken for inspection on welds from

Main Steam Line (near the stop valve), Super heater & Re
heater Header and De-s uper heater pipes.
As shown in the photographs, shaft mounted grinder stones

of different grit sizes were used for grinding & polishing for
Surface Preperation the surface preparation. Total of 9 no. replicas were taken at
each station.
The replica samples are being analysed in Japan with

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) & Transition Electron
Microscope (TE M) in addition to ins pection using optical
microscope. Presently only optical microscope used for
Replica testing in NTPC.
4.2 Helium Leak Buster

This technique was demonstrated by Fuji Electric Co., Japan at Singrauli Unit 6 in Aug’09.
Fuji Electric team used their instruments brought from Japan.
Test Methodology:
At the start, a test shot of Helium, regulated through a Rotameter at 300 liters/hour, is given
at the point directly connected to the condens er. The Helium detector response time and
value is noted to draw a base line curve between Helium concentration and flow rate, for
assessing air ingress (Quantity) at ingress point. The basic scheme and base line graph is
shown in Fig 1.
115
After establishing the base line, Helium is sprayed at possible air ingress points in the
condenser area. Instrument response is monitored and corresponding leakage rate is
calculated by using the base line curve and correction factors through software.
Following are the possible improvements in our current practice of He Tests.
· Sample is connected to t he Helium detector through Siemens make Sniffer which is used
to regulate the Helium flow and accelerate the resetting response of the det ector.
· For moisture condensation from sample, electrically operat ed chiller unit is used instead
of ice box.
· Helium meas urement and trending soft ware (proprietary item of Fuji Electric Co. ) with
remot e unit is used.
SAMPL E INL ET
DESICCANT
TOWER
COPPER
COOLING
COIL
WATER
TRAP
VESSEL VACUUM
PUMP
TO EXHAUST SYSTEM
SAMPLE LINE
He. ANALYZER
EXHAUST
STRIP CHART RECORDER
Figure 1
Fuji team also quantified the leakage in terms of Kg/ Hr using the base line curve, and
proprietary correction factors, and software. Currently we estimate the leakage rate in terms
of Helium concentration rate sensed by detector.
4.3 Pump Performance Asse ssment using Yates meter
Conventionally, Pump efficiency is calculated by measuring the discharge flow of the pump
(Q), Head developed by the pump (H), Pump input power and assuming motor efficiency.
Pump Efficiency = (g x Q X H) / (Pgr x Motor Efficiency)
Accuracy of the efficiency assessment depends on accuracy of Flow (Q), Head (H), power
measurement and motor efficiency assumption. Accurate flow measurement is a difficult task
and accordingly the efficiency figure calculated by conventional met hod may not be accurate.
116
a) Thermodynamic process of Pump Efficiency calculation:
This technique of Thermodynamic proc ess of Pump Efficiency calculation has been
successfully used by many leading utilities for Pump performance optimization. CW and
Boiler Feed P ump P erformance assessment were conducted by M/s. Torishima, Japan at
Singrauli and Rihand in Oct’09. The assessment was done by using Yates met er based on
Thermodynamic process of Efficiency calculation.
In this process, pump suction temperature (Ts), suction Pressure (Ps), discharge Pressure
(Pd) & Differential temperat ure across the pump ( T) are measured for efficiency calculations.
The Pump efficiency in thermodynamic process is calculated by using the following equation:
Pump Efficiency = Work out / Work in = Wo / (Wo + Losses)

Pump efficiency = 1/ (1+ Losses / Wo)
Losses as dissipated heat = density x Q x Cp x T
(Where T = Fluid Temperature rise across the pump)
Work Out (Wo) = density x g x Q x H
Efficiency = 1/1 + (Cp x T)/ (g H)
Cp - specific heat capacity of water

T (milli K) - the differential temperature of pump suction and discharge
H (m) - total head developed by the pump
Pictorial arrangement of the instruments set up is shown in Fig 2 below
Figure 2
The probes for suction & discharge temperature and pressure measurements are connected
to Yatesmeter and energy meter is connected for power consumption measurement. The
temperature ris e across the pump is measured by Yatesmeter at different pump flows. The
efficiency of the pump is calculated by soft ware.
117
b) CW PUMP ASS ESSMENT (Singrauli Stage – I, 200MW)
Instrument Used:
Yates meter, 2 RTDs for suction and discharge temperatures and one Pressure Transducer
for pump discharge pressure, Energy meter: connected as 2 phase, 2 wattmeter connection
Table 2 summarises the test data & results of CW pump assessment at Singrauli.
Table 2
Pump DT across
Pump EM reading Calculated flow
Suction pump Pump head
efficiency (KW) (T/Hr)
Temp (mK)
26.05 21.04 24.41 74.1 1560 16707

26.03 21.68 24.21 73.3 1560 16653
26.07 21.76 24.32 73.4 1560 16588
Average 73.6 1560 16650
4.4 LP Turbine Effi ciency Asse ssment

Conventionally, LP turbine efficiency is not computed as steam condition (dryness
fraction) at LP T exhaust is not known. Japanes e utilities estimate LP turbine efficiency by
plotting the enthalpy of all previous extraction points on H-S diagram and extrapolating
the curve to the exhaust pressure for estimating the actual enthalpy at the exit. This
provides a close rough estimate of LP T efficiency. In the H-S diagram in Fig 3 various
extraction points of IP T & LP T have been designated from E1 to E5.
Figure 3
Efficiency = (h1-h3)
(h1-h2)
1
Where
h1, h3 are enthalpy of steam
at LP turbine inlet & outlet
respectively
3
2
4.5 Electrical Equipment: Main Transformer

Generally insulation papers of transformer coil deteriorate faster then other parts of
transformer such as iron core, pressboard. The diagnosis tests of the insulation paper
include Insulation resistance test, DGA, Cumulative CO+CO2 Analysis and Furfural
analysis.
The details of Furfural analysis and CO+CO2 analysis are being explained through
sample calculations and required graph as following.
118
Furfural analysis calculation
A. Required data
Items Data Unit As a guide
A1 Furfural density in insulation oil 1 mg/L
A2 Insulation oil volume 49000 L
A3 Insulation oil w eight 32432 kg
A4 Insulation oil gravity 0.88 g/mL around 0.88-0.90
A5 Insulation oil volume (from A3, A4) 36855 L
Insulation paper w eight

A6 2156 kg
(Not including press board weight)
B. Calculation for furfural analysis

B1 Insulation oil volume (L)
= 49000 L (A2 or A5)
B2 Total Furfural weight
= (Furfural density in insulation oil) (A1)*(Insulation oil Volume) (B1)
= 49000 mg
B3 (Furfural weight)/(Insulation paper weight)
= Total Furfural weight(B2) / (Insulation paper weight) (A6)
= 0.02273 g/kg=mg/g
C. Japanese assessment criteria
Level Criteria Unit Rem arks
Caution level 0.0015 mg/g Ave. DP=450 level(*1)
Dangerous level 0.015 mg/g Ave. DP=450 level(*2)
*1 Transformer w ith DP of 450, with the lowest furfural weight per insulation paper weight)
*2 Transformer w ith DP of 450, with the highest furfural weight per insulation paper weight)
Relation betw een (Furfural weight)/(Insulation paper weight) and Ave. DP is shown in Fig 4
CO+CO2 analysis calculation
A. Required data
Items Data Unit As a guide or Rem arks
Accumulated CO+CO2 density vol ppm Accurate oil treatment records

A1 81
in insulation oil (*1) (mL/kL) are required. (Refer to attach-1)
A2 Insulation oil volume kL

A3 Insulation oil w eight 22000 kg
A4 Insulation oil gravity 0.9 g/mL around 0.88-0.90
A5 Insulation oil volume (from A3, A4) 23.4 kL
Insulation paper w eight

A6 303 kg
(Not including press board weight)
B. Calculation for CO+CO2 analysis

B1 Insulation oil volume
(A2 or
= 23.4 kL
A5)
119
B2 Total CO+CO2 volume
= (Accumulated CO+CO2 density in insulation oil) (A1)*(Insulation oil volume) (B1)
= 1895.4 mL
B3 (CO+CO volume)/(Insulation paper w eight)
= (Total CO+CO2 volume) (B2) / (Insulation paper weight) (A6)
= 0.006 mL/g
C. Japanese assessment criteria
Level Criteria Unit Rem arks
Ave. DP=450
Caution level 0.2 mL/g
level(*1)
Ave. DP=450
Dangerous level 2.0 mL/g
level(*2)
*1 Transformer w ith DP of 450, with the lowest CO+CO2 volume per insulation paper weight
*2 Transformer w ith DP of 450, with the highest CO+CO2 volume per insulation paper weight
Reference Relation betw een (CO+CO volume)/(Insulation paper weight) and Ave. DP is shown in Fig 4
Figure 4
(mL/g)
(CO+CO2 volume)/(Insulation paper weight)
Ave. DP of insulation paper
(Furfural weight)/(Insulation paper weight) and Ave. DP (CO+CO2 volume)/(Insulation paper weight) Vs Ave. DP
4.6 Electrical Equipment: Generator
Generat or – Generally insulation of stator coil det eriorates faster than other parts of generator
such as rotor coil insulation, rotor body. Various diagnostic tests of stator coil insulation include
Insulation Resistance Test, Polarization Test (PI), Tan Delta Test, AC Current -Voltage test,
Partial Discharge Test (Corona Test).
The details of relevant criteria are enclosed as Table 3.
120
4.7 C&I Asse ssment
JICA S T has carried out detailed assessment of C& I system of Unchahar Unit 3. Their
recommendations shall be coming in due course; However, the following points merit
discussion and consideration.
O2 measurement is at Economizer outlet, similar to our plants; However, 3 Zirconia probes

are us ed for Oxygen measurement in each duct and probe has 4 measurement points. Thus,
12 point grid average in each side of the Economiser is used for O2 measurement and boiler
operation. Yogokawa instrument Model AV550G is commercially available in which max. 8
probes are used wit h an electronic unit for averaging the values & control of each detector.
O2 probe calibration is done on auto with calibration gas cylinders mounted permanently near
the probes.
5.0 Trainings in Japan

The Study includes four training programs of NTP C engineers in Japan. Two trainings on
‘Periodic Inspections’ and ‘E fficiency Management’ have been organised at Japanese utilities
to provide exposure to the techniques of operation and thermal efficiency management and
performance assessment & monitoring technologies. In one utility, an abandoned coal plant
has been developed as a Training institute, wherein trainees can actually walk through and
get a real time feel of all the equipments and abandoned critical equipment are being used as
cut out models.
Old abandoned plant converted into HP Turbine used for training Turbine
training Center Assembling and dismantling
6.0 Conclusion
The On-going Study with JICA has provided NTP C a window to know about the Japanese
techniques and various O&M practices for efficiency improvement and enhancement. Experts
from three Japanese Utilities and service providers in Japan have visited NTPC power plants
and discussed at length about the techniques and practices followed. The association has
also provided opportunity to NTPC engineers to visit Japanese Utilities and see their overhaul
inspection practices and efficiency management system. The various improvement aspects in
our existing system and techniques are being appropriately taken up. The performance
assessment and boiler RLA study has been completed and we are shortly expecting the
reports. The Study will enrich our existing system and practices.
121
Japanese Insulation Diagnosi s Cri teria for Electrical
Table 3
Machine
Objective: Electrical machine (generator, AC motor) (Over 11kV)
Institution A Manufacturer A Manufacturer B Manufacturer C
Test item Unit Judge Test Test Test Test
Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria
voltage voltage voltage voltage
Good 1kV
Megger test IR(60sec) MΩ Caution
Bad condition
Good 1.5 1kV >2.5 1kV 1kV
IR(600sec)/ Caution 2.5-1.5 1kV
PI test -
IR(60sec)
Bad condition <1.5 1kV Qm: Max discharge at 1.25E/ 3(kV)
Good 12 E <9.6 E Nq = 10 log(Qm/Qm)
Current
increase (%) Caution 9.6-12.0 E Qm: Max discharge charge at E/
(∆I) Bad condition >12.0 E 3(V)
Step-voltage
test
1st current Good >7.6 E E
surge point kV Caution 7.6-6.4 E
(Pi1) Bad condition <6.4 E
% Good 2kV 2kV 2kV
Tanδ0 % Caution
% Bad condition
Tanδ test
% Good < 2.0 E < 5.2 E <2.0 1.25E/ 3 6.5 E
∆Tanδ % Caution 2.0 E 5.2-6.5 E 2.0-6.5 1.25E/ 3
% Bad condition 6.5 E 6.5 E >6.5 1.25E/ 3
22000 E
pC Good <10000 E <5000 E/ 3 <10000 1.25E/ 3
10000 E/ 3
Partial discharge 5000- 10000-

test Qmax pC Caution 10000 E E/ 3 1.25E/ 3
10000 30000
(Corona test)
30000 30000
pC Bad condition and E >10000 E/ 3 and 1.25E/ 3
Nq>2.0 Nq>2.0
(Caution !!) The criteria varies between manufacturers, although insulation method is similar among manufacturers
E: Rated voltage (kV); A ll criteria are applicable for stator coil which is drained and dried, .
122
123
ADVANCED COATINGS FOR PERFORMANCE
IMPROVEMENT OF GAS TURBINE COMPRESSORS
Dr. R. Gopalakrishnan
MATCON
6, Vinayaka Nagar, Hebbal, Bangalore – 560024
Mr. Brian Norton

Indestructible Paint Ltd.,
19-25 Pentos Drive, Sparkhill, Birmingham, England
I. INTRODUCTION:
Gas Turbines compressor c omponents operate in environments that c ombine high humidity, high
salinity and severe acidic/alkaline pollution and sand erosion. As a result they are susceptible to
severe corrosion and pitting leading to:
· Increase in surface roughness and consequent
· increase in resistance to airflow (drag)
· Easy deposition of particulate matters and build up of the same leading to compressor fouling
thereby, resulting in reduced mass flow.
The above situation leads to progressive drop in compressor efficiency, demands more frequent
compressor was h down times and reduced component / GT life.
The most prevalent source of fouling on compressor aero foils is corrosion. Increase in surface
roughness due to corrosion pitting and the rough corrosion deposits on airfoil surfaces will disturb
laminar flow and diminish performance.
Compressor fouling due t o deposition of solids / condensing particles in the air and the combustion
gases on rotating and stationery blades cause changes in aerodynamic profile reducing the mass flow
rate thus severely affecting the GT performance
In gas turbines approximately 50-60% of the tot al turbine output is consumed by the axial
compressor. Out put losses on account of compressor fouling could be between 2-20% depending on
severity of fouling. It would therefore pay good dividents if attention is focused on improving the
compressor efficiency.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a & b) Photographs showing Pitting
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(a) (b)
Figure 2: (a & b) Photographs showing Fouling
Special purpose surface coatings have been developed to protect the compressor components from
corrosion, maint ain smoot h surface finish and reduce the deposits thus enhancing performance and
life of the components. Coatings are often the only practical alternative to control corrosion and
fouling of compressors. They can be also effectively used at scheduled maintenance time for
industrial gas turbines to regain compressor efficiency and GT P ower by improving the surface
smoothness in the compressor section.
II. DEVELOPMENT OF ALUMINI UM CERAMI C COATINGS:
Aluminium ceramic coatings have been used for many years to manage and limit the corrosion of
aero foils and resulting in consequential reduction in compressor fouling. These coatings were
originally developed to meet the challenging requirement of aero engines for a very high trust to
weight ratio, which calls for higher compressor efficiencies.
Immense benefits accrued to aero engines by way of coatings, result ed in adaptation of the same for
industrial gas turbines.
Initially, proprietary range of sacrificial coatings, developed by a US based company, were widely
used for coatings on aero engines / industrial GTs.
III. PCOTE RANGE OF SACRIFICI AL ALUMI NIUM COATI NGS
Our Principals, M/s Indestructible Paints (IP ) Ltd., UK undertook development of the IP COTE range of
sacrificial aluminium coatings at the request of M/s.Rolls Royce, U.K., as alternative to the above
mentioned proprietary coatings. These coatings have the approval of Rolls Royce and have since
been adapted by other reputed aero engine / GT manufacturers.
IPCOTE is a water based aluminium coating with ceramic binders. Fine grade aluminium particles
with well defined particle size ensures maximum packing density. Ceramic binders, on heat curing,
bind aluminium particles together and facilitates excellent adhesion to the base metal. It provides
protection against corrosion and oxidation on iron, steel, heat treated stainless steel alloys, titanium
and ot her metallic substrates at temperatures up to 700° C. IPCOTE is alternative to Sermetal W.
IPSEAL is an Inorganic protective coating, used as a barrier on IP COTE. IPSEAL seals the porosity
on the base coat and creates an electrically non-conductive barrier coat. Use of IPSEAL on top of
125
IPCOTE results in a smoother, harder coating whic h provides a barrier against carbon deposits &
deposits of other particulate matters, extending the useful life of base coat and a smoother finish
which enhances air flow characteristics and therefore, engine efficiency. IPSEAL has high
temperature resistance up to 800° C.
Further research towards improvement of surface finis h of coatings resulted in development of new
range of seal coats – Smoothseal, an inorganic prot ective coating used as a barrier on IPCOTE (in
place of IPSEAL) to give an ultra smooth fini sh in addition to the other benefits offered by IPSEA L.
Figure 3: Typical section of a Sacrificial aluminium coating with seal coat
(a) Ipcote + Green Seal Coat (b) Ipcote + Khaki Seal Coat
(c) Ipcote + smooth seal (d) Ipcote + Low friction top coat
Figure 4: (a,b,c & d) Ipcote with different seal coats
126
Coating Properties:
IPCOTE : Colour aluminium , Typical thickness: 15 – 100 microns
SEAL COATS (Top coat on Ipcot e):
Ipseal : Available in Green and Khaki colors. Typical thickness: 10 microns, Surface Roughness :
<40 micro inches
Smoothseal : Colour Golden Yellow, Typical thickness: 4- 6 microns, Surface Roughness: < 10
micro inches
Low friction top coats (K 900) : New range of PTFE based coating applied on first few stages of
compressor blades for GTs prone to severe fouling. Thickness: 11-25 microns, Surface finish: < 25
micro inches
IV. EVALUATION OF IPCOTE COATINGS :
Following are some of the typical tests carried out by leading GT manufacturers for evaluation of the
coating system:
1. Resistance to continuous salt water fog

Tests as per ASTM B 117 standard for 1000 hours
2. Continuous dry heat
º
Tested at 600 C for 1000 hours
3. Cyclic heat / salt water fog
o
Heat 450 C for 20 hours - ASTM B 117 salt spray 4 hours test. 20 cycles.
4. Cyclic salt water fog / heat / high humidity
o o
ASTM B 117 salt s pray for 1 hour - heat 450 C for 2 hours – 100% humidity 42-48 C for 20
hours. 20 cycles.
Ipcote coatings on mild steel panels have passed up to 3500 h of salt spray te st
(a) (b)
Figure 5 : Condition of (a) Ipcote coated and (b) uncoated sides of the same panel after
cyclic Heat salt water fog test (test 3) , clearly demonstrating the sacrificial protection of the
coating. Unc oated panel is severely corroded.
127
V. COATING PROCEDURE FOR RE-COATING OF COMPRESSORS:
The Proc ess to be followed for application of IPCOTE & IPSEAL is briefly as follows:
1. Clean components and check for cracks

2. Visual inspection
3. Grit blast all surfaces to be coated (removal of the old coatings, oxidation and rust)
4. Thermal degreasing – heat components to a temperature slightly above the coating cure
temperature to remove residual oil, grease etc.
5. Masking of areas not to be coat ed.
6. Application of IPCOTE (bas e coat) to the desired thickness
0 0
Pre heat to 80 C and then cure at 350 C for 1 hour. (Total time of cure depends on the
component cross section/mass)
7. Burnish by glass beads or alumina grits
8. Conductivity test to ensure the coating is electrically conductive
9. Application of Top coat IPSEAL or Smooth seal or K900
10. Baking of seal coat
11. Visual inspection
12. Coating thickness measurement
13. Surface roughness test
14. Final Inspection
Note: Prior to coating all coating materials should be thoroughly mixed on rollers for fine dispersion.
VI. INTRODUCTION OF IPCOTE RANGE OF PRODUCTS IN INDI A
Hindustan A eronautics Ltd.,(HA L) is extensively using the IP COTE range of products for over 10
years on their aero engines and industrial G. Ts
HAL has also executed several c ontracts for B HEL and NTPC using IPCOTE and IPSEAL on
SIEMENS V94. 2 GT compressor components.
Matcon as the exclusive Authorised Distributors and Applicators of IP products in India, has played a
key role in int roducing IP COTE range of products in HAL. Also we have undertaken coating of t wo
sets of Siemens V94.2 GT compressor components at site.
VII. COATING OF GAS TURBINE COMPRESSOR COMPONENTS
Figure 6 : Thorough mixing of coating material on rollers
128
(a) Grit blasting (b) Application of coating by Spraying
(c) Coated with IPcote (d) Coated with Ipcote and Ipseal
Figure 7: (a,b,c & d) Coating of compressor components
VIII. SUMMARY :
· Surface smoothness in the compressor section affects fuel consumption and net power in
industrial GTs.
· IPCOTE range of coatings guard components against corrosion and further erosion of the
base material thus prolonging the surface smoothness in a cost effective manner.
· Coatings provide a smooth surface that does not allow particulates to adhere to the base
metal as uncoated surfaces, thus extending efficiency for longer periods of time. In addition, if
and when it is necessary to clean the compressor, it is easier and more effective to clean
coated surfac es rather than the base metal.
· The direct result of coating / re-coating compressor air foils can be several percentage points
in efficiency gain and significant fuel savings per unit per year.
· The objective of the coating during overhaul is re-gain the compressor efficiency to the
original level, however, actual gain would depend on the extent of pitting.
· Case studies have shown improvements in power output of several percent ages on account
of improvement in compressor airfoil smoothness. E ven a 1% improvement in performance
for a 100 MW GT would res ult in an annual saving of the order of Rs. 350 lakhs.
129
Modifying Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) for Cyclic Operation
By: Gurpreet Singh (Dy. Supdt: Operation, NTPC Kawas)
In todays ABT regieme and changing fuel scenario ,the operation of gas plant has been affected a lot .
NTPC kawas is combined cycle plant wit h multiple fuel firing facility . There is frequent fluctuation in load
demand due to use of high c ost fuel like naphtha and RLNG. Due t o variation in load demand ,the number
of startup and shutdowns has also increased drastically .
The daily cycling reduces t he life expectancy of hot c omponents in gas turbines. For y ears, manufacturers
of turbines have designed them to withstand the c umulative wear and damage caused by frequent starts
and stops. However, until recently not much attention HRS G specifications at NTP C Kawas:
was paid to designing heat-recovery steam Make: CMI BELGIUM
generators (HRSGs) for cycling service . one of Type : dual drum, assisted circulation, vertical,
reason for that is the design code for HRSG does not unfired, dual pressure boiler
address the issues related to cyclic operation . Design pr : HP – 83 bar , LP – 10 bar
ASME's Section I Power Boiler code and the British Working pr: HP – 70 bar LP – 7.0 bar
standard BS 1113 provide little guidance on HRS G inlet temp : 520 deg C
designing HRS Gs for cycling service. codes such as
EN 12952 and TRD 301 provide rules for designing boilers for high-cycle fatigue but none for preventing
premature failures as a result of low-cycle creep and fatigue. For HRS Gs, low-cycle fatigue is almost always
due to unresolved thermal expansion. Non-c orrosion-related failures of HRSG tubes, pipes, and headers
are typically caused by low-cycle thermal fatigue
How cycling happens:

Today 's heat-recovery steam generators (HRS Gs),
Cycling is defined as the reversal of stresses in a
a vital component in the popular combined-cycle
component and can happen by the imposition and
plant, are exposed to more severe duty than merely
relaxation of loads and because of reversal of
running at baseload. Existing HRS Gs that are
temperatures. When a component is exposed t o a
already in service pose anot her problem. Most of
rapidly changing high temperature fluid, all parts of
these were designed for baseload operation but
the component may not heat up uniformly.
now are being cycled.
Cons equently the differential expansion creates high
differential stresses and stress reversals.
130
PROMINENT FAILURE MECHANISM
MOST PROMI NENT FAILURE MECHANISM DUE TO CYCLIC OP ERATION
Thermal Fatigue
Pressure part thermal fatigue is the repeated cyclic stress produced by uneven heating or cooling when a
section of a pressure part is restrained and cannot expand or contract uniformly. Pressure part thermal
stresses are generat ed because the inner s urface temperature typically changes faster that the outer
surface. Pressure part discontinuities are typified by holes or abrupt cross sectional changes causing local
increases in stress values. Thes e stresses are further concentrated at the opening edge, forming a weak
area or stress riser. Repeated cyclic stresses can cause pressure part inner or outer surface fractures at
this stress riser, initiating fatigue cracks. Continued crack growt h leads to pressure part failure.
131
Low Cycle/Thermal Stress Fatigue
Low Cycle/Thermal Stress Fatigue may not have an
immediat e effect on HRS G pressure parts. For
example, if the boiler is started one time at 500 OF,
a drum shell or header crack will not initially develop.
It is the repeated cycling of such high stress that
causes cracking. Thermal stress is most intense at
the surface, since it is caused by the difference
between surface temperature and average metal
section temperature.
Flow Assi sted Corrosion

Flow-assisted corrosion is a corrosion mechanism in which a normally protective oxide layer on a metal
surface dissolves in a fast flowing water. The underlying metal corrodes to re-c reate t he oxide, and thus the
metal loss continues.
Stress Corrosion Fatigue

Since cycling means temperature and pres-sure gradients from ambient to operational level and air
ingress during longer outages, stress corrosion fatigue as a res ult of these influences will occur. A proper
chemistry regime, i.e. maintaining low dissolved oxy-gen, pH within the required range and proper feed
water quality (VGB, O2 < 0,1 mg/kg), is a must. From the HRSG operat-ing side, the boiler should be kept
under pressure as along as possible, e.g. no forc ed cooling and closing of the stack damper t o prevent
rapid natural draft cooling.
132
Shutdowns can be more detrimental. Steep down RAMPS will similarly cause the drum surface to yield in
Tension and consume cyclic life. Whenever the yield strength is exceeded during start-ups, load changes
and Shutdowns, material cyclic life is expended, which can initiate a cracks. Once suc h a crack is initiated,
steep Downward ramps can propagate the crack
CYCLI NG OP ERATION OF HRS G AT NTP C KAWAS
The NTP C kawas is having four HRSG of vertical configuration . these HRSGs are going under cyclic
operation due to recent changes which are listed below
§ Introduction of the ABT regieme

§ Non availability of cheaper fuel
§ Frequent change in load demands :high cost of the fuels like RLNG and Naptha . causes change
in load demands frequently .this leads to frequent startup and shutdowns of the hrsgs
§ Modified fuel changeover procedure : while fuel changeover the load reduces to 70 mw and igv
kept off . this leads to change in mainsteam parameters .
§ Mix Fuel Operation : while taking unit on mix fuel the load has to be reduced and IGV kept off whic h
lowers the steam temperat ure .
Lot of tube leakages was observed in HRSG at NTPC kawas mainly in superheater area which leads to
the force out age of the HRS G . These tube leakages can easily be attributed to the cyclic operation of the
boilers
133
The critical components affected by cycling Basi c mechanism s affecting the life of an HRSG
n Super-heater outlets.
Low-cycle fatigue Creep Thermal shock
n Tube-to-header joints in hot sections.
n Drum-to-down comer nozzles in the Differential Corrosion Flow-accelerated
high-pressure drum. expansion fatigue corrosion
n Bent portions of heat -transfer tubes.
n Attemperators. Oxidation Deposits
PROPOS ED MODIFI CATION FOR THE HRS G TO CATER CYCLIC OP ERATION
Modifying the operation aspects
Load changes should be done gradually to minimize cycling effects. Often, HRSG manufacturers suggest
making load changes in incremental steps rather than continuously. For example, instead of a continuous
10% change, the load may be changed in five 2% load changes with a dwell (or hold period) after each
change
Modifying drainage of superheaters and other components
Condensate Formation and Quenching

When a GT purge sequence is initiated, air from the compressor is forced through the HRSG to clear any
gas that could otherwise result in accidental explosion. This purge process rapidly cools the HP super
heater and, if applicable, the reheater, particularly following a GT trip. These results in Condensate
formation, which can collect in and thermally shock the lower headers/tubes of HRSGs. The damage is
exacerbated if the drains are not sized to remove the condensat e at the rate at which it forms and/or they
are opened at the incorrect time or for insufficient duration.
The sizing of the drains, instrumentation and control for adequate removal of condens ate under these
conditions is often an issue on earlier HRSGs designed for base-load operation. Indeed, on virtually all
horizontal gas-flow HRSGs, there are no thermocouples installed on the lower headers that can be used
detect the presenc e of c ondensate. In these instances, additional instrumentation may have to be installed
and integrated into an automatic drainage system. The blowdown tank should als o be of sufficient size to
accommodate drainage of condensate during the purge sequence. As steam flow is established during the
subsequent start, any condensate that has not been drained may be preferentially cleared from some tubes
before it clears from others.
The tubes that have been cleared are cooled by the ensuing steam flow whilst the other tubes stagnate until
the condensate within them also clears. This can result in tube distortion and differential expansion between
different parts of t he header, which, depending upon the flexibility of the stub to header attachments and/or
134
header support system may result in substantial loads on the stub to header welds. Tube sagging can occur
on vertical gas-flow HRS Gs. A Potent entially more damaging effect occurs as the condensate is cleared
and pushed forward into the outlet header(s) (and possibly the outlet manifold and downstream pipework ),
causing a rapid decrease in inner surface temperature k nown as ‘quenc hing’. This is particularly damaging
on hot starts when the header(s) will be at or close to normal operating temperature. As the inner surface of
the header t ries to contract, the int ernal surface is put into tension and can yield if the resulting stress is
above the yield strength of the material.
Modification Reqd
n Installation of larger drains on super heaters, so t hat all of the condensate can be quickly removed
during shutdowns.
n Replacement of attemperator valves designed for base load operation with ones designed for better
control and great er durability.
Modifying The Superheater Tube Materials
Presently HRS G at k awas is using P 22 material for superheater tubes. This can be replaced with P 91
.Grade 91 truly is a super mat erial. Grade 91 has a much higher strength than traditional alloys such as
Grade 22. This enables substantial reductions in wall thickness of HRSG super heaters, which substantially
reduces thermal fatigue.
Modifying Lay Up Procedures
One of the most effective means of ens uring plant longevity and reliability is to implement sound Lay-Up
Procedures on HRSG.
Short Term “Hot Wet”- When HRSG units are used in cyclic operation, long term storage met hods cannot
be used. In this application, the following should be considered.
Stored Energy
The large mass of steel inside HRSG and inventory of water means that there is a large quantity of stored
energy available in the HRSG boiler after shutdown. By minimizing the draft through the HRS G by use of an
outlet damper, this stored energy may keep the unit warm for 24 hours or more.
Temperat ure Equalization

A hot shutdown will allow the pressure to drop rapidly if the stack and duct are opened to allow cool air and
gasses to circulate through the gas side of the boiler. If instead the HRSG is bottled up (not allowing outside
to the HRS G), the entire HRSG will try to equalize in temperature.
135
CONCLUSIONS
Designing and operating the HRSGs for cyclic operation requires detailed definition of the operating
conditions and close co-operation between the designer and the operator. Whatever modifications are
done to address cyclic operation should be closely monitor through a well defined monitoring programme.
Periodic review of the data is necessary to compare the actual conditions with the expected conditions.
Generally the boilers designed for base load can run with cyclic loads with some hardware changes.
Sometime a very minor adjustment in the operating condition coupled with some physical changes may
serve the purpose of cyclic loading
The modifications should be site specific as per the operating condition of the particular HRSG
136
SITE SPECIFIC PERFORMANCE CORRECTION CURVES FOR
FREQUENCY, WATER INJECTION AND AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
FOR A COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT WITH
GE FRAME-9E GAS TURBINES
V.V. Sivakumar1 and P.Kannan2
1
Deputy General Manager (EEMG),e-mail:vvsivakumar@ntpc.co.in
2
Deputy Manager (EEMG), e-mail:pkannan@ntpc.co.in,
NTPC Ltd,Rajiv Gandhi Combined Cycle Power Project, Kayamkulam, Kerala-690506, India
1.0 Introduction
The electricity refo rms and the new Electricity Act 2001 that changed the course of industry in
India gave birth to the concept of three-part tariff now famously known as the Availability Based Tariff (A BT)
for ensuring better grid management. Thus curtains were drawn on the earlier cost plus regime. To further
compound the matters, in the new tariff regime (2009-14), the regulators have further tightened the noose by
spelling out an availability of a minimu m 85% for all Inter-State Generating Stations (ISGS) to recover fu ll
fixed cost with no exceptions made for gas stations. Additionally if any ISGS fails to log the bench mark
capacity, penalties are there and in case of exceeding the 85% mark, incentives are showered.
Given this back ground, it becomes imperative for a central generating gas station to maximize
on the real-time availability (Declared Capability-DC) to meet bottom lines and also if possible to gain some
incentives. But given the typical behavior of gas turbines, the performance of which is seriously affected by
amb ient conditions and grid frequency, the task of the station operator becomes more difficult to balance
between availability, efficiency and the mandatory inspections to be carried out from time to time. Also
representations have been made to seek some concessions from the regulator for these conditions which are
beyond the control of operators but to no vain. In this context, the paper attempts to predict the effect of such
conditions on the performance of the gas turbines on real-time basis so that the DC, Efficiency and
Environmental parameters are balanced and optimized.
The main parameters that affect the performance of Gas Turbine are inlet air temperature, grid
frequency, and water or steam in jection for NOx control. Since GT is an air breathing engine, any change in air
density or mass will affect the performance of the machine. A ir density depends on the ambient temperature
prevailing on site. The effect of ambient air temperatures on the power output of a gas turbine is twofold. As the
temperature of the air increases, the air density and, consequently, the air mass flow decreases. The reduced air
mass flow directly causes the gas turbine to produce less power output [1]. On the other hand, the higher intake-
air temperature results in an increase in specific co mpressor work and, therefore, in further reduction of the
power output. Water is injected into the combustion chamber of Gas Turb ine for NOx abatement. It has an
impact on the performance of Gas turbine which is three fold [2]: Mass flow through the turbine increases,
change in power output of machine owing to change in specific heat, and Fuel/air ratio also changes. The flow
through the system is directly proportional to the speed of it. Speed of the Gas turbine is directly proportional to
grid frequency in case of single shaft machine. Higher frequency would lead to higher shaft speed resulting in
higher output from the machine.
In order to extrapolate the performance at standard conditions from test data at some other
amb ient conditions, frequency and relative humidity, the measured performances has to be evaluated through
‘‘correct ion curves,’’ provided by the engine manufacturer. The typical form of such curves has been discussed
in the paper of Cloyd and Harris [3] . Matters related to the correction of data, by the a set of procedure given in
ISO standard have been discussed by Kamp f [4] and Lorisika[5]. Since those curves were p lotted at test bed
condition, it wouldn’t go well with the actual conditions prevailing on site. It may lead to inconsistent
interpretation of the data for performance test. Moreover, the manufacturer supplied ‘correction curves’ never
touch upon how those parameters affect the performance of the combined cycle as a whole. So it is essential to
plot the site specific curves for lucid understanding of the machine performance. The objective of the work is to
plot and analyse the effect of frequency, ambient temperature and water injection on various parameters of
combined cycle power plant. The methodology is quite simp le and non-complicated wh ich is based on data
mining and further sorted, filtered and mapped based on certain criterion as detailed belo w.
· Effect of amb ient temperature on Gas turbine Load (MW), Heat Rate (HR) and NOx generation
(ppm) is analyzed for different ambient conditions while maintaining constant frequency and water
injection. The same was analyzed by varying water in jection flow and frequency
137
· Effect of frequency on Gas turbine Load (MW), Heat Rate (HR) and NOx generation (ppm) is
analyzed for various sets of frequency while holding amb ient temperature and water in jection at
same levels. The same was analyzed by varying water injection flow and ambient temperature.
· Effect of water injection flow on Gas turbine Load (MW), Heat Rate (HR) and NOx generation
(ppm) is analyzed for d ifferent water in jection flo w rates, for a constant ambient temperature and
frequency. The same was analy zed by varying frequency and ambient temperature.
This paper, in conclusion, attempts to build site-specific correction curves which shall help not
only to predict the performance of the Gas Turbines but also the effect of Gas Plant performance on Co mbined
Cycle Plant mainly in the areas of steam production and in turn steam turbine load. This methodology will also
help the operator to gauge the GT p lant degradation after real-time accounting of other non-controllable factors.
2.0 System Configuration and Methodolog y

WI
5
HPT LPT
CC
2 3
HPMS 6
C GT P
LPMS
4
HRS G
1
Exhibit.1
A schematic diagram of the Gas based Comb ined Cycle is shown in Exhib it-1.
The cycle comprises of simp le Brayton Cycle and Rankine cycle. Air is sucked from
atmosphere (1) through air filters and compressed (2) to ten times the atmospheric pressure by 17 stage axial
flow co mpressor (C). The co mpressed air enters into combustion chamber (CC) and burns with Naptha at high
temperature (> 1124O C ). To abate NOx generation at higher temperatures de-mineralized water is injected in to
the combustion chamber. The h igh temperature flue gas (3) expands through Gas Turbine (GT) to lower
temperature (4) (Appro x.555O C). This expanded flue gas travel through dual pressure, unfired, natural
circulat ion Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG). The generated steam in HRSG is feeding (5) Steam
Turbine (ST). In Rajiv Gandhi Co mb ined Cycle Po wer Plant (RGCCPP), on which the study is carried out, the
configuration consists of two Gas Turbines of 115.2 MW each at 28O C & 60 % RH and single steam turbine of
129.177 MW.
A month long data has been logged from the system. The voluminous data has been scanned
and filtered and only the relevant and required data is retained which is essential for plotting the curves. For
example, to plot a curve for analyzing the variation of power output of gas turbine with amb ient temperature at
which water injection (WI) and frequency (Hz) are same, power output (MW) has been picked at the particular
frequency and water injection while scanning the monthly data. Now, the collected data of power output for
different ambient temperatures at constant water injection (WI) and frequency (Hz) is plotted to obtain the
actual correction curve. In this case, there are three independent variables (water inject ion (WI), amb ient
temperature and frequency (Hz) and one dependent variable (Power Output). In order to analy ze the effect of
one independent variable on dependent variable, the other two are fixed. The same methodology is followed for
all dependent variables like Heat Rate (HR), Po wer Output (MW) and NOx generation (Nitrogen Oxides).
138
3.0 Effect of ambient temperature vari ation on the performance of gas turbine pl ants
3.1 Ambient temperature Vs Load (MW)

The variation of GT load with ambient
temperature is shown in exhibit.2. The correction curve
given by OEM is having a linear relat ion. But the actual
variation obtained for site conditions suggests that it is
not a straight relation. Moreover, there is a wide
variation between two curves because of water injection
flow difference, compressor fouling and permanent
degradation. The design curve is drawn for full water
injection (5.34 Kg/s) at 49 Hz, but graph is plotted for
4.4 Kg/s at 49 Hz. However, the current concern is only
for slope of the curve for obtaining a Correction Factor
(CF) and this can be further corrected with respect to
water in jection flo ws obtained for site curves given later
in this paper.
Exhibit.2
Exh ib it-3 depicts the variation of power output with ambient

temperature for d ifferent frequencies. At lower temperature
region the gain in MW is higher than that of higher
temperature region. The gain in MW at 30O C for 0.5 Hz
change is 3 MW whereas at 25O C the gain is 2.2 MW.
Moreover, the variation is non linear in case of actual
correction curves.
Exhibit.3
3.2 Ambient temperature Vs Heat Rate (HR)
Heat rate of Gas turbines characteristically
increase with ambient temperature which means machine
requires mo re fuel to generate one unit of electricity at
higher temperature than at lower temperature. OEM had not
produced any correlation between ambient temperatures Vs
Heat Rate. In this context, the site specific curve generated
now will serve as a base curve for any present and future
analysis of Heat Rate variat ion. The relation between
amb ient temperature and heat rate is again suggestive of not
being a straight line. Fro m the exhib it-4, it is very lucid that
below 28O C for a degree change in ambient temperature, the
change in heat rate is 7 Kcal/Kwhr whereas above 28O C it is
10 Kcal/Kwhr.
Exhibit.4
3.3 Ambient temperature Vs NOx
Felipe R. Ponce Arrieta et al[8] has done work
on the Influence of ambient temperature on combined-cycle
power-plant performance for a Siemen’s machine. But so far
no paper available in open source has attempted to analyze
the effect of ambient temperature on NOx generation. In this
paper, it is a unique attempt to a relat ionship between
amb ient temperature and NOx generation in the combustion
chamber. At 48.8 Hz and 4.4 Kg/s, the relation between
amb ient temperature and NOx generation is a straight line
whereas at 49.3 Hz and 4.4 Kg/s the relation is parabolic
(Exh ibit.5). NOx generation is peaking at 28O C for the
Exhibit.5
139
frequency of 49.3 Hz and 4.4 Hz. During a day, operator will be able to predict the NOx for a prevailing
amb ient temperature and will be able control the heat rate in favour of them by adjusting the water injection.
4.0 Effect of Frequency (S peed) variati on on the performance of gas turbine plants
4.1 Frequency Vs Load (MW)

The relation between frequency (Hz) and
load (MW) at constant 3.5 WI and 27O C is shown in
exhibit-6. The amb ient temperature correct ion curve
supplied by OEM is exh ibit ing a direct relation with power
(MW) generated by the Gas Turbine. But in real situation it
is a non linear relation. However it can be divided into two
parts, below 49 Hz and above 49 Hz. In case of above 49 Hz
for the change of 1 HZ a change in MW is 7.5 MW in actual
condition. On the other hand below 49 Hz for a change of 1
HZ a change in MW is 4.4 MW. But as per OEM curve the
rate of change is 6.5 MW/Hz for the fu ll range of operation.
4.2 Frequency Vs Heat Rate (HR) Exhibit.6
The influence of frequency on heat rate of Gas Turbine is

depicted in exhib it-7. Heat rate linearly varies with
frequency up to 49 Hz and beyond that it is non-linear in
which the best heat rate achieved is at 49.2 Hz. Beyond 49.2
Hz heat rate is having upward trend. This interesting trend
leaves scope for further research.
Exhibit.7
4.3 Frequency Vs Nox
The impact of frequency on NOx generation

has been studied with different values of WI and ambient
temperature. In all attempts it has shown a straight line
relationship. Exh ibit -8 shows a relationship between
frequency and NOx at 3.5 Kg/s and 27.1O C. This curve will
help us to control the NOx effect ively in view of wide
variance in frequency during a day. As water injection has a
high bearing on heat rate of the machine, it helps the
operator to optimize the heat rate. For a change of 1 Hz, the
change in NOx generation is 6.6 pp m.
Exhibit.8
140
5.0 Effect of Water Injection vari ation on the performance of gas turbine pl ants
5.1 Water Injection Vs Load (MW)

Water injected into the Co mbustion Chamber has a direct relation with load (MW). It is a
pretty straight line relation. More water can fetch a gain in MW for operator, but not without having a dent on
Heat Rate. the heat rate. For analy zing the effect of water inject ion the testing was done by varying the water
injection rate fro m 0 to 5.34 kg/s (Design) and the curves were plotted for 49.2 Hz and 28.5O C. As depicted in
exhibit-9 the rate of change is 0.94 MW / Kg/s.
Exhibit.9 Exhibit.10
5.2 Water Injection Vs Heat Rate

Water injection is directly proportional to Heat rate of Gas Turbine as shown in exhibit -10.
When the water injection is zero heat rate of Gas Turbine is 3295 Kcas/kwhr and at 3 kg/s Heat Rate is 3352
Kcal/ kwhr. It is changing at the rate of 19.6 Kcals/kg/s of water injection.
5.3 Water Injection Vs NOx
Exhibit.11
The relat ion between Water inject ion and NOx helps in controlling the heat rate by the
operator. If the operator is able to predict the NOx for the given flow one will be able to control the NOx during
the day vis-à-vis heat rate. The exh ibit-11 is plotted for 28. 3O C and 49.2 Hz, the variation is 15.95 pp m/kg/s.
141
6.0 Effect of GT l oad variati on on the performance of Steam Turbi ne
Exhibit.12 Exhibit.13
The quantity of steam generation (HP & LP) for different GT loads is arrived and plotted (Exh ibit.12).
Fro m heat balance diagrams the design steam flow (HP & LP) with respect to various gas turbine loads is also
drawn and plotted.
Exh ib it-13 HP & LP MS flo ws required for d ifferent loads on steam turbine has been plotted from
actual data. This in turn has been compared with design heat balance data. These two graphs together help the
operator to predict steam turbine load for a given gas turbine load via steam flows.
7. 0 Conclusion
These real time correct ion curves will help the operator in forecasting machine capability and give
Declared Capability (DC) in advance for the following day as envisaged in ABT regime. This also helps in
optimizing between DC and Heat Rate so that the incentive is maximized. After accounting for the non-
controllable factors (Amb ient Temperature & Frequency), the fouling losses can realistically be predicted so that
the off-line co mpressor wash can be availed to improve machine output and efficiency. This will also help us in
availing practical corrections on account of frequency and ambient temperature fro m regulators. Further this
work can be used in determin ing the future machine ratings and the conditions at which name plate ratings shall
be arrived so that machines can actually deliver the name p late output as in the new regulatory regime incentives
are given only for real time machine capability.
NOME NCLATURE
Amb. Ambient HZ/Hz Hert z

C Co mpressor LP Low Pressure
CC Co mbustion Chamber LPMS Low Pressure Main Steam
DC Declared Capability LPT Light Pressure Turbine
EEMG Energy Efficiency Management Group MW Mega Watt
GT Gas Turbine NOx Nitrogen Oxide
ISGS Inter-State Generat ing Stations P Pump
ISO International Standard Organizat ion OEM Original Equip ment Manufacturer
HP High Pressure ppm Parts per million
HPMS High Pressure Main Steam ST Steam Turbine
HPT High Pressure Turbine Temp Temperature
HRSG Heat Recovery Steam Generator WI Water Injection Rate
142
REFERENCES
[1] Mircea Cardu , “Malvina Baica, Gas turbine installat ion with total water inject ion in the co mbustion
chamber”, Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 2395–2404
[2] Mathioudakis K. “Gas Turb ine Test Parameters Corrections Including Operation With Water Injection”,
ASME Paper Vo l. 126, A PRIL 2004
[3] Cloyd, S. T., and Harris A. J., 1995, ‘‘Gas Turbine Perfo rmance. New Application
and Test Correction Curves,’’ ASM E Paper No. 95-GT-167
[4] Krampf, F. M., 1992, ‘‘A Practical Guide for Gas Turbine Performance Field
and Test Data Analysis,’’ ASM E Paper No. 92-GT-427
[5] Lorisika, G., 1985, ‘‘Gas Turbine Performance and Efficiency Test ISO Standard
and Measuring Tolerances,’’ Swer’s Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook,
Vo l. III, Turbo machinery International Publications
[6] Kakaras E. , Doukelis A., Karellas S. “Co mpressor intake-air cooling in gas turbine plants”, Intl. Journal
of Energy 29 (2004) 2347–2358.
[7] “
Naoto Kakimoto,Kazuhiro Baba, Performance of Gas Turbine-Based Plants
IEEE transactions on power systems, vol. 18, no. 3, August 2003.
During Frequency Drops”,
[8] Felipe R. Ponce Arrieta , Electo E. Silva Lora “Influence of ambient temperature on co mbined-cycle
power-plant performance” Applied Energy 80 (2005) 261– 272
---------- o O o ----------
143
By
D.Nandi (AGM
(AGM--OS / Gas Turbine)
&
K.R.C. Murty (AGM – Os / Gas Turbine)
Under Technical Guidance from Sh.S.N.Banerjee -
ED(OS)
144
•Dry Bulb Temperature 150 C
•Relative Humidity 60%
•Atmospheric Pressure 1 Bar
(Sea Level).
•Frequency 50Hz.
145
146
Why Power schemes are necessary for Gas Turbines
Factors affect Machine Availability Factor.

• Planned & Forced Outage of Gas Turbine,
• Planned & Forced outage of Steam Turbine & WHRB.
• Partial Loading of GT & ST due to outage of Aux.
Factors affect DC
Out come
• Aging of Gas Turbine,
• Compressor Fouling.
• DP across intake Air Filters.
• Frequency. For Gas Stations
• Ambient Temperature.
Temperature. PLF < DC < Mc.Av. Factor
• Alternate Fuel
147
Popular Options for Power
Augmentation
• Inlet Air Cooling.
– With Vapour absorption Technology.
• Wet media.
• Fogging.
• Wet Compression.
• With Chiller
– Vapour Compression.
– Vapour Absorption. (With Single
Stage Li-Bromide )
148
149
10 - 15 T/Hr High Quality DM Water is required for 110-
110-140
MW GT , Additional DM plant may be required to meet water
requirement.
150
Sources of Heating for Li
Li--Br
Vapour absorption Chiller
• Exit Flue Gas from WHRB / GT Exhaust
(limited to Flue Gas Exit Temperature &
Quantity of Flue gas to be handled).
• Steam from WHRB (ST out put will

reduce).
• Solar Panel (No limitation on temperature

but only during sunny days).
151
152
A Case Study for Jhanor Gas Power Station
GT capacity in MW 144
ST capacity in MW 225
No.of GT/ Module 3
Rated Air Flow in Kg/Sec 448
Temp. to be Dropped in Deg-c

10
(38 to 28 Deg-c)
Av. Use in Days / Yr 250
Required TR 3000
153
Benefits because of Inlet Air Cooling
Increase in Annual DC in % 4.25
Improvement in Heat rate in Kcal/Kwh 20.6
Reduction in Fuel Consumption/ GT/Yr in MSCM 2.98
Gain in Incentive in Rs. Cr / GT/Yr due to DC 14.9
Gain due to Heat rate in Rs. Cr / GT/Yr
On APM Gas @Rs5000/1000SCM 2.2
Reduction in CO2 Emission in T/Yr/GT 2007
CO2 Credit in Rs.Cr/Yr/GT 0.2
TOTAL MINIMUM GAIN IN RS. CR/YR/GT WITH
17.3
IAC in Rs.Cr/GT/Yr
Gain will be more on RLNG & Liquid Fuel
154
Benefit with Solar System
Increase in MW in Steam Turbine 1.73
Increase in DC due to more Load on ST/Yr/GT 0.54
Reduction in CO2 Emission in T/Yr/GT 2,507
Gain in Incentive in Rs. Cr / GT/Yr due to DC 1.89
CO2 Credit in Rs.Cr/Yr/GT 0.24
TOTAL GAIN IN RS. CR/YR/GT WITH SOLAR POWER
2.14
in Rs.Cr/GT/Yr
TOTAL MINIMUM GAIN DUE TO IAC WITH SOLAR
SYSTEM IN RS.CR/GT/Yr
19.39
COST PART
Cost of Vapour Absorption type Chiller Unit with Steam
19.5
Heating in Rs. Cr/ GT for 3000 TR Capacity
Cost of Solar Panel for supplying Required Steam in Rs.
28.34
Cr (?) for heating of 5.25 Million Euro/GT
TOTAL COST IN RS.Cr/GT 48
PAY BACK PERIOD IN MONTHS 29.5
155
Benefit of Integration of Solar Energy
From Cost P0int
• Cost of stand alone Solar Power is > 19 Cr/MW which is
a very figure and not commercially viable without
subsidy.
• With Chiller Unit, only Solar Part contribution is ~1.73
MW i.e. 16.4 Cr/ MW.
• In Totality with Vapour absorption Chiller & Solar Energy
is 3.13 Cr/MW which is at par with installation cost of
New CC Plant.
From Environment Point
• Reduction in Fuel burning = 4.5 MSCM of Natural
Gas/Yr i.e. = 11.9MT of Domestic Coal with LCV of
3300Kcal/Kg.
• Reduction in CO2 emission = 4514T/Year/GT
156
BEST PRACTICES FOR PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION CABLING
AUTHOR’S NAME :
Saeed M. AL-Abeediah (saeed.abeediah@aramco.com) is a senior engineering consultant in

the process and control systems department and PID/instrumentation unit at Saudi Aramco.
AS HIS DEV
KAMAL KIS HORE S INGH
ABSTRACT
The health and effectiveness of any plant’s Process Automation System (PAS) relies on many factors.
Among these factors is the proper selection of PAS components, seamless integration, control schemes, control
system installation, and last but not least, proper electrical installation and connectivity of field instrumentation
devices.
This last factor, which glues the entire PAS system together, involves cabling, grounding, cable routing, and
mitigation of external influences such as noise and interference. The best practices for dealing with process
instrumentation cabling and the health and integrity of instrumentation loops mirro rs the requirements stipulated
in various applicable industry standards such as NFPA 70, IEEE-518, API RP 552, and PIP PCCEL001.
We will look at the classes of instrumentation circuits and wiring suitable for each class, signal noises,
techniques that min imize the impact of noise and interference on instrument signals, and conclude with a
proposed process automation grounding scheme that PAS vendors helped develop.
INTRODUTION
The remote control, signalling, and power limited circu it is defined in NFPA 70 as the portion of the wiring
system between the load side of the over-current device or the power-limited supply and all connected
equipment.
These circuits are in three classes.
Table 1
It is important to note most of instrumentation signals fall under the Class-2 circu it, except for the 120 Vac and
110 Vdc loops, which are Class-1 circuits. So me may argue the 120 Vac and 110 Vdc signals fit better under
Class-3. However, unless the power supply is Class-3, the industry practice is to categorize them as Class-1.In
some facilit ies, the choice is to use Class-1 wiring across the board. This avoids signal categorizat ion issues.
This may not be cost effective, but it is definitely safer.
How does the wiring for various circu it classes differ?
157
The wiring requirements vary. For examp le, for Class-1 circu its, a cable with 600 V insulation rating is the
choice, whereas a cable with an insulation of 300 V is required for Class-2.When these circuits are in classified
areas such as oil, gas, and petrochemical facilit ies, NFPA 70 mandates additional cabling requirements beyond
the insulation ratings. One should use special cable types with specific marking for these loops. Here are the
cable types suitable for each circuit, assuming the installation is in a classified area.
Signal noise and interference
Modern digital instruments prove to be more sensitive to noise and interferences when compared with the old
analog instrumentation devices. In addition, modern control systems are also more sensitive to any signal
distortion when compared with old single loop controllers. This dictates avoiding old wiring practices and
techniques that may allo w the transfer of noise into the control loops. Before we address factors necessary to
minimize signal interference, it is worthwhile to list some of the common types of signal noise and interference.
Magnetic coupling: This type of coupling is also known as inductive coupling. The interference magnitude is
proportional to the mutual inductance between the control loop and the source of interference current. Such
noise is out there when several wires of different circuits are together in parallel runs in the same cable or in
raceways.
Electrostatic coupling : Th is coupling is also capacitive coupling because the magnitude of the interference is
proportional to the capacitance between a control lead and a source of interference or noise voltage. It is similar
to the magnetic coupling in the sense that it manifests primarily in parallel wiring. The length of the parallel
wiring exacerbates the effect of the noise. We see this more often with parallel AC discrete (switching) circu its,
especially when the loop lengths exceed 1,000 feet. It is worthwhile to note that in some literature, they call this
phenomenon ‘distributed capacitance.’
Electromagnetic coupling : This problem occurs when control circuits rout within the electromagnetic radiation
profile of interference sources that radiate electromagnetic energy during their normal operation. Examples of
such sources are radio transmitters, television stations, communication equipment, AC motors, and exposed
power transmission lines. Based on IEEE-518, the voltages induced by electromagnetic coupling we call ‘near-
field effects’ because the interference is close to the interference source. The effect of such noise is dependant
on the susceptibility of the control system and the strength of the produced electromagnetic field.
Common impedance coupling : This type of noise commonly occurs when more than one circuit shares
common wiring, such as when a common return lead wire is used for multip le field devices such solenoids or
relays. This type of noise is also common when trying to consolidate the commons for DCS or PLC loops in one
wire. The length of the shared wiring aggravates such noise.
Common mode: This type of noise manifests primarily because of different grounding potentials at various
locations of the plant. It somet imes occurs even if the receiving instruments or input module has a high common
mode rejection rat ing. It is more co mmon when shields are not properly connected or when they connect at more
than one place. It is more prevalent in thermocouple loops, especially when the thermocouple is a grounded
type.
Table 2
158
Reducing signal interference
Although complete elimination of noise may not be practical in all cases, there are wiring techniques that will
help reduce noise and its impact on the overall health of the loops. These techniques include proper cable
construction, classification of signals into specific susceptibility levels, signal segregation, signal separation, and
proper grounding.
Cable construction: As a rule of thumb, it is highly recommended twisted and individually shielded pairs or
triads be utilized for all analog signals such as 4-20 mA , thermocouple (T/ C), millivolt signals, RTD, strain
gauges, and pulses. In addition, the same cable construction should work and serve for all true d igital signals.
For proper protection, the shield coverage should be 100%.
For discrete signals (on/off) such as process switches, limit switches, relay contacts, solenoid circuits, and
indication lights, one should use twisted pairs. An overall shield is fine for mu lt i-pair/triad cables, provided the
overall shield drain wire cuts off at the junction bo x and grounds out at the marshalling cabinet.
In all cases (except for grounded T/C), the shield drain wires shall be cut and taped in the field, and grounded at
the marshalling cabinets. It is vital to ensure the shield drain wires terminate properly and drain wires for
different loops do not touch each other within the junction boxes or marshalling cabinets.
Classification of wiring based on noise suscepti bility level (NS L): IEEE-518 classified wiring levels into four
major classes or noise susceptibility levels. The IEEE NSL levels settled into three levels based on our practical
experiences.
Level 1: High to mediu m susceptibility with analog signals of less than 50 V and discrete instrument signals of
less than 30 V. Examp les of these signals are:
· Foundation fieldbus
· 4-20 mA and 4-20 mA with HART
· RTD
· Thermocouple
· Millivolt/pulse
· Discrete input and output signals, e.g., pressure switches, valve position limit switches, indicating
lights, relays, solenoids, and the like
· All wiring connected to components associated with sensitive analog hardware like a strain gauge
Level 2: Lo w susceptibility with switching signals greater than 30 V, analog signals greater than 50 V, and 120-
240 A C feeders less than 20 amps. Examp les of this level are:
· Discrete input and output DC signals like pressure switches, valve position limit switches, indicating
lights, relays, solenoids, and others
· Discrete input and output AC signals including pressure switches, valve position limit switches,
indicating lights, relays, solenoids, and the like
· 120-240 AC feeders of less than 20 amps
Level 3 : Po wer A C and DC buses of 0-1000 V with currents of 20-800 amps
Signal segregation In instrumentation cabling, it is a good practice to segregate various signals from each other.
For optimu m segregation, each type of signal (within each NSL) shall transmit on dedicated cables and rout to
dedicated junction boxes.
For example, 4-20 mA signals shall rout on separate cables from all other signals under NSL-1. The same
applies on all other signal types. From the junction boxes to the control room, the cables for each NSL level can
share the same cable tray or trench. They can also share the same marshalling cabinet provided the cables get
enough air and adequate terminal strip identifications are in p lace.
159
In addition, all emergency shutdown signals should have their own cables, junction boxes, and marshalling
cabinets. They also have to be segregated based on signal type as discussed above.
Separati on between different NSL: The recommended separation distances are from IEEE-518 and PIP
standard PCCEL001. It is important to note the zero separation distances between signals of the same NSL do
not mean different signals within the same NSL can use the same cable. Separate cables must carry and serve
different signals even if they are of the same NSL.
Table 3
Common return wire for multi ple signals: Utilizing a common wire for mu ltip le signals is a common bad
wiring pract ice that results in many covert noise problems. This wiring practice is co mmon in wiring mult iple
solenoids associated with equipment, MOV wiring, relays, and in some cases in DCS or PLC loops.
The temptation to use such wiring finds supporters especially when designing or executing projects or when
there are in -house projects that would utilize spare wiring. It would be justified based on cost savings but always
has a negative impact on the integrity of the associated loops.
To protect against common impedance coupling, each signal should have its own return wire extending fro m the
source to the destination. Avoid using one or two return wires for mu ltip le signals.
Process automation system
In automation systems, proper grounding plays a significant role in the overall health and integrity of process
signals. It protects the automation systems from potential damages due to surges, voltage fluctuations, lightning,
and short circuits.
In addition, proper grounding hierarchy helps mitigate signal noises and interferences by providing a low
resistance path for these unwanted voltages and currents that could result in safety hazards or degradation to
process control signals. When attending to field problems associated with signal noise, erratic spikes, or
interference problems, we found the majority of these problems stemmed fro m poor grounding.
To ensure proper grounding of instrumentation systems, one must follow a clear grounding scheme. One should
carefully evaluate the overall grounding system when diagnosing a problem o r when designing for new plants.
160
These areas are grounding in the field, interconnection wiring, and grounding within central control or process
interface buildings.
Grounding in the fiel d: In the field, the enclosures of all instrument devices have to connect to ground,
typically the plant overall grounding grid, or bond to an electrically conductive structure that is connected to the
grid. Raceways such as conduits and trays have to ground at both ends.
Handling of shiel d drain wires: One should properly cut and tape the shield and its drain wire in the field, near
the instrument. Fro m the field instruments all the way to the marshalling cabinets, the shield drain wires should
be treated and terminated similar to the signal wires.
Exposed parts of the drain wires within junction boxes or marshalling cabinets should be inside insertion jackets
to protect against the possibility of multip le drain wires touching each other. Once the loop reaches the
marshalling cabinet, the shield drain wires have to consolidate and terminate at the DC and shield grounding bus
bar.
In addition, all spare pairs or triads extending between the field junction boxes and marshalling cabinets should
terminate at both ends. In some cases, it would be useful to ground the spare wiring in the marshalling cabinets
to minimize potential noise pick up.
Grounding in control or process interface buil dings: In the control room or process interface build ings, the
process automation system cabinets and marshalling cabinets must be equipped with two grounding bus bars—
one for AC and one for DC co mmon and shield drain wires. The DC and shield grounding bus bar shall be
electrically isolated fro m the cabinet structure.
All shield drain wires and DC co mmon wires must merge and connect to the isolated bus bars. It is vital to
ensure shield drain wires ground at one end, typically in the marshalling cabinets. Grounding them at both ends
may result in ground loops, which happen to be one of the main causes of signal noise.
The isolated DC and shield grounding bus bars within all cab inets should then be consolidate into a master
instrument grounding bus bar within that building. Similarly, all AC bus bars within these cabinets should come
together at a master safety-ground bus bar within the build ing. The two master ground bus bars should then be
connected to the plant overall grid.
Table 4
161
REFERENCES
· ‘Process and control systems and PID/instrumentation’ by Saeed M. AL-Abeediah.

· BULL, J. H: 'Code of pract ice for the avoidance of electrical interference in electronic instrumentation
systems'. ERA 75-31, ERA Technology Ltd.,Leatherhead, Surrey, UK
· 'Electro magnetic co mpatibility for industrial process measurement and control equip ment'. IEC
Publication 801-I. International Electro-technical Co mmission, Geneva, 1987
162
RETROFIT SOLUTION FOR OBSOLETE FSSS PLC
N.Sreekumar, Sr.Supdt(C&I), RSTPS.
ABSTRACT – The reliable and safe monitoring and control of co mbustion process is very important for thermal
power plants. The boiler supplied by BHEL for NTPC Ramagundam Stage - II, 3x500 MW unit uses Combustion
Engineering (CE) technology . In CE terminology, Furnace Safeguard Supervisory System (FSSS) take care of the
various interlocks and protections of Fuel Firing equipments. These units were co mmissioned during 1987 - 1989.
It is important that the system needs to be renovated to the latest technologies to overcome the difficu lties of
obsolescence and to increase the reliab ility and availab ility, thereby extending the life cycle of boilers.
This paper is about the retrofitting works done on the FSSS PLC of Un it # 6, during the capital overhauling period.
The need for up-gradation was necessary because of the following reasons; (i) The existing FSSS became obsolete
(ii) The failure rate of the processor and I/O cards were high and (iii) The availability of spare cards/modules were
inadequate for day to-day maintenance.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Furnace Safeguard Supervisory System (FSSS) is designed to ensure the execution of a safe and orderly
operating sequence in the start-up and shutdown of a fuel firing equip ment.
The system provides protection against any malfunction of the fuel firing equip ment and associated air systems.
Basically, the system is designed to perform the fo llo wing functions:
i) To prevent any fuel firing unless a satisfactory furnace purge sequence has first been completed.
ii) To prevent the start-up of individual fuel firing equipment (i.e. o il burner or pulverizer) unless certain
permissives have been satisfied.
iii) To monitor and control a proper component sequencing during start up and shutdown of the fuel firing
equipment.
iv) To assure the continued operation of the fuel firing equip ment subjected to certain safety interlocks
being satisfied.
v) To provide the component status feedback to the operator.
vi) To provide flame supervision when fuel-firing equipment is in service and effect an elevation fuel trip
or master fuel t rip upon adverse operating conditions.
2. THE EXIS ISTING S YSTEM
FSSS in Ramagundam Stage - II has been configured in Programmab le Logic Controllers. The PLC system used
here is the 584M system of Gould MODICON, USA. The system has Modicon 584M controller supported by
Modicon 200 series input/output modules. It has one 8K (expandable to 16K) memo ry with an I/O capacity of 128
input and 128 output per channel. There are 32 channels availab le per controller o f the system.
The system has ten (10) independently controlled identical controllers. Of these, two (02) are meant for supervising
main boiler protections, known as ‘Unit Processor’. Remain ing eight (08) are meant for supervising coal firing
elevations and oil firing elevations, known as ‘Elevation Processor’. Each controller is connected to its respective
163
input/output (I/O) module through a separate I/O power supply (P421) in local configuration mode. It has the facility
to configure in remote mode also.
In the system, the user logic is represented in ladder networks. Each processor takes input commands fro m console
and feedback status of field devices fro m local through input modules. Processor provides the output signals to the
driven devices through output modules. The processor is programmed with all desired logic informat ion. This
program is stored in the memo ry module of 584 processor. Programs can be entered into the processor or existing
programs can be modified with the CRT programmer/ PC. The p rogrammer/PC can also be used to monitor the
program wh ile the processor is running.
In the system at RSTPS one pulverizer and the associated oil elevation logics are programmed in the same
controller. This means that, in the controller for A, C, E, & G elevations, oil elevation AB, CD, EF & GH programs
are also stored. In other words, the processor for coal elevation - A is also meant for A B o il elevation, coal elevation
- C is also meant fo r CD oil elevation, and so on.
For unit logics (purge, startup, and shutdown logics of the unit) two separate controllers are provided named as ‘Un it
Primary p rocessor’ and ‘Un it Redundant processor’. The logic part in the redundant processor is identical to
primary, whereas the field status informat ion and output command signals are processed by an independent set of
I/O modules. This ensures that in the case of the primary processor fails, there is a redundant path available for
monitoring the safe running/ shut down of the equipment.
The Configurat ion Diagram of the existing Modicon System is shown in Annexure – 1.
3. MAJOR ISSUES WITH THE EXIS TING S YSTEM
The existing system was supplied and commissioned way back in 1987. Its OEM, M/s.Gou ld Modicon, USA no
longer exits, now. The PLC system became obsolete. No spare modules/ cards are available at site. As Gould
Modicon was taken over by some other group of Company, getting the spares of an obsolete system, either fro m the
OEM or fro m OES, M/s.BHEL, is next to impossible. Finding a suitable and reliable system was the only solution.
In 2003, the site has proposed for a replacement of the entire FSSS. Th is was done through M/s.Schneider Electric
India (P) Ltd., who has acquired the original Gould Modicon. The system offered was “Schneider Quantum PLC
Series”. They could do the retrofitting of FSSS partially owing to the fact that, the offered PLC System by the
vendor was relatively new. By realizing the criticality of the system, site has taken action only for retrofitting of
“Elevation Processors.” The replacement of the “Main Processors” with a new PLC has been kept on hold. Thus,
since 2003, the unit was running partially with up-graded PLC (for the Elevation Processors) and partially with old
system (for the Unit Processors, UP-11 & UP-12).
4. PLANNING FOR THE CHANGE.
With the increase in the failure rate of the cards and other associated modules, it became very necessary to change
the Unit Processor Section also with a newer PLC. By seeing the performance of the up-graded system and studying
the risks involved in replacing the Unit Processors, a fresh proposal has been put up for retrofitting the Unit
Processors also with the same Schneider Quantum PLC Series, in Unit # 6, during the scheduled overhauling period.
We have gone for the Schneider Electric Quantum series PLC in line with the earlier retrofit jobs for elevation
processors. The proposal got approved and a Purchase Order has been placed in favour of Schneider Electric India
(P) Ltd., on 01.10.2008, with supply of all required Modules, Terminal Blocks, Cables, etc. and commissioning of
the system, during the scheduled overhaul Unit # 6, (June 2009).
164
5. TECHNICAL DETAILS OF THE NEW S YSTEM
The PLC system supplied by Schneider electric for the UNIT and REDUNTANT system is of MODICON TSX
Quantum Automation series. The system is already installed in the Elevation PLC system as the replacement of the
Gou ld Modicon in 2003-2005. The perfo rmance of this quantum series PLC is satisfactory. This Quantum
Automation Series is a special-purpose computing system with digital processing capabilities. It is designed for real
time control in a modular, expandable architecture emp loying different types of modules like, Po wer Supply, CPU,
I/O cards, I/O Network Interface, Backplane, etc. It supports several editors like Modsoftv2.6, Conceptv2.5,
ProWORX Plus, Modicon State Language, etc.
The system consists of the following modules:
1. Processor : 140CPU 11303

2. Power Supply : 140CPS 12420
3. Expander Module : 140XBE10000
4. Backp lane : 16 slots
5. Magelis
6. 16-Ch.Relay Module : 140DRA 84000
7. DC O/ P Module : 140DDO 84300
8. A/C O/P Module : 140DAO 84210
9. Dig ital I/P Module : 140DAI 55300
The configuration diagram of the new system is shown in the Annexure – II.
6. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
We have checked all the modules for its healthiness well before the start of the overhaul itself. For this a set-up has
been made at site for checking the Power supply, Processor, commun ication modules, I/O cards, Backp lane, etc.
With the help of this set up, we have checked the healthiness all the modules, change-over of relay contacts, power
supplies, load current withstanding capacity of Digital O/P cards, LED status indications of Digital I/P cards and
some main logics of the program by simu lating the inputs.
Co mmissioning activities were started immediately after the shut-down of the unit. Activities started with the
removing of the existing Gould Modicon controllers and other associated I/O racks. Then the required cables have
been laid between marshaling panel and I/O modules. The following works and checks were carried out during the
commissioning period:-
1. Cables fro m marshaling Terminal Blocks (TB) to PLC I/ O modules were checked.
2. Ferru ling and cable terminations were checked both at marshaling TB side and I/ O module side.
3. Cold loop checking of cables has been done fro m marshaling TB to I/ O module side.
4. Processor powered-up and Program loading has been done.
5. Hot loop checking of the PLC system has been carried out.
6. Testing of all PLC logics has been done.
7. Magelis program has been checked by simu lating inputs from Magelis HMI screens of Unit Main (UP –
12) and Un it Redundant (UP – 11) processors.
8. Networking of Elevation Processors and Unit Processors through Modbus Plus connection has been
checked.
9. Modbus communicat ion for UP – 11 & UP – 12 has been provided and checked.
10. Individual Protections and Interlocks of all associated auxiliaries have been checked one-by-one.
165
And finally, just before the light-up of the unit, all the boiler protections were checked fro m the logics of both
Primary and Redundant processors with actual conditions. Everything went smooth without any problem and found
that the boiler protections were initiated as per the process requirements. The soft-copies of Primary and Redundant
logics have been made as Co mpact Disks and kept for future use.
7. ADVANTANGES
Here are some of the advantageous of retrofitted new PLC system over the old Gould Modicon system.
1. The present system is very compact, occupying very less space as compared to that of old one which is
very bulky.(Figures – 1 ,2, 3 & 4 and 5, 6, 7 & 8)
2. The new system has power supply redundancy for each rack, thereby reducing the risk of total system
failure due to power supply fluctuations/ failures. Old system has got only one power supply unit and
becomes very difficult to replace the same in the event of failure.
3. Original ladder logics were based on DOS, very difficult to distinguish the status of inputs, etc. Whereas
the new system is based on Concept Software running on Windows. Hence, the ladder logics can be very
easily monitored, edited or mod ified at any level.
4. Because the system is running on Windows, diagnosis and fault finding becomes very easy.
5. New System has both Modbus and Modbus Plus communication. With this Modbus plus communication
all the elevation processor s and the Unit Processors can communicate with Engineer workstation with a
single network cable.
6. By using 32 bit input and 16 bit output cards, the number of I/O cards got reduced thereby the remote I/O
drop also incorporated in the Main Racks.
7. The system is having a Magelis MMI, through which it is possible to modify the control system parameters
using discrete commands. It also displays the data from the control system. (Figures -9 & 10)
8. The new system enables the entire program to monitor and control from Unit Control Boards, if it is
attached with a SCADA MMI software and OWS. Also, with the help of SCADA a mimic o f the process
parameters can easily be viewed, especially during emergencies and unit lighting-up conditions.
9. As both the systems of Elevation Processors and Unit Processors became similar now, interchangeability of
modules became possible, thereby reducing the inventory of keeping spares of different modules of Gould
Modicon System and Quantum PLC system.
10. The major advantage with the system is that the reliability and availab ility of the entire FSSS has been
ensured continuously. The system is performing very well without reporting a single problem t ill date.
GLOSSARY
CE - Co mbustion Engineering
FSSS - Furnace Safeguard Supervisory System
PLC - Programmable Logic Controller
SCA DA - Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
MMI - Man Machine Interface
HMI - Hu man Machine Interface
OWS - Operator Work Station
UP - Un it Processor
DOS - Disk Operating System
I/O - Input/ Output
166
Figure – 1 Figure – 2
Figure – 3 Figure - 4
(Ol d MODICON system looking bulky and occupying l arge space.)
167
(New system, very compact and looking good)
MAGEL IS MMI
168
8. CONCLUS ION
Obsolescence is the major threat to many of the old Control & Instrumentation Systems. As the technology is getting
updated/improved day by-day, it will be very difficult to change the entire Control System with the State-of the Art
Technology. The performances of all the control system will get deteriorated with the ageing of modules/cards used
in it. Retrofitting with a latest system is an excellent and economical solution where the age-old control systems can
be easily modified without much difficulty.
With the experience we had with the retro fitting works of Un it – 6, we are p lanning to imp lement the same in Unit –
5 also during the next overhaul period.
9. REFERENC ES.
1. Modicon Quantum Automation Series Reference Gu ide, volu me- 1 & 2.

2. Quantum Concept User Manual.
3. Gou ld Modicon 584M Manual.
4. FSSS interlocks & Protection documents.
10. OUR TEAM
1. Sri.N.Sreeku mar, Sr.Supdt.

2. Sri.S.U.Haridas, Supdt.
3. Sri.G.Chittibabu, Dy .Supdt.
4. Sri.San jay Ku mar Rai, Sr.Engr
5. Sri.Ravi Nanadan Rai, Engr.
6. Sri.B.Veerabhadra Rao, Sr. Technician.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We here by convey our sincere acknowledgements to Sri.D.J.Saha, DGM(C&I-I/C) and Sri.CVB.Subrahmanyam,

Sr.Supdt(C&I), for their amp le guidance and valuable suggestions in completing our mission successfully. Also, our
special thanks to Sri.V.Ganesh, DGM (BE), whose guidance helped us to make this paper. Finally, our sincere
gratitude to all, who have directly or indirectly helped us for accomplishing the task.
169
ANNEXUR E – I (OLD S YS TEM CONFIGURATION)
UNIT PRIMARY
UP-12
CH - 5 CH - 6
1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5
2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6
3 7 3 7
P 421
3 7 3 7
P 421
4 8 4 8 4 8 4 8
J 200
CH – 7 (REMOTE I/O)
1 5 1 5
2 6 2 6
3 7 3 7
P 451
4 8 4 8
UNIT REDUNDANT
UP-11
CH - 3 CH - 4
1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5
2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6
3 7 3 7 3 7 3 7
P 452
P 421
4 8 4 8 4 8 4 8
170
POWER SUPPLY POWER SUPPLY POWER SUPPLY POWER SUPPLY
DAI CPU DAI CPU
DAI DAI DAI DAI

UP – 12 (PRIMARY)
DAI DAI DAI DAI
UP – 11(REDUNDANT)
1 6
1 6
DAI DAI DAI DAI
DDO DAI DAO DAI
DDO DAO DAO DDO
S L O T
S L O T
DDO DAO DAO DDO
171
DDO DAO DAO DDO
DDO DRA DRA DDO
DDO SPARE DRA DDO
SPARE SPARE DRA DDO
B A C K P L A N E
B A C K P L A N E
SPARE SPARE DRA DDO
SPARE SPARE DRA DDO
XBE XBE XBE XBE
POWER SUPPLY POWER SUPPLY POWER SUPPLY POWER SUPPLY

ANNEXUR E – II (NEW S YS TEM CONFIGURATION)
TACKLING OBSOLESCENCE IN CONTROL SYSTEMS OF POWER
PLANT
Romesh Khaddar Arun Tiwary
Engr. O&M-C&I, NTPC Simhadri Engr. O&M-C&I, NTPC Simhadri
ABSTRACT
In this rapidly growing world of technology, even the latest and most advanced control systems soon become
obsolete. There was a time when interlocks were hard-wired limit ing complexit ies of control thus reducing
efficiency. But the advent of computer based systems eventually brought about a sea-change in efficiency,
maintenance equipment and systems. Technology is growing at such a fast rate, it is becoming difficult to find
spares for older systems due to lack in support from Orig inal Equip ment Manufacturer (OEM), leading to
complete Renovation and Modernisation (R&M) of the system. Ho wever, if the support is available for existing
system, it is quite expensive because either the technology has totally changed or manufacturers of the system
went out of business entirely. This creates a need to develop an obsolescence management plan in current
scenario.
The focus of this plan is all those systems which were atleast a decade old at the time of p rocurement. In our
many NTPC plants we have Pro-control as Digital Distributed Control and Monitoring and Informat ion System
(DDCMIS) and Work Station based Process Operator Supervisory Environ ment (WSPOSE) as Man Machine
Interface (MMI), both supplied by BHEL. These systems are using networking, hard ware and software
technologies which are already obsolete and unavailable in market. Thus maintenance of these systems is
nowadays a costly affair. So Plants are going for co mplete R&M to remain co mmercially operable, with
reduction in short term profits.
In view of above problems, What if we can seamlessly integrate the latest technologies of networking, co mputer
hardware and software in our present systems? What if the level of security is improved? What if achieving all
above simu ltaneously and limit ing the expenditure on maintenance and upgrade?
The solution to all the questions above is dealt with in this paper. It analyses the best approach for reduction in
cost of procuring the system upgrade and saving the cost on Annual Maintenance Contract (AMC).
INTRODUCTION
The rate of development of

silicon technology is described by
Moore’s Law, which states that
“the number of transistors that
can be placed inexpensively on
an integrated circuit has doubled
approximately every two years”.
Hence the number of calculations
doubles every two years. This in
turn is tied up with a sequence of
events which encourage major
improvements in all the
supporting technology, thereby
empowering developers of end
user applications to bring major
changes in usability of the system
172
with enhanced configurability and control.
Since the growth trend of semiconductor technology is exponential in nature, it d idn’t occur init ially that
managing support for older products will be so difficult. Even the companies like Microsoft went public with
the statement that “One cannot imag ine any user will need more than 64MB of RAM and 4GB of hard drive
ever” and we now use vista which needs 4GB of RAM and 8GB o f space on hard disk for installation and
smooth functioning. All this made the manufacturers wary of supporting their older products for very long as it
was economically inconceivable, thus leading to obsolescence.
At many process industries, the general trend is to buy products which have proven themselves in terms of
stability, quality and performance over the years. And in case of critical process industries like Power Plants this
becomes an important eligib ility criterion. For examp le, the NTPC Po licy states that no DCS for Bo iler and
Turbine is to be bought before it has been proven for 10 years in the market. Thus, a situation is created where
trade off between time remain ing for obsolescence of products and assurance of the control equipment is to be
looked to. And the winner has always been with the product having record of stability and performance.
PROB LEM DEFINITION
Hence this tilt towards ‘record of stability and performance’ leads us to a very important problem, the problem
of buying a technology that is atleast a decade old but couldn’t be dealt with due to obvious nature of criticality
in process. So is this a problem? No, it is a mere fact which couldn’t be overlooked. The real problem lies in
buying systems without platform independent technologies even today. If broken furthermore, it shows that to
tackle obsolescence we need to consider the synergy between technical advances in these three primary areas:
1. Co mputer Hardware
2. Operating System
3. Co mmunicat ion Hard ware and Protocols.
Together these three parts of control system provide us the user Interface (UI) which needs attention as
obsolescence of these parts renders us in a tight position of inefficient monitoring.
The result is slowly revealing itself about which we will discuss in this paper and outline our method based on
what had been done at STPP to tackle it.
WHAT HAS B EEN DONE TILL NOW...
Typically the working of MMI

system is as shown in diagram:
The Initptab software provided with

procontrol by BHEL was a very
responsive SCADA. Its Server
communicated to the control system
by “cheapernet” protocol, a
predecessor of Ethernet. Cheapernet
was communication over coaxial
cable with a speed of 10kbps. During
the period of development of
Procontrol system, Ethernet was also
developing, and market was afloat with 15 pin D-type connector. By the time NTPC adopted the system, the RJ-
173
45 connector started becoming popular. Slowly the market shifted towards newer developments in
communicat ion protocol and hardware. The newer PC’s bought didn’t support the old cable slot. NTPC
continued to work on the older systems with a card of cheapernet, which became obsolete and spares became
costlier and hard to find.
Initptab came with MSSQL server 7 enterprise edition. The problem with the later generations of OS was that
the application could not be ported to the later versions primary reason was the incompatible server software.
This limited the upgrade of Server PC’s and older systems had to be maintained as spare. All these situations
implied the need for AM C.
But at NTPC Simhadri, a few steps had been taken with deeper knowledge of the systems and current market
technologies with an eye on future trends and timely decision. The result is we now run initptab server software
on Windows Server 2003, and clients with Microsoft Vista OS, use Ethernet as communication protocol and RJ-
45 connector. In other words, C&I O&M dept. have tackled the problem of obsolescence till now.
During installation of M SSQL Server 7, it doesn’t give a specific value in system’s registry. In the later versions
of Windows OS, due to security concern, a new value was incorporated in the registry settings, failing which
server software would not be able to communicate and hence start. The key and its value was found out and
edited in new OS whenever a new server is installed.
In case of Hardware Obsolesce, the WSPOSE network interface card communication with Server was with
Cheapernet i.e, with coaxial cable. Th is comm. card is provided with a Cheapernet cum 15pin D Ethernet option
with a sway switch. The NIC card with the server was 5V PCI slot BNC card. But this technology is obsolete in
new generation hardware of Servers and PCs. So to migrate to new generation of servers & PC’s a suitable
Ethernet transceiver was searched which convert 15pin D Ethernet to standard Ethernet RJ45 connection. As
RJ45 is very popular in present scenario, thus we could be able to overcome the bottle neck in co mmunicat ion
thus avoiding the hardware obsolesce.
But does this solve our problem permanently? Immaterial of whichever control software we bring, or the latest
hardware, due to the system that we follow and its crit ical nature the answer is “NO”. Then what is the bar
which has to be looked forward to for fighting obsolescence?
In our opinion the answer lies in these four methods:
1. Open Source
2. Emu lation and Virtualisation
3. Timely upgrade of interfacing hardware
4. Server Security and Other Important Train ings
COMPUTER HARDWARE & OPERATING S YSTEM
Co mputers evolve, and nowadays we expect them to get faster, more capable and cheaper with every new
model. And the manufacturers have not disappointed us. They have not simp ly added speed but a bulk of
features, which inadvertently outdate some fundamental characteristics of our older computer hardware.
Features like the ability to address more than 1 megabyte of memory may prevent a program fro m running if it
was written before computers had this ability. On the other hand the OS depends a lot on what type of hardware
it addresses to. They also evolve as the capacity of the machine increases to handle more co mplicated tasks
increases. This makes them vulnerable to obsolete hardware.
But there is also another side of the story. In power plants we still use computers which have 8-bit or 16-bit
processors. Nowadays computers are typically 32-bit or 64-bit word lengths. Often they have dropped their
174
ability to execute programs written for 8-bit or 16-bit co mputers. Most computer manufacturers have ceased
production of such machines. In fact all co mputers manufactured today will get obsolete in next 5 years. What
was once ‘revolution’, is now just ‘evolution’.
In most of our power plants we use software applications which run only on Windows95/98. These applications
have specific file formats which cannot run on latest versions of windows. Migrating to a new format is very
challenging, expensive and requires fu ll visual and operational verificat ion. So to save the application fro m
getting obsolete, the operating system upon which it is dependent must be saved as well.
The entire scenario above asks for a solution that is more adaptable, co mpatib le, long lived and most
importantly cheaper. Hence for this the objective is use of open source OS and applications, primarily our
solutions are as follows:
1. Using Open Source OS
2. Virtualisation
3. Linu x with a Binary emu lator like W ine.
4. Getting a SCADA based on open source OS
1. Using Open S ource OS
A norm widely known to be picking

up lately because of its tremendous
advantages is Open Source OS. The
basic idea behind open source is very
simp le. When programmers can
read, redistribute, and modify the
source code for a piece of software,
the software evolves. People
improve it; people adapt it; people
fix bugs. As nearly everyone knows,
open source software is a low cost
alternative to proprietary software.
For example, the open source Linu x
operating system is commonly seen
as a low cost alternative to Microsoft's Server 2003 operating system, or Sun's version of Un ix.
· Reduced dependence on software vendors

· Lower total cost of ownership
· Easier to customize
· Higher level of security
The benefits of open source software are nu merous. In a process similar to peer review in the scientific
community, open source code can be analyzed, audited, and vetted by dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of
concerned practitioners. Bugs and other aberrations can be quickly discovered and patched, creating a
substantial disincentive for programmers to place back doors, Trojan Horses, and other kinds of malicious code
in their p rograms. In this way, open source software can be more trustworthy than proprietary software.
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2. Virtualizati on
Virtualizat ion is a technique for using

computing resources and devices in a
completely functional manner
regardless of their physical layout or
location. This includes splitting a
single physical computer into mult iple
"virtual" servers, making it appear as
though each virtual machine is running
on its own dedicated hardware and
allo wing each to be rebooted
independently.
A virtual machine is a tightly isolated

software container that can run its own
operating systems and applications as
if it were a physical co mputer. A
virtual machine behaves exactly like a
physical computer and contains it own
virtual (i.e. software-based) CPU,
RAM hard disk and network interface card (NIC).
An operating system can’t tell the difference between a virtual mach ine and a physical machine, nor can
applications or other computers on a network. Even the virtual mach ine thinks it is a “real” co mputer.
Nevertheless, a virtual machine is composed entirely of software and contains no hardware components
whatsoever. As a result, virtual machines offer a number of distinct advantages over physical hardware.
Virtual mach ines offer the fo llo wing advantages:
· They're compati ble wi th all Intel x86 computers.

· They're isolated from one another, just as if they were physically separate.
· Each is a complete, encapsul ated computing environment.
· They're essentially independent of the underlyi ng hardware.
· They're created using existing hardware.
WSPOSE in windows 2000 v irtual machine on host –UBUNTU9.10
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In a single desktop we can run multip le virtual operating systems isolated from one another. They can run their
own set of applications separately. It saves cost of hardware infrastructure and reduces the power demand of the
control systems. In tackling obsolescence virtualization proves to be very beneficial. We can use the age old
applications which used to run only on Windows 95/98, on operating systems like linu x and on newer version of
windows like W indows XP or Windows 7 with better hardware configurations with the help of virtual
mach ines.
Open source software and operating systems will play a major ro le in tackling obsolescence in future. Because
once we have the source code of the applications, we can easily modify the codes according to our hardware
needs. So we have successfully run the virtual machine of windows 2000 professional on an open source
operating system called UBUNTU9.10 and installed the application WSPOSE with MS-SQL. In the same way
we can run the several applications of TSI, TSC in same platform of Windows 95/98 using virtual machines.
These virtual mach ines provide all the virtual hardware needed by these applications like floppy Disk Image,
CD/DVD-ROM, USB devices and NETWORK Adapters.
3. Linux with Wine
Wine is a program which allo ws the operation of DOS and MS Windows programs (Windows 3.x and Win32
executables) on UNIX. It consists of a program loader, wh ich loads and executes a Windows binary, and a
lib rary that implements Windows API calls using their UNIX or Linu x equivalents. The library may also be
used for porting Win32 code into native UNIX executables. We can run any type windows applications Ms-
office, media players, games etc.
Each MS Windows application running under Wine will be running in its own X window and its own portion of
reserved memory. If one MS Windows application crashes, it will not crash the other MS Windows or UNIX
applications that you may have running at the same time. W ine is being developed specifically to run on the
Intel x86 classes of CPUs under certain UNIXes that run on the x86 p latforms. UNIXes currently being tested
for Wine co mpatibility include Linu x, Net BSD, FreeBSD and Unixware.
By running WSPOSE & MS SQL in wine on Linu x, it can solve the problem of obsolescence for as long as the
life of power p lant which will save a hefty sum of money on R& M.
4. SCADA on open source OS
There are few co mpanies which are providing SCADA for open source platforms along with security packages,
for example, RTA P (SCADA on Open Source OS) and OpenSCADA (Open Source SCADA). Th is provides us
an opportunity, which wasn’t available till now, to switch to better systems which offer better control over the
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problem of obsolescence. Switching to open
source SCADA is even mo re beneficial as its
constant use will provide good insight into
the possible problems and henceforth we can
secure ourselves by tweaking or developing
or outsourcing the problem. All this will
significantly reduce the licensing,
duplication and AMC fee for the SCADA of
DDCMIS and various PLC’s, also going for
a proprietary SCADA on open source
platform will save cost on OS and its
upgrade thereby ending up saving
considerably on R&M if required inevitably.
This will be possible because there will be
an update to communicate to new systems as
it is the basic principle of open source. These SCADA systems have been installed at certain premises over the
world in industries ranging fro m water management to power, oil and gas management. This proves that such
systems are now being taken seriously and hence can be though over for their advantages over obsolescence.
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS AND HARDWARE
In any process the main focus is always in the way how its constituent elements commun icate. Because of its
distributed nature certain rules have to be followed, wh ich define the co mmon method to transmit and identify
data with least error, thereby allowing total control over the authenticity of process as well as control known as
protocol. In this data hungry world, loads of data have to be transferred easily, efficiently and extremely fast.
Therefore there is constant progress in the world of commun ication with newer and efficient algorithms and
protocols. Till date we have roughly 38 network protocols in the bottom 3 layers categorized by their
nearest Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model layers, though most of them are originally based on TCP/IP
suite.
Similarly co mmunicat ion hardware is also changing fro m initial telephone wire connections to Wi-Fi and
WiMAX as the popular modes. Also new PC’s are fitted with new hardware and slowly the older hardware
starts phasing out. Therefore, one has to be cautious with timeline of latest improvements in communicat ion
hardware as in this way one can buy necessary hardware for conversion fro m one protocol to another. The
availability of this kind of hard ware depends on two important factors viz., its market penetration and time
elapsed before the induction of new hardware. An examp le of this is applied at NTPC Simhadri, where an
passive powered 15 pin D-type Ethernet to RJ-45 type converter was bought with a long wait of search at
various places. And interestingly it was found but after a search of 4 to 6 months. Hence we can conclude that
whenever a technology shift occurs, a supportive conversion should be bought as insurance in the crit ical path of
the network.
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SAVINGS BREAKDOWN
Huge amount of savings can be done by applying the above solution. To classify it under very big and mediocre
savings, one can save on these points for :
Major Savi ngs:
Savings on Old Obsolete Hard ware AM C per year
Saving by increasing the maturity date for R&M per year
Saving by avoiding pre-mature R&M per year
Mi nor Savi ngs:
Saving on buying license of new Proprietary OS (Examp le MS W indows) every 2-3 years
Saving on upgrading Proprietary server software (Examp le: MS Server) every 3-4 years
Saving on installation of patches for SCADA on OS upgrade every 2-3 years
Saving on using open source server software over buying proprietary ones (Eg: MySQL) wh ich are absolutely
free.
CONCLUS ION
The difficulty is often not with the new ideas, but in escaping from old ones. Open source is widely acclaimed
for its adaptability and low cost, but with the above solution using tools like virtual bo x, wine and open source
SCA DA, aligns itself into new domain of obsolescence management. This solution is however incomplete
without consideration of most important resource – manpower, as adaptation of new technology needs
appropriate training. Using the manpower for generating new ideas & concepts by providing necessary training
& skills can not only grapple the problem of obsolescence will also set a benchmark in maintenance for future.
REFERENCES
www.winehq.org
www.linu x.org
www.wikipedia.org
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
P. Suneel Ku mar (Dy. Supdt. O&M-C&I, NTPC Simhadri) for his work in applying methods summarised under
heading “Work done till now at Simhadri” and immense amount of help in helping us in familiarisation with the
system.
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IEC 61850 BASED DISTRIBUTION AUTOMATION SYSTEM
Yogesh Bhamare,
Head-Engineering, Distribution Automation
ABB Limited, Vadodara
ABSTRACT
The Power Industry is in the midst of a transformation process – from being Energy suppliers to
becoming Energy Service Companies. Everyday the Distribution Utilities face new challenges and
have to improve productivity and reduce operating costs and maintenance costs whilst providing
customers wit h a reliable power supply and a broad range of services. To achieve rapid success
the effective use of Information Technology is essential.
The demand-supply gap in power in India is growing more and more which may give rise t o a
power crisis. It is thus imperative that power utilities look at increasing efficiencies in distribution
networks, whic h have among the highest transmission and distribution losses in the world at
close to and upwards of 30 per cent. In addition, the social pricing for rural and other sectors puts
an increasing pressure on utilities to improve productivity as also reduce operating and
maintenance costs to remain financially viable.
With the advanc es in t elecom & IT, the new millennium has leapfrogged into a revolution in
networking and communication technologies to offer automation as a solution to improve
distribution efficiencies. Distribution Management System is a tool for enterprise-wide
management of an electric utility system. In other words, an ERP for an electric utility that,
properly applied, provides for efficient operations enhances operational out puts and translat es
into economic benefits.
NEED TO AUTOMATE
Existing distribution systems have certain inherent inefficiencies due to their legacy. For one,
most systems are monitored manually. This results in maintenance taking place only during
breakdowns. The present system also does not ensure reliable and complete power system and
usage information t hat can facilitate trend forecasting or help the utility in better analysis and
planning. New challenges are faced, as imposed by t he deregulation of the energy markets,
greater environmental concern and the proliferation of open information systems.
SCADA S YSTEMS
Internationally, power generation, and power transmission and distribution attract equal
investments. In India too, in the last couple of years, utilities have started investing increasingly in
various distribution automation tools for both cost reduction and service benefits.
One major tool available for power utilities is the Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
(SCA DA) system. SCADA refers to a system that enables an electric utility to remotely monitor,
coordinate, control and operat e distribution components, equipment and devices in a real-time
mode from remote locations with acquisition of dat a for analysis, and planning from one central
location.
Distribution automation through SCADA systems directly leads to increased reliability of power for
the cons umers and lower operating costs for the utility. It results in forecasting accurate demand
and supply management; faster restoration of power in c ase of a downt urn and a quick, alternate
arrangement for power for important/emergency locations.
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TRENDS IN THE FI ELD OF SUBSTATI ON AUTOMATION S YSTEMS
Before the introduction of microprocessor-based equipment and serial communication in

substations, protection, control and monitoring were handled separately by different, dedicated
pieces of equipment and resulted in the responsibilities being split between various departments
inside the organisations of utilities as well as of the suppliers.
With the first deployment of serial communication in substations, the separation between
protection, control and monitoring did at first not change significantly. But very quickly users
requested a common protocol inside the substation. The first approach in this respect has been
made by the introduction of IE C 60870-5-103 as informative interfac e for protection devic es. This
protocol is not only restricted to information but also to some protection functions only. In addition,
it led to a high temptation t o use the privat e part of the prot ocol, which was int ended for the
purposes of ensuring backward compatibility only, for supplier-specific extensions instead.
The development in communication and microprocessor technologies, i.e. with the introduction of
the serial communication on the one side, and with the facility to provide numerical multifunctional
equipment on the other, has led to a change in the approach to substation automation solutions.
In order to optimise a system and to reduce costs, the integration of more and more functions into
less and less devices was proposed and has become an ongoing trend. Different functions such
as protection, control or monitoring may be combined in one common device e.g. in a bay unit
covering all the functionality needed at bay level. Consequently, the specification of such systems
including all applications had to be changed fundamentally. Today, the entire functionality
provided for protection, control and monitoring of a substation is not handled separately anymore,
but typically contained in one common and consistent system.
This also raises the need for more information exchange bet ween all specialists involved in
substation automation and protection and t herefore inc reas es the pressure for a common
communication protocol. All these needs and trends were merged into the new standard IEC
61850 „Communication Networks and Systems in Substations“.
BASI CS ABOUT THE STANDARD I EC 61850
The general scope of the standard is designed to support the communication of all functions
being performed in the substation.
Its’ main goal is interoperability; this is the ability for IEDs ( Intelligent Electronic Device- Bay unit )
from one or different manufacturers to exchange information and use the information for their own
functions.
Moreover, the standard allows a free allocation of these functions and accepts any system
philosophy, from a distributed architecture (e. g. decent ralised substation automation) to a
centralised configuration (e.g. RTU based).
The standard separates the functionality represented by the data model and the related
communication services from the communication implementation (stack). This mak es the
standard future-oriented, taking into consideration that the development in the communication
technology is moving quicker than the development of the functionality in the field of s ubstation
automation including protection.
Each IE C 61850-compliant IE D may be configured using its dedicated tool. However, all these
IED-tools have to be compliant with IEC 61850. This means that the reading, handling, and
writing of configuration files has to be according to the S ubstation Configuration description
Language (SCL) of IE C 61850 as regards the standardized data model, the data access
(services) and all communication connections. This allows the system integrator to use
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understandable data from all devices (independently of the supplier) to build the complete system
and to assure dat a consistency.
ADV ANTAGES FOR THE US ERS / UTILITI ES
The new global standard IE C 61850 comprehensively addresses customer requirements for fully
integrated substation automation systems and is therefore increasingly gaining acceptanc e with
utilities, industry and suppliers all around the world.
The k ey benefits of IE C 61850, compared to the former IE C 60870-5-103, MODB US, DNP 3 and
most proprietary protoc ols:
· Speed of exchanges: 100 Mbps instead of few 10 k bps, enabling more data to be exchanged
for a better operation or maintenanc e of the system,
· Interoperability between IE Ds of different brands
· Peer-to-peer links, replacing conventional wires with no extra hardware but and also
permitting the design of innovative automation schemes,
· Client -server relations offering flexible solutions easy to upgrade compared to master slave
communications,
· Object oriented pre-defined names, creating a single vocabulary between users, suppliers
and supplier’s devic es therefore facilitating the system integration and commissioning,
· XML interfaces referencing the above objects for straight forward exchanges between
engineering tools in order to optimise the data consistency and minimise project lead times.
· Communication conformance tests that help reducing the variety of interpretation found in
many legacy protocols and leading to long integration tests and tuning.
· The int egration of third party equipment is facilitated and the use of a common language
(SCL) avoids ambiguities.
· Investment for the future - Engineering dat a stored as SCL files can be reused, e.g. in case of
extensions (additional bays) or refurbis hment.
As the new standard IE C 61850 covers all communication needs within a substation, it also
defines the communication to and from the process level, especially the transporting of samples
(“process bus”). At the time being, most products available on the market cover the “station bus”
only (all communication functions without the transfer of samples) but products supporting the
process bus will come out very soon. Therefore, choosing IE C 61850 as communication standard
means for the user to also keep the doors open for further optimization possibilities like usage of
unconventional current and voltage trans formers.
The data model of the standard is an object–oriented one, grouping the data into the smallest
possible sets referring to the smallest possible functions to be implemented independently. These
smallest possible data groups or functions are named Logical Nodes. The Logical Nodes and all
Data and Attributes contained are named according to a standardis ed semantic, which is
mandatory.
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Examples of the s ame are, all data of a circuit breaker contained in the Logical Node CSWI or all
data of a timed over current protection contained in the Logical Node P TOC. As outlined in Figure
2 all the Logical Nodes have data, and all the data have attributes. For example, the LN class
CSWI has a data called Position, with one attribut e which indicates the position On / off.
Figure 1 – Data model and naming
THE IEC 61850 P ROJECT EXPERI ENCES
Distribution Automation system based on IEC 61850 implemented at NTPC Limited, India’s
largest power company for their R&M project of medium voltage switchgear of 210 MW Unit 1 & 2
at Feroze Gandhi Unchahar Power Station.
After almost thirty years in operation, the primary and secondary equipment of Unit, Station and
offsite boards needed to be replaced in steps over two-year period.
The solution chosen is based on ABB’s state-of-t he-art IE C61850 compliant IE D’s for protection
and control of each bay and latest station HMIs. The system’s fault-t olerant ring configuration
using Ethernet switches with dual power supplies interconnects all IE Ds. GOOSE messaging is
used for software interlocks, auto-transfer as well as reverse blocking scheme. The complete
retrofit job, including the retrofit of breakers and instrument compartment of s witchgear, is
supplied by ABB as a package.
PROJECT REQUI REMENTS
Reliable overall refurbishment of 267 s witchgear bays, had to be performed with minimal service
interruption and within a highly critical time span. A future-proof retrofit concept was required for
the switchgear as well as for the automation and protection system so that they meet today’s and
tomorrow’s requirements in terms of efficient operation, high functionality and open integration. A
sustainable migration strat egy should ensure smooth t ransition t o the new t echnology. It should
allow selective refurbishment of components to suit operational and ec onomic needs as well as
freedom of choice in manufacturers for further refurbishment projects and future extensions.
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REFURBISHMENT
A stepwise procedure was applied equally to the switchgear and the distribution automation and
protection equipment. Generally for one switch board of 18-20 bays, the refurbishment was done
in 15-18 days time intervals. The refurbishment total 14 nos. of such switchboards of Unit, Station
and Offsite area’s were done.
· The solution for the switchgear
For the retrofit, the most proven “HPA” type of breaker was chosen.
Each breaker was fully factory-tested and could be installed and retrofitted in the existing
minimum oil breaker chamber within a minimum of time.
· The solution for the distribution automation system
System architecture - The system architecture designed to all the six substations is conceptually
shown in Figure 1.
Statio n H MI
DDC MIS ( DCS ) S yste m Remo te Mai nte nance

( Web H MI )
Data OPC Connectivity

Conce ntra tor
GPS
Receiv er
WAN
IEC 61850
100 Mbit/s Ethernet Fiber Optic Ring Ethernet Switch Ethernet Switch
Ethernet Switch Ethernet Switch Ethernet Switch
Numerical IED’s mounted in Switchboard Numerical IED’s mounted in Switchboard Numerical IED’s mounted in Switchboard
Figure 2 - System Architecture
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Bay level - During the stepwise refurbishment of the bays, new IEC 61850-compliant cont rol and
protection IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices) were installed along with new instrument
compartment.
The IE Ds provided for each bay is cable of providing functions like protection, control,
measurement, control and condition monitoring functions.
Due to IE D’s built in logic building capability along with PLC functionality substantial reduction in
panel wiring / use of auxiliary relays etc has been achieved. The condition monitoring functions
available in IED like current & voltage transformer supervision, trip circuit supervision breaker
wear helps to foresee the coming errors / problems in auxiliary equipments.
All the process dat a including analog measurements, status signals, alarms etc are acquired from
the IE D’s. The various signals from s witchgear like on-off, test-service, position, spring charged
indication etc. are wired to digital inputs of IE D which in turn made available over the
communication.
Network level - An IEC 61850-compliant Ethernet switches with priority tagging, having EMI /
EMC compliance and suitable for substation environment such as operational temperature range
and the auxiliary supply from the station battery were used.
All IEDs are connected to switches over star topology. Different s witches are connected in a ring,
with full optical connections forming the backbone of the communication system. All switches are
managed type, to enable the reprogramming of the network in case of failure.
Station level - The highest level in the substation consists of Data concent rator a computer
without moving parts, running the S CADA application. This application provides all features
needed to fully control and monitor the installation like E vent and Alarm Lists, Single Line
pictures, bay pictures, Commands to primary apparatus, measurement parameters. The SCADA
application is running on top of a Windows XP Embedded© operative system (OS).
The station HMI supports display of pictures and dialogs. The following data is displayed on the
monitor for this application.
· Single line diagrams wit h bus bar coloring

· Data acquisition - Furnishes Status information and measurands data to the operator
· Time tagged event and alarm list - Alerts the operator of unplanned events and undesirable
operating conditions in the order of their severity and criticality
· Breaker control – Allows the operator to control the devic es like circuit breakers, transformer
Tap changers etc., from a remote cent ralized location
· Energy Monitoring – Reports and Trend curves, reports of power c onsumption different loads
eg. motors etc / plots measurements on selected scale to give information on the trends
· IED parameter setting changes
· Disturbance record upload – uploading of wave form disturbance rec ord data from IED and
analysis of the same
Remote DCS connecti vity - The provision of communication to the DCS ( DDCMIS ) system
was implement ed using the OP C DA. The important status, events and measurands data are
mapped for communication with DCS. Provision of cont rol of all the primary equipment of the
installation kept from DCS.
Remote Maintenance – The provision is available for customer, in order to make its own Remote
Maintenance operations. The connection from the remote engineering offices can be made by a
dial-up modem or using the same Ethernet structure of the company, which is preferable due to
the largest bandwidth.
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Remotely, maint enance teams can access each IE D in the substation, checking for example
event and error logs, change settings of Protection Functions, access switch’s alarm lists or
download a historic event list from a predefined day, from S CADA application. Basically, all active
elements that are connected to the Loc al Network are remotely accessible for diagnosis and
correction purposes, which is bringing a major advant age since it avoids time and cost consuming
trips of maintenance teams to the installations.
THE ENGI NEERING WORK FLOW
Engineering of the system first started with the specification phase, getting all available
documents from customer, and analyzing the previous projects. Then it was made a compilation
of all functions, signal lists and other elements, from the existing project that could be migrated
and used in the new system.
The “informal” information from the specification is translated into the “formal” description using
the standardized Substation Configuration description Language S CL. The formal description
warrants a high quality of work, ensures int egrity and consistency during the entire
implementation process, from the general system design to the final commissioning, facilitating
the corresponding checks in each step of t he project exec ution. With this formal system
documentation, the engineering work remains “memorised” and can be reused at any time for
adaptations, extensions and also refurbishment.
The engineering process using S CL files has been indicated below :
Figure 3 - Engineering process using SCL files
The Substation Configuration Language (S CL) is based on XML and it contains different files :
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The specification requirement is formally specified in a System Specification Description file
(SSD). The SSD file is used to describe the single line diagram and the allocated functions
(feeder block diagram). This replaces the traditional signal list, the elements of a signal list being
the data of logical nodes.
The capabilities of an IEC 61850 compliant device (IED) are described in an IED Capability
Description (ICD) file. A vendor of devices claiming conformance to IEC 61850 has not only to
supply paper documentation like a data sheet but also an ICD file.
The SSD and ICD file of all IE Ds is imported in a system configuration tool, written according to
SCL and merged thes e by the system engineering process to a Substation Configuration
Description (SCD) file.
All the ICDs are properly selected hence, the data of all IEDs represented by the ICD files have
been fitted with the data in the SSD file. Since the data in the models represent only the source or
client part, the data is configured in data sets for the transmission by the appropriate services
(e.g. Report, GOOSE) and in so-called input sections of the SCL file, since the receiver side has
to be informed where the data needed for the functions coming from.
All data changes caused by the promotion of the IEDs from the shelf to integrat ed system
components, i.e. in minimum some addressing information, is downloaded to the IEDs.
The engineering time with new tools has been substantially reduced compared to old projects.
VERTICLE COMMUNI CATION
The Station HMI application is related to human operation of the network and is performed by a
local or remote operator. This type of communication is purely vertical, using a client-server
concept to implement the needed services: event and alarm reporting, commands to breakers
and other devices in the substation and File Transfer. The vertical communication is also
responsible for data transmission and receive commands from DCS.
Figure 4 – Vertical communication
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HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION
With the horizontal communication capability of IE Ds provided in the job, it is possible to

exchange data from one IE D directly to another. This feature is useful for example for
interlockings between different bays or for complex distributed functions that demands a
coordinated action of different IE Ds. In the IE C61850, horizontal communication is defined in
terms of Generic Object Oriented Substation E vent (GOOSE) mechanism.
Figure 5 – Horizontal communication
GOOS E Benefits - GOOSE messaging is one of the key benefits of IEC 61850 which in
comparis on with the traditional way of signal transfer between IEDs in a substation will bring
added value to customers in all aspects. The publisher-s ubscriber principle allows the IE Ds to
send and/or receive time critical data.
The GOOSE offers expandability and flexibility in terms of :
· Flexible modifications without changing the wiring between the IEDs

· No IE D I/Os are needed for the transfer of data between the IE Ds
· Reduced wiring bet ween the IEDs – cost effective
· Possible to add functionality like interlocking schemes bet ween t he c ubicles in existing
switchgear specifically in retrofit projects
The supervision function of the GOOSE service generates an alert, should the message not get
through, allowing appropriate repair measures to be taken immediately.
188
In the implemented systems, GOOSE messages were used for t he interlocking to build auto bus
transfer scheme bet ween 2 nos. Incomers and Bus coupler.
It was the necessity that the retrofit had to be performed with minimal service interruption and
within a highly critical time span. All engineering for the GOOSE communication
Goose is based on multicast messages directly mapped to the Ethernet, where a message sent
by one IED can be seen by several receivers. Due to the periodic send and to the fast repetition
mechanism when a data value changes, these messages are c onsidered truly reliable and this is
why they could be used for critical data exchange between bays.
The below Fig. 6. 1 shows the traditional protection architecture and way of transferring signals
between IEDs. The Fig. 6.2 shows the IEC 61850 protection architecture using GOOSE
messaging for trans ferring signals between IEDs.
Figure 6.1 – Traditional approach
Here wiring between the relays must be done individually for each signal, from bay device t o bay
devic e. An output signal can be shared, but inputs have to be individually used.
Figure 6.2 – GOOS E approach
Here interbay signals can be easily shared between bays without additional physical wiring.
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By using GOOSE messaging an operational speed gain of about 30% can be achieved by
comparis on with the operating speed of the classic, interlocking-based busbar protection
schemes. The speed advantage is entirely attained from the speed and reliability of the GOOSE
service.
Below Table 1.0 shows the comparative outlining the parameters affecting the speed of
interlocking based reverse blocking protection schemes.
Table 1.0 – Comparative outlining the parameters affecting the speed of interlocking
By using GOOSE messaging an operational speed gain of about 30% can be achieved by
comparis on with the operating speed of the classic, interlocking-based revers e blocking
protection schemes. The advantage is entirely attained from the speed and reliability of the
GOOSE service.
TESTING AND COMMISSIONING
Testing and commissioning were performed like in any other retrofit substation automation
system and concluded by Acceptance Tests.
The Factory Acceptance Testing (FA T) has to prove that the complete system fulfils the
properties specified in the c ontract between the manufacturer and t he user before it leaves the
factory. A set of IE Ds of each bay type is selected, and then connected to the Ethernet bus and to
station HMI, respecting what is the real system architecture. Typical tests are made for each bay,
in order to c heck the correct operation of the IE D, event report and HMI pictures. Missing parts
like switchgear or DCS were simulated.
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The Site Acceptance Testing (SA T) concludes commissioning and proves that the system fulfils
the contract before it goes into operation. All parts are normally available. The SA T may be split
into two important parts, i.e. into the tests of the
correct connection to the primary equipment
correct data transfer e.g. to places inside or outside the station like the DCS
IEC 61850 simplifies the SA T since by assuring a correct connection of all external interfac es, the
data consistency and the logical behavior of t he functions cannot deviate from the known FA T
state. Only the overall performance of some functions may be impacted by t he connection to the
external equipment. A gain, t he S CD-file can s upport the test proc edure. During commissioning
SAT were performed bay by bay.
DOCUMENTATION
Until now, the common practice shows that the final documentation is manually produced by the
system engineers. From now onward, the production of the final documentation of the system is
much more facilitated by the common use of the S ubstation Configuration Language (SCL). It can
be produced directly from the SCL files used for the engineering process. This brings an
enormous advantage for c ustomer, since all documentation received, will have a unique and
standard format for all different systems independently of the supplier.
CONCLUSIONS
The introduction of the standard IEC 61850 to the distribution automation systems is a positive
measure. Pre-defined solution concepts with a choice of functionality and hardware architectures
designed for various availability requirements are offered by various manufacturers to support
users with the efficient introduction of IEC 61850-based systems in their organizations.
Several additional benefits may be derived from the use of such type-tested, modular and
scalable solutions like:
- obtaining optimal designs fulfilling all requirements in terms of functionality in less time
- efficiency improvements from tendering to commissioning
- highest degree of devic e integration and use of device capabilities
- optimal performance
- better support
- high functionality, value and quality
- interfaces solved (internally as well as to other systems)
- increas ed reliability and dependability.
Suppliers with scalable and modular solutions offer the additional advantage of using pre-tested
functional packages that can be put together to build the optimal solution fulfilling the customers’
requirements. As there are always some special requirements from customers’ sides, this kind of
solutions shall allow adding those requirements to the predefined packages. The customer does
not need to think about the equipment inside the solution packages but can select the appropriate
functions for each particular solution.
191
The standard does not impose restrictive rules over many aspects – there is still a large functional
freedom for each vendor to explore. But it normalizes a set of elements from design, engineering
and verification, up to the system documentation.
It’s a future-proof solution because it takes in consideration the progress of technology and is
able t o follow it. Contains the interoperability advantage because it enables IEDs from different
vendors to exchange information and use it to implement correctly their own functions. Supports
different philosophies of operation and free allocation of functions.
From the customer point of view, it brings independency of single suppliers, capability to mix
devic es, competitive performance and cost savings in engineering and maintenance.
REFERECES
1. Ivan De Mesmaeker1, Peter Rietmann, Klaus-Peter Brand, Petra Reinhardt

Cigré SC B5 6th Regional CIGRÉ conference in Cairo, November 21 – 23, 2005
2. S. LAEDERACH*1, W. BAASS2, K.P. BRAND2, , P. REINHA RDT2

Experience with IE C 61850 in the refurbishment of an import ant European 380 k v substation,
CIGRE 2006, Paris
3. Carlos Caerano, Miguel Pernes, ABB S.A. Portugal, Introducing IEC61850 in Distribution
Substation, PowerGrid Europe, 26-28 June 2007, Madrid
192
NTPC’S INITIATIVES FOR INCREASING ASH UTILIZATION:
NEW SEGMENTS
J. Jha V. K. Mathur Dr. S. K. Dube

Executive Director, Head, Addl. General Manager,
Environment, Ash Ash Utilization Division, Ash Utilization Division,
Utilization and NTPC Ltd. NTPC Ltd.
Afforestation,
NTPC Ltd.
ABSTRACT
Electricity is an important and basic infrastructure for development of any country. In the
process of electricity generation, fly ash comes as a by-product. Today approximately125
million tonne of coal ash is produced every year from coal based thermal power stations in
India.
There are four types of coal ashes viz Bottom ash, Fly ash, Pond ash and Mound ash. Out of
the total ash, 80% is fly ash, which is an excellent pozzolanic material. This is suitable for use
in the production of Fly ash based Portland Pozzolana Cement. Good quality fly ash
conforming to IS: 3812-2003 is easily available from the ESPs or ash silos of power stations.
This can also be used for making Cement and Concrete in RMC plants. Already cement
manufacturers, ash based building product manufacturers and builders are taking fly ash from
power stations in large quantities. Addition of fly ash in concrete ensures less permeable and
more durable concrete. It also helps in reducing heat of hydration in mass concrete structures.
This paper deals with developmental studies taken up by NTPC to ascertain newer areas of
ash utilization viz. use of fly ash in Pre-stressed Railway Concrete Sleepers, Use of Pond ash
in the construction of Railway embankment, Use of fly ash in Bitumen Concrete road, Use of
ash with OB for mine filling, Geo-polymer based Fly ash bricks, Flux-bonded technology
based Fly ash bricks, Demonstration studies for use of fly ash in agriculture etc. for
enhancing ash utilization.
1.0 Introduction
Traditionally, ash generated in power plants is mixed with water to form slurry and is
pumped to ash dump areas. In the ash pond areas, the ash is allowed to settle and decanted
water is allowed to meet nearby natural water stream or re-circulated back. With the increase
in thermal power stations, the need for more and more land for ash dumping has put
tremendous pressure on availability of land and it has become more important to find
alternative ways of managing ash in environmental friendly manner.
2.0 Ash Formation in Thermal Powe r Station:
193
In thermal power plants during the combustion of pulverized coal particles, the mineral
matter present in coal gets converted into ash. The lighter particles of ash fly along with flue
gases and are trapped in Electrostatic Precipitator as fly ash whereas heavier particles settle
down at the bottom of furnace. There are four categories of ash normally available in Indian
power stations.
2.1 Bottom ash is collected at the bottom of boiler furnace as a result of coal combustion
activity. This is characterized by comparatively high carbon content and of coarser particles.
About 20% of total ash produced in thermal power station is collected in the form of bottom
ash.
2.2 Dry fly ash is collected from different rows of Electro Static Precipitators (ESP) in dry
form. This is characterized by lower un-burnt carbon content and finer particle size. This ash
comprises about 80% of total ash produced in a station.
2.3 Pond ash: The dry fly ash and bottom ash that remains unutilized is mixed with
water and pumped to ash pond in slurry form. Excess water is allowed to decant and the ash
remaining in the pond is termed as pond ash. Thus pond ash is a mixture of bottom ash and
fly ash.
2.4 Mound ash: Fly ash or bottom ash or both mixed in any proportion and conveyed or
carried in dry form and deposited dry is called Mound ash. In India, NTPC Dadri is the only
plant where Mound ash is available.
3.0 Properties of Coal ash:
Coal ash is a versatile material that can be used in a variety of applications. It’s pozzolanic
property makes it a useful resource for cement and concrete manufacturing. Its geo-technical
properties permit it to be used in areas like roads and embankment, structural fill, mine fill
etc.
The properties of ash largely depend on the chemical composition of source of coal, design
and efficiency of boiler, combustion process, coal grinding techniques employed, process of
ash collection and handling method and efficiency of Electrostatic precipitator.
3.1 Che mical Composition:
Coal ash contains large quantities of Silica, Alumina, and Iron oxides and small quantities of
other oxides. Generally Calcium Oxide (CaO) content of ash resulting from burning
bituminous coal is less than 10% and CaO content in the ash resulting from burning lignite
coal is more than 10%.
3.2 Physical Properties:
The majority of fly ash particles are glassy, solid or hollow, slightly to highly porous and
spherical in shape. The specific gravity falls within the range of 2.1 to 2.6 and dry density is
commonly found to be in the range of 950-1200 kg/m3 depending on the degree of
compaction. The particle size of fly ash generally ranges from 1 micron to 100 micron in
diameter of glassy spheres and 7 to 300 microns in diameter for angular carbon particles. In
194
terms of soil grain size analysis, most fly ash particles fall within the silt range, with small
percentages in the fine sand and clay sizes.
3.3 The Indian Standard Specifications: The Indian Standard IS 3812 (Part 1): 2003
(Second Revision) gives specifications for “Pulverized Fuel Ash –For Use as Pozzolana in
Cement, Cement Mortar and Concrete” and Indian Standard IS 3812 (Part 2): 2003
(Second Revision) gives specifications for “Pulverized Fuel As h –For Use as Admixture in
Cement and Concrete”. The Physical and Chemical properties of fly ash required for use in
Pozzolana and Admixtures as per IS 3812-2003 part I & II are given below:
3.31 Physical Properties:
Requirements for PFA

Sl. No. Characteristics Admixture in
Pozzolana
Cement Concrete
Fineness-Specific surface in m2 / kg by
1 320 200
Blaine’s permeability method, Min
Particles retained on 45 micron IS Sieve
2 34 50
(wet sieving) in percent, Max
Lime Reactivity-Average Compressive
3 4.5 NA
strength in N/mm2 , Min
Compressive strength at 28 days in *Not less than
4 NA
N/mm2 , Min 80%.
Soundness by autoclave test-Expansion
5 0.8 0.8
of specimen in %, Max
*Not less than 80% of the strength of corresponding Plain Cement mortar cubes
3.32 Che mical Properties:
Sl. As Pozzolana As Admixture

Characteristics
No.
Siliceous Calcareous Siliceous Calcareous
1 in % by
SiO2 + A l2 O3 + Fe2 O3
70 50 70 50
mass, Min
SiO2 in % by mass, Min
2 35 25 35 25
Reactive Silica in % by
3 20 20 NA NA
mass, Min
4 MgO in % by mass, Max 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
5 SO3 in % by mass, Max 3.0 3.0 5.0 5.0
6 Na2O in % by mass, Max 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Total chlorides in % by
7 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
mass, Max
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Sl. As Pozzolana As Admixture

Characteristics
No.
Siliceous Calcareous Siliceous Calcareous
8 LOI in % by mass, Max 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
4.0 Fly Ash a Versatile Material: There are a number of areas where ash could be utilized
such as Fly Ash Bricks, Embankment and Fills, Road Pavement, Portland Pozzolana Cement,
Cement Concrete and Mortar, Light Weight Aggregates, Back filling of Open Cast Mine,
Stowing of Under Ground Mines, Agriculture Manufacture of Alum, Paint, Ceramic,
Asbestos Cement Products
As stated earlier, ash is a versatile material and it can be used in variety of applications. Fly
ash has pozzolanic property which enables its use in manufacture of fly ash based Portland
Pozzolana Cement (FAPPC), building materials such as clay-fly ash bricks, fly ash lime /
cement bricks, light weight aggregates, aerated concrete blocks, ready mix concrete and
mortar, paving materials, roofing tiles etc.
The Major Areas of Ash Utilization: The various important segments of Ash Utilization
includes Cement, Asbestos – Cement products & Concrete manufacturing industries, Land
development, Road & Embankments, Ash Dyke Raising and backfilling of mines.
Bottom ash and pond ash on the other hand are good fill material. They are relatively lighter
and well-compacted ash exhibit good shear strength comparable to normal soils. It can be
used in construction of road embankment, back fills, low lying area development & back
filing of mines. Bottom ash can also be used as fine aggregate in cement mortar / concrete.
Fly ash is also a good potential for use in agriculture as a soil amendment agent to modify
pH, as a soil conditioner and as a source of essential plant nutrients like Ca, Mg, K, P, Cu, Zn
and Fe. Fly ash could also be used in manufacture of alum, paints, synthetic wood, alumina
production and industrial filler etc.
Further to that IS-3812 part-I (2003) - provides for specifications of fly ash suitable for use as
pozzolana in manufacturing Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC). Fly ash based PPC is being
manufactured in India as per provisions of IS-1489-Part I. PPC can be produced either by
grinding together Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) clinker and pozzolana with addition of
gypsum or calcium sulphate, or by intimately and uniformly blending OPC and fine quality
fly ash meeting fineness requirements as per IS 3812 part –I (2003). The fly ash shall not be
less than 15% and not more than 35% by mass of Portland pozzolana cement. Use of PPC is
becoming more and more popular because of the following technical advantages over use of
OPC:
1. Improved workability. 7. Greater long-term strength.
2. Reduced heat of hydration. 8. Reduced chloride diffusivity.
3. Increased sulphate resistance. 9. Increased water retentively.
4. Reduced alkali-aggregate reaction. 10. Reduced rate of bleeding.
5. Reduced porosity & uniform matrix 11. Improved durability.
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structure. 12. Reduced shrinkage.
6. Increased corrosion resistance. 13. Reduced permeability
Thus a substantial quantity of fly can be consumed and utilized in manufacture of PPC.
5.0 NTPC’s efforts for Ash Utilization: NTPC continually strives to evolve innovative
and diverse means of Ash Utilization to further broaden the scope. Prominent among the
methods devised so far are:
· Dry Flyash Extraction Systems
· Use in cement & concrete
· Use in Ash based products including setting up of
o Ash Technology Park
o Land Development/Wasteland Development, Roads & Embankments,
Raising Ash Dykes'
· Mine filling / Stowing
· Agriculture
In the past NTPC has taken initiatives to ensure that the ash produced is utilized to the
maximum extent. As a first step towards this, NTPC has taken a policy decision:
· to provide for 100% dry ash collection system for all its new projects,
· 20% dry fly ash extraction facility is now available at all existing thermal
power plants.
· Use fly ash based Portland pozzolona cement for all its construction
requirements and
· Use ash bricks for all expansion works of thermal power stations.
6.0 Following are the various activities where NTPC has utilized as h.
6.1 Construction of embankments, land fills and road base & base course:
Pond ash has been found to be very useful construction material (in place of
soil traditionally used) for making of embankments and for raising of outer
bunds of ash dump areas. NTPC has done pioneering works in association
with IIT Kanpur. NTPC has utilized more than 30 lakh tonne of ash for raising
of the ash dykes at Singrauli, Rihand, Korba, Vindhyachal, Ramagundam,
Simhadri, Farakka, Kahalgaon, Talcher-Kaniha, and Badarpur during 2008-09.
At Korba, five such raisings have been successfully completed.
6.2 Indian Road Congress (IRC): IRC has brought out special publication No.
58 in March 2001 detailing Guidelines for Use of Fly Ash in Road
Embankments. These guidelines provide salient details regarding design and
construction of road embankments using fly ash. Ministry of Road Transport
& Highways (MoRTH) has also amended their specifications for Road &
Bridge works making it mandatory to use Pond ash in road embankment
construction within 100 km radius of a thermal power station.
6.3 National Highway Authority of India: NHAI has taken up the construction
work of Allahabad bypass road, which is about 45 km at the nearest point
from NTPC Unchahar. This project is going to utilize about 67 lakh cum Pond
ash and so far they have already utilized 40 Lakh Cum Pond ash for this work.
197
6.4 NOIDA-Greater NOIDA Express Highway: NOIDA-Greater NOIDA
Express Highway, which is about 24 km. long, has utilized about 22 lakh cum
pond ash from NTPC Badarpur in its 18 km stretch.
6.5 In Delhi, about 1.5 lakh m3 of ash has been used for widening the approach
road embankments of second Nizzamuddin Bridge. This embankment is in the
flood plains of Yamuna River. Ash has also been used for approach
embankments for various fly-over bridges in Delhi.
6.6 NTPC’s Badarpur station: Ash is also a good filling material. About 3.0
lakh m3 of ash from NTPC’s Badarpur station was used for filling of low lying
area allotted to M/s IOC for their bottling plant in Delhi. In the past NTPC
has used about 66 lakh m3 of ash for various land filling projects.
6.7 Bottom ash has been used successfully as sub-base course for roads at NTPC’s
Rihand and Dadri projects. Studies have shown that bottom ash can be used as
fine aggregate in cement mortar and concrete works.
6.8 Manufacture of Portland Pozzolana Ce ment: About 7,67,178 tonne of fly
ash and pond ash has been issued to various cement manufacturing units from
NTPC stations during 2008-09.
6.9 Cement Concrete and Mortar as Partial Replacement of Ce ment: Fly ash
being very fine material having pozzolanic properties is found to be very
useful for part replacement of OPC to the extent of 35% in concrete as
prescribed by Bureau of Indian Standard IS-456 (2000). Large construction
companies like Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), DLF, Unitech, Prefab
etc. have utilized ash from NTPC’s Dadri station for concrete works in their
construction works.
6.10 High volume fly ash concrete (utilizing more than 50% fly ash) and Roller
Compacted Concrete technology is now gaining momentum utilizing large
volume of fly ash.
6.11 Manufacturing as h bricks / blocks, Aerated Concrete Blocks, Lightweight
aggregates etc.: Ash has also been found to be a good resource for making
bricks. There are various methods of manufacturing ash bricks with ash
content varying from 40% for ash-clay bricks to 60% for flyash- lime-gypsum
bricks. Fly ash –lime bricks have shown better crushing strength than clay
bricks. These ash bricks are more resistant to salinity and water. IS-12894
provides for the specifications for fly ash lime-bricks. CPWD has
incorporated in their specifications for use of ash bricks in all types of
constructions. Till March 2009 about 414.65 Crores ash bricks have been
manufactured and used for various construction activities in Thermal Power
plant and township construction works in NTPC.
6.12 Controlled Low Stre ngth Fill Materials (CLSM): Traditionally, locally
available soil is used for all backfilling works but its proper compaction is
cement (5 to 10%) in slurry form, when used for filling works has shown
encouraging results and is known as Controlled Low Strength Material
(CLSM). The ash along-with cement (5 to 10%) mixed with sufficient water
to form slurry in a concrete mixer can be easily poured in “all difficult to
reach” cavities and settles within 24 hours and no settlement is observed after
the initial settlement takes place. It can be easily excavated whenever need be.
Ash mixed with 6 % cement has been used as CLSM in the switchyard of our
Kahalgaon station for controlling growth of wild grass (a fire hazard). This is
also being used by other projects like Dadri, Faridabad, Vindhyachal etc., for
their filling requirements especially in stores areas.
198
6.13 Improvement of soil condition for Agriculture purpose:Fly ash is useful in
improvement of soil conditions and good source of essential plant nutrients
like Ca, Mg, K, P, Cu, Zn and Fe. Field studies at NTPC’s stations at Rihand
& Farakka through Regional Research Laboratory, Bhopal and Central Fuel
Research Institute, Dhanbad respectively- using ash mixed with soil up to 200
tonnes of ash per hectare have shown an increase in the crop yield. Ash has
also been found to improve the soil fertility in many cases.
7.0 NTPC’s New Initiatives for Ash Utilization:
However, with a view to increase ash utilization level, NTPC has taken up number of
initiatives by taking up research projects in new areas of ash utilization. Some of the
recent research studies taken up are listed below:
7.1 Use of Pond Ash in Railway Embankme nt Construction: NTPC entered

into a MoU with RDSO for taking up a study to establish use of pond ash in
railway embankment construction. For this purpose, a design consultancy
project was awarded to Central Road Research Institute (CRRI). After
completion of the design by CRRI, the design of the embankment was
validated by centrifuge model testing done at IIT Bombay. IIT Bombay has
also completed the study and the same is now to be implemented as a pilot
scale study at Kahalgaon & Talcher-Kaniha MGR railway track.
7.2 Use of Fly Ash in Railways Prestressed Concrete Sleepers: Generally there
is perception that if fly ash is added to cement / concrete, then initial strength
for 1 day, 3 day and 7 days would be less than for normal cement / concrete
without fly ash. In order to find new areas of ash utilization, a study was
awarded to IIT Kanpur in consultation with RDSO to establish use of fly ash
as part replacement of OPC. The study has been completed successfully and
concrete sleepers cast with 25/30/35% replacement of OPC have passed all
requirements of RDSO. It is now proposed to take up the filed demonstration
study in NTPC MGR by using fly ash based concrete sleepers.
7.3 Use of Fly ash in bitumen concrete roads: Bitumen is extensively used in
road carpeting work after mixing with sand/ crusher dust. In order to establish
use of fly ash as replacement of sand/ crusher dust for carpeting of roads, a
research study was awarded to CRRI. The laboratory study for the same has
been completed and field trials for the same are being taken up at NTPC Dadri
and Badapur.
7.4 Mine filling:

7.4.1 Sand is normally being used for stowing underground mines. NTPC, in
association with Central Mining Research Institute (CMRI) has
successfully completed a pilot project at its Ramagundam station to use
bottom ash for stowing into the underground mine. About 1,00,000
million m3 of bottom ash has been used for the purpose.
199
7.4.2 NTPC has taken up filling up of open cast mine of M/s Mahanadi
Coalfields Ltd. for NTPC Talcher-Thermal power plant. So far till
December 2010 about 33,58,642 m3 pond ash has been filled in the
mine.
7.4.3 NTPC is also working in close association with Ministry of Coal, Coal
Indian Limited and Coal Mining companies like SSCL and MCL for
the demonstration project on use of coal ash alongwith mine OB for
mine reclamation.
7.5 Demonstration studies for use of fly ash in agriculture: Use of Fly ash in
agriculture sector has been established by research studies conducted by
various research institutes. However its application in the fields has not yet
picked up. NTPC is taking up field demonstration projects in farmer’s fields
adjacent to NTPC power stations. This has been successfully demonstrated in
numbers of NTPC stations like Unchahar, Talcher-Thermal, Vindhyachal,
Simhadri etc.
7.6 Use of Geo-polymer technology: NTPC is working in close association with

Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology (Formerly Regional Research
Laboratory, Bhubaneswar) for the commercial scale production of Cold-set fly
ash bricks. In this technology more than 90% fly ash is utilized to produce fly
ash bricks. It has been claimed that the Cold-set produced in such a manner
conform to the Indian Standard IS: 1077-1992 for the Building bricks.
7.7 Development of Flux bonded technology for the manufacture of fly ash
bricks: NTPC is also working in close association with NIIST, Trivandrum
(Formerly Regional Research Laboratory, Trivandrum) for establishing the
suitability of ash from NTPC Ramagundam to manufacture fly ash bricks/ tiles
with flux bonded technology. Subsequent to the successful investigation on
the feasibility of using all varieties of fly ashes from the NTPC Ramagundam
Super Thermal Plant, it was identified that the certain clays collected from the
specific sites near the plant were satisfactory in properties as an additive to the
flux bonding process and the analysis showed that the certain clay qualified
the tests and could be used for the technology demonstration at semi-
commercial levels. The study on the various testes conducted using the clay
samples along with the fly ash has been completed. This study showed that it
is definitely possible to initiate a large scale production using the fly ash–clay
flux bonding technique where at least 70-80% fly ash could be incorporated to
make a value added product for societal applications.
8.0 Conclusion:
Fly ash produced in thermal power stations is a good resource material as pozzolana
and bottom ash is an excellent material for the sand replacement. Similarly pond ash
and mond ash are excellent material for it’s use in place of soil. The fly ash which can
be gainfully used in manufacture of cement, concrete, part replacement of cement
while designing Concrete and very useful for production of high value items like
Cenospheres. Pond ash and mond ash fill material for construction of road / rail
embankments. The Coal ash in general is a very useful material and a large quantity
of this resource can be put to gainful utilization in underground mine stowing / open
cast mine filling. By taking up newer studies such as use of coal ash manufacture of
200
pre-stressed railway sleepers, construction of railway embankments, use of ash with
overburden in mine filling, use of ash along with bitumen in road construction etc. a
new vista will be opened for ash utilization. It is expected that with the adoption of
new initiatives taken by NTPC Limited & other agencies, there will be an increase in
ash utilization in gainful manner.
9.0 Acknowledge ments:
The authors are thankful the NTPC Limited management for encouraging the
work on as h utilization and preparing this paper.
201
FLY ASH USE IN AGRICULTURE – APPROPRIATE STRATEGIES
S. Murali, Mohini Saxena, P. Asokan and R. K. Morchhale
Scienti sts
Advanced Materials and Processe s Research Insti tute (CSI R), Bhopal - 462 026 (M.P)
Telephone: 09425637822, e-mail: muralishiramdas@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Technology demonstration projects on Fly ash use in agriculture have been executed by
Advanced Materials and P rocesses Research Institute (AMPRI), B hopal and various other
organizations for more than one decade. The technology of bulk utilisation of Fly ash in wasteland
development and agriculture has been transferred to the farmers’ fields in some parts of Uttar
Pradesh and Orissa, Madhya P radesh and Maharas htra states. The farmers’ response in this
regard has been quite encouraging. In spite of this feasible and safe solution involving low cost
technology, momentum in the activity needs to be generat ed in India. Since a vast potential for
Fly ash application in wastelands reclamation and agriculture exists in India, there is a need to
resolve the related issues and develop appropriate strategies for mutual benefit of the generators
of Fly ash and the ultimate users. Based on the ex pertise and experience in this aspect as well as
the out come of the R & D activities in India, the appropriat e strategies and the role of each stake
holder and agency involved are discussed and the broad conclusions are drawn to evolve
appropriate strat egies.
1. INTRODUCTION
The annual generation of Fly ash from Thermal Power Plants in India has increased from about
40 Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) in 1993-94 and it is expected to be 175 MMT by 2012 [Vimal
Kumar et al, 2003]. As per conservative estimates, about 20% is being utilized for various
purposes. This huge bulk of by-product from various thermal power plants is of serious concern
from environmental and ecological point of view and they als o occupy large useful land tracts for
storage.
With the advanc ement of technology, Fly ash is not considered as waste but redefine it as a
"Misplaced Resource", because of its pot ential for use in industry and wasteland development. In
India, out of 328 million ha of total geographical area, about 175 million ha. (53.70% ) are
wastelands of various nature [Bhumbla and K hare, 1978]. The wastelands where Fly ash can be
used for agricult ure are undulated lands having high degree of slope and s oils with low fertility
status, salinity, alkalinity and unfavourable workability etc. These lands can be reclaimed and
developed to bring them under utilisation for agric ulture and forestry through bulk utilisation of Fly
ash. Fly ash corrects nutrient deficiency in the soils to which it has been introduced [Hill and
Lamp, 1980]. Fly ash is known to improve c rop growt h by neutralising soil acidity [Molliner and
Street, 1982]. The high water holding capacity of fly ash ranging from 40-55% favourably modifies
the soil and increases the wat er us e efficiency. Based on t he R & D work, it is reported [Dubey et
al., 1999] that Indian Fly ashes can be utilised in agriculture both as soil modifier and supplier of
some micronutrients with no remarkable modification in soil composition.
Since a vast pot ential for Fly ash application in wastelands reclamation and agriculture exists in
India, there is a need to resolve the relat ed issues and appropriate strategies developed for
mutual benefit of the generators of Fly ash and the ultimate users. In this direction, the brief
justification and potential for the Fly as h use in agriculture is detailed. The appropriate strategies
relating to the bulk and safe utilisation of the Fly ash in wasteland development and agriculture
and the role of each stake holder and agency involved are also discussed.
2. WHY FLY AS H US E IN AGRI CULTURE IN INDI A ?

The Fly ash utilisation in wasteland reclamation and agriculture can be strongly advocated
because agriculture sector can absorb the bulk of the Fly ash. The constituents and composition
202
of Fly ash are favourable and the benefits of its application in soil system are time tested. Fly ash
has a vast potential for use in agriculture as an amendment especially due to its inherent physical
properties, which are conducive for plant growt h as well as due to the presenc e of macro and
micronut rients present in it. The characteristics of Indian Fly ash, the nature and extent of
wastelands along with the safety of the technology necessitate its applic ation in agriculture
system. The broad characteristics of the Fly ash from various thermal power plants and soils of
India are present ed in Table 1 [Vimal Kumar, 2000].
Table 1: Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Indian Fly ashes and Soils
S. No. Properties Units Fly ash Soil
1 Bulk Density g/cc <1.00 1.33
2 Water Holding Capacity % 35 - 40 < 20
3 Porosity % 50 - 60 < 25
4 Phophorus % 0.004 - 0.800 0.005 - 0.200
5 Potassium % 0.19 - 3.0 0.04 - 3.00
6 Sulphur % 0.10 - 1.50 0.01 - 0.20
7 Iron % 36 - 1333 10 - 300
8 Zinc ppm 14 - 1000 2 - 100
9 Copper ppm 1 - 26 0.7 – 40.0
10 Manganese ppm 100 - 3000 100 - 4000
11 Boron ppm 46 - 618 0.1 - 40
2.1 Benefits the soil-water system

The analysis of the Fly ashes from various thermal power plants of India indicat es that they are
favourable for Application in to the soil system in certain proportions. This has been corroborated
by various literatures and the results of technology demonstrations. The physical properties of Fly
ash make it an agent in soil modification when applied in different types of soils. Due t o the
presence of high silt sized particles, it is found [Patil et al., 1996] that applic ation of Fly ash @ 20
2 2
t/ha reduced t he crust strength from 2.38 kg/cm to 0.98 kg/cm and made the soils (Ty pic
Haplustalfs) friable and loos e for greater aeration and workability. The Fly ash also has low bulk
density (about 1.0 g/cc) and its micro-morphology is cenospheric and pleros pheric in nature
[Natusch et al, 1975] with hollow and spherical shape. This enables it to hold water to the
capacity of 40-60%. These properties modify the physical properties of soil and save the irrigation
water from 15-20% by Fly ash application.
The Fly ash is sometimes described as an amorphous ferrous-alumino silicate mineral and well
known to contain some naturally occurring essential elements / micro-nutrients like copper, zinc,
manganese, iron, boron and molybdenum, whose concentrations are higher than or near to the
most of the soils types of India. Infact, Fly ash consists of practically all the elements present in
soil in varying proportions. This beneficial nature of Fly ash makes it a potential input for
supplying essential plant nutrients to the crop system.
2.2 Safe for soil and ground water system

The Fly ash contains many of the essential micro-nutrients in the available form, which can be
absorbed by the plant system for benefit of higher biomass and crop yields. The available trace
elements / micro-nutrients like Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe Ni, Mo etc are either equivalent to or less than
most of the soils in India. This indicates that the optimized doses of Fly ash are safe for utilisation
in agriculture system without imparting toxicity. It is evident from the long-term results conducted
at by AMPRI at A ngul (Orissa) with 20% (560 t/ha) one time application of Fly ash, concentration
of the trace and heavy metals like Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cd. Cr. Co, Pb etc are found to be within
228 226 40
the critical limits. The concentration of Radionuclides in soil ( Ac, Ra and K) also indicate
that the Pond ash from Captive P ower Plant of National Aluminium Co. Ltd., Angul when admixed
into the soil system @ 20% (560 t/ha) induce no toxicity and the results are well within the safe
limits [Mohini Saxena et al, 2003]. No toxicity symptoms have been noticed on the crop
physiology during the growth stages in any of the seasons from Kharif 1999 onwards for six
203
years. The similar trends are reported by the technology demonstration projects executed under
the aegis of Fly Ash Utilisation Programme (FA UP), Govt. of India in different agro climatic / soil-
crop combinations with broad objectives of building confidence towards safe disposal and
scientific utilisation of Fly ash.
2.3 Agricul ture – a gainful and bulk utilisation sector

AMPRI, Bhopal has been a pioneer in research, development and promotion of the technology on
bulk use of Fly ash in wasteland development and agric ulture. With the primary objective of
solving the environmental problem of safe and bulk disposal of Fly ash for constructive purposes
like wasteland development and agriculture, AMPRI has been executing successfully executing
technology demonstration projects at various locations in India. The salient features of the
projects with the rate of Fly ash / Pond ash used are present ed in Table 2. The benefits are
reaped in terms of increased yields of crops incrementally over the years due to the application of
bulk quantity of Fly ash in the agriculture system. AMPRI, Bhopal is also the leader in the onerous
task of transferring the technology to the farmers’ field in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Orissa.
Table 2: Technology Demonstration and Tec hnology Transfer Projects executed by AMP RI,
Bhopal on bulk use of Fly ash in Agriculture.
Name of the Nature of the Coal ash Crops grown
Project site activity used (t/ha)
(I) Technology Demonstration
Nilgiri , Land Reclamation 40,000 maize, paddy, red gram, wheat,
Rihand Nagar (U.P.) Soil Amendment 260 - 1,170 sugarcane, sunflower tomato,
Dodhar, Soil Amendment 650 potato, pea, brinjal, cabbage,
Rihand Nagar (U.P.) berseem, medicinal plants.
Sarni (M.P.) Soil Amendment 100 - 300 maize, soybean, sunflower,
wheat, aromatic grass
Angul & Damanjodi Soil Amendment 280 - 560 wheat, paddy, tomato,
(Orissa) (short term ) sunflower, potat o, cabbage
Angul (Orissa) Soil Amendment 280 - 560 paddy, maize, sunflower, onion
(ii) Technology (Know-how) transfer
Parichha, Jhansi ((U.P.) 50 – 100 wheat, groundnut, paddy
Panki, Kanpur ((U.P.) 50 – 100 wheat, groundnut, paddy
Angul (Orissa) 140-280 paddy, wheat, sunflower,
groundnut
Betul (M.P.) 50 – 100 soybean, Wheat, groundnut,
paddy, gram, maize
2.4 Simple and Cost-effective technology

Use of Fly ash in agric ulture has been proved to be economically rewarding from the same
season in which it is inc orporated. The incremental benefit in the yield has been rec orded with a
moderate one-time dose (beneficial for more than 6 years) of about 100 tonnes/ha. On an
average, 15% yield increase has been observed in most of the field c rops. At this rat e, it is found
that within a radius of 50 km from the TPS, when Fly as h is supplied free, the cost incurred in Fly
ash application due to transportation, loading / un loading can be recovered in three years
(through kharif and rabi seasons) by means of increased yields of crops. This benefit is prominent
in case of vegetable crops, whic h respond more due to Fly ash incorporation.
2.5 Human safety

The safety for human consumption of the food products grown with Fly ash application involves
food chain. In order to ensure their safety for human consumption, the heavy metals / toxic
elements' uptake and the nutritional values were t ested. The results of food quality analyses
show that there is no hyper accumulation of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Cr. Co, Cd, Pb, Ni,
As, Se, Mo etc.) in the food samples grown in the ash applied soils as compared to the food
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products grown on cont rol. The concentrations are found to be with in the permissible limits
specified by PFA, 1954 Act, 1994, with 1995 supplement edition, Duke’s Phytochemical database
[Duke, 1992], National Institute of Nutrition (ICMR), Hyderabad [Gopalan et al, 1996] and others
228 226 40
[Winston Greene, 1997; US DA, 2001]. The radionuclides ( Ac, Ra and K) in t he food
produces grown on t he ash admixed soils tested at Institute of Physics, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa
are c omparable with those raised on control plots. The trace and heavy metals, which are
anticipated to show their maximum uptake in vegetable crops have also been found to be within
the permissible limits.
2.6 Pesti cidal effects of Fly ash

The projects conducted by Tamil Nadu State Council of Science and Technology, Chennai made
it clear that the lignite Fly ash (LFA ) and coal Fly ash (CFA) could be a possible potential dust
insecticide against various pests of rice and also acted as an effective adjuvant in certain
pesticide formulations. Field trials of LFA and CFA indicat ed that they are effective @ 40 kg/ha
against various pests of rice (BP H, leaf folder, grass hopper, ear head bug and leaf beetles ),
bhindi (stem & fruit borer, aphids, leaf hopper and leaf roller), brinjal (shoot & fruit borer and
spotted beetle) and tomat o (fruit borer and leaf miner) crops. The LFA is also found to be
compatible with commercial insecticides like B HC 10% dust and Carbaryl 5% dust at 25%
proportion to control the rice pests effectively [Narayanaswamy, 1994].
2.7 Environmental ecological benefits

It is established that a 1000 MW thermal power plant (TPP) requires about 500 ha of land for Fly
ash disposal for about 30 years [Harapanahalli, 2000]. It infers that a lot of land area is required
for dispos al and storage of t he Fly ash in to the ash ponds. The maintenance, reclamation and
their stabilization are a serious concern and an onerous responsibility of TPPs. After the life span
of t he ash ponds, new dykes are to be raised, which has a lot of financial implications. The
utiliation of the ash generated by TPS in bulk for agriculture, amounts to saving a precious land
required, which other wise would have reserved for the storage of Fly ash. Use / partial
substitution of Fly ash in the brick manufacture, road embankments etc will also reduce the
pressure on destruction of lands for excavating top soil. Various R & D organizations have been
executing Technology Demonstration projects on Bulk utilisation of Fly ash in India for
constructive purposes such as roads, embankments, land reclamation, agriculture and forestry.
They all contribute to the economy of India and help in environment al and ecological balance.
3. ISSUES AND STRATEGIES ON FLY AS H US E IN AGRI CULTURE

The Fly ash utilisation in agriculture is the energy-environment-agriculture nexus involving the
mutual co-ordination and co-operation for safeguarding the ecology and environment. The issues
related to the bulk utilisation of Fly ash in wastelands reclamation and agriculture and the
appropriate strategies and approaches are discussed below. V arious agencies are either directly
or indirectly involved in this activity whose co-operation and c o-ordination is essential for making
the mission possible. A brief discussion is presented with reference to their role in this regard.
3.1 Cooperation and Coordination of Thermal Power Plants

The TPPs are positive in their role in popularisation of the technology of Fly ash use in agriculture
with their generous sponsoring various projects to the R & D organizations, which enabled to
optimize the processes and technologies, their publicity, extension etc. The survey and analysis
reveals that the transfer of the technology to the farmers’ fields, which is a societal mission
activity, needs support from TPPs by contributing to the transportation costs of Fly ash to the
small and marginal farmers. This is felt necessary to gain the momentum till the mass awakening
is generated in the farming community. Some financial resources need to be allocat ed by TPPs
considering it as environmental implication of the power generation for the bulk utilisation of Fly
ash in to the agricultural sector.
3.2 Transfer of Technology: Farming Community and Integrated approach

The constant efforts of R & D organizations led to the optimization of the proc ess of Fly ash
application in agric ulture system and its successful demonstrations. The technology has been
205
transferred to the farmers fields at Angul (Orissa), Jhansi (U.P), K anpur (U.P) and B etul (M.P).
The technology is low cost, simple and easy to be adopted by rural farmers. More and more
demonstration trials in t he farmers’ fields by the farmers are the need of the hour. The farmers
need to understand the benefit of the Fly ash use in their fields. An integrated approach by
groups of individual small and marginal farmers is cost-effective in this regard.
3.3 R & D Organi sations

The R & D organizations having expertise and infrastructure should c ome forward to take up the
onerous task of ex ecution of t echnology demonstration. These organizations are backbone to
facilitate the effective and safe trans fer the technology. They can play a vital role in evolving the
strategies and framing the policies on Fly as h use in agriculture. These organizations need
support from various spons oring agencies for the execution of the above projects. The critical
limits for Fly as h and soil for each individual t race element and the safe limits for human
consumption of these elements in various food grains including vegetables and fruits are not
available comprehensively, which need to be standardized by R & D organizations in India. In
spite of the constant efforts of the concerned agencies, the technology has not been
demonstrated on a wider scale covering all the states. In this respect the network of K rishi Vigyan
Kendras (KVKs) in all the states can also play an important role.
3.4 Fly ash Utili sation Programme (FAUP), TIFAC, DST, New Delhi
The Fly ash Utilisation P rogramme (FA UP) of DS T, Govt. of India, New Delhi is the nodal agency,
which has been playing a vital role in strongly supporting the c ause of Fly ash use in agriculture.
Its coordination and co-operation in this regard generat ed momentum and ultimately led to the
transfer the technology to the farmers’ fields. The continuation of the financial and technical
inputs from FA UP will cont ribut e to the nation’ cause and effectively binds the network of the
concerned parties involved in this onerous task. More and more mission mode projects in
different states, where TPPs are in operation will lead to more popularisation of Fly ash use.
3.5 Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

The task of trans fer of the technology to the farmers’ fields for bulk utilisation of Fly ash in
agriculture involves understanding, convincing and executing with servic e motive, which can be
effectively dealt by t he NGOs. They can play a major role as execut ors of the activity with the
support from various sponsoring agencies / concerned parties involved in this area. NGOs can
form abridge between the Fly ash producers and the end users (farmers ). The R & D institutions
can play the role of providers of technic al guidance in this regard.
3.6 Central / State Pollution Control / Environment Conservation Boards

The Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) / Environment Conservation organizations can play a
proactive role in this respect since the activity is directly associated with safeguarding the
environment and ecology, resolving the issues and framing the related policy matters. They play
a major role in coordinating these activities and infusing confidence among the rural farming
community. Based on the authenticated data and rec ords, these institutions can clear the
apprehensions if any on use of Fly ash in agric ulture system.
3.7 Wasteland Development Boards

The Wasteland Development Boards can tak e up the reclamation of identified wastelands on
priority basis by bulk utilisation of Fly ash. They can play a dual lead role in utilisation of the Fly
ash in bulk and reclaiming the wastelands for agricult ure, forestry and other useful purposes. The
activities of these boards can impos e the mandatory utilisation of Fly ash for reclamation of saline
/ alkaline /low lying lands specifying a feasible radial distance from the TPPs.
3.8 State Department of Agriculture

The Departments of Agriculture in various states have been the constant source of cooperation in
this activity. They can play a pivotal role in certifying the small and marginal farmers for passing
on the benefits extended by TPPs for promotion of Fly ash use in agriculture. The department
also plays a leading role in extension activities on Fly ash use through Kisan Melas since they
206
have the strong existing net work with the expertise in all the states. Different schemes / subsidies
of state and central governments can also be integrated with t his Fly ash utilisation in agriculture
for the benefits to the farmers.
In view of the significance, over all benefits to the environment, agric ulture and society in general,
this activity needs to a proper importance and recognition. It also involves considerable
enthusiasm, effort and individual / group skills for undertaking such task, which needs
encouragement from one and all. As in the case of most of t he fields of environment, agriculture,
industrial activities, a suitable award and rewarding scheme will enthuse encouragement to
undertake more and more missions on Fly as h use in agriculture. It also generates awareness
and confidenc e among different sections of the society. Institutions / agencies / government
organizations / ministries concerned may initiate suc h schemes for the benefit one and all
concerned.
4. SOIL Vs FLY AS H: COMP ETITIVE V ALUE AND US E

Soil is a valuable resource and bas e for the survival of t he flora, fauna and the human beings. Its
conservation is essential for our safety and security. It is an established fact that in semi - arid
tropical climates like India; it takes about 1,000 years to produce 2.5 cm. thick mature soil by
weat hering. A loss of 2.5 cm thick top soil results in 6. 0% yield reduction in wheat or maize crop.
The us age of valuable topsoil for mine filling, road embankments, brick manufacture permanently
erodes and destructs the soil system and contributes to the ecological imbalance. Large-scale
use of topsoil limits the application of Fly ash in these potential sectors. A strategy should be
evolved to discourage the use of valuable soil where Fly ash can replace safely. Hence it should
be made mandat ory to substitute Fly ash to the extent of 50% in the projects / activities located
within the 100 km of thermal power plants and the government regulatory machinery should see
that these are strictly adhered to.
5. ASSISTANCE TO FARMERS
The farming community in India is economically less resourceful and they mostly depend for their
resource development, standard inputs, subsidies and financial assistance on the government
machinery. As in the case of other resourc es and inputs for agriculture, Fly ash should be
considered as a pot ential input resource. For the proper utilisation of this resource, the co-
operatives, rural banks (like NABA RD), state agriculture departments, and t he TPPs should
finance and give soft loans to the farmers. As an encouraging measure, the infrastructure like
quality Fly ash road network should be developed for proper transportation of Fly ash up to the
farmers’ fields. The transport of the Fly ash should be subsidized within t he 100 km radius of the
Power plants to make it an affordable resource by the users.
6. DEV ELOPMENT OF STANDARDS

Though the beneficial nat ure of Fly ash has been tested, Fly ash doses have been optimized by
various research organizations and safety aspects evaluated on long term basis, the standard
codes for the application of Fly ash in wasteland reclamation and agriculture are not developed
yet in India. There is an urgent need for these standards based on the broad characteristics of
Fly ash, soil, agro-ecology and crop types. Based on the data and the processes developed
through different technology demonstration projects till time, the Agricultural Universities,
concerned CSIR and ICAR institutes, TIFAC / FAUP, Bureau of Indian Standards and other
involved agencies can jointly develop such broad standards. This will popularize the bulk use of
Fly ash and resolve issues related to it.
7. EXTENSION ACTIVITIES
A wide publicity through different methods of extension needs to be carried out preferably in the
local languages in simple, lucid and understandable mode so that the awakening among rural
farming community is created for the use of Fly as h in agriculture system. The activities /
operations pert aining to the land development, Fly ash application, package of practices, farmers’
meets at the sites during c rop growth stages and at harvest etc need to be publicized among the
local farming community. At the crop maturity stage or at harvest, Kisan Melas need t o be
207
organized involving t he above agencies at the demonstration sites. More and more seminars /
workshops / symposia involving various agencies including progressive farmers will generate
confidenc e and evolve appropriate strategies to find the feasible solutions to the issues related to
the Fly ash use in agriculture. A wide publicity through the following ways and means also gives
popularity and generates interest and motivates the farmers.
Ø Newspapers in local / vernacular languages
Ø All India Radio / FM channels
Ø Doordarshan and Cable news channels
Ø News letters, magazines, bulletins, brochures, handouts, etc.
Based on the above strat egies, there is an urgent need to formulate policies and legislations for
the bulk use of Fly ash in wasteland reclamation and agriculture. The proper implement ation of
the legislations will meet the targets envisaged in the utilisation of Fly ash. This will go a long way
in protection and conservation of the environment, maintaining the ecological balance along with
contribution to the sustainable development of agriculture and economy of the nation.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Dr. Anil K. Gupta, Director, AMPRI, Bhopal for his enc ouragement and
permission to present the paper. The authors also express sincere gratitude to FAUP, TIFA C,
New Delhi; NTP C, Rihand Nagar (UP); MPPGCL, Jabalpur (MP), NALCO, B hubaneshwar
(Orissa), UP RV UNL, Lucknow (UP ) for sponsoring various projects detailed in this paper.
9. REFERENCES
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[2]. Dubey P. N., S. P. Sangal, T. K. Sen, S. Chatterji, S. Murali and V. P. Patil (1999) Physical
and chemical properties of Koradi fly ash of Maharashtra for its utilisation in agriculture.
Agropedology, 9: 71-76.
[3]. Duke James A (1992). Hand Book of Phytochemical constituents of grass, herbs and other
economic plants. Phytochemical Database. US DA-A RS-NGRL, B elts ville Agricultural
Research Centre, Belts ville, Maryland.
[4]. Gopalan C, B. V. Rama Sastry and S. C. Balasubrahmanian (1996). Nutritive value of
Indian foods. National Institute of Nutrition (ICMR). Hyderabad. India. pp 47-73.
[5]. Harapanahalli. A.B.(2000) Fly ash management - Legislations, Proc. Workshop on fly ash
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Utilisation: Issues and Strategies (15 Sept, 2000), p 1.
[6]. Hilli, M. F. and C. A. Lamp (1980) Use of pulverised fuel ash from Victorian brown coal ash
as a source of nut rients for a pasture species, Australian J. Exp. A gric. Anim. Husb., 20:
337-384.
[7]. Mohini Saxena, S. Murali, P. Asokan, C. R. Mishra and H. K. P al (2003). Safe and B ulk
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utilisation of NALCO Pond ash in agriculture. CB IP-3 International Conference on “ Fly
ash Utilisation and Disposal (Vol - II)” 19-21 Feb 2003, New Delhi. Pp VII-45-53.
[8]. Molliner A. M. and J. J. Street (1982) Effect of fly ash and lime on growth and composition
of corn (Zea mays) on acid sandy soils. Soil Crop Sci. 41:217-220.
[9]. Narayanaswamy P. (2003). Fly as h in the Plant Protection Scenario of Agriculture, Proc.
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CBIP -3 International Conference on “Fly ash Utilisation and Disposal (Vol - II)” 19-21 Feb
2003, New Delhi. Pp 71-80.
[10]. Natusch D. F. S., C. F. Bauer, H. Matusiewicz, C. A. E vans, J. Baker, A. Loh, R. W. Linton,
and P. K. Hopk e (1975) Characterisation of trace elements in fly ash In: T.E. Hutchinson
(Ed.), Proc. Intl. Conference on heavy metals in the Environment. Toronto, Ontario,
Canada, vol. II, Part 2, 553-575.
[11]. Patil C.V., K. K. Math, A.V. Bulbule, S. S. Prakash and N. A. Yeledhalli (1996) E ffects of Fly
ash on Soil Crust strength and Crop yield. J. Maharashtra Agri. Univ. 21(1): 9-11.
[12]. USDA (2001). UNITED states Department of Agriculture Nutrient Database for Standard
Referenc e. Release: 14.
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[13]. Vimal Kumar (2000). K ey Note Address: Proc. Workshop “Barriers and Utilisation options
for large volume application of Fly ash in India”, Sycom Consultants P vt. Ltd., New Delhi,
June 2000, pp 11-12.
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[14]. Vimal Kumar (2003). Key Note Address: Proc. CBIP -3 International Conference on “ Fly
ash Utilisation and Disposal” (V ol-I), 19-21 Feb 2003, New Delhi. Pp 1-4.
[15]. Vimal Kumar, R. Ananda Kumar and Mukesh Mathur (2003). Management of Fly ash in
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Advanced technologies for dust free environment.
By
S. Chakravarti, U.S Chakravorti
Projects & Control, Kolkata
sc@projectscontrol.com,usc@projectscontrol.com
Abstract
The paper introduces two clean technologies COLD FOG and FOGCA NNON® fo r dust suppression .The paper will
emphasize on the effectiveness of this systems in contrast to the existing solutions & will also exh ibit that how this
technologies once deployed, reduces cost of operation, provide longer life to the equipments, reduces health hazards
& creates safer work environ ment in both enclosed as well as in open areas.
The paper will also discuss on an uncharted territory i.e. suppression of dust generated from blasting drilling,
excavation operations in mines by using FOGCA NNON®. Successful installation in various parts of Europe has
proven that FOGCA NNON® is the only solution for addressing this environmental menace.
Introduction
Wide range of activit ies in mineral processing gives birth to dust particulate ranging fro m 1-1000 microns. Smaller
dust particulate ranging between 1-10µm.(Incidentally a human hair is sized between 50-70 µm.) has the tendency
to remain airborne unlike large or med iu m sized dust particulates, is an area of concern as they are respirable and
inhalable. These dust particulate specially Fibrogenic dust, such as free crystalline silica (FCS) or cement, limestone
and aggregate is biologically to xic and, if retained in the lungs, can form scar tissue and impair the lungs' ability to
function properly. It also complicates plant maintenance and clean-up procedures.
The use of fogging technology in material handling system is no more unknown to the material handling industry in
India. Various installations and investigations on dust level after fogging has confirmed that it is more suitable to
control fugitive dust than conventional systems. Despite early success of existing fogging technology, ie dual fluid
atomizat ion where co mpressed air is used to generate fog, it has been found that such systems require heavy capital
expenditure and has many inherent problems. Dual fluid assisted fog is a turbulent fog which aids in haphazard
movement of dust before agglomerat ion process is starts, a problem to overcome manufacturers are providing baffle
which act as speed barriers. Co mpressor creates lot of noise and is maintenance –prone. The quantity of fog can not
be adjusted as per the changing dust generation levels. These generic problems of co mpressed air based fogging
technologies triggered the researchers in Atomizing Systems, USA to search for more user friendly solution.
COLDFOG® is a value engineering of existing fog technology eliminating the requirement of co mpressed air, to
create ultra-fine fog. The principle o f operation is single flu id atomization by high pressure. The paper will focus on
the principle of operation of this system and will emphasize that high pressure technology not only suppress dust
better because of its fog characteristics but also helps in attaining significant resource efficiencies in terms of
electricity and water consumption apart fro m lesser noise and maintenance hassles. Various tests have proven that
COLDFOG® technology meets or exceeds EPA PM 10 Standards for dust control.
The other technology, FOGCA NNON® provides dust suppression in open areas like stockpiles. The throw range of
the equipment varies fro m 30 meters to 250 meters depending on the model with area coverage of up to 130,000
square meters. The principle of operation of this technology will be discussed along with comparison with decade
old sprinklers which have been found ineffective and a resource guzzler. The results fro m various installations have
proven that FOGCA NNON® provides 95% dust suppression in open areas.
210
Cold Fog Technology
Cold Fog is a high concentration of ultra-fine fog in the range of 1-15 microns capable of agglo meration of dust
particulates between .01 to 1000 microns. This technology uses a high pressure pump for fog generation and no
compressed air is required. It has been accomplished through various experiments that droplets with such fine
microns aid in optimu m contain ment of dust particulates and can only be achieved with a high pressure (400 to
3200 psi-variable) .Cold Fog ensures that 95% of the droplets are within the specified size.
With the change of princip le of operation the characteristics of the fog also changes. As there is no air infusion, solid
mass conversion of water into droplets takes place; such fog has low velocity and high density. The gap between the
droplets is lesser and they are closely knitted which enables droplets better agglomeration of dust. This also results
in lo w requirement of the quantity of fog leading to less moisture addition in the material. Cold fog system is found
to add lowest moisture in the material.02 to.05% and consumes less water than contemporaries.
The speed of the cold fog is at 2.5 m/sec to 7 m/sec compared to dry fog which is 20 m/sec. Slow movement of fog
again helps better encapsulation of dust apart from eliminating the turbulent nature which aids dust scatters. Cold
fog has 99% evaporation efficiency and the fog starts evaporating after 2.5 meters of travel which eliminates the risk
of loss of visibility in the plant.
Cold Fog system is fitted with a variable speed drive through which the quantity of fog can be adjusted as per site
condition. This ensures optimized suppression of dust at all levels .The pu mp operates at a very low rp m. Lo wer
speeds reduce wear, noise and pump maintenance and power. It has been proved that Cold Fog system consumes
75% less electricity than the compressed air systems.
FIGURE 1:
A Typical Layout of Cold
Fog System.
Cold Fog system has a pressure transducer in the output line with a closed loop with VFD and PLC having an output
current of 4 to 20 mA which ensures that constant pressure facility in the entire pipeline as per the design set value,
no matter how many nozzles are working at a t ime. Moreover in the system there is a inlet solenoid valve wh ich
opens only when there is an inlet water pressure of 15psi.Further there is a dumb solenoid valve which opens when
the system is closed, to exhaust the extra water in the pipeline. This is only to ensure that when the system is not
working, the pipeline is not having high pressure water.
There is a thermal valve in the system which opens only when the temperature of water is more than 63 deg.
centigrade. The temperature of water can go up by lack of lubrication system in the pump throw, over heating of
motor. The thermal valve does not allow any heating due to malfunction of system. Pulsation damper is also
provided which is a n itrogen sealed unit that absorbs the pulse generated due to variation of water pressure in the
pipeline and protects the pump.SS Seamless tubes are provided with co mpression fittings as Cold Fog is a high
pressure application.
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The nozzles feature a unique highly polished ruby-orifice wh ich are specially designed and patented and comes with
lifetime rep lacement warranty on any orifice-wear. It has been kept in consideration while designing the Co ld Fog
system, that at such a high pressure, ordinary SS nozzle wears (Normally within 10,000 hours).
Typical Nozzle Orifice Approx Abrasion

Materials Resistance Ratios FIGURE 2:
Brass 1 Why Ruby Orifice Nozzle
Steel 1.5 to 2 do not Wear?
Stainless steel 4 to 6
Hardened Stainless Steel 10 to 15
Ruby >180
To make for long lasting use in dust control, this nozzles hold orifice tolerance to ±0.0002" (±. 005mm) using
modern laser drilling technology to create a perfectly round hole for water flo w. The water b lasts a tiny stream o f
water at the metal pin-point atomizing it into microscopic droplets. This design approach avoids old-fashioned
drilled orifices wh ich wear out fro m water flo w across thin, drilled edges .Most nozzles are drilled through a thin
layer of metal that wears quickly and is usually out-of round thus affecting wear and flow characteristics. The nozzle
body is made of 316SS. An easily removable filter is provided in each nozzle which prevents dirt fro m entering the
nozzle and reduces the chances of clogging. Each nozzle is hand tested for pattern, uniform water flow at 70 Bar and
fog quality.
Apart fro m various other functional benefits, Cold Fog system has been designed to address the problem of
chocking of nozzles which is a routine feature in most of the systems. Cold fog requires water treat ment so that the
total dissolved solids (TDS) and the water Hardness is reduced in order to prevent scaling in the tubes and entry of
other impurit ies in the system.
FIGURE 3:
A Typical Impingement Pin
which creates ultra-fine Fog.
Application Areas:
Cold Fog can be used in the following areas in the material handling system fo r control of fugitive dust particulates:
1) Receiv ing Pit/Hopper in the Crusher House.

2) Apron Feeder discharge.
3) Crusher discharge.
4) Transfer Points and Junction Houses.
5) Ground Bunker.
6) Plough Feeder in the Tunnel below Ground Bunker.
7) Screen Inco ming / Discharge.
8) Bunker / Bin Loading Po int.
212
9) Wagon Tippler
FOGCANNON®
Background
The Innovation of FOGCA NNON® is largely credited to an extensive research conducted on effectiveness of the
sprinkling system for dust suppression at university of Milan in the last decade .The findings of the research are as
follows.
1. Sprinkler systems is inefficient and consumes lot of water and electricity-For an examp le, sprinkler system
deployed for a horizontal throw of 50 metres &a vertical throw of 14 metres,it will require minimu m 700 lp m
capcity sprinklers at 7 kg/cm2.Power neede will be at 25kW.
2. Surface wetti ng of stock pile -Though effective, but it was observed in the research that such operating
principle increases mo isture content of the material. It was also observed that if the moisture content of coal
exceeds 3%, it become susceptible to oxidation lead ing to self ignit ion and coal fire.
3. Li mited Throw and Coverage-Sprinklers can generally throw up to 60 mt rs, 80-90 mt rs in ext reme cases
which results in too many sprinklers and elaborate piping and control arrangements.
The research also concluded that dust suppression will be optimu m if the fo llo wing conditions are met:
a. Dimension of the droplet is fundamental as droplets with b igger dimension that dust particulates will not be
able to suppress it, rather they will pass by it.
b. The dimension of the water droplets should be around 60-70 microns at the point of agglomerat ion to
obtain maximu m efficiency in open areas. Evaporation factor should be also considered while ascertaining
the nozzle out put.
On the basis of these finding, Ecology s.r.l and the university jointly developed equipment wh ich incorporated the
key finding of the research for pract ical application. The equipment has been commercialized and is working
satisfactorily in various parts of the world for last 10 Years. This equipment carries a European Patent, guarantees
95% dust suppression and is certified by German Medical Institute VDI's and Ta-Luft's. Water consumption is
lesser by 80% co mpared to sprinkling technology.
Ope rating Principle

FIGURE 4:
FOGCA NNON® consists of a specially designed cone How FOGCA NNON® Works?
for Long distance reach of the Micro-Fog. At the back of
the cone a powerful b lower is fitted whereas in the front
of the cone, a set of ceramic nozzles are installed on a
circular spray ring. These fog nozzles produce a micro
Fog in the range of 60-100 micron by a pump having a
high pressure. These small particles readily bond to
similar sized airborne dust particles, which agglo merate,
and drop fro m the air stream provid ing more effect ive
suppression The Micro Fog is provided distance by the
air stream generated by the blower. This ensures that
mo isture addition on the material is significantly lesser
than conventional system. This equip ment has a throw
range which varies from 30 metres to 250 metres
according to the model. The equip ment is fitted on a
rotating base, electrically operated with a swinging
™
capacity of 330 degree. The FOG CANNON System
projects this jet of mist for distances up to 650 feet (200
213
meters) provid ing successful dust control for large, open-air material-handing operations
FIGURE 5: FIGURE 6:
Throw Range as per Models. Area Coverage as per Models.
Features
1. Ceramic nozzles are self-cleaning type which will ensure clog-free operation and long durability.
2. Modular configurations of the nozzles allo w modification of the spray density.
3. Angle of inclination will vary fro m 0° to 90° which will ad just for the trajectory to compensate for wind.
4. Dig ital remote control within a 10 Km range, or utilizing closed-circuit Ethernet/internet.
5. Nu merous units can be connected by PLC
Application Areas:
1. Stacking/Reclaiming Operations
2. Material Transfer fro m Bucket Wheel Excavator.
3. Truck Du mps
4. Ship/Barge Unloading Terminals
5. Drilling and Blasting operation at Mines
6. Fire Prevention
FIGURE 7: FIGURE 8:
FOGCA NNON® at work in FOGCA NNON® at work in
stacking operations. reclaiming operations.
214
FOGCANNON for Drilling and Blasting Operations
Increasing trend of opencast (O/C) mining leads to production of huge quantities of dust. In a study conducted on
one of the largest opencast project (OCP) for coking coal in India, it was estimated that due to top soil removal,
overburden (O/B) removal, ext raction of coal, size reduction generated 7.8 t of dust per day. Wind erosion generated
1.6 t of dust per day and the whole operation produced dust which accounted for 9.4 mt/day. They cause air
pollution in the wo rk zone and surrounding locations. One of the major area of application of FOGCANNON® is
suppression of dust generated from blasting drilling, excavation operations in mines.
Ecology has developed FC 110,FC 150,FC 200 and FC 250 wh ich are hydraulically driven that ensures they are
explosion proof and are mounted rigid ly on an easily transportable frame These equipments has a throw range fro m
100 metres to 250 metres, the highest model can cover up to an area of 1,30,000 sq m. Th is ensures that the
equipment can be fitted fro m a d istance and the jet of the micro-fog abates the dust explosions taking its true shape.
Certain installat ion in Europe has shown dust abatement up to 80% is possible in fo llo wing applications:
· Dust Suppression when the dynamite charges are set off

· Dust Suppression along the vast face of the quarry.
FIGURE 9: FIGURE 10:

FOGCA NNON® at work in FOGCA NNON® at work in
blasting operations. drilling operations.
For such application, an analysis of the granulo-met ric composition of the volatile dust present in the mines is
conducted. This is conducted to ascertain the whether; the micro-fogs are of same size with dust particulates as they
come in contact with. A lso the velocity of the dust particulates is considered in detail.
It has been observed that the dust remains suspended because the turbulent motion of the air is able to oppose the
pull of gravity on the individual micro-part icles; for this reason, the dust micro-part icles need to form aggregations
with sufficient mass to fall to the ground. FOGCA NNON® is generally turned on at least 15 minutes before the
explosion of the charge, to provide the surface soil with sufficient holding power. Then, the equipment is left
running for the entire period of the explosions and at least 25 minutes after the end of the dynamite exp losions. As
lot of heat is generated during the blasting, evaporation factor is also considered in design.
215
Conclusions
- Two new technologies of Dust Suppression, Cold Fog and FOGCA NNON® has been introduced and
discussed in detail. This new technologies not only provide most effective dust control but also matches
with industry’s need of adopting cleaner technologies with less maintenance hassles.
- The paper has also discussed application of FOGCANNON® for encapsulation of dust generated from
drilling and blasting operations in open cast mines. This technology should be readily adopted by Indian
Mining Industry as this methodology is already proven in various parts of the world in reducing the
environmental menace created fro m such operations.
REFERENCES:
1. M.K Ghose, S.R. Majhee -Assessment of Dust Generat ion Due to Opencast Coal M ining- An Indian Case Study
216
"Improvements in Effluent quality after treatment
at Sewage Treatment Plants"
Dr. Mritunjaya Malik & Ashwini Sinha
NTPC Energy Technology Research Alliance (NETRA)
Wastewater treatment is essential to maintain environmental quality and to

protect public health. The choice of domestic wastewater treatment plants for any
application depends on the quality of raw sewage, the required quality of treated water
and the economic resources available to pay for both capital cost and operating cost of
the treatment plants.
The sewage treatment plant (STP) includes processes to remove physical,

chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce treated effluent and
a solid waste or sludge suitable for discharge or reuse back into the environment.
The extended aeration process in sewage treatment plant, adopted at most of

the NTPC plants, is one modification of the conventional activated sludge process
which provides biological treatment for the removal of biodegradable organic wastes
under aerobic conditions. Air is supplied to provide the oxygen required to sustain the
aerobic biological process. Mixing is provided by aeration or mechanical means to
maintain the microbial organisms in contact with the dissolved organics.
Maintaining proper quality of the sewage being passed into water body is a
mandatory requirement of State Pollution Control Boards. The mindset that STP
discharge is not of good quality for reuse can be changed when operation of STP is
optimized and there is better control on the discharge quality. This paper presents the
an effective mean of treating the sewage being generated at our power plants and also
presents results of experiments on process optimization in order to achieve higher
efficiency of extended aeration treatment systems in sewage treatment plant. Properly
treated sewage water/waste water has a high potential of being reused. Even the State
Pollution Control Boards are insisting on achieving near zero liquid discharge from
the plants. Thus adhering to requiring quality helps in complying with statutory
requirement and saving likely penalties which might be imposed as a result of non-
compliance with statutory requirements.
The paper intends to provide a simple guideline to the plant operators for
effective treatment of sewage being generated for both for meeting statutory
requirements and for recycling of the treated waste water.
INTRODUCTION:
Sewage treatment or domestic wastewater treatment is the process of removing

contaminants from wastewater and household sewage. Its objective is to produce
treated effluent and a solid waste or sludge suitable for discharge or reuse back into
the environment.
217
The sewage treatment involves three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary
treatment. First, the solids are separated from the wastewater stream. Then dissolved
biological matter is progressively converted into a solid mass by using water-borne
micro-organisms. Finally, the biological solids are neutralized then disposed of or re-
used, and the treated water is disinfected. The final effluent can be used for the
irrigation or horticulture purposes. If it is sufficiently clean, it can also be
recycled back into the system as raw water for industrial purposes.
The following describes a typical sewage treatment sequence which is illustrated in

Figure 1. In practice, there are many process variations employed according to
locality and the standard of effluent required. The design of sewage treatment plants
(also called "wastewater treatment plants") includes several treatment units, typically:
1. Pre-treatment: one or more units for the physical separation of gross solids
(sand, litter) and floatables (FAT, oil and grease, etc.).
2. Biological treatment: one or more types of biological reactors in series.
3. Clarification, disinfection and post-treatment of treated wastewater
4. Sludge treatment
Primary Treatment:
Primary treatment involves the removal of solids by physical screening or

sedimentation. This process is basically primary sedimentation. The sewage passes
into large sedimentation tanks to provide a quiescent settlement. Most of the solids
settle to the bottom of the tanks and form a watery sludge, known as ‘primary sludge’,
which is removed for separate treatment.
Secondary (biological) treatment

Secondary treatment involves the removal of solids by removal of soluble and
fine suspended organic pollutants by a biological oxidation process. Settled sewage
after primary treatment flows to a biological treatment stage where it comes into
contact with micro-organisms which remove most of the remaining organic
pollutants.
Final settlement of Sludge

Following secondary (biological) treatment, the flow passes to final settlement
tanks where most of the biological solids are deposited as sludge (secondary sludge)
while the clarified effluent passes to the outfall pipe for discharge to a watercourse. In
the case of the activated sludge process, some of the secondary sludge is returned to
the aeration tanks for further contact with the sewage. The secondary sludge from
biological treatment also requires separate treatment and disposal and may be
combined with the primary sludge for this purpose.
Tertiary treatment
In circumstances where the highest quality of effluent is required, a third
(tertiary) stage of treatment can be used to remove most of the remaining suspended
organic matter from the effluent before it is discharged to a watercourse. Disinfection
can be done by chlorination, ozonation or UV rays. Tertiary treatment is effected by
sand filters, mechanical filtration or by passing the effluent through a constructed
218
wetland such as a reed bed or grass plot. For fine polishing Microfiltration or
ultrafiltration can also be done.
Sludge Treatment
All methods of sewage treatment generate organic sludge (or ‘biosolids’) as
by-products and these must be managed separately from the liquid sewage. Raw
(untreated) sludge has a very high oxygen demand and must not be allowed to enter
the water environment. There is, therefore, a need to deal with them in a way that
permits their ultimate disposal in an environmentally acceptable and sustainable
manner. The sludge disposal ‘route’ selected for a given sewage treatment works will
depend on several factors including its location, the availability of suitable farm land,
the characteristics of the sludge and the overall cost.
Effluent Standards:
The statutory limits fixed by pollution control boards for domestic effluent are
given as below in Table1:
Parameters Units Range Crite ria
pH No Unit 5.5 - 9.0 Env. Protection Rules
No Unit 6.5 - 8.5 Orissa SPCB
TSS mg/l 100 Env. Protection Rules
Andhra Pradesh
mg/l 200
SPCB
mg/l 30 Gujarat PCB
BOD mg/l 30 Env. Protection Rules
Andhra Pradesh
mg/l 100
SPCB
mg/l 20 Gujarat PCB
COD mg/l 250 Env. Protection Rules
PO4 mg/l 5.00 Env. Protection Rules
Table 1 : Statutory limits for domestic effluent quality
There exist numerous types of biological reactors for sewage treatment including:
Activated Sludge Process,
Extended Aeration,
Aerated Lagoon,
Waste stabilization Ponds,
Trickling Filters,
UASB (Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket),
ABR (Anaerobic Baffled Reactor)
MABR (Modified Anaerobic Baffled Reactor)
CAACO (Chemo-Autotrophic Activated Carbon Oxidation),
SAFF (Submerged aerated fixed Film-Fixed Media),
FAB (Fluidized aerobic bioreactor- Moving media),
MBR (Membrane bio reactor).
These reactors vary significantly in terms of process biochemistry, process intensity

and operational regime.
219
Selecting the best technology for wastewate r treatment in a specific project
No one of the above technologies is definitely better than the others. Each one has its
advantages and disadvantages regarding construction costs, operational costs, energy
use, size, operation simplicity, stability, reliability, etc. Each one suits better to
different specific conditions. One of the most difficult tasks in the conceptual design
of a sewage treatment plant is the selection of the most appropriate technology for the
specific conditions of the project. The designer should obtain an optimal combination
of:
· High public health and environment protection.
· Low construction and operational costs.
A proper conceptual design is a key element for the technical success of the project:
good quality effluents, simple and reliable operation, low costs, low environmental
impact.
Experime ntal Studies on Extended Aeration Process at NTPC:
In NTPC most of the plants have extended aeration process for sewage treatment
and new plants are also coming up with this technology. Extended aeration process
is an improvement over the conventional activated sludge process. In aeration tank
(Extended aeration), suspended microbial growth is maintained for the biological
oxidation of organics. Diffused aeration through compressed air or from aerators is
provided to meet the oxygen requirement of micro organisms and to keep the liquor in
completely mixed regime. The process usually does not require any primary settling,
and sewage after equalization directly goes to the aeration tank. The maintenance of a
favourable environment for the activated sludge (oxygen and complete mixing) and
good solids separation (clarifier) should be completely understood.
In practice, Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) represents all suspended matter
in the activated sludge system including inert matter, non-biological organic matter,
as well as active micro-organisms. The basic reactions involve the breakdown of the
organic matter (represented by 3 day Biochemical Oxygen Demand – BOD3 at 27o C )
and the formation of cell mass (activated sludge) and by-products (carbon dioxide and
water).
In the proper environment the micro-organisms convert the soluble and colloidal
material present in the wastewater into new cells (activated sludge) and end products
(CO2 and water). During their life cycle, the micro-organisms undergo a continuously
changing cycle of growth and decline. Since the plant operates in the endogenous
phase, the production of cell matter will be at a minimum, thereby producing a
minimum of excess sludge to be wasted from the system. The actual range of values
of Food to microorganisms ratio (F/M) which will produce the best plant operation is
determined by measuring the activated sludge unit response. When operating in the
proper F/M (Food to microorganisms) range, the activated sludge will flocculate and
settle well while the BOD3 removal through the plant will also be at a maximum. Any
deviation from the proper F/M range will make it difficult to operate and control the
plant, the micro-organisms will not help under the given environmental conditions for
which the plant was designed, causing bulking sludge or other operational problems.
220
It is obvious that there are many conditions to be met to insure proper plant operation.
The following conditions are essential to insure that the micro-organisms present in
the floc or activated sludge are in a state of proper growth and, therefore, working at
maximum efficiency.
1. A complete mixing of incoming wastewater and the micro-organisms present
in the aeration basin (diffused aeration).
2. A continuous supply of dissolved oxygen as supplied by the aerator/blower
(diffused aeration).
3. A settling tank (clarifier) where separation of mixed liquor solids from the
liquid carrier is completely and efficiently carried forth.
Experime ntal Studies at NTPC
For optimizing the effluent quality at one of NTPC plant, a study was conducted for
monitoring the effectiveness of STP by adding activated sludge in batches to the
oxidation pond for a period of one month. It was found that the quality of effluent
water improved significantly by the addition of activated sludge as shown in the
figure 1 below.
TSS VARIATION WITH MLSS
Activated Sludge comm in Kg MLSS in mg/l TSS

5000 35
30
4000
UNIT for MLSS and
Activated Sludge
25
3000
20
mg/l
15
2000
10
1000
5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
DAYS
Figure1: Variation of TSS with MLSS
Figure 1 depicts the variation in TSS with MLSS. We can see that, as the activated
sludge is added, MLSS starts increasing which in turn helps in reducing the TSS value
which even goes below 5 mg/l indicating improved performance of the bioreactor.
Results and discussions:
Based upon flow and organic loading the design factors determining the size
and volume of an activated sludge unit are the aeration volume, the total mixed liquor
volume necessary to handle the biological load, and the clarification area required to
obtain solids separation. Since this unit is an extended aeration system, its F/M
221
loading is in the range of 0.05 to 0.15. Under normal conditions an average range of
0.04 to 0.1 can be used. The optimum ratio of F/M for the system must be determined
by direct operation of the unit and evaluation of the results. This F/M ratio establishes
the MLSS concentration in the range of 2500 to approximately 6000 mg/L.
Proper MLSS values should be maintained in the oxidation pond. TSS value BOD
levels can thus be maintained well below 10 mg/l for all times. MLSS undergo
endogenous respiration get well stabilized by microorganisms.The biological
degradation process which is not accomplished at low MLSS values is finally
completed when proper MLSS is maintained in the system. During the above
experiments it was also seen that BOD & COD levels significantly reduced from
previous levels indicating that desired amount of MLSS greatly improves the
efficiency of activated aeration process in STP at all times. The Sludge Recirculation
as shown in the figure 2 below in Extended Aeration Process is a very important step,
which helps in maintaining the proper MLSS value and necessary biomass maintained
in the oxidation pond to speed up the reaction.
Extended Aeration Process:

Biological treatment
Long aeration time
High MLSS
SECONDARY TREATMENT
S AIR
R C
a G AERATION
w R CLARIFIER
R TANK
E
s Mech. surface SETTLER
e E I aerator
w Recycled Sludge
a N T
g
e PRIMARY TREATMENT Sludge in recirculation for providing biomass for the process
Waste Sludge
To Sludge Treatment
Sludge Drying beds
Figure 2 : Recirculation in extended aeration process
The sludge should not be taken to drying beds unless the MLSS is maintained in the
aeration tank through recirculation. The F/M ratio calculation is just one of the
process control parameters one should monitor in extended aeration system.
Conclusion:
A higher efficiency of wastewater treatment can be achieved in an extended

aeration process by maintaining the key process parameters (such as MLSS and F/M
ratio) in the optimum range. Sludge recirculation plays an important role in
maintaining the proper MLSS and thus maintaining necessary biomass in the
222
oxidation pond for speeding up the reactions. The better control in operation will not
only improve the STP discharge quality but also encourage its reuse & recycle in the
system.
Acknowledge ments:
Authors wish to express their gratitude to Sh. Chandan Roy, Director

(operations), Sh. R. K. Jain, Director (Technical), Sh. Sharad Anand, ED (NETRA)
and Sh. A. K. Mohindru and for encouragement in conducting the studies. The
authors are also obliged to Environment management Group (EMG) for the
coordination & help provided in conducting the studies. The authors are also thankful
to their colleagues at NETRA & Environment management Group (EMG) for the help
provided in conducting the studies. Authors are also thankful to the management of
NTPC for permitting the presentation of the studies at O&M Conference.
References:
1. Alan F. Rozich, Anthony F. Gaudy, Design and operation of activated sludge

processes by - Technology & Engineering - 1992
2. William Wesley Eckenfelder, Petr Grau Activated sludge process GHVLJ QDQG
FRQWUROW KHRU\ DQGSUDFW LFH, 1998
3. David Liu, Béla G. Lipták, ( QYLURQP HQW
DOHQJ LQHHUV KDQGERRN- 1997
223
Environment Performance Measurement – A Case Study
J.P.Srivastava G.C. Patnaik Tushar Kumar
AGM (Envt. Mgmt.),CC DGM(Envt. Mgmt.),CC Manager (Envt. Mgmt.),CC
jpsrivastava@ntpc.co.in gcpatnaik@ntpc.co.in tusharkumar@ntpc.co.in
Abstract
Environment performance has remained an elusive affair due to complexities involved in
cause & effect relationship between power plant operation & ecosystems. Various
approaches have been used by various organizations to evaluate environment
performance. Approach used by Ontario Power Group, Drax Power Company Ltd., Life –
Cycle Assessment Using End point Modeling (LIME) developed by Japan Life Cycle
Assessment Society and Environment Performance Index developed by Yale University &
Columbia University were analysed in detail to have familiarity with these approaches.
Considering the multiunit operation of NTPC, approach using Environment Performance
Index has been used as a pilot exercise to relatively place plants in order of environment
performance achieved. A high EPI rank indicates that a plant has achieved a higher level of
environmental performance. A low EPI rank signals that a plant is relatively placed at lower
position in achieving environmental goals.
EPI score is based upon a set of 5 policy indicators each of which combine 1 to 3 variables
for a total 11 indicators. The policy indicators and indicators are chosen through careful
review of environmental pollution causes and effect in a thermal power plant. The EPI
enables:
· Identification of issues where environmental results are above or below expectations
· Identify areas of success or failure
· Benchmarking of environmental performance
The real value of the EPI lies not in the overall rankings but comes from careful analysis of
the underlying indicators and policy indicators. In displaying the results by policy category
the EPI makes it easy to spot leaders and laggards in particular policy area and identify
priorities for action.
224
1. Introduction
Environmental performance is fast emerging as a policy focus across the corporate world.
While a great deal of attention has recently been focused on climate change, other issues
including water quality and availability, air pollution, deforestation and land use changes,
biodiversity have also gained prominence. Governments & stakeholders are increasingly
asking to explain performance by industries on a range of pollution control and natural
resource management. Financial Institutions are also evaluating environmental
performance of companies for minimizing risk to their investments. Apart from this internal
evaluation of environment performance helps to identify areas of strength & weakness in
Environment Management System (EMS)
2. Approach for Environment Performance measurement
Environment Performance measurement is a difficult endeavor. Environment management

encompasses dimensions of air pollution, water pollution, resource management, waste
management and sustainability. However, environment performance measurement faces
complexity of facts and data, required to make investment in environment protection areas.
Shifting environment policy making onto a firmer analytical ground and giving in an
empirical cast is a matter of urgency. In this regard better measurement and data are
critical factors. Various approaches have been in practice in different organizations. Few of
the approaches’ for measuring environment performance are:-
· Environmental Target v/s Achievement

· Environment Performance Index (Ontario Power Generation)
· Life – cycle Assessment Using End point Modeling (LIME)
· Environmental Performance Index developed by Yale Center for Environmental Law
& Policy, Yale University & Center for International Earth Science Information
Network (CIESIN) Columbia University
225
Apart from above other methodologies are also in practice in different organizations. ISO
14031 also identifies procedure to analyses environment performance in a systematic
manner.
The move toward a more data-driven empirical approach to environmental protection
promises to make it easier to spot problems, track trends, highlight policy successes and
failures, identify best practices, and optimize the gains from investments in environmental
protection.
2.1 Environmental Target v/s Achievement:
This approach is simplest in application & widely used by various organization across the
globe. However this approach is particularly suitable for single unit or very few units. For
multiunit operation (more than 5), it is difficult to track progress made over the years and
making a intra unit comparison a difficult endeavor.
This type of approach has been adopted at Drax Power Station since 2001, largest coal-
fired power station in the UK with six coal based units totaling approximately 4,000
megawatts (“MW”). However, due to change in environment dynamics objectives & targets
have undergone various changes since 2001. New areas have been added off late to
encompass whole areas of environment management & growing legislative requirements.
Environment performance is judged by setting targets for achieving environmental
objectives. At the end of year, performance against each target is compared and areas
requiring attention are identified. Environmental Objectives & targets identified for Drax
Power station for the year 2008 are mentioned in table -1 below.
226
Table -1: Environment Targets of Drax Power Station for the year 2008
227
228
2.2 Environment Performance Index (Ontario Power Generation)
This methodology aggregates environmental performance into one number for particular
unit or organization to indicate environment performance. Many multiunit utilities use this
approach to compare performance of one unit with the other unit.
Ontario Power Generation’s (OPG) environmental practices are assessed annually using
an Environmental Performance Index (EPI). The EPI was first introduced in 2001, and it is
based upon weighted scores calculated relative to voluntary performance targets for spills,
regulatory compliance, energy efficiency, radiation emissions and waste management. The
scoring system ranges from zero to 150, with higher scores reflecting better performance.
An overall score of 100 indicates that, on average, targets were met, scores greater than
100 indicate performance better than target, and scores less than 100 indicate
performance that did not meet targets. Table -2 indicates Environment performance criteria
adopted at OPG
Table-2 Environment Performance benchmarks at OPG
229
In 2008, OPG’s EPI was 117, which reflects a decrease relative to the 2007 EPI of 120
(see Figure 1).
Fig 1: Environment performance index of OPG (2004-2008)
2.3 Life – cycle Assessment Using End point Modeling (LIME)
This is an advanced method for Environment performance Measurement. This method is

based on assessing impact of product during whole life cycle. A complex model is derived
from linkages and effect relationship. This methodology has been developed by AIST
(National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology) , Japan. Many companies
in Japan have used this approach for comparing their environmental impact. However
assessing at yearly interval is quite cumbersome. Most of companies like Toyato, Chubu
power & KEPCO etc have used this approach to assess their environment performance &
compare it with other products.
230
Fig-2 LIME Approach for Environment Performance Measurement
2.4 Environmental Performance Index developed by Yale University &

Columbia University
This methodology has been used for comparing environment performance of various
countries for last 8 years & six report have been published till now. Environmental
Performance Index for different countries is a compilation of selected indicators gleaned
from review of the scientific literature and consultations with experts in different domains.
EPI covers a comprehensive information about core pollution and resource management
issues. The 2010 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) ranks 163 countries on 25
performance indicators tracked across ten well-established policy categories covering both
environmental public health and ecosystem vitality. These indicators provide a gauge at a
231
national government scale of how close countries are to established environmental policy
goals. This methodology facilitates cross-country comparisons as well as analysis of how
the global community is doing collectively on each particular policy issue.
Fig:3 Environmental performance Index
232
3. The need for Environment Performance Index for NTPC
NTPC, the largest power utility in India is operating 21 thermal power stations presently.
These plants are located in different geographical areas of the country. These plants were
commissioned at different intervals from 1982 to till date. Environment protection systems
at these plants have also been of different technology levels. Thus comparing environment
performance of big organization like NTPC poses a challenge. An attempt has been made
to compare environment performance on pilot scale. This Environment Performance Index
(EPI) attempts to focus on coal based power plants within the context of comparing
environmental performance of these pilot stations. EPI comprises of 11 indicators covering
various dimensions related with operation of thermal power plant. Initially more important
indicators are taken however other indicators can be added to make it complete tool to
measure environment performance. EPI will help to:-
§ spot environmental problem areas.
§ track pollution control and resource management trend.
§ identify priority environmental issues.
§ determining where current practices are producing good results and where they are
insufficient.
§ Provide a baseline for performance across the plant.
§ Identifying leaders and laggards on issue-by-issue basis.
4. The EPI Framework for NTPC

The EPI offers a composite index of current environmental protection results. Recognizing
that on-the-ground conditions are the ultimate gauge of environmental performance, it
focuses on measurable outcomes that can be linked to policy targets and, in principle,
tracked over time.
The EPI builds on measures relevant to the goal of reducing environmental stresses .It also
includes measures relevant to the goal of reducing the loss or degradation of ecosystems
and natural resources.
233
The quantitative metrics of the EPI encompass 11 indicators or datasets. These indicators
were chosen through a broad-based review of the environmental management practices &
literature. Together they span the range of priority environmental issues that are
measurable.
For each indicator, our data matrix covers Pilot stations for which we have values across
the 11 indicators. Using the 11 indicators, we are able to evaluate environmental
management and ecosystem vitality performance at two levels of aggregation.
First, we calculate scores, building on one to three underlying indicators, within five core
policy categories— Air Quality, Effluent management, Natural Resources, Waste
management and Sustainable Energy. This level of aggregation permits tracking relative
performance within these well-established policy lines.
Finally, we calculate an overall Environmental Performance Index, which is the average of
the five core policy categories.
4.1. Indicator Selection & Methodology
Indicators were sought to cover the spectrum of issues underlying each of the major policy
categories identified. This exercise began with an effort to specify the relevant issues in
each policy category with reference to the environmental science and policy literature. For
each issue identified, the EPI attempted to find one or more datasets suitable for indicator
construction. To ensure the use of the most relevant and best available metrics, the
following indicator selection criteria were applied: •
Relevance. The indicator clearly tracks the environmental issue of concern in a way that is
relevant to Thermal power Plant.
Performance orientation. The indicator tracks performance oriented data.
Data quality. The data used by the indicator should meet basic quality requirements and
represent the best measure available.
234
Table-3: List of Indicators & their constituents:
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION UNIT

Environment Performance Index Standard Normal
Percentile
SL.NO. Policy Indicators
I Air Quality standard normal percentile
SPM in Stack A verage of Z-scores
SOx in Stack A verage of Z-scores
NOx in Stack A verage of Z-scores
II Effluent Management standard normal percentile
Ash Pond effluent TSS A verage of Z-scores
Main Plant effluent TSS A verage of Z-scores
III Natural Resource s standard normal percentile
DM Water Consumption A verage of Z-scores
Sp. Coal Consumption A verage of Z-scores
Sp. Oil Consumption A verage of Z-scores
IV Waste Management standard normal percentile
Ash Utilization A verage of Z-scores
V Sustainable Energy standard normal percentile
CO2 emissions A verage of Z-scores
Aux. Power A verage of Z-scores
4.2. Data Gaps
The EPI builds on the best environmental data available. Few other parameters
will be added in the EPI in next version e.g. Waste quantification, Ambient air
Quality data, etc. Presently, We could gather sufficient data for 11 indicators
however some assumption were made during course of data analysis.
4.3 Calculating the EPI
Following steps have been followed to reach on EPI

1. Data collection
2. Making variables comparable is done by dividing it by MW and KWhr
where-ever applicable
3. Standardization of variables to permit aggregation
4. Calculation of 11 indicators
5. Calculation of 5 policy categories as standard normal percentile
6. Calculation of EPI
Standardization is required to make aggregation possible.
235
Z score is to be calculated by following formula for variables
Z= Value - Mean
Standard Deviation
(For High value - high sustainability Parameters)
and
Z= Mean - Value
Standard Deviation
(For High value - Low sustainability Parameters)
The 11 indicators are to be calculated by taking the average of the constituent
variables Z scores.
EPI is to be calculated by taking the average of 11 indicators and then converting
this value to a standard normal percentile. Standard normal percentile is chosen
to end up with a number with greater intuitive understanding than a Z score.
For the measures of the five components that is to be reported, standard normal
percentile is calculated by average Z score of its component based on same
logic as EPI.
5 Conclusions & Next Steps:
Societies are setting ambitions goals concerning Environment. EPI reported here
is intended to contribute to success of these efforts by making it possible to
quantify goals, measure performance and benchmark performance. The EPI will
facilitate more refined investigation into drivers of environmental performance.
The EPI will
1. Provides tangible measures of environment performance filling a major
gap in the environmental policy area
2. Creates a foundation for shifting environmental decision-making into a
more analytical rigorous foundation.
3. Contains a single measure of environment performance
4. Builds on an easily understood database using a methodology that is
transparent, reproducible and capable of refinement overtime.
236
a.) Weakness:
1. Weighing of variable may not be universally shared.

2. Data source of less than desirable quality.
b.) Next Step:
EPI remains a "work in progress". A number of refinements of the analysis

need to be undertaken to deepen our understanding of environment
performance and how to measure it. More indicators affecting environment
performance needs to be integrated into EPI to make it more representative.
This methodology can be replicated for comparing environment performance
a company with other companies also for selected parameters in environment
area.
Reference:
1. Research Methodology , C.R. Kothari
2. Business Statistics , S.P. Gupta ,M.P. Gupta
3. 2008 Sustainable Development Report, Ontario Power Generation
4. Environment Performance Review 2008, Drax Power Company Ltd.
5. 2010 Environmental Performance Index, Yale Center for Environmental
Law & Policy (Yale University), Center for International Earth Science
Information Network (CIESIN)- Columbia University.
6. JLCA NEWS ENGLISH EDITION Mar.2007, Life-Cycle assessment
Society of Japan.
7. CSR Report 2009, Kansai Electric Power Group.
237
NEW MEGA POWER POLICY, BOON FOR POWER SECTOR DEVELOPMENT
By: H.S.Bagga, senior engineer (operation), NTPC Kawas GPP, Surat
INDIAN POWER S ECTOR
Electricity is central to achieving economic, social and environment al objectives of sustainable human development . In
the present digital age electricity has emerged as the most crucial and critical input for sustaining the process of
economic as well as social development. Development of different sectors of economy is not possible without
matching development of the electricity sector. Though the Indian power sector has ac hieved substantial growth
during t he post-independence era, the s ector has been ailing from serious functional problems during the past few
decades.
India, today, has an installed capacity of 1, 50,000 MW.
Despite the recent slowdown, the country experienced a
peak deficit of 12 per cent during FY 09. Power is one
area of infrastructure where India lags far behind even in
comparis on to other developing countries. India’s per
capita cons umption of power stands at 503 kwh. As
compared to t his, the per capita consumption in China
and US is 2,060 kwh and 13515 kwh respectively. In
order to achieve annual GDP growth rate of 8 -10 per
cent, the generation capacity must grow at a minimum of
8 to 9 per cent every year.
According to the Expert Committee on Integrated Energy

Policy, we would have to install nearly 5, 75,000 MW of
power c apacity by 2026-27 if we are to sustain an annual
GDP growth rate of 8 per cent. This translates int o a
capacity addition of over 30,000 MW every year for the
next 18 years.
th
As against this, what we set out to achieve in the 11 plan
period was a capacity addition of 16, 000 MW per annum
or half of the projected target. And what we have actually
achieved on the ground is 50 per cent of even this
modest target. Half-way into t he current plan period, we
have installed just 18,000 MW as against the target
capacity addition of 78,700 MW.
Chart-1
POWER S ECTOR REFORMS IN INDIA
The Government has over the past few years, carried out extensive policy reforms aimed at accelerating the growt h of
the sector and enc ouraging greater private participation . The first reform phas e began in 1991 with the int roduction of
Independent Power Producers (IPP) paradigm. Government initiated reform process due to the following reasons:
(i) The ever-widening gap between the demand and availability of electricity,
(ii) The poor technical and financial performance of the State Electricity Boards and
(iii)Inability of the Central and State Governments to finance and mobilize resources for generation capacity expansion
projects, making third party investment in power sector imperative.
The initial step in this direction has been the amendment of legislation governing the electricity sector in 1991. The
Indian Electricity Act, 1910 and the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 were amended to attract private investment in power
generation. It allowed t he private sector t o ‘‘set up thermal projects, hydroelectric projects, and wind/solar energy
projects of any size and foreign ownership up to 100% was also allowed
In 1995, these meas ures were further strengthened by a Mega Power Policy, whereby plants above 1000MW capacity
would receive additional incentives in the form of a 10-year tax holiday anytime during the first fift een years,
exemption of customs duty for imports, reduced hassles for clearances, etc. This also provided for the setting up of
Power Trading Corporation (P TC) to act as an intermediary between the private developers of mega projects and the
SEBs. Though independent power producers (IPPs) evinced interest for adding generation c apacity for about
95,000MW, only 6500MW was added during the eighth and ninth five-year plans (1992–2002).
Recognizing the need for the Reform process covering the entire facets of the electricity sector comprising generation,
transmission and distribution to the consumers, a comprehensive Electricity act was enacted on 10 June, 2003.It
replaces the three existing legislations governing t he power sector, namely Indian Electricity Act, 1910, the Electricity
238
(Supply) Act, 1948 and t he Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act, 1998. The Electricity Act, 2003 mandates t hat
Regulatory Commissions shall regulate tariff and issue of licenses and that State Electricity Boards (SEBs) will no
longer exist in the existing form and will be restructured into separate generation, transmission and distribution
entities.
Based on the framework envisaged by the Electricity Act 2003, the Government came up with a series of spec ific
measures aft er 2003 including the National Electricity policy 2005, the National Tariff Policy 2006, the Ultra Mega
Power Policy, the Accelerated P ower Development and Reforms Program (APDRP) and the new Mega Power Policy
2009.
NEW MEGA POWER POLICY
The Mega P ower Policy was introduced in November 1995 for providing impetus to development of large size power
projects in the country. For a t hermal power project to be awarded the status of a mega power project it has to have a
generation capacity of at least 1,000MW, In the case of hy dropower projects, the threshold c apacity is 500MW. In
Jammu and Kashmir and the North-East, the threshold capacities are 700MW for thermal projects and 350MW for
hydropower. These guidelines were modified in 1998 and 2002 and in April 2006 to encourage power development.
Chart-2 Chart-3
Mega power policy allows a tax holiday for 10 years and waiver from paying customs duty on equipment imports to
st
mega projects. On 1 October 2009 the policy has been revised as New Mega power policy to make investments
more attractive and make it easier for the government to achieve a proposed target of creating power generation
capacity of 78,757MW at a cost of Rs10.31 trillion by 2012.
KEY CHANGES IN NEW MEGA POW ER POLI CY
In order to rationalize the Mega Power Policy and bring it in consonance with the National Electricity Policy 2005 and
Tariff Policy 2006, the government relaxed following stringent conditions for availing fiscal benefits to mega power
plants.
Ø The existing condition of privatization of distribution by power purchasing states to be replac ed by the
condition that power purchasing states shall undertake to carry out distribution reforms as laid down by the
Ministry of Power.
Ø The condition of inter-state sale of power for getting mega power status to be removed.
Ø The present dispensation of 15 percent price preference available to the domestic bidders in case of cost plus
projects of PSUs to continue. However, the price preference will not apply to tariff based competitively bid
projects of PSUs.
Ø The benefits of Mega Power P olicy will also be extended to supercritical projects to be awarded through ICB
with the mandatory condition of setting up indigenous manufacturing facility provided they meet the eligibility
criteria The requirement of undertaking international competitive bidding (ICB) by the developers for
procurement of equipment for mega power projects would not be mandatory, if the requisite quantum of power
has been tied up through tariff based competitive bidding or the project has been awarded through tariff based
competitive bidding.
239
Ø A basic custom duty of 2.5 percent only would be applicable on brown field expansion of existing mega
projects. All other benefits under Mega Power Policy available to Greenfield projects would also be available
to expansion unit(s) (brown field projects) even if the total capacity of expansion unit(s ) is less than the
threshold qualifying capacity, provided the size of the unit(s) is not less than that provided in the earlier phase
of the project granted mega power project certificate. All other conditions for grant of the mega power status
shall remain the same.
Ø Mega Power Projects would be required to tie up power s upply to the distribution companies/ utilities through
long term PPA(s) and may also sell power outside long term PPA(s) in accordance wit h the National Electricity
Policy 2005 and Tariff Policy 2006, as amended from time to time, of Government of India.
IMPACT ANALYSIS OF NEW MEGA POW ER POLI CY
· Privatisation conditions
The condition that power purchasing states shall undertake to carry out distribution reforms is a positive change as the
same will expedite distribution reforms as well as eas e the condition of seeking a mega power project status. Notably,
hitherto, the condition stipulated privatizing distribution within a fixed period of time in cities where population is more
than one million. The requirement of privatizing power distribution was a bottleneck for mega power plants as only a
few cities in specific States have privatized distribution while other areas still remain controlled by the States. The
latest amendment relaxes this condition to prescribe that power purchasing Stat es shall undertake to carry out
distribution reforms — clearly a more practical condition.
Impact on power sector: positive
· Inter-State sale of power
Striking out the mandat ory condition of inter-State sale of power to qualify as a mega power project is an encouraging
modification. E arlier only inter-state thermal and hydel power plants (i.e. power plant selling electricity on a long-term
basis to two or more states) having minimum specified installed capacity was eligible for seeking a mega power
project status. Given the significant demand for power across all states, mandat ory selling power inter-state for the tax
incentives was an obsolet e requirement, also for obtaining a mega power project status, the entire power generated
had to be tied up through PPA and electricity sold on merchant basis disqualified the entity from seeking the same.
Increasingly, in the recent past, one has noticed t hat the demand of power has grown and States such as Gujarat are
capable of buying the entire 1000 MW capacity from generators. Under thes e changing dynamics of demand supply, it
was clearly otiose to insist on signing of power purchasing agreements (PPAs) with more than one States. Easing of
these conditions will bring in many more power projects under the ambit of mega power project.
· Price preference
The removal of dispensation of 15 percent price preference to domestic PSU bidders for tariff based competitive
bidding projects of PSUs is a welcome modification. Prior to the amendment, a dispensation of 15 per cent price
preference was available to domestic bidders in t he case of all cost-plus projects of public sector units (PSUs ).This is
a welcome modification. Price preference, even for tariff bas ed competitively bid projects, defeats the ‘competitive’
aspect of PSUs and is against the spirit and principle of tariff bas ed competitive bidding.
· Supercritical technology
The benefits of Mega P ower P olicy to be extended to projects based on superc ritical technology is an extremely
positive development. Supercritical technology uses less coal per unit of power produced and is environment -friendly.
However, it is not clear from the Cabinet note whether the current threshold capacity of 1000 MW for tax concessions
will be eliminated/reduced for t hese projects. India is heavily dependent on coal-fired generation. If the t hreshold
condition is removed for these projects, it would provide a thrust for shifting on to clean coal technol ogies that
minimize carbon foot prints.
Using policy and tax concessions as a tool for promoting supercritical technology is a step in the right direction as it
will not only help mitigate the impact on climate change but it will also support several domestic and foreign
companies who plan to set up greenfield supercritical boiler and turbine manufacturing facilities in the country.
240
· ICB condition
The easing of ICB condition for developers procuring equipments for mega power project is a positive step. Once sale
of electricity is tied up under tariff based competitive bidding (it ensures the purpose of the tax concession ie
availability of low priced electricity to the consumers ), following ICB at t he equipment procurement stage for excise
exemption is futile and time consuming.
It is pertinent to note that for a mega power project the condition of procurement of goods against ICB is mandatory to
avail the excise duty exemption (even though the project may have been grant ed vide a tariff based competitive
bidding). This anomaly was duly rectified for Ult ra Mega Power Projects (where if the project is awarded t hrough a
tariff based competitive bidding then the condition of procurement of goods under ICB is not required) but continues
for mega power projects. Vide this amendment, the anomaly for mega power projects also stands removed.
Also currently the deemed export benefits under t he Foreign Trade P olicy (“FTP ”) are contingent upon compliance of
ICB. Pursuant to this amendment, even the deemed export benefits under the FTP should not remain contingent upon
ICB if the sale of electricity is tied up under tariff based competitive bidding Manufacturers supplying to Mega Power
Projects are exempt from excise duty. Even though these supplies are exempt, the manufacturers are entitled to input
credits provided the supply is against ICB. This condition of ICB (for availing input credits) would also need to be
aligned with the amended Mega Power Policy ie if the Power Project Owner has tied up the sale of electricity under
tariff based competitive bidding, t hen input credit should be available to the manufacturers even though the supply is
not against ICB
· Custom duty conce ssion to brown field projects
The latest amendment to the Mega P ower P olicy to extend almost all the benefits to brown field expansions by
existing mega power projects
(The only exception being that instead of the full customs duty exemption available to mega power projects, a
concessional rate of basic customs duty of 2.5% would apply to these expansions). This will significantly reduce the
tax costs on capacity expansions by existing mega power projects and may culminate in a significant boost to power
generation capacity addition in the country.
th
Under the ongoing 11 Five year plan period 2007-12, India’s power capacity augment ation target is 78000 MW and
th
the likely target for the 12 five year plan period 2012-17, is about 80000 MW. The revised custom duty rate would
benefit all projects that are part of the two plans.
· Power purchase agreement (PPA) condition
The mandatory requirement to enter into long term PPAs to qualify for mega power projects acted as a disincentive for
several players. The amendment in the Mega Power Policy to sell power outside long-term PPAs in accordance with
the National Electricity Policy 2005 and Tariff P olicy 2006 would enable sale of power on a merchant basis and
thereby provide a long awaited flexibility for power project developers and may attract new investments as well - an
welcome move by the Government.
NTPC P ROPSP ECTIV E
The new Mega Power Policy would extend excise

waiver and import duty exemption to plants
planning expansion, benefiting state-run major
NTPC. As per new policy brown filed capacity
would be given tax sops only there is no change
in the original configuration of a power project. So
if a 1000 MW plant has been set up by using 2
units of 500MW each, the expansion project
should use 500 MW sets to get tax waiver. The
new power policy would directly impact about
9000 MW (out of close to 18000 MW left for
commissioning) of additional generation
capacity planned by NTPC for the elevent h plan
period. The project would include expansion
capacity of Vindhyachal, Rihand, Simhadari,
Korba, Dadri etc.
Table-1
241
THE ROAD AHEAD
Too far from the target of building 78,700 mw capacity in the 11th Five-Y ear Plan that ends in 2011-12, Prime Minister
st
Manmohan Singh on 1 October 2009 finally approved Mega Power Policy with significant changes in the old policy
introduced in 1995. This decision of the Union cabinet reflects pragmatic thinking necessary to provide the much
needed policy thrust for the growth of the power sector in India. The New mega power policy will accelerate the
progress of brown field projects and improve the equipment supply chain. The move would also encourage setting up
of mega power plants to take advantage of economics of scale and improve their viability. It will simplify the procedure
for grant of mega certificate and encourage capacity addition. It will also encourage technology transfer and
indigenous manufacturing in the field of super critical power equipment. In all New Mega Power Policy is a very
positive step towards power sector development in India.
Referenc e:
· Ministry of power notification on mega power policy 1995.

· Notification of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance(Department of Revenue) No.21/2002
· News papers article on new mega power policy.
· BMR insight article on new mega power policy examined in Business Line.
242
ENERGY SAVING IN THERMAL POWER PLANT BY POWER FACTOR
IMPROVEMENT
Prashant U Baviskar Prashant Srivastava B S Jha S Banerjee

Sr.Engineer (Operation) Engineer (Operat ion) Engineer (Operat ion) D.G.M (O)
O&M Depart ment O&M Depart ment O&M Depart ment O&M Depart ment
NTPC, Vindhyachal NTPC, Vindhyachal NTPC, Vindhyachal NTPC, Vindhyachal
Abstract:
“Energy saved is energy generated”, Energy conservation assumes greater importance in power Generation plant not only
fro m the point of v iew for reducing fuel consumption but also for reducing CO2 (GHG) emission. Typical 500MW thermal
power plant has its 30 MW of au xiliaries load connected by in-house electrical distribution network. Cascading losses in
the range of 3 to 6% of power transmitted are taking place in this distribution network. As majority of auxiliary load is
inductive in nature (SC Induction motors), and Owing to higher reserve design consideration these loads runs at very poor
power factor. For example: FD fan motor runs at 0.577lag & ID fan VFD motor at 0.612 lag etc. The average power factor
posed by all auxiliaries hovers around 0.75lag at NCR.Poor power factor load tends to draw more current than a load with
better power factor, Leads to more I2 R losses in cables, Transformers, switchgears & Generators including increased
apparent power to be supplied by generator in the distribution system.
Power factor imp rovement by static capacitor is one of the simp lest technological solution compared to other alternatives
which can help in reduction of such I2 R losses, leading to conservation of electrical power along with other benefits like
Decreased apparent power supply by generator & better voltage profile thus performance of motor. Raising power factor to
acceptable level of 0.95lag with the help of proper sized capacitor and connecting it to proper location can result into
reduction of electrical losses upto 35% in typical 500MW unit. Thus saving of electrical energy up to 4 MUnits & reduced
CO2 (GHG) emission by 4063 tonnes annually.
This paper majorly deals with:

1) Data collection & analysis of running power factor
2) A sample case study of pf imp rovement by capacitor for Cost Benefit analysis
3) Categorizing Loads for pf imp rovement (Fixed,Variable,Non-linear etc)
4) Technological solution for PF improvement for d ifferent loads with Capacitor(A PFC,Harmon ic filters etc)
5) Benefits by pf improvement, Barriers & So lutions
6) Summary
This paper aims to demonstrate a simple technological solution in power p lant for pf imp rovement by static capacitor
accompanied by automatic controllers & filters wh ich could be most Technical as well as economically feasible option
among other technological alternatives & also aims to burst the myth about pf improvement, that, it only reduces reactive
power not active power losses & it has importance to end consumers only not for the utility.
Key words: Po wer factor, Active & reactive power, Capacitors, Harmonics Filters, Automatic pf controller,
Total harmonic distortion (THD), Load etc.
243
INTRODUCTION
Powe r Factor Definition

By definition power factor is simply the rat io of active power (KW) to apparent power (KVA )
Powe r Triangle
Cosine angle between active power and apparent power is known as Displacement Power factor (DPF) or better known as
Power factor. However in distorted system actual power factor differs fro m displacement power factor which is known as
True Power Factor (TPF) For simplification Ignoring the distortions in the system the Displacement Power Factor equals
to True Power factor i.e. DPF=TPF.The concept of power factor can be easily understood by the following power triangle.
Power triangles are commonly used to describe power factor of motors & other loads for determining different power units
e.g. KW, KVA & KVA R
Active Power (KW) Power factor = Cos Ø
Power factor= KW / KVA
KVA = (KW) 2 + (KVA R) 2
Ø Reactive KW = 3 * V * I * PF
KVA = 3 * V *I
Power (KVA R)
KVA R=KW * tan Ø
Apparent Where,
Power (KVA ) V= Line voltage
I =Line current
Ø=Displacement angle
Reactive power & Losses

In addition to active power most electrical devices demands reactive power like induction motor needs reactive power to
maintain magnetic field essential fo r their operation. The average reactive power demand of induction motor’s is appro x.
1KVAR per 1KW of active power. Such demands of reactive power if not provided by some means in the immed iate
vicinity it must be supplied by generator & transmitted via distribution network. In this conditions total current of the
network increases causing increased Power losses (I2 R) & increased Vo ltage drop (I * R) at the motor end. Thus poor the
power factor greater will be cascaded power losses & voltage drops. Approximate relationship of Pf with power losses &
Vo ltage drop are shown in Fig1 & Fig 2 respectively.
Poor power factor means more generation of react ive power by the Generator (incur Losses of 10 to 20 W/KVA R);
Increased KVA design means reduced capacity of generator & transformers, increased cable heating & increased
distribution power loss (I2 R) and poor voltage profile across the network. Power factor correction (PFC) means that
Technology or equipment are used to reduce the amount of reactive power in electrical supplies to end user, thus
improving power factor to h igher values. Po wer loss of 3 to 5 % of power transmitted takes place in ut ility distribution
network, Reduction of 30 to 50% in power losses can be achieved by simp ly imp roving the pf of the system.
244
POWER FACTOR (500MW Thermal Power Plant)
Pf measurement
G
Typical 500MW of thermal power generation unit has

GT 630MVA 21 / 400 KV
around 32MW of unit & station auxiliary load; majority Gen 500MW
588MVA, 21K V
of this load is Squirrel cage induction motors Fig 3 shows
UT 50MVA
single line diagram of 500MW electrical Distribution 21 / 11 KV
Network for its auxiliaries e.g. Mill motor, CW motor,
FD Fan motor, IA C, PAC, ASPH, CHP, CLCW motor,
STATION STATION
Operating at various voltage levels like 11KV, 3.3KV SOURCE SOURCE
& 415V.
11 KV BUS 11 KV BUS
The power factor of theses auxiliaries can be easily
measured with the help of advanced energy meters
UAT
which have capability of measuring power factor along M M M M UST
with energy, active, reactive power, voltage & current 11KV/
MILL FD F AN CW PA F AN 415V
drawn. These instruments give accurate readings and
repetitive measurement can yield fu rther accuracy in 3.3 KV BUS 415V BUS
the collected data.Normaly repetitive readings are taken

at reasonably stable running condition of unit at NCR. M M
IAC FIG 3
CLCW MOTOR
Types of Load
Loads in 500MW TPS can be divided in different types (as shown in fig 4.)for better analysis of pf running in different
types of equipments, Like HT, MT & LT loads, further division can be done in terms of load characteristics, like Fixed,
Variable & non linear type.
Fixed Load -Runs reasonably at constant power output e.g. CW P/ P, CLCW etc.
Variable Load -Variat ion in loading takes place e.g. PA Fan, TSAF etc
Non linear Load -Load which impinges current impulse in supply system e.g. UPS, VFD, Mill, Crusher etc.
LOAD
LT 415 V MT 3.3 KV HT 11K V
FIXED VARYING NON FIXED VARYING FIXED VARYING NON

LINEAR LINEAR
CLCW TSAF UPS CC P/P PAC CW P/P PA FAN VFD

LOP/P LIGHTING CRUSHER CEP IAC CT XMER FD FAN MILL
Fig 4
245
Analysis of PF
The measured pf of various equipment at NCR by Advanced energy meter is indicated in table 1 & running pf at d ifferent
voltage level equip ment is indicated in table 2
Table 1: Typical 500MW loads and respective PF. Table 2: Equipment (KV) & its PF
EQUIPM ENT VOLTA GE CURRENT P.F.(Lag) EQUIPM ENT Avg.PF
PAC- Motor (3.3KV) 3.26 55.5 0.628 11 KV HT M OTORS 0.748
SGCW P/P (3.3KV) 3.28 55 0.682 3.3 KV MT MOTORS 0.773
FD Fan Motor (11kv) 10.892 44.4 0.577 415 V LT MOTORS 0.766
CW Pu mp (11kv) 10.68 130 0.721 TOTA L A VA RA GE 0.748
ID-Fan Source (11kv) 10.868 72.5 0.612
USS X-Mer (11kv) 10.86 42.9 0.74 As seen from the table, the average voltage drop
CT Fan Xmer (11kv) 10.74 56.1 0.866 is around 5% to rated value and running pf of
typical 500MW unit hovers at a very meager
Mill Motor (11kv ) 10.779 108 0.803 value approximately at 0.758 lag which is far
CLCW Pu mp (415v) 401 255 0.78 below to Unity power factor. Major reason for
PA fan - Motor(11kv) 10.73 73.3 0.845 poor pf is higher reserve design of equipment.
Thus higher rating equipments are employed for
CEP MOTOR (3.3kv) 3.28 198 0.861
performing under rated NCR operation for
UT-7A X-mer (11kv ) 10.92 980 0.75 maximu m time ,means relatively more react ive
LIGHTING (415v) 403 N.A 0.6 component than required hence poor power
AVERA GE 0.748 factor in the system this leads to increase in
current to be handled by the system ,increased
power losses & voltage drop. The power losses in utility network are appx 1.05MW,and voltage drop of 5% with the help
of pf improvement, these losses & voltage drop can be brought down to 1/2 of its value.
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
The significance of p f lies in the fact that utility supply power in terms of KVA , Po wer factors below 1.0 require a utility to
generate more than the minimu m KVA necessary to supply the real power (watts). This increases generation and
transmission costs for auxiliaries. For examp le, if the load power factor were as lo w as 0.7, the apparent power would be
1.4 times the real power used by the load. Line current in the circuit would also be 1.4 times the current required at 1.0
power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of the current).
Alternatively all co mponents of the system such as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be
increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current. In typical 500Mw the present level of pf is 0.748 lag. and Power
factor imp rovement is a technique of counteracting the undesirable effects of electric loads that create a power factor that is
less than 1.
Methods of Improvement
In today’s world, various methods are available for power factor improvement like PF improvement by capacitor, PF
improvement by synchronous motor, Static VA R co mpensator, advanced harmonic filters etc
Capacitor for powe r factor improve ment
By nature of its electrostatic field, the capacitor stores energy whenever voltage applied across
capacitor is moving away fro m zero; it g ives up energy after the voltage has crested. This sequence is
opposite to that of the magnetic field, so the capacitor can be used to supply magnetizing current that
would otherwise be drawn fro m ut ility source. Capacitors are generally the most economical source
of reactive power co mpensation, other advantages includes: Lo w loss (0.1W/KVA R), essentially no
maintenance, Light & co mpact, Easy to install & modify. Long life of 15 years.
246
Capacitor scheme selection
By segregating 500MW au x loads in different types (fig .4) it beco mes easier fro m technical as well economical point of
view to select relevant kind of capacitor bank scheme to relevant type of load.
Supply
Mains
Supply
Mains
FUSE pf pf
8085 Automatic
BREAKER Controller PF
Inductor Controller F
OVERLOAD Capacitor I
Bank L
Switches T
FUSE E
C R 3 ph
M
3 ph
R M
3 ph R
M
Fixed capacitor bank Automatic pf controller APC with harmonic filter
Fig 4.2 Fig 4.3
Fig 4.1
Fixed load: For fixed load applications like CLCW p/p, CC p/p or CLCW p/p fixed capacitor bank scheme (Fig 4.1) is
most suitable & economical type of indiv idual motor pf co mpensation.
Varying load: For variable load applications like PA fan, FD fan, TSA fan etc. Automatic pf controller (APC) scheme
will be the obvious choice (Fig 4.2). APC has numbers of capacitor at its disposal connected by switch units, APC tracks
the running pf with the help of current transformers & co mpares it with desired pf setting, and deviation in both generates a
signal through 8085 microcontroller & gives co mmand to switch on/off connected capacitors.
Non linear load: loads like VFD, UPS, Crushers, Mill creates distortions in the supply system & results into
harmonics, these harmonics must be filtered out to avoid consequential damage to the entire system, hence Automatic pf
controller with harmonic filter (Fig 4.3) will be the most suitable scheme of co mpensation.
LT/HT Load: As per the characteristics of the load connected to LT or HT motor any one of the above three schemes
(Fig 4.1, 2, 3) can be emp loyed.Normally,LT capacitor are made up of imp regnated paper film d ielectric and HT capacitors
are made up of alu minu m foil separated by many layers of polypropylene film d ielectric.
Methods of compensation
G G
E
MCC E UT 50 MVA
UT 50 MVA
E 21/11 KV
21/11 KV
N UST
UST BUS
Capacitor Bank Capacitor Capacitor
M
Bank M M Bank
Fig 4.5 Group co mpensation Fig 4.6 Central co mpensation

Fig 4.4 Indiv idual co mpensation
Fig 5.4 247
Individual compensation: In this method capacitor banks are connected with individual motors (fig 4.4), This
compensation gives highest possible reduction in losses & voltage drop, This method can be adopted to any induction
motor above 125KW capacity. E.g. CLCW, CW, PA fan, FD fan etc.
Group compensation: This type of co mpensation controls pf of some group of motors (fig 4.5), fo r economic reasons
such compensation is suitable for motor below 125KW capacity. E.g. Lop, Lighting load etc.
Central compensation: Th is type of compensation controls pf of Bus, Unit or plant. This scheme is most suitable for
commercial industrial users or for clusters of small size motors (Fig 4.6).
Capacitor compensation scheme selection table for diffe rent equipme nts in 500MW unit
(Table: 3).Th is table guides for co mpensation scheme/Method that can be employed to different types of load.
Equip ment Fixed Automatic APC with Individual Group Central
capacitor bank pf controller harmonic filters compensation compensation compensation
CLCW Pu mp Yes Yes
CW Pu mp Yes Yes
FD FAN Yes Yes
PA FAN Yes Yes
VFD Yes Yes
MILL Yes Yes
LIGHTING Yes Yes
LOP Yes Yes
VA LVE/ DAMPER Yes Yes
CRUSHER Yes Yes
A case study (Calculations)
CLCW motor: It is a LT motor having fixed kind of load, selected for case study for simplified calculations. Its ratings are:
3ph, 415V, 180KW, 255amp, runs at 0.78 lag pf.
Step 1: Selecting capacitor compensation sche me.

Since CLCW motor is connected with a fixed kind of load,
most suitable scheme of capacitor fro m table 3 is fixed capacitor bank with
Individual method of co mpensation 415 V
Step 2: Calculation for Capacitor sizing KW O

In order to imp rove PF form 0.78 to 0.95 lag N
Pf1 =0.78, P.f2=0.95, V1=405V, V2=415 V pf2
pf1 CLCW
KVA 1=KW/P.F1 = 145/0.78 = 183.5 KVA--- (1) KVAR
KVA R1= ((KVA 1)2 - (KW) 2)1/ 2 = ((185.9)2-(145)2)1/2 = 112.66 KVA 2
KVA 2=KW/P.F2 = 145/0.95 = 152.65 KVA --- (2)
KVA R2= ((KVA 2)2-(KW) 2)1/2 = ((152.65)2-(145)2)1/2 = 47.66 KVA R KVA 1
So, fro m eq. (1) & (2) KVA R reduction with power factor improvement is
Q=KVA R1-KVA R2 = 112.66-47.66 =65KVAR 65 KVAR
Capacitor M
Step 3: Calculation of current reduction

I1=KVA1/(1.73* V1) = 183.5/(1.732*405) =261.6A
I2=KVA2/(1.73* V2) = 152.6/(1.732*415) =211.6A-
Net current reduction of system I = I1-I2 = 261.6-211.6= 50 A Fig 5.1 Individual co mpensation
Step 4: Calculations of saving in total powe r loss

Individual co mpensation scheme for Power factor imp rovement results in reduction in losses from Motor end, cables, and
transformers to generator (i.e. fro m Po int 1 to point 5) as shown in fig 5.2 (Presence of reactance are negligible in cables,
hence neglected in calculation)
248
(1)Assuming (for point 1 to 2) A.c resistance of cable in ohms/km = 0.552 & cable length = 350mtr, Therefore
R=0.532* 0.3 , Cab le loss = 3*I*I*R =3*50*50*0.552*0.35 = 1449 w--- (3)
(2)Assuming (for point 2 to 3) A.c resistance of cable in oh ms/km = 0.22,
Gen G, 500MW
Cable length of 4 core = 50mt r, R =0.22* 0.05 *3=0.033 588 MVA
Cable loss = 3*I*I* R=3*50*50*0.22*0.05 * 4 = 247 w--- (4) E 21KV
(3)Cu loss in UST, Consider R of Xmer (PU) = 0.024 ohms, 5

CU LOSS REDUCED =1.732*50*50*0.024 = 104 w--- (5) UT 50 MVA 21/11 KV
(4)Power loss (from pt 3 to 4), A.C resistance of cable in ohm/ Km=0.22
Cable length of 4 core=50mt r, R==0.12*0.05 * 3=0.033
Cable loss == 3*I*I*R=3*25*25*0.22*0.05 *3=61.8W—(6) 4
(5)Power loss from point 4 to 5.Assuming for production of 1 KVA R UST2 MVA
11/0.415
It takes 2watts of losses in Generator & its transformer.
Hence for 65KVAR losses=130 W--- (7) cable4X3C,
Adding answers 3 to 7, we get 300mm2,
Therefore total loss reduction = 1.992KW--- (8) 3
2
Step 5: Calculate powe r losses in capacitors.
Polypropylene film capacitors has very low power loss=0.1W / KVA R 1
Capacitor loss= 0.1 * 65 = 6.5 W Capacitor
CLCW
3C, 70mm2
M
Step 6: Calaculate total power saving
Cable, 300mtrs
Total power saving=Total loss reduction-capacitor loss
= 1.992-0.065 = 1.927KW Fig 5.2 Capacitor location
Step 7: Calculate reduction in voltage drop

For voltage imp rovement %V = [(V2-V1)/ V2] = [(415-405)/415] =2.5%
Alte rnatively the losses can be calculated from the following empirical solution.
CLCW: power transmitted=145 KW
Cascade power loss = 4 % of power transmitted Reduction in losses = Losses at 0.78 pf – losses at 0.95 pf
Losses at 0.78pf = 5.8 kW at pf = 5.8 -3.909 = 1.896 KW
Now, imp roving running pf fro m 0.78 lag to 0.95 lag Capacitor loss = 0.1* 65=6.5W
% Reduction in losses = [1 – (PF o ld / PF New) 2 ] saving in power = 1.896-0.0065 KW
= 32.587 % = 1.89KW
Now, losses at 0.95 p f = 5.8 - (5.8 * 0.32587) = 3.909KW Total saving in power = 1.89 KW
Thus by installing 65KVA R of capacitor at motor end, pf imp roves from 0.78 to 0.95lag & power saving=1.89KW
Similarly saving in powe r for Total 500MW auxiliary load can be calculated as follows.
500MW auxiliaries: Power Transmitted=32 MW

Cascade power loss = 4 % of power transmitted Reduction in losses = Losses at 0.78 pf – losses at 0.95 pf
Losses at 0.748 lag = 1280 kW = 12 80 -793 = 486.6 KW
Now, imp roving pf fro m 0.748 lag to 0.95 lag Capacitor loss = 0.1*17885=1.7KW
% Reduction in losses =[ 1 – (PF o ld / PF New)2 ] saving in power = 486.6-1.7 KW
Now, losses at 0.95 p f = 1280- (1280 * 0.38) = 793KW = 485 KW
= 38 % Total saving in power = 485 KW
Thus by installing 17.885M VA R of capacitor bank, pf imp roves from 0.748 to 0.95 & power saving =485KW
Vo ltage drop in the system can be calcu lated fro m the following empirical formula.
%^ V = % Q cap * % Z source
Where, Qcap = Capacitor in KVA R
Z source = Impedance expressed in KVA
For normal electrical system the approximate change in voltage drop comes 2 to
3% of rated value. i e average %^ V 2 5 %.
Fig 5.3 Capacitor

cccm comlocation
249
Case study calculation and results are Equip ment CLCW Auxiliaries
displayed in table: 4, Thus from results, it Load 145 KW 32 MW
becomes evident, by improving pf fro m Load PF lag 0.78 0.748
0748lag to 0.95 lag in 500MW TPS There is System KVA demand 183.5 42780
in appreciable saving in power, consequently Capacitor size for pf improvement in KVA R 65 17885
improvement in electrical efficiency of 1.6% Reduction in Loses in KW 1.89 486.6
& reduced voltage drop by 2.5%.It directly Losses in capacitor in KW 0.0065 1.7
means 1.6% reduction in auxiliary power Total power saving in KW 1.89 485
consumption, This will result in reduction of Energy saving in KW H (Annually) at 95 % PLF 15728 4036170
4063 T CO2 (GHG) production annually in
Reduced KVA demand 30.85 9100
500MW TPS.Including reduced 9100 KVA
Reduction in voltage drop in % 2.5 2.5
demand fro m generator.
Table: 4
Cost/Benefit analysis
This method is very simple & intuitive – if the benefit Table: Cost /benefit data for 500 MW unit
Over a certain period exceeds the cost; the proposed Power saving in KW 485
Solution is economical, normally the pay back period Energy savings annually KWH (mu ) 4.04
Up to 3.5 years can be an economically viable solution
Savings annually in Rs (1.9Rs/KWH) 0.7685 Cr
For utilit ies. By imp roving pf fro m 0.748 to 0.95 lag in 500
MW units the tangible benefits exceeds over the Capacitor KVA R required 17885.6
investment cost in less than 1.8 years (however capacitor Appx Investment required (800Rs/KVAR) 1.43 Cr
life span is very high =10 years) thus the capacitor Pay back period in years 1.8
compensation scheme is an economically viable option.
Earnings for 10 year life span in Rs 5.9 Cr
Further benefits are numerous like one can reduce 4062T
CO2 production annually and can earn same amount of carbon credits,
This can be utilized for future CO2 reduction projects. Including reduced heat rate of total unit hence cost of energy.
Other benefits of pf improvement.
Ø Better voltage at motor terminals improving motor performance: 5 % rise in torque, 2.5 % reduction in actual
current, increased overload capacity & reduction in 2 degree cels.temperature.
Ø Reduced cable heating related outages
Ø Reduced losses in generator & transformer
Ø Reduction in harmonics, hence Better quality power to consumer
Ø Enhanced life of switchgear, contactors & breakers
Ø Relived 9100 KVA capacity of transformers & generators for future usages.
Technical barriers & solutions
Over correction proble m: Over sized capacitor than required can create problem of over correction this will result
into motor running in self excitation mode and may cause damages due to over voltage. This can be avoided by properly
selecting size of capacitor KVAR (cap) & limiting the size of capacitor to no load kva of the motor. This can be
determining by measuring the line current with mechanical load disconnected. (Better to improve pf to 0.95 lag rather than
close to unity to avoid over correction problem)
KVA R (cap) <= 3 * V * I (For e.g. CLCW capacitor size should not exceed more than 70KVA R)
Resonance Propensity: Capacitor offers lower impedance to any higher order frequency harmonics flo wing through
them and acts as a harmonic filter but they also may amplify the effect of harmon ic current flowing into other part of
network. Connecting capacitor near to harmonic source like VFD or UPS can create parallel resonant circuit & series
resonant if connected away fro m harmon ic source, such conditions may result in damage to capacitor & connected
equipments and must be avoided under any cost. Resonance can occur under following conditions:
n = (Xc /Xl ) Where, Xc =Qc = Reactive power of capacitor bank in KVA
= (Sk/Qc) Xl =Sk = Short circuit power of network (inductive) in KVA
n = Order of harmon ics (e.g. 3, 5, 7...11 etc)
250
Total harmonic d istortion (THD) & pro minent order of harmonic in network can be measured with the help of harmonic
analyzer system and short circuit power (inductive reactance) can be calculated fro m design data. Once these two data is
available, one can easily find out the size of the capacitor to be avoided fro m the above relat ionship.
Disturbed setting of protection relays : Reduction in current drawn fro m network by motor takes place due to pf
improvement, For proper functioning of motor protections devices, capacitor bank can be installed before of protection
devices (overload) without any disturbances or can be installed as shown in Fig 4.1 where change in relay settings required
proportional to change in current.
Switching Transient Voltages: Vo ltage across capacitor do not change instantaneously during switching operation
voltage transient are produced, they can be easily mit igated by connecting proper size inductor in series as shown (fig 4.2.)
Fuse failure proble m: So me d istortions (harmonics)of higher orders are always present in the network, capacitors
offers path to them hence running capacitor current always exceeds estimated current upto110%rms which is permissible,
If capacitor current exceeds 135% rms & Total harmonic distortion(THD) in voltage exceeds 5%, some fo rm of extra
mitigation is required and it is nothing but connecting harmonic filters parallel to capacitor bank as shown in fig 4.3 In this
way root cause of fuse blow can be rectified.
PF monitoring system
As discussed earlier Pf improvement yields

Real Time PF monitoring System numerous advantages, so long it is maintained &
controlled effectively. In order to control pf its real
Auxiliary Average pf time monitoring is necessary. PF monitoring
windows can be incorporated in existing Hu man
Lead
0.8 mach ine interface of 500MW TPS like max DNA,
PMS or sy mphony harmony etc.Pf measurement
0. transducers connected at individual load will
91 transmit data to HMI placed in Unit control roo m,
this data after processing can be viewed through
0.9 HMI windows as shown in fig 6, It is a proposed
Lag 0.8 Time monitoring window which tracks the real time pf of
individual running au xiliaries as well as there
vector average. Any major discrepancy will pro mpt
History HT pf MT pf LT pf unit operation engineer to scan & identify the
reason of discrepancy fro m target pf value of 0.95
Fig.6 Lag. Correct ive action can be easily taken by
analyzing which equip ment’s compensation system not functioning properly and needs attention thus problem can be fixed.
Also, this pf monitoring system data can be archived for study & analysis for pf improvement in Future.
Summary
Power factor improvement leads to power savings & imp roves quality of electrical power. In 500MW unit power savings
at the tune of 485KW, energy saving of 4.05 mu & reduction in 4062 T of Co2 annually can be achieved simp ly by
improving running pf to acceptable level of 0.95lag.Capacitor is the most technically & economically suitable device for pf
improvement. In house design of pf improvement scheme can be done by selecting proper type of scheme for proper type
of load with proper size capacitor.Pf imp rovement is a continuous monitoring & controlling kind of job, proposed PF
monitoring system can be incorporated in existing set-up of HMI with necessary alarms so that timely corrective action can
be taken to achieve the desired target of pf.
251
References:
• MAGAZINE: Gui de Book Bonneville

• MAGAZINE: Indian journal o f applied science 2006 issue.
• MAGAZINE: Reducing energy losses.Richard G. Anderson
• DATA: Internal audit, ABB US, BEE India
• INTERNET:www.wikipedia.co m
• INTERNET:www.google.com
• INTERNET:www.physics .uk.edu
• INTERNET:www.rpggroup.com
252
LOWERING TOTAL COST OF OWNERSHIP WITH
BREAKTHROUGH MAGNETIC TORQUE TRANSFER
TECHNOLOGY
By:
AVJ Engineering Consultants
Vinod Kumar Malhotra
Abstract
Maintenance, unscheduled downtime, and energy costs are three of the highest
budget items for any facility. Plants across North America are significantly reducing
these costs through the use of magnetic torque transfer technology. This paper
provides an overview of magnetic torque transfer technology and examines the
savings potential that can be achieved with existing equipment.
Magnetic torque transfer technology transmits torque from the motor to the load
through an air gap. It works on the principle of magnetic induction and torque is
generated as a function of slip between the input and output members. A magnetic
coupling consists of two separate components that have no physical contact.
Precision machined aluminum rotors containing high energy neodymium – iron –
boron permanent magnets are mounted on the load shaft, and a conductor
consisting of a steel housing with copper disks is mounted on the motor shaft.
The coupling’s ability to transmit torque is created by the relative motion between the
copper conductor and the magnets. This motion creates a magnetic field in the
copper that interacts with the permanent magnets, thus transmitting torque though
the air gap between the components. The motor is completely isolated from the
load, which eliminates vibration between the units. The resulting decrease in
vibration increases equipment life and reduces maintenance costs for such items as
bearings, mechanical seals, couplings, etc. Further, isolation of motor and load
eliminates the need for time consuming alignments. Unscheduled down time is
reduced due to increased equipment reliability.
An adjustable speed control device can be obtained using this same technology.
Varying the width of the air gap changes the coupling force between the motor and
load, producing an infinitely variable and controlled output speed. In industrial fluid
or air handling systems, up to 67% energy savings have been realized by slowing
the speed of the pump or fan rather than using control valves or dampers to achieve
the desired flow. The unrestricted flow saves energy by reducing the load on the
motor. The same maintenance and reliability benefits described in the magnetic
coupling are also associated with the magnetic adjustable speed drive.
253
Users throughout industry can maximize existing asset value by increasing
equipment reliability and up time, reducing maintenance costs, and lowering energy
consumption. Magnetic torque transfer technology is providing these benefits to
many plants today, for new construction and retrofit applications. Overall, thousands
of systems (up to 3,000 HP at 1800 RPM) are currently utilizing this technology.
Introduction
Troubleshooting rotating equipment is usually an exercise to disclose the reason

why a pump, fan, or motor keeps failing so that it can be corrected. Such failures
can create anything from a mild annoyance to a major outage involving the loss of
production revenue. More frequently, it focuses on the mounting maintenance costs
being created by repetitive equipment failure. Mechanical seal failures, bearing
failures, and coupling problems are generally the result of some greater system
influence that adversely affects equipment operation. A bearing, seal, or coupling
that repeatedly fails indicates a possible misalignment, pipe strain, extreme
foundation load, or process system upset.
While maintenance personnel are troubleshooting equipment failures, another major

cost item in pump and fan ownership tends to be ignored – the energy cost. Most
large electric motors run at nearly constant speed, although the equipment they
drive – particularly pumps, fans, or blowers – represent loads that vary over time.
Flow is regulated by partially closing a valve or damper in the system (throttling) or
by allowing some of the flow to go through a bypass loop. These methods are
effective, yet inefficient in terms of energy consumption of the system. Adjustable
speed drive technologies provide a better method of control by either varying the
speed of the motor, as is the case with a VFD, or by providing a clutch between the
motor and load to introduce some “slip” in the system, resulting in variable output
drive speed. A number of different products fall into the latter category, where motor
speed remains relatively constant and the speed of the output shaft is adjustable.
These include variable diameter pulleys, mechanical clutches, fluid couplings,
electromagnet eddy-current couplings, and permanent magnet adjustable speed
drives.
Adjustable speed drives can save substantial energy when applied to variable-
torque loads, such as fans, blowers, and centrifugal pumps. All fluid flow is
governed by the Affinity Laws, whose equations describe pressure differences and
fluid flow in closed systems. The Affinity Laws state that, for a fixed system, the
torque of the motor varies in proportion to the square of the speed of the fluid flow.
In addition, the horsepower (work input) varies in proportion to the cube of the
speed. This cubic relationship between speed and input power is where energy
savings are realized. For example, if fan speed is reduced by only 20%, motor
horsepower (energy consumption) is reduced by nearly 50%. The ability to control
output speed is important because even small reductions in speed will produce
significant savings because of the cubic relationship.
254
Although the energy savings mechanism for all adjustable speed drives is basically
the same, in reality different products offer unique advantages.
Magnetic torque transfer technology provides users with several unique advantages
for solving equipment and process related problems. Identifying the root cause of
repeat failures in troublesome installations is not simple, however, the inclusion of a
permanent magnet coupling (Figure 1) or a permanent magnet adjustable speed
drive (Figure 2) will provide significant benefits that are demonstrated to optimize
asset utilization and increase operating revenue.
Figure 1. Typical Permanent Magnet Coupling installation
Figure 2. Typical Permanent Magnet ASD installation
255
About the Technology
Design Principle
Magnetic torque transfer technology incorporates permanent magnets into a
mechanical torque-transmitting device – a coupling or an adjustable speed drive
(ASD). The permanent magnet coupling and permanent magnet ASD are constant
torque devices that operate on the slip principle and are classified as a torque
transmitter. This means that input and output torque are essentially equal and
speed change is achieved by modifying the amount of torque transferred through the
device. The device must slip in order to transmit torque, hence the difference in
power is called slip loss, and is in the form of generated heat. There are also
windage and frictional losses, but they are usually small enough to be neglected.
Common values of slip for a centrifugal pump or fan application range from 1 to 4%.
For most permanent magnet couplings and ASDs, slip heat is dissipated into the
surrounding air by convection.
The magnetic technology utilizes powerful rare-earth permanent magnets to transmit

torque across an air gap, allowing the input and output members to be mechanically
independent. The permanent magnet coupling and ASD have two primary
components. First, the magnet rotor assembly contains an aluminum magnet rotor
populated with permanent magnets and is connected to the load (output) shaft.
Second, the conductor rotor assembly is comprised of copper disks mounted to steel
plates and is connected to the driver (input) shaft and rotates at constant motor
speed.
The magnet rotor revolves freely within the conductor rotor. When the conductor
rotor rotates relative to the magnet rotor, the magnetic flux from the magnet poles
permeates the air gap and creates eddy currents in the copper conductor disks. The
eddy currents create poles that interact with the magnet poles, whereby the
magnetic flux develops a tangential force tending to turn the magnet rotor in the
same direction as the rotating conductor. The net result is a torque available at the
output shaft for driving a load. The magnet properties, rotor geometry, and materials
of construction determine torque capability.
Rare-earth permanent magnets are made of a combination of neodymium, iron, and

boron (NdFeB). The magnets are typically plated for corrosion protection. NdFeB
magnets have a high energy product, permitting small size and high torque
transmission capability, and they have a half-life of over 2,000 years.
Permanent Magnet Coupling

A permanent magnet coupling accomplishes the primary purpose of any
conventional coupling, that is, to transmit rotary motion and torque from one piece of
equipment to another. In addition, they perform a second important function – they
accommodate unavoidable misalignment between shafts. Driver and load shafts are
mechanically independent enabling the permanent magnet coupling to handle a
fairly large degree of parallel offset, angular misalignment, and thermal expansion
256
without transfer of forces/moments to the equipment shaft. Further, machine
vibration is isolated from one piece of equipment to another and the cushioned
start/stop capability reduces fatigue stress in the system. The permanent magnet
coupling mounts directly to the driver and load shafts using keyed or shrink-disc
coupling hubs, similar to a conventional coupling. A typical permanent magnet
coupling is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Permanent Magnet Coupling
Permanent Magnet Adjustable Speed Drive

A permanent magnet ASD is used extensively to drive centrifugal pumps and fans in
many applications where variable flow and pressure is required. Varying the width
of the air gap provides adjustable torque and variable output speed to the load. The
magnet rotors move axially about a center pivot to increase or decrease the width of
the air gap between the conductor rotors, thereby varying the amount of torque
transferred and providing speed control. The center pivot is locked onto a center
shaft where a cam driver and follower allow positioning of the magnet rotors through
uniform motion. The drive mechanism is actuated through an external control arm
that is supported about the center shaft by a pair of antifriction bearings. The center
shaft is fastened to the output member and properly aligned by a machined register
fit to the shaft coupling hub. The permanent magnet ASD is available in horizontal
and vertical configurations and they can be shaft mounted, same as a conventional
coupling, or the drive may be mounted inside an enclosure, with two shaft
extensions that are flexibly coupled to the driver and load shafts. Relative position
between input/output rotors is maintained by the driver and load shafts, or when
installed inside an enclosure, by a pair of rolling element bearings.
The movement needed to change the magnet rotor position and decrease/increase
the output shaft speed is produced by an actuator. The type of actuator motion
necessary to control the adjustable speed drive is either linear or rotary. A typical
257
arrangement results from linear translating motion provided by a quarter-turn electric
actuator working directly through linkage connected to the drive mechanism control
arm. A feedback control loop can be added to the system that receives an input
signal (4-20mA or 0-10VDC control signal) from a controller or process source and
adjusts the drive’s output speed to a prearranged corresponding value. Air gap,
output torque, and load speed are usually not proportional therefore; load torque
characteristics and speed range must be known for proper permanent magnet ASD
size and selection. A typical shaft-mount air-cooled permanent magnet ASD is
shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Permanent Magnet Adjustable Speed Drive
Installation
The basic permanent magnet coupling and ASD is factory assembled and balanced.
They can be installed indoor or outdoor without special provisions and can be
installed and maintained by millwrights. Regular and preventative maintenance
techniques are very similar to other types of couplings and rotating equipment. They
are non-energized mechanical device; therefore, under normal operating conditions,
it may be applied in hazardous services, and used in corrosive or explosive
environments. Only the actuator needs to be rated for hazardous locations in order
to place the drive within an explosive environment. General service conditions for
air-cooled permanent magnet devices are:
· Ambient Operating Temperature: -22°F to 130°F (-30°C to 55°C).

· Humidity: 0 to 100% relative.
· Altitude: Does not limit performance.
Water cooled units require a supply of clean, potable water (flow per application) at
50-70 psig and a maximum inlet water temperature of 80°F (27°C). Discharge
(return) water at atmospheric pressure must be rejected on site, otherwise a coolant
recirculation system is necessary. Applications below freezing require review of
coolant type. Altitudes over 3,500 feet also require review of coolant type or unit
rating.
258
Benefits of the Technology
Improved Life, Maintenance and Reliability

Because a permanent magnet coupling and ASD transmit torque across an air gap
rather than a direct shaft connection, they have certain unique characteristics that
can extend equipment life, reduce maintenance costs, and increase the reliability of
the motor-driven system. Each of the following benefits has the potential to extend
the lifetime of one or more of the components in a motor-driven system, hence
making the technology attractive for use with all types of rotating equipment.
Vibration Isolation – The permanent magnet device provides no mechanical path to

transmit vibration from load to motor or vice versa, so it effectively attenuates
vibration. Reducing equipment vibration will extend bearing life and lower
maintenance and downtime costs.
Shock Load Tolerance – Some types of loads are subject to sudden and drastic
changes in torque requirements. For direct-coupled equipment, shock loads can
increase bearing wear, damage shafts and motor mounts, or cause the driver to lock
up and potentially overheat. The permanent magnet device can accommodate the
additional torque requirements of a shock load by a temporary increase in slip
between the input and output members without affecting driver operation.
Misalignment Tolerance – Since there is no mechanical connection, the permanent

magnet device can operate satisfactory despite parallel offset and angular
misalignment. Elimination of the mechanical connection allows installations subject
to thermal expansion, soft foot, system fluctuations and pipe strain to perform
suitably with greater equipment reliability.
Cushioned Start – All permanent magnet devices provide cushioned start, a result of
the slip between input and output members. The permanent magnet ASD can ramp
a load up to full speed from a standstill with the motor operating at full speed
continuously. This is advantageous for high starting-torque loads where it may be
possible to specify smaller motors. Additionally, no-load or cushioned start/stop
capability to the motor and load will reduce fatigue stress in the system, inrush
current at start-up, and motor winding heat.
Power Quality – The permanent magnet device is non-energized, therefore, they are
not vulnerable to process shutdown due to voltage sags, power fluctuations, and
lightning strikes.
Harmonics – VFDs produce some level of harmonic currents from the way they pull
current from a facility’s distribution system (e.g.: currents that oscillate at multiples of
the 50- or 60-hertz fundamental). The permanent magnet ASD generates no
electronic harmonic distortion and no voltage transients that are detrimental to the
power distribution system or can disrupt electronic equipment.
259
Bearing Currents – Motors driven by VFDs can develop a non-zero voltage in the
rotor relative to the grounded motor frame. The voltage discharges through the
bearing, resulting in pitting (electrical fluting) of the bearing races and, over time, will
degrade the bearing and lead to excessive vibration. This problem is eliminated with
permanent magnet technology used in connection with a standard motor.
Cooling Requirements – The permanent magnet device is primarily cooled by

convection into the surrounding air, even when exposed to high ambient
temperatures. Higher horsepower permanent magnet ASDs require a continuous
supply of cool water to draw out the slip heat generated during operation. It is not
necessary to provide a climate controlled environment for a permanent magnet
device.
Replacement Parts – The permanent magnet coupling has no wear parts and no
contacting parts that would need replacement under normal operating conditions.
The permanent magnet ASD is a mechanical device and replacement parts (seals,
bearings, cam followers, etc) are readily available. In comparison, it is extremely
difficult to obtain parts for earlier technology eddy-current drives as well as the
continuously evolving VFD technology (e.g.: obtain spare parts for older VFD drives
when components like circuit boards fail).
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) – For an assembled drive unit, electromagnetic

interference is not a factor and is less than that typically found in an electric motor.
However, for disassembled units, individual magnets and exposed magnet rotors
require strict safety precautions and handling procedures – consult manufacturer for
recommendations.
Consumables – The permanent magnet coupling does not require lubrication

(grease) of any kind.
Energy Savings
The actual cost of running a pump is a function of the pump flow, the total dynamic
head and the pump efficiency. This efficiency can be obtained directly from the
pump curve, but frequently it will be calculated by the following equation.
Pump Power (BHP) = Q x H X SG

75 x E
Where;
Q = flow (LPS)
H = head (Meters)
S.G. = specific gravity
E = efficiency at flow rate Q
To analyze the expected energy costs in a pump operation, it is necessary to

compare the horsepower draw with the length of run time at the specified flow rate.
If we assume the cost of energy at Rs. 6.00 per kWh, the energy cost of a small
260
pump drawing 44 BHP and operating 24 hours per day, 365 days per year, can be
calculated as follows:
Annual Power Cost = BHP x 0.746 x Operating Hours x Cost/kWh

= 44.0 x 0.746 x 24 (365) x 6.0
= Rs. 1725230.00
If this pump were operating with an efficiency of 100%, then the entire amount of the
annual power cost would be contributing to the head and capacity of the pump.
Unfortunately, a typical pump this size has an efficiency of roughly 65%, even when
it is running at its best efficiency point (BEP). Consequently, the difference (35%) of
the annual amount (Rs. 603830) is being wasted through the inefficiency of the
pump.
In reality, the pump may not be operating at the BEP, but rather at another flow rate
where the efficiency is only 50%. This is typical when control valves are used to
restrict (throttle) the pump flow. Given this condition, the wasted energy would cost
50% of the total, or Rs. 8.65 L, costing users Rs. 71000 more in energy every year.
This may not seem like much, but when we consider that a plant may have 100 such
pumps, all of them operating with similar inefficiencies – resulting in total annual
losses in excess of Rs. 7100000. Large pumps with similar inefficiencies will
increase the cost of the problem even more.
This becomes the premise and justification for adjustable speed operation. Pump
head is wasted across the control valve when the constant speed pump is throttled
instead of slowed down. Reducing the pump speed will produce new head-capacity
and efficiency curves that would follow the affinity laws. The efficiency curve for the
pump at lower speed shifts to the left; therefore, the pump still runs near its BEP
when operating at reduced speed. So, the use of variable speed instead of throttling
a constant speed pump saves energy in two ways – the pump operates near its best
efficiency point and no energy is wasted across the control valve.
Figure 5 illustrates these points. Pump curve A is a pump running at motor speed.
System curve X represents a typical system, with the operating point at intersection
point ax. To reduce flow, a throttling valve will increase system pressure (curve Y)
to make the pump operate at point ay. This point requires more power, and causes
the pump to operate a lower efficiency point.
Curve B represents a reduced speed pump curve. Reducing the flow by slowing the
pump speed from curve A to curve B will allow the pump to operate at intersection
point bx. This point maintains pump efficiency, and requires much less power.
261
Figure 5. Pump operating points for both throttling and variable speed1
1
Volk, Michael W., Pump Characteristics and Applications, 1996
Figure 6 is an example of how ASDs were installed at Daishowa America paper mill
in Port Angeles, WA. The control system output signal was removed from the level-
control and bypass valves and attached to the new ASD units to achieve the same
process flow at reduced power levels.
Note: the same energy consumption scenario will apply to fan and blower
applications.
262
Load Controller
LIC
Level-Control
Valve
Bypass
Valve
Mill Effluent
Level
Clarifier Transmitter Mill Su mp
Figure 6a. Original configuration of paper mill sump system
Load Controller
Valve
LIC
Permanent
Magnet ASDs
Level-Control
Valve
100% Open
Mill Effluent
Bypass Closed
Level
Clarifier Transmitter Mill Su mp
Figure 6b. Paper mill sump system modified with Permanent Magnet ASDs
263
Engineering Considerations
Weight, length, and center of gravity should be considered for shaft-mount
arrangements to evaluate over-hung loads and estimate critical frequencies,
especially with long, small diameter shafts. The foundation must be of adequate
strength and stiffness to support the weight of the drive and its enclosure.
Resonance in Vertical configurations must also be considered. The system critical

(reed) frequency must always be reviewed to verify the pump discharge head has
adequate stiffness to support the permanent magnet ASD and the motor without
operating near the natural frequency of the installed equipment.
Permanent magnet couplings and ASDs have limited axial end float capability - a
result of the air gap between rotors. For horizontal shaft mount configurations, both
pieces of machinery being connected must have bearings that limit the total axial
end float no greater than 0.03 inch. Most electric motors with rolling element
bearings meet this requirement. Some horizontal motors utilize sleeve journal
bearings without a thrust bearing and must be modified to use shaft mounted
permanent magnet devices.
Total Cost of Ownership
A system-wide assessment is important during any evaluation/selection process and

the total cost of ownership model is a helpful tool when evaluating product,
operating, maintenance and downtime expenses. Traditionally, cost evaluations
have been limited to the cost of the initial capital equipment plus some evaluation for
the cost of energy. Life Cycle Cost (LCC) is a more sophisticated evaluation method
incorporated into the total cost of ownership model and includes the following major
cost categories:
· Purchase price of the equipment set (motors, pumps/fans, starters, etc.).
· Placement cost (foundations, equipment installation, electrical installation,
piping/ductwork, valves, etc.).
· Energy cost.
· Auxiliary services (air conditioning, cooling water, steam heating, centralized
oil lubricating systems, etc.).
· Maintenance (routine service and unplanned repairs).
· Potential loss of income due to unplanned downtime.
· Disposal (dispose of the equipment in an environmentally responsible way).
A life cycle cost equation, representing each of these cost components, is developed
as follows:
LCC = Cpp + Cpc + Cec + Caux + C m + Cpl + Cd
The LCC is usually discounted to a present value, based on an assumed discount

rate, inflation rate, and expected equipment life.
264
Comparing the Life Cycle Cost of various fixed and variable speed options can
demonstrate which installations can benefit the most from Magnetic Torque Transfer
Technology.
Case Studies
Case Study #1
In 1999, Ash Grove Cement Company implemented an optimization project on a fan
system in its cement plant in Durkee, Oregon. Because of a severe vibration
problem, the fan system would often fail and require frequent repairs to the ductwork
and adjoining machinery. The plant replaced the belt drive with a permanent
magnet ASD to improve the control of the fan system and lower its energy
consumption. This change eliminated the vibration problem and improved the
system’s airflow control and energy efficiency. The project led to annual
maintenance and energy savings of $16,000 and 175,000 kilowatt-hours (kWh),
respectively. In addition, the fan system’s improved reliability allowed the plant to
achieve its desired production level. Because of partial funding from the Northwest
Energy Efficiency Alliance (NEEA), the total project cost was approximately $10,000,
which gave the Durkee plant a simple payback of 7.5 months.
Case Study #2
In 2003, Xcel Energy implemented a retrofit and optimization project on a 700 hp,
1,200 rpm, induced draft fan system in its power plant in St. Paul, Minnesota. The
previous eddy-current drive required maintenance, which was becoming a black art
due to the age of the drives controls/electronics (replacement parts no longer
available). The plant replaced the eddy-current drive with a permanent magnet ASD
to provide speed control for the fan and eliminate equipment downtime and loss of
production. This change provided significant improvement of the system operating
reliability and lowered its energy consumption. The project saved in excess of
$1.5MM annually in lost production and maintenance expenses following the
installation of the permanent magnet ASD. In addition, the fans damper system was
removed and the ASD reduced power consumption by 54 to 227 horsepower when
operating at 100% load to 54% load, respectively. The annual energy savings range
between 17,396 kWh to 1,388,046 kWh. Partial funding was made available from
the National Industrial Competitiveness through Energy, Environmental and
Economics (NICE3) program.
Case Study #3
In 2002, the U.S. Navy incorporated permanent magnet couplings as part of an
engineering improvement project onboard ships that actually help Sailors. Sailors
currently spend 29 Sailor-days per year per pump repairing and replacing
mechanical seals, couplings, and bearings because of coupling alignment
difficulties. The greased couplings require quarterly maintenance, and produce as
much as three pounds of hazardous waste each year. Alignments can take up to
two full days and depending on application, may require cold and hot alignment
checks. Installation of permanent magnet couplings eliminates the need for time-
265
consuming alignments, and does not shift the load and wear patterns of the bearings
and seals, improving reliability. The coupling requires no maintenance (no
hazardous waste) and extends the life of connected equipment by eliminating the
transfer of system vibrations. No shaft-to-shaft physical connection eliminates
downtime caused by system lockup and destructive overload torque conditions
between the pump and motor (if the pump seizes, the motor keeps running). The
estimated annual U.S. Navy cost avoidance is $6.3 million.
Case Study #4
In 2002, Minnesota Power was experiencing vibration problems on their Air
Preheaters with 30 HP, 1800 rpm motors. In an effort to correct this problem, they
began re-greasing all couplings during every outage. Each re-greasing tied up 2
Maintenance Technicians for 3 days. Unfortunately, the reduction in vibration levels
accomplished by re-greasing lasted only a couple of weeks before high vibration
levels returned. The couplings were replaced with Permanent Magnet Couplings,
which require no lubrication. Vibration levels were reduced from .71 in/sec to .12
in/sec. The savings in outages and man-hours equaled $21,600 annually. Figure 7
compares before and after vibration levels.
Figure 7. Reduced vibration levels after installation of Permanent Magnet Coupling
266
Bulk Material Handling:
Magnetic Coupling
On a belt conveyor the magnetic couplings is mounted between an AC motor and a
gearbox
(see figure 23).
Figure 23 – Magnetic Coupling
This device operates on the principal of magnetic induction. It consists of two

independent components that have no physical contact. A rotor assembly containing
high energy permanent magnets is mounted on the drive pulley side. A conductor
assembly with copper rings is connected to the motor shaft. Relative motion
between the magnets and copper rings creates a magnetic field that transmits
torque through the air gap between the coupling components. The width of the gap
can be changed externally producing a controlled and variable output speed. This
means that the AC motor with this drive component can be brought up to speed
independent of the load. As stated earlier, this avoids subjecting the conveyor
components to peak motor starting torque and the motor from long durations at peak
starting currents. This drive is also capable of ‘active control’ as the torque can be
varied after the conveyor is up to speed by externally adjusting the air gap.
The energy savings are achieved between 3 to 5% and reduction in Maintenance up

to 50 to 60% as compared to Fluid Couplings.
Conclusion
In summary, the ability to effectively manage plant assets is paramount to lowering

total cost of ownership. Considering the ramifications of equipment maintenance,
unscheduled downtime, environmental regulations, and the cost of energy, it is
essential that a reliability-based maintenance program be supported throughout
industrial facilities. Users must identify superior and more thorough approaches
when it comes to extending the life of motors, driven machinery, and critical plant
systems.
267
One proven approach toward a more reliable equipment system focuses on the
application of magnetic torque transfer technology into the drive train. The inclusion
of a permanent magnet coupling will accommodate unavoidable misalignment
between shafts, reducing machine vibration and improving overall system reliability.
The implementation of speed control in motor systems represents an opportunity to
gain additional control over system operations while yielding substantial energy
savings. By performing the proper corrective repairs to extend the life of plant
assets, facilities gain a competitive advantage – one that delivers increased plant
utilization and higher production revenue.
References from Magnadrive paper.
268
Nema Premium Efficiency Motors are Ideal choice for
continuously working motors
Bhalchandra Bansod
Regional Manager-Industrial, BA LDOR ELECTRIC INDIA PVT LTD
bbansod@baldor.com,+919766342489
Keywords: Nema Premiu m Efficiency Level, Part

Loading Efficiency Behaviour, Efficiency It is the need of the t ime to evaluate purchasing of motors by
Measurement Methods, Life Cycle Costing, Life Cycle Costing rather than Initial Purchase Price wh ich
Payback Calculat ions, Salvage value of Old motors, is a very small percentage of total cost.
Some corporates have decided to consider one year savings
Abstract to evaluate the purchase price. But is the life o f the
equipment only one year? At least it should be to the extent
Nema Premiu m Efficiency motors are made is of 5 years (depreciation period); if not co mplete life of 20
USA as per NEMA standard which have higher years.
level of efficiency in the world. There is substantial
efficiency advantage with Nema Premiu m
Efficiency motors, when it co mes to replacing over
10 years old motors or purchasing new motors. I
have tried to put on this paper, in a simp le way, the 3. Simple mental payback calculations
difference in efficiency values and the energy
savings that can be achieved . I. 100KW MOTOR GIVING 1 % MORE EFFICIENCY
SA VES 1KWH PER HOUR THAT IS 5 RS.
1. Introduction II. IT SA VES PER A NNUM 8000X5=40000 RS
III. IF THE M OTOR COSTS RS 60000 MORE, IT GIVES
There is a shortage to Electrical Power in India due PA YBACK OF 18 M ONTHS.
to shortages in the installation of new capacit ies as IV. AND IF YOU DECIDE TO REPLA CE THE 15 YEA R
decided by the Power Min istry and rapid growth in OLD M OTOR, THE EFFICIENCY DIFFERENCE
the Industrialisation wh ich has broaden the gap to CAN BE 3 %
such an extent that most cities in India have been V. THE ANNUA L SA VING COULD BE 1.2L AND IF
subjected to Load shedding. And many villages get THE M OTOR COSTS 2.4L, THE PA YBA CK IS JUST
power only for 2-4 hours a day. The cost of power 24 MONTHS FOR THE REPLA CEM ENT WITH
in India is perhaps the highest in the world and ZERO SALVA GE VA LUE.
based on the demand supply situation, looks likely
to only increase in coming years. The best remedy
to improve the availability of power is to save Salvage Value calcu lation
energy. Electric motors, wh ich constitute large
share of the total electrical consumption in Weight of the motor Kg
1000
Industrial as well as agricu lture applications, is the (100KW)
ideal choice.
2. Life Cycle Costing Copper weight 10%
Salvage value of Copper Rs 100X300=30000
Wt of Steel % 90%
Salvage value of Steel Rs 12X900=10800
Total salvage Value Rs 40800
Salvage Value/Kg @41/kg
269
The payback calculat ions will improve with salvage calculate Output. Stray Load loss which cannot be measured is
value estimate as per the above thumb rule assumed in this method. Difference between the stray Load loss
equation. as per present IEC method and new proposed method throws
light on presently overstated efficiencies.
4 Motor Efficiency Labelling in the The Nema uses IEEE112B method which measures both Input
world and Output to measure actual efficiency.
IEC / NEMA Comparison

The easilest way to compare Nema with IEC levels is to reduce
the IEC efficiency by difference of the above Stray Loss figures.
100
Motor Assumed stray load losses

95 Power (% of full-load power)
90
kW IEC 60034-2 IEC 61972
EPAct 0.75 0.50 3.00
NEMA Prem ium 1.1 0.50 2.99
85
EFF2 1.5 0.50 2.99
EFF1 2.2 0.50 2.98
80 EFF3 3.7 0.50 2.97
5.5 0.50 2.96
75 7.5 0.50 2.94
11 0.50 2.92
1.1
2.2
5.5
11
18.5
30
45
75
110
187
250
340
15 0.50 2.89
Power kW
18.5 0.50 2.86
22 0.50 2.84
4 Partly Loaded Applications 30 0.50 2.78
37 0.50 2.72
Another unique advantage with Nema 45 0.50 2.66
55 0.50 2.58
Premium Efficiency level is large 75 0.50 2.44
efficiency difference at part loads which 95 0.50 2.30
110 0.50 2.16
are very common in all compressors
150 0.50 1.88
applications and also in many textile
applications. 6 How Efficiency is improved in Nema
50 HP, 4 POLE MOTOR Premium Motors.
a. By use of High grade stampings.

110
105 b. By use of thinner stampings which reduce eddy current
100
95
NEMA PREMIUM loss.
90 EFF2(IEC)
c. Use of more copper in windings to reduce the winding
85
Electric motors consume
80 resistance which reduces copper loss.
70% of the electricity used by most of the
75
70 d. Use of optimised airgap between stator and rotor which
Process Industries
65
% Efficiency
60 reduces stray load loss.

55
50 e. Use of smaller size fan wh ich reduces windage loss.
45
40 f. Use of machined windings which reduces length of turn
35
30 of copper and also stray load loss.
25 g. Use of speciality grease which reduces friction loss.
20
15 h. Use of locked bearings on both DE and NDE sides to
10
5 eliminate axial movement, pert iculary for s maller motors
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 upto 100 Frame, which improves efficiency due to
% Load otherwise loss of energy into unwanted motion.
i. Use of superior balancing grade wh ich again reduce the
unwanted energy which goes into vibrations.
5 Efficiency Measurement Methods It is worth noting that unless all the above are put together,
Comparison obtaining the high level of efficiency is not possible. That
explains why the motors are expensive.
The IEC standard uses IEC60034-2 method of
efficiency measurement which is an approximate
method since the output Power is not measured in
7 What are the negatives of Nema Pre mium
this method. Input and losses are measured to Motors?
270
e. Motors having low efficiency on name p late.
a. They have higher staring currents due to f. Motors which are over 20 years old since the life of the
reduced stator and rotor resistance. But motor is 20 years. It would be a great risk to continue
upto 200kw motors, slight increase in using old motors which has run out of life.
starting current should not be a problem.
Most importantly there is no tolerance in 10. Why Baldor Motors.?
Nema on starting currents hence the value
of 750-800% is actually lesser as
compared to IEC motors.
a. 120 years old brand and market leader for high
efficiency motors in USA.
b. They have higher Full Load RPM as
compared to lo wer efficiency motors. This b. Highest efficiency motors are availab le in stock at
becomes very important in case of Fan and Pune warehouse so that when motors fail, it can be
Pump applications. Due to increase in rp m replaced rather than rewind and loose energy.
, the operating point actually shifts towards c. Authorised service centers available in most major
higher loading resulting into increased cities in India e.g.- Mu mbai, Pune, Vapi,Vadodara,
input power. If you compare input power Ahmedabad, Delh i, Chennai, Bangalore, Erode,
of old motors and new motors, the savings Hyderabad, Kakinada.
get diluted due to this factor. d. Energy saving Case studies on applications available
c. The best way to tackle the problem is to which can be shared with indiv idual customers.
use the correct size fan or pu mp impeller e. Motors are inverter ready by default. Even small 90
in case of new equip ment and get the Frame motors have online greasing facility.
impellers trimmed in case of old f. Co mpact motors can be offered to replace with higher
equipments. ratings as required to increase the machine production
d. The high efficiency motors have poor capacity by RPM increase or spindle increase( text ile
power factor. The design philosophy is mach ines).
such that both efficiency and power factor
cannot be improved at a time. The
efficiency gets a preference due to the fact
References
1. Nema M G-I
that power factor can always be improved
externally than efficiency. Furthermo re the 2. Handbook of International Copper Pro motion Council.
cost of capacitors is mush lower than the
savings in energy.
8 Why go for High efficiency whe n

efficiency drops with re winding?
The answer is simple; the drop in efficiency is

there is all motors but the drop is less in Nema
Premiu m Efficiency motors due to speciality
stampings quality and design.. Besides the
Baldor Nema Premiu m Efficiency motors are
more reliable due to-
a. High temperature grease.
b. Winding wire has 200 degree Enamel
insulation as against 180 degree by all
others since Baldor has standardised
insulation on winding wire for F as well as
H class.
9 What are ideal motors for

replacement.?
a. Motors having no name plate efficiency.

b. Motors having IS 8789 mentioned on
name p late.
c. Rewound motors.
d. Non branded motors.
271
STRATEGY TO ACHIEVE ZERO BOILER TUBE LEAKAGE BY DESIGN
Vinod Choudhary A. K. Samaiyar

AGM (OS) DGM (OS)
Thought of containing boiler tube leakage has to start at the design stage itself.
If measures required to contain tube leakage at the design stage is not taken,
the boiler will experience failures during its entire life.
Similarly, quality of manufacturing, quality of commissioning also have far

reaching effect on boiler tube failures and it is generally not possible to
eliminate the deficiency during O&M stage.
This paper also covers how a small error in operation of the unit can have
devastating effect on boiler in terms of tube leakage.
Last but not the least, various maintenance aspects which have substantial
bearing on boiler tube leakage have also been brought out in this paper.
272
DESIGN STAGE
• Adequate furnace sizes
• Addressing Left-right unbalance in gas temperature
• Addressing Left-right unbalance in gas flow
• Material selection
• Gas velocity in horizontal and 2nd pass
• Lay out for maintenance approach
• Identification of tube/ assemblies experiencing high
metal temperature & installation of thermocouples in
these tubes/ assemblies
• Selection of Boiler configuration to have uniform gas
velocity
273
274
MANUFACTURING STAGE
• Quality checks during manufacturing
• Quality of shop weld joints
ERECTION STAGE
• Alignment of coils/ panels
• Uniform spacing between coils/ panels
• Uniform spacing between coil & wall at the front, rear,
left and right
• Erection of clamps, attachments, supports and hangers
• Quality of site weld joints
• Thruness of coils & panels
• Completion of all attachment weldings before Hydro-
test
• Removal of temporary supports/ structures
275
COMMISSIONING STAGE
• Removal of temporary supports/ structures
• Hydro test of complete pressure parts
• Quality of Alkali boil out
• Quality of Acid cleaning
• Quality of Steam blowing
• CAVT
• Repeat CAVT after correction
OPERATION STAGE
• Temperature excursions
• Drum level control
• Furnace pressure control
• Optimisation of soot blowing
• FG O2 at Eco. Outlet
• Wind box pressure
• PF fineness
• PF balancing
• Air flow through mills
• Furnace cooling
276
OPERATION STAGE
• Dissolved O2 in feed water
• ACC in condensate
• Silica in Drum water & steam
• pH value of feed water & steam
MAINTENANCE STAGE
• Illumination inside furnace
• Scaffolding
• Cleaning of heat transfer surface
• Boiler condition assessment
• Identification & elimination of damage mechanism
• Root cause analysis
• Elimination of root cause
• Equipment performance
• Finalisation of Scope of work
• Identification of spares
• Procurement of spares
• Contract tie-up
• Freezing Schedule of overhauling
• Freezing duration of overhauling
277
MAINTENANCE STAGE
• Optimising frequency of overhauling
• Optimising duration of overhauling
• Monitoring Quality of works during overhauls
• Quality checks & protocols
• Restoring boiler to its original condition during overhaul
• Cross check of Tube Thickness survey
• Cross check of Radiography
• Maintaining history of Inspection
• Maintaining history of work
• Ageing factors to be considered during overhaul
• Execution of work only on the basis of inspection
• Use of Modern tools during overhaul
• Gas cutting to be completely avoided
• Use of tested HP welders
• Use of tested cutters
• Inspection of tube after fin cutting
• Inspection of tube after fin welding
278
MAINTENANCE STAGE
• Use of main oven & portable oven

• Purity of Argon gas
• Capping of tubes after cutting
• Ensuring thruness of tube/ coils before welding
• Restoration of clamps/ connectors/ supports/ attachments/ hangers
• Alignment of coils
• Retention of experienced manpower to be retained
• Motivation of workforce
• Standardisation of contracting agency
279
STRATEGIES FOR REDUCTION OF BOILER TUBE
FAILURES IN NTPC UNITS.
Authors:
1. Shri A K Choudhary,DGM(BMD)
2. Shri Shaji John, DGM
3. Shri Sanjay Srivastava,Sr.Supdt
INTRODUCTION
Boiler tube failures are conditions that utilities have been battling since the day
boilers were invented. They amount to millions of dollars of lost generation and
anything done in this field to aid root cause and solution determination would
be of great benefit to the utility industry. Inspite of the stringent action plans
closed monitoring, following overhauling schedules, failure analysis, R&D
efforts, controlling operational and maintenance parameters, the boiler tube
failures in NTPC boilers are increasing
As the boilers of NTPC are getting older, it has been observed and experienced
that while the PLF ,the coal firing, the gap between overhaul and loading factor
of units are increasing the number of tube failures are also having increasing
trend in almost all the power stations. The maintenance team is trailing behind
the failures. Every year some tube leakages are appearing in every station as if
for the first time, for which the maintenance team is not prepared and any
action plan is thought off to avoid them. By using modern techniques and
strategies these failures can be checked and avoided.
The author has worked in boilers of KSTPS and VSTPS and w ith the experience
of more than 20 Years in boiler pressure parts, is of the opinion that the
maintenance engineer should use and develop strategies and policies to fight
the battle with BTL. And to conquer the battle even smallest action or
precaution is to be taken care off because a small overlook/slippage can lead to
a leakage. The organisation which will conquer this fight will be the leader in
the power industry. So to become the leader in the power industry the
strategies and policies to be taken to fight the BTL are as follows:
1. NDT TECHNIQUES:
a. EXTENSIVE DPT OF ATTACHMENTS
Liquid Dye Penetrant Test is the simplest NDT method to identify flaws & cracks
which are open to surface in boiler tubes and attachments joints. Based on our
experience extensive DPT is being carried out throughout the boiler
attachments to identify the initiation of thermal fatigue cracks. The prime
locations for this are f in welding, SH/RH spray nozzle areas, header stubs,
hanger supports in pent house, header and down comer drain connections, at
the ends of fins of two tubes terminating at two different headers, manhole
bends, burner block area, s-bend supports area etc, etc.This technique helps to
avoid development of these cracks in BTLs.
280
b. OXIDE SCALE MEASUREMENT.
Oxide scale formation inside the tubes of RH and final super heaters where
steam touches 540 deg. C is a temperature phenomenon. The thickness of
scale depends on the temperature in degree K, the tube touches and the time
for which it is subjected at that temp. There is a liner relationship between the
thickness of oxide scale and temp & time. Hence if we can measure the
thickness of oxide scale we can know the temp for which the tube had been
exposed off during the operation. Further knowing the temp we can calculate
the remaining life of the tube using LMP (Larson Miller Parameter). Based on
that NDT techniques had been developed in which oxide scale thickness of RH
& final SH are being measured using ultrasonic gauges and then the remaining
lives of Boiler tubes are calculated. This helps in planning of material
procurement before it fails. From the last 6-8 years this technique is highly in
use to assess the condition of boiler tubes and based an experience tubes are
being replaced when oxide layers is increasing beyond 550 microns. This
strategy is quite successful in reducing boiler tube leakages.
Oxide scale measurement technique is highly suitable in final RH & SH tubing.

In other areas its results are not encouraging. Maintenance Engineers through
their experience should find out the exact locations of measurements & can
take the advantages.
c. HARDNESS MEASUREMENT.
Hardness measurement of tubes using mobile tester is used for insitu hardness
measurement of various critical components like steam drum high and low
temperature headers, pipeline etc. It simply requires surface buffing to take
the readings. Hardness measurement aids in assessment of metallurgical
status/condition of the component. But its results are not much accurate &
encouraging in assessment of condition of tubes. Hence based on this it can not
be decided to cut/ replace the tubes.
d. CREEP ASSESSMENT AND RESIDUAL LIFE OF SH/RH TUBES.
SH tubes producing steam at temp above 482 deg. C and higher are subjected
to failure by creep rupture. Creep is the process where metals exposed to high
temperature and sustained stress over long period of time w ill gradually deform
and eventually fail. In addition to metal temperature increase, tube wall
thinning due to erosion, corrosion, or other wasted mechanism c an occur
overtime. This tube wall loss causes increase stress in a tube operating at a
constant internal pressure. If we know the temperature and hoop stresses at
which tube is operating the predicted time to keep rupture failure can be
determined using LMP (Larson Miller Parameter). NOTIS (Non-Destructive
Oxide Thickness Inspection Services) of measuring both wall thickness and
oxide scale in SH tubes is a patented method of prediction of creep rupture life.
This method is highly suitable for assessment of SH/RH tubes
e. RFET and LFET-REMOTE FIELD ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TECHNIQUE.
Remote Field Electromagnetic Technique (RFET) can be used to detect, ID or

OD flaws on the hot side half of the boiler water wall tubes. No surface
preparation is needed in this technique more than high pressure water
cleaning. Low Frequency Electromagnetic Technique (LFET) is used for tube
scanning in which 120 deg of tube circumference can be scanned and can be
used for water wall tubes form inside furnace. OD scanning of super header &
Reheater and even economiser can also be done using this technique.
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f. TOFD FOR HEADERS.
The TOFD (Time of Flight Diffraction) technique is an effective fully

computerized ultrasonic inspection method for detection of flaws in thick wall
components like headers & pipe joints. In TOF D technique transmitter &
receiver are placed on equal distances of weld joint and are focused at the
joint. The transmitter sends compression waves into the material towards
receiver. The difference in time between the lateral wave & the wave from back
wall is accurately measured which gives thickness of wall of the header. If
there are f laws in the weld joint, it can be easily detected as the time taken by
the wave to travel through flaws differs.
TOFD can be applied to headers w here thickness is more than 6mm & dia 80
mm. Welds can be inspected when they are partly done. One of the major
applications is on heavy wall thickness to verify the absence of cracks & lack of
fusion w hich are not detectable with radiography. It can also be introduced in
the scope of work of RLA for detecting cracks especially in SH/RH headers
where spray nozzle are fitted. Since in older units cracks are found in these
areas. It can be used in headers from w here connections to soot blowing are
taken & throttling of steam takes place
g. GWUT - FOR PIPING INSPECTION.
Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing or Long Range Ultrasonic Inspection is used to

detect corrosion and other metal loss defects in pipes & tubes ranging from 2”
size to 48” in dia. This technology is gaining acceptance in industry and can be
used for checking of our water walls & steam pipe lines. It is used for rapid
survey of pipes & tubes. It does not require removal of insulation. Guided
waves are introduced in pipes by using a collar that surrounds the pipe. The
wave first propagates along the axis of the pipe interacting with features in and
on the pipe such as metal loss from corrosion, weld attachments, branches etc.
Ref lected & refracted wave is returned from pipe features & read on data
screen. The technique can be used to detect localised corrosion.
It is a very strong technique and suitable for water walls, steam pipelines, MS,
CRH, HRH, lines and can be developed further to check the healthiness of our
lines to avoid some unexpected failures in future as we are unaware regarding
internal conditions of these lines.
h. IRIS ULTRASONIC TESTI NG FOR STRAI GHT TUBES.
IRIS ultrasonic testing method is conducted from the tube ID and is generally
conducted from the boiler steam drum. The IRIS UT testing is good for
detecting & quantifying f laws in the straight/vertical sections of tubes, however
it does not take any data in the tube bends. While the IRIS UT testing method
is good it requires that the tubes be very clean on the ID and requires time for
testing.
i. AWARE SOFTWARE.
When a tube failure occurs, maint. Personnel must quickly identify the material
and/ or stock number as well as the weld procedure to be used. With the
AWARE BTF module, this information is available from any computer on the
intranet with just a few mouse clicks. In most cases, it can all be identified in
less than a minute. While accessing that information, personnel can also see
the previous inspection findings, UT readings, and other tube failures for the
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relevant component. This past information may be required to determine what
type of repair should be done to avoid another forced outage in the future.
A key indicator of where & when future leaks are going to occur is the past
history of tube leaks at an individual unit, or across a fleet of similar units. The
AWARE BTF module provides the tools necessary to record, view, and report
tube failures and display them on plant specific interactive AutoCAD draw ings.
Analysts quickly see tube failures for a specified date range displayed on a
draw ing with color coding for failure cause, description, repair type, repair
status, unit, etc. This visual analysis tool, along w ith the powerful reporting &
trending functions allow engineers to have better insight into what condition
the boiler is in, and how the equipment is aging.
The AWARE BTF module allows engineers and planners to determine where to
focus attention during planned outages, and also provides quick access to the
data necessary to get back online quickly after forced outages induced by tube
failures.
j. REPLICA ANALYSIS FOR MICROSTRUCTURE OF HEADERS.
The replica analysis (In-situ metallography) is the process which involved

preliminary preparation of the metal surface using polishing equipment. When
the spot is ensured free from rust and scale polishing will be done using
abrasive paper of varying grits. Subsequently diamond paste lapping is done
followed by etching with 3 % natal to reveal the structure. After the
preparation of surface the micro-structure of component is truly transferred to
a film with green ref lecting foil and is examined in laboratory with
magnif ication upto 500 X. This insitu metallography is used to assess the
metallurgical damages like creep cavitations etc. in the headers and other thick
wall component and helps in planning of procurement of these long delivery
components. This process is to be included in the scope of RLA for ascertaining
the condition of headers and can be repeated after five years interval.
k. CAVT TESTI NG.
The purpose of CAVT (Cold Air Velocity Test) is to predict the flow profile of flue
gas flow by manually measuring the velocity of cold air inside the boiler at pre
defined locations (Second pass of boiler). CAVT is performed twice i.e. before
installation of erosion control devices and after installation of erosion control
devices.
Generally when flue gases pass through second pass of boiler, because of
resistance offered by the tube bundles, the flow tends to take place through
the gap between boiler casing and boiler coils. As the area of this region is very
small compared to total flow area, velocity in this region increases. Combined
effect of high velocity and impingement angle of ash particles the tubes in this
region get eroded. To pin point such problem areas the second pass of boiler is
divided in to number of planes, and velocity of cold air is measured on pre
defined points on each of these planes.
This data is used to design the erosion control devices which help to minimize
the erosion of boiler tubes in second pass. By using this data unwanted
shielding /refractory of headers can be removed to reduce velocity in the area.
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l. THERMOGRAPHY OF WATER WALL TUBES
It is comparatively a new technique in w hich water walls of furnace can be

checked by THERMOGRAPHY for any suspected chocking/blockage of tube
below the goose neck area after overhauling of boiler.
2. MONI TORI NG TECHNIQUES:
The frequency of BTL can be reduced by using c ertain monitoring techniques.

These techniques are like defensive mechanisms to be used by maint engineers
to safeguard from the attack of BTL.
a. TEMPERATURE EXCURSION MONI TORI NG.
Monitoring of temp excursion of PI SH & RH area is now-a-days is a regular

phenomena Operation engineers, O&E & maintenance engineers are regularly
observing the metal temp & monitor their trends. It help & in keeping them
within limits. The use of PIE server had further enhanced this practice by
providing facility to monitor from the desk top of maint HOD. It is also
discussed in daily planning meeting of O&M.
b. FIVE CORE CHEMICAL PARAMETERS (pH, Na,DO,NH3&PO4)
Operation Engineers & Chemists are required to monitor 5 core chemical

parameters shift wise daily. These are water & steam pH. Sodium in saturated
Steam, Dissolved oxygen in dearator & condenser, ammonia in water and
phosphate in drum. By monitoring these 5 core chemical parameters, the
frequency of Boiler tube leakages can be kept under control.
c. DISSOLVED OXYGEN I N CONDENSER/DEARATOR.
Level of dissolved oxygen in dearator & condenser is to be regularly checked

and actions are to be taken to bring down w ithin limits. Reducing Oxygen level
in condensate water reduces corrosive action. It has been experienced that
attachment failures & weld joint defect failures are reduced by maintaining low
DO.
d. ASLD INSTALLATION
In order to have early detection of BTL and stoppage of unit at early stage to
reduce secondary damages particularly in RH, Pl SH & div SH area, installation
of ASLD in each boiler is a must. It has been experienced that in the units
where ASLD is not installed secondary damages causes heavy loss of
generation due increased time of repair. Acoustic Steam Leak Detection system
provided in our stage-II boilers of 500 MW units are highly reliable and
perfectly working and helping in reducing maintenance time. Unnoticed
secondary damages some time results in new BTLs.
e. REAL TIME MONI TORI NG-PI E SERVER
The real-time database is an integrated information hub and a platform for

On-line applications. Real time monitoring of operational parameters by the use
of PIE server is a great help to all maintenance engineers in which different
peoples are monitoring different parameters sitting at remote places at a time.
Since operation engineers are already having lot of parameters to look upon it as
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a great tool/technique/facility to all power plants to keep a watch on real time
temperature excursions & other important parameters to monitor & issue
guidelines to keep them w ithin prescribed limits. Providing extra thermocouple in
each panel of RH (1 to 74) in St-II units is quite helpful in monitoring temp
excursion of individual panel.
f. OPTIMISATION OF SOOT BLOWI NG
Optimisation of frequency & no of soot blowers in water wall area based on actual
requirement is the need of hour. Wall blowers are to be operational only when
they are needed as excessive wall blow ing results in reduction of wall thickness.
The steam parameters at the time of wall blow ing i.e. pressure & temp at control
valve & at puppet valve as well as drain steam temp monitoring helps in keeping
damages due to wall blowing. It is our regular practice that whenever there is
shut down more than 24 hrs checking of Boiler tubes near soot blowers by
erecting sky climbers & taking corrective actions
g. ACID CLEANI NG OF WATER WALLS
Acid cleaning of water walls when the deposition inside the tube increases beyond
40 mg/mm3 is helping in reduction of BTL as it helps in avoiding tube leakage
caused due to excessive deposition. It had been experienced by the author that
boilers which had gone under acid cleaning are having less/reduced Boiler tube
leakages. The attachment failures due to corrosion reduce by carrying out acid
cleaning. Failures in water walls can be kept under control by doing acid cleaning.
Now-a-days fine control on parameters during acid cleaning is possible due to
high quality of inhibitors and good results can be obtained from acid cleaning.
3. MAI NTENANCE MANAGEMENT STRATEGI ES
a. REDUCTION OF MAI NTENANCE I NDUCED DEFECTS
It has been experienced that 20-30% of total BTL s are created due to maint
induced defects introduced in to the system during O/H or while attending earlier
BTLs.These can be controlled by proper training & sharing of knowledge w ith
maint. Personnel including contract labourers. Pre & post O/H discussion w ith
these groups is a very good strategy for reduction of maint induced defects.
Knowledge of care and precautions to be taken during Grinding, welding, avoiding
striking of holder and cutting wheel on tubes are such small activities which help
in avoiding undue failures for no reason.
b. HP WELDERS DEVELOPMENT
In most of the stations the works of Boiler Pressure Parts are being carried out
by taking people on contract. Development of a fleet of good & quality HP
welders, their availability and deployment of suitable welder at the correct place
is prime important for a pressure part maintenance engineer. If the welders are
not kept in practice / on continuous job their results get affected and results in
poor quality weld joints. The weld joints of tubes such as T-91 require skills &
practice. We should have a proper record of results of welders during each unit
OH. At present their is no such facilities/ institutions are available which
produces HP welders. HP welders are generally develops only by practices doing
works in new units but they are not given proper training / knowledge how to
produce quality joints or how the defects can be minimised. The agencies are to
be encouraged for maintaining a fleet of practicing HP welders all the time to get
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good results. Pre & post OH discussion w ith HP welders is helping in their
improvement.
c. INSPECTION SKILL DEVELOPMENT
It had been experienced by the author during his 20 years of experience

working in Boiler pressure parts area that inspection of components of Boiler
pressure parts is a skilled job and this skill needs to be developed among
maintenance personnel. The different components of Boiler are subjected to
different types of damages like erosion, corrosion, mechanical rubbing,
elongation, pitting, overheating, swelling, cracks, external scale, dent etc etc.
And they are to be checked for those damages and corrective actions are to be
taken during O/H to avoid BTLs resulting out of them. Now a day this skills and
skilled manpower is reducing due to increased no. of boilers coming into
operation every year. It has to be further taken as a challenge to the power
industry as the need of such skilled manpower w ill increase in f uture also. To
maintain such a huge no of thermal units coming in operation in India some
extra deployment of work force/engineers/supervisors particularly in pressure
part is highly needed. Alternatively services of hired competent Boiler
Inspection Teams can be taken
d. INSPECTION TEAM FORMATION
It is felt necessary to from a good inspection team consisting of young &

experienced agencies/Tech/Supr/engrs for inspection of various components of
Boiler Pressure Parts. The team should have equipped with torch, search light,
magnifying glass, various hand held tools like pen paper, markers etc. The
team should make a preset programme. Furnace cleaning and water jet
cleaning should be completed before that. The team should go to each location
& physically check for erosion, mechanical rubbing, steam erosion, dents,
overheating signs, etc. The skill for inspection of Boiler pressure part
component is to be developed by the team and marking of tubes/area is to be
done on the component. It is always better to have pre-printed check lists &
draw ings to carryout inspection. The team should be familiar w ith inspection
area/location. It can be achieved by using same team at same location again &
again.
e. VENDOR/AGENCY DEVELOPMENT THROUGH LONG TERM BUSINESS

PARTNERSHIP
Now-a-days as the thermal units are increasing in India there is a great

shortage of good quality, Experienced, working agencies in various technical
fields like pressure parts. APH, ESP, fans etc. And the available agencies are
lacking in skill set to carryout the required quantum of job during the period of
shutdown. As a result of that agencies are unable to give quality output on
continuous basis and their performance is not consistent. The organisations like
NTPC should help in the development of vendors/ agencies by doing long term
b2b contracts/ partnership w ith them. We should encourage the agencies to
get ISO-certificates and modern tools and testing equipments. Agencies can be
given soft loans for procurement of advance tools and testing
machines/instruments. The performance of agencies is to be evaluated on
annual basis and good & consistent performers should be suitably rewarded.
Agencies are to be supported to maintain a pool of skilled welders, fitters,
supervisors, inspectors and they should be paid according to their skill &
experiences. Attractive pay packages are to be formulated for attracting the
peoples.
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f. RATE CONTRACT WI TH OEMs FOR SERVICES & SPARES
As the requirements of good performing agencies are increasing day by day

NTPC should go for long term contracts (15 to 20 years) with OEMs as a
strategy. Such contracts should be supported w ith supply of long delivery time
spares like headers, bends, spray nozzles, tubes banks etc. This will not only
help in achieving the designed quality in work but will also ensure timely
supply of genuine spares with ease at the same time guarantee warrantee will
also be in place. The rate contracts with OEMs can also be done for carrying out
replacement of panels/ coil banks, headers etc. in phased manner in which up
gradation of material etc can be taken care off. At present we are carrying out
the works in part which is not giving the desired results. When OEMs will be
involved reduction of Boilers tube failures & performance/efficiency
improvement can become a part of terms & conditions.
4. ADVANCE INSPECTION PROCEDURES:
a. ROBOTIC INSPECTION USI NG MAGNETIC FLUX.
Advance techniques of inspection of Boiler pressure parts components is now

becoming the need of hour. As our units are getting older, due to continuous
work under severe conditions of operation, the components are subjected to
thickness loss from inside as well as from outside which are not possible to
detect by ordinary inspection techniques. Robotic inspection of tubes from
inside and outside based on magnetic flux leakage technique is now possible. A
NDT Robot is designed which includes furnace wall cleaning apparatus,
adhesion and crawling and safety mechanism, the inspection devise, the
control system and the signal processing software, can be driven up and down
on the tube automatically and is able to identify defects like hole and wall loss.
This technique can be used to find out thickness loss in water wall tubing and
other areas.
b. BOROSCOPIC INSPECTION
The internal surface of header which is inaccessible can be inspected by

Boroscope.This technique is called F ibroscopy. Headers exposed to temperature
cycling may experience internal cracking due to thermal fatigue. Mostly this
initiates and is most severe in the legaments between the adjacent tube stub
bore holes. It has been observed that when headers subject to higher
temperature the frequency of temperature cycling i.e. rate of change and the
temperature differential necessary to cause this fatigue cracking are less. Also
this technique tends itself to examine the internal scaling. With the help of
optical boroscope inspection of header for ligament cracking can be scanned
and photographs can be taken. Loose spatter, foreign material, scale etc can be
detected and removed to avoid any possibility of full/partial blockage of tubes
in future.
c. QUICK ERECTI NG SCAFFOLDING
The Boiler Maintenance Access System is rapidly gaining use in power

Generation Company worldw ide as the most efficient, cost effective and safe
method of getting maintenance personnel to their working position inside the
boiler. The traditional method of access for maintenance is not to be used in
large boilers. Now a days light weight aluminum alloy tower type scaffold
system is highly in use. It ensures professional access with minimu m downtime
with latest international safety regulations.
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5. INTEGRATION OF ADVANCE TOOLS &TECHNIQUES
a. PIPE BEVELING /PANEL CUTTI NG /POWER HACK SAW MACHI NE
Agencies are to be encouraged to use advance tools like pipe beveling machine,
panel cutting machine and power hacksaw machine for cutting and edge
preparation of tube for reducing the time of repair. Initially NTPC can purchase
and supply these machines to the agencies or soft loans can be given to the
agencies for procurement of these advance tools as a strategic movement.
b. D-METERS WITH DATA LOGGERS
The thickness survey of tubes is carried out using D- meters w hich can be
further modernised to have data logger system so that the readings can be
stored and studied using computers. Further readings can be compared with
earlier readings and decisions can be taken based on the trend of thickness
reduction.
c. METALLOGRAPHIC TESTI NG FOR MATERIAL MIX UP CHECKI NG
Insitu metallographic testing of various materials can be done using portable

instrument to know the percentage composition of alloying elements to avoid
material mix up and in turn failures due to the same can be avoided.
d. DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
It has been experienced by the author that approximately 30 % of the day’s

time is spent in carrying out radiographic inspection of joints carried out
during the overhauling of boilers using conventional film radiography. This
time can be saved and utilized for further works by up-gradation to digital
radiography. In digital radiography images are produced on flexible, reusable
pollster sheet which can be re-used and the results can be saved in
computers. This process is 10 X faster that the conventional radiography,
limits the radiation boundary to 10 feet only and can be carried out w ithout
stopping of the work. The results can immediately be obtained and seen
during radiography.
6. CONCLUSION
In addition to this several other actions /strategies/techniques are their which

are common & known to keep the number of tube failures under control.
These includes MPI, protection techniques, coating techniques, procurement &
preservation techniques etc. which are already in use and can be further
improved as and when needed. By using appropriate technique at most
suitable element of the boiler and interpreting correct results from advance
tools and instruments not only we can reduce boiler tube failures beyond
imagination but can achieve PLF 100%and beyond.
*******
288
FAILURES OF FURNACE TUBES ON FLOW INSTABILITY IN HIGH-
PRESSURE NATURAL CIRCULATION BOILERS- A CASE STUDY
V. D. Naiku (GM-Mech)
C.N. Murthy uu (Sr. Vice President)
Lahmeyer International (India) Pvt. Ltd.
37-Intec House, Gurgaon-44 (India)
ABSTRAT
High pressure natural circulation boilers work on Thermo-siphon principle on which circulation is dependent on
height of fluid hydrostatic column and density difference of working flu id in unheated downcomers and heated
waterwall riser tubes. As the operating pressure exceeds design pressure, density difference of fluid in riser tubes
and downcomers reduces. The available driving force for establishing circu lation diminishes with rise in operating
pressure. At high operating pressure and inadequate mass flow in riser tubes, flow becomes stagnant which leads to
DNB and film boiling. In tangential corner fired pulverised fuel (p.f.) boilers, phenomenon of stagnant flow &
reverse flow takes place on fu rnace corner tubes in high heat flu x burner zone area. On such conditions, corner tubes
are more susceptible to overheating failures. This paper exp lains phenomenon of stagnant/ reverse flow in a 200
MW coal fired natural circulat ion boiler where repeat failure on short term overheating were experienced on furnace
burner zone corner tubes. Circu lation ratio is also determined by heat and mass balance method and effect of
deviation with design circulation ratio is discussed. Furnace cross section geometry is also discussed so that ratio of
heat flu x for a farthest and nearest tube is maintained within the allowab le limits.
KEYWOR DS
Mass flu x, Circulat ion Ratio (CR), Crit ical Heat Flu x (CHF), Departure fro m Nucleate Boiling (DNB), Thermo-
siphon, Reverse flow, Short-term overheating.
INTR ODUCTION
Flu id circu lation in boiler downco mers and waterwall riser tubes is the result of buoyancy forces, which take place
due to density differences thermally induced by the transport of heat from the source to the sink. Usually, the boiler
drum as heat sink is located above the source to promote natural circu lation. Such loops of furnace waterwall riser
tubes in which flu id circu lation is caused by the thermally induced buoyancy force are also known as natural
circulat ion loops, thermo-siphon loops or natural convection loops.
In natural circulation units, density differential of boiler water in downcomers and boiling steam-water mixtu re in
riser tubes establish hydraulic head for circulation in furnace evaporator tubes. Circulat ion ratio is in the range of
6~8 in natural circulation high-pressure boilers depending on tube arrangement, size of downcomers, evaporators,
risers and operating parameters. At steady state, the driving pressure differential is balanced by the retarding
frictional and accelerat ional fo rces, thus providing a basis for the estimat ion of the induced flow. In natural
circulat ion boilers, heat transport function and flow motive forces is achieved without the aid of any flu id moving
mach inery. Flo w circulation in waterwall riser tubes reduces with rise in operating pressure if exceeds the design
pressure. It reduces mass flu x in riser tubes and invokes flow instability, stagnation and reverse flow in certain
extreme operating conditions.
FLOW INSTABILITY IN PARALLEL FLOW CIRCUITS
When a heated boiler circuit is made up of parallel tubes, there may be the possibility of either upflow or downflow
in the tube, depending on mass flow rates in each tube. If the tube is configured as a riser in furnace waterwall, then
downflow is generally not desired. If the direction of flow in a tube depends on the local heat flu xes, then normal
changes in boiler operation may cause the flow to oscillate between upflow and downflow, with stagnant periods in
between.
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The circuit pressure difference between tubes can be plotted for a range of flow rates with the tube acting either as
upflow or downflow tube. Figure 1 shows an examp le for two circuit pressure differences (i.e., circuit ∆P). For
circuit ∆P I, this line intersects the downflow curve at Point A and the upflow curve at Point B. Consequently, this is
an unfavorable point to operate at since the flow may change between downwards and upwards. A change to circuit
∆P II shall ensure an upflow in riser tubes for the range of flow rates as indicated.
Figure-1: Range of flow rates and Instability in Riser Tubes
CIRCULATION UPSETS IN NATURAL CIRC ULATION BOILERS
In the flow circuit, circulation takes place due to density difference of cold water in downcomer and water vapour
mixtu re in evaporator tube. The flow increases with rise in heat input and reduction of average density of two phase
mixtu re in furnace evaporative tubes and vice-versa. However, pressure loss in a circuit rises as the flow increases.
There will be a point of balancing at which the pressure loss is equal to the head.
A) UNE QUAL DISTRIB UTION OF FUR NACE HEAT FLUX
Circulat ion ratio (CR) must be used in conjunction with heat flux, steam pressure, tube size, orientation, roughness
of tubes, water quality, etc., to understand the boiling process and its reliability. Tube failures occur due to
conditions known as departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) when the actual heat flu x in the boiling circu it exceeds
a crit ical value known as critical heat flu x-a function of the variab les mentioned above. When it occurs (figure-2),
the rate of bubble formation is so high compared to the rate at which they are carried away by the mixture that the
tube is not cooled properly, resulting in rise in metal temperature and overheating failure of tubes.
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Figure-2: Boiling Conditions on Tube Metal Temperatures
In water cooled furnace, heat transfer is main ly radiative in nature which varies directly with fourth power of flame
temperature and inversely proportional to square of distance from source of heat. In this contrast, tubes at corners of
furnace receive least heat flu x (q1) and tubes at centre of nearest furnace wall receive maximu m heat flu x (q 2).
Furnace cross section geometry is selected such that the ratio of maximu m and minimu m heat flu x is within
allo wable limits and variation is minimu m. (figure-3 & 4). For a furnace with rectangular cross section i.e. W > D,
distances d 1 , d 2 and d3 shall be in the order as d 1 < d2 <d 3 (figure-4). In a tangential corner fired p.f. boiler, heat flu x
will be maximu m at centre of the nearest wall and lowest at corners of boiler furnace in burner zone and thus the
corner tubes receive lowest heat flu x. These tubes are more susceptible for stagnant flow and prone for initiation of
reverse flow phenomenon.
B) EFFECT OF OPERATING PRE SSURE
Density difference between the cold water in downcomer circu its and density of steam-water mixture in evaporator
sections reduces when operating pressure of boiler increases above rated design pressure. It vanishes at critical
pressure i.e. 225.65 ksc for water. Since, thermo-siphon based natural circulation phenomenon is established purely
on density difference, any pressure surge of operating pressure above the rated pressure adversely affect the flow
circulat ion in tube circu itry.
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Figure-3: Heat flu x variations on furnace evaporative tubes
Figure-4: Fu rnace Rectangular Cross Section and tubes arrangement

DETERMINATION OF CIRCULATION RATIO B Y HEAT & MASS BALA NCE METHOD
Circulat ion ratio (CR) is defined as the ratio of the mass of steam/water mixture to steam generation. The mass of
two-phase mixture flowing in furnace evaporative sections is determined by balancing the thermal head available
with various system losses, including:
1. Friction and other losses in the downcomer pip ing, including bends
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2. Two-phase frict ion, accelerat ion and gravity losses in the heated riser tubes
3. Friction and other losses in the external riser pip ing
4. Gravity loss in the riser piping
5. Losses in dru m internals.
To estimate CR, typically, thermal data such as energy absorbed, steam generated, pressure and geometry of
downcomers, evaporator tubes, and riser tubes should be known. These are obtained from an analysis of furnace
performance. In this paper, CR is calculated by heat and mass balance method in boiler drum (figure-5) with
available operating parameters of boilers. 1% adjustment is assumed for various heat losses in the domain of Boiler
Dru m. Let
M fw = Feed water flo w thru economizer, T/hr

M w2j = Flow of water fraction in 2j steam in waterwall riser tubes, T/hr
M s2j = Dry vapor flow in 2j steam in w/w riser tubes, T/hr
M sat = Sat. steam flo w at dru m outlet, T/hr
M dc = Sub-cooled flu id flow at down-co mer, T/hr
H fw = Enthalpy of feed water fro m eco outlet at dru m condit ions, kJ/kg
Hf = Enthalpy of wet fluid at dru m saturation pressure, kJ/kg
Hg = Enthalpy of dry vapor at dru m saturation pressure, kJ/ kg
Hdc = Enthalpy of sub-cooled fluid in down-co mer, kJ/kg
Figure-5: Flow phenomenon around boiler dru m in natural circu lation boiler
Applying mass flow balance at dru m
M fw + M w2j = M sat + M dc Equation-1
Applying heat balance at drum (assuming heat loss ~ 1%)
(M fw x H fw + M w2j x H f + M s2j x Hg ) x 0.99 = M sat x Hg + M dc x Hdc Equation-2
At flow equilibriu m, it is also evident that
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M dc = M w2j + M fw Equation-3
M w2j i.e. flow of water fraction in two -phase mixture in waterwall riser tubes is the unknown term in boiler water
flow circuit. It can be determined by solving the algebraic equations-1, 2 & 3 simu ltaneously.
CASE STUDY: OHERHEATING FAILURE OF F URNACE TUBES IN 200 MW BOILER
The 200 MWe unit is a balance draft, dru m type natural circulat ion, tangential tilting type corner fired boiler with
designed with HP/ LP bypass capacity of 60% BM CR steam flo w. There were incidences of repeat tube failure on
corner tubes at boiler burner zone. The failures took place during furnace stabilization on post turbine trip scenario
when machine was at full load before tripping. The root cause of the repeat failure and design issues are analyzed in
this paper.
BOILER OPERATION A ND ASSOCIATE D PHENOMENON
The flow phenomenon of natural circu lation boiler and issues of flow instability are discussed in earlier sections of
this paper. On incidences of turbine/ generator trips, firing is cut immediately to limit boiler steaming rate and
stabilize the unit to rectify the defect and restore it within shortest possible time. Following are design
considerations envisaged to safeguard the machine on such conditions.
1) FAST OPENING MODE of HP-bypass. In this mode, HP bypass system receives turbine trip signal and opens
immed iately. The controller senses the boiler load index at the instance of turbine trip, tracks preset pressure for
respective boiler load index and opens HPBP valves suitably to maintain main steam upstream pressure.
2) HPBP OPERATION WITH MANUA L SET POINT: A preset differential pressure (5~6 ksc) is set above
operating throttle pressure in the HPBP controller. With turbine trip, pressure in main steam line, SH circuit and
boiler dru m increases. HP bypass valve opens automatically when main steam pressure exceeds the set pressure
of controller with no pressure difference in the controller. In this mode, controller requires a definite time to
respond and subsequent opening of HP bypass valve(s).
Both modes of operation are aimed to prevent undue pressure rise in main steam line, SH circu it, boiler dru m and
upstream evaporative and other pressure part segments. Following mal-operations attribute improper circu lation
which invoke circulation instability in waterwall riser tubes.
a) Delay in opening HP bypass system. The boiler does not trip if HPBP system does not open within a
specified preset time (~ 10 seconds) considered in HPBP controller. If, not opened automatically, pressure
surges and safety valves pop up if the pressure continues to exceed the set pressures of safety valves. On
such cases in natural circulat ion boilers, flo w is blocked in the flow circuits, steam in evaporatives
segments condense, and density difference reduces which lead impasses of flow circulation in riser tubes.
b) Any supplemental fuel support: Prior to fuel cut (i.e. sequential withdrawal of pu lverisers or unloading of
feeders), if any supplemental fuel i.e. oil support is resorted; it increases furnace heat flux additionally. It
can reach to critical heat flu x (CHF) and lead to DNB. With other conditions (i.e. high pressure and
stagnant-flow conditions) persisting, film boiling is unavoidable in high flu x boiler burner zones.
SHORT TERM OVERHEATING FAILURES OF C ORNER TUBES IN FUR NACE B URNER ZONE
As exp lained, stability of flo w circu lation in tubes ceases when mass flow in tube circuitry falls below the specified
flow (figure-1). On such stagnant flow condition or reduced mass flu x in tubes, film boiling occurs on heat flux
lower than CHF. At reduced mass flu x, sy mptoms viz wrinkles on tubes, caustic gauging, bulging of tubes, cracks
on tubes, circu mferential cracks in tubes, heavy scaling in tubes, tube sagging and fin cracking etc. can be observed.
As shown in figure-, tubes at corner of furnace with rectangular cross section receive lo west heat flu x. Stagnant flow
or reverse flow init iate on corner tubes which leads to DNB and instant film boiling with pressure surge and non-
flow situations. Carbon steel used on furnace tubes at burner zone (SA-106 Gr-C) has o xidation limit of 450o C. Its
temperature increases rapidly at inadequate mass flu x in tubes and not able to withstand at elevated temperature. It
294
leads to short term overheating of corner tubes on burner zone. On failure analysis, metallurgical reports revealed
short term overheating of the ruptured tubes.
Circulat ion ratio was determined for the 200 MW unit fro m procedure outlined in earlier sections, using online
operating parameters and assigning heat values for water and steam at respective operating pressure and
temperature. The recorded parameters and value of circulation rat io determined are shown below in Table-1.
Table-1
Load, Feed Main Superheater Reheater Dru m p r. Whether ECO Dru m Wet fluid in CR
MW water steam Spray, T/hr Spray, Ksc, HPH in outlet bottom 2j steam,
Flow, flow, T/hr (abs) service temp, o C metal T/hr
T/hr T/hr temp, o C
195 661 615.3 42 0 164.2 Yes 298.1 334.9 1940.3 4.384
Natural-circulation boiling circu its are designed with CRs ranging fro m 4 to 8 at high steam pressures (1,500 to
2,100 psig) for large utility and industrial boilers. The value of CR i.e. 4.384 calculated above indicates that
circulat ion ratio is on lower side. Fo r such boilers with lo wer circu lation ratio, fract ion of water content in furnace
evaporative segment shall be less. The boiler has better load response with changes in fuel firing in the furnace.
However, lo wer fract ion of water in riser tubes reduces thermal inert ia (i.e. tube healthiness on loss of feed water
flow fro m feed pumps, loss of water flow in downcomers etc.) and makes furnace waterwall tubes more susceptible
for DNB, film boiling and overheating failures.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS F OR CIRCULATION STABILITY
1) For relieving the steam contained in boiler, safety valves are provided in main steam lines and boiler dru m.
Co mbined relieving capacity of all safety valves shall be as BM CR steaming capacity of the boiler.
Accordingly, size and nu mbers of safety valves are selected inline with IBR requirement.
2) Ratio of maximu m and minimu m heat flu x on boiler tubes in furnace zone is kept within permissible limits
as elaborated in earlier sections. The cross section of furnace is either square or rectangular. In case of
rectangular cross sections, W/D ratio is maintained ~ 1.15. If furnace width is too long, a twin d ivided
furnace is envisaged to maintain the ratio of maximu m and minimu m heat flu xes within permissible limits.
3) FAST OPEN M ODE of HP bypass operation is provided as exp lained earlier which ensures flow in furnace
tube circuitry. It safeguards tubes from overheating on incidences of pressure surge in boiler circuit and
avoids flow stagnation on turbine trip conditions.
REFERENCES
1. Flow stability of natural circulation steam generators, Heimo Walter, Wladimir Lin zer Institute of Thermal
Engineering, Vienna Un iversity of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
2. Boiler circulation calculations, V Ganapathy, ABCO Industries, Abilene, Texas
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NTPC Vindhyachal
3-DIMENSIONAL APPROACH OF CONDITION MONITORING

FOR MILL GEAR BOX AND OTHER ROTARY PARTS AT
NTPC-VINDHYACHAL
Dr. Ramprasad Das

Sr. Manager (Chemistry)
NTPC-Vindhyachal
INTRODUCTION:
World’s resources of material and energy are depleting fast due to rapid industrialization and huge cost
of ownership is getting involved for any machinery. There are growing interests in studying or search
for an appropriate or right kind of condition monitoring approach for rotary parts of important
equipments aiming at cost economical operation and condition based maintenance strategy. Searching
of oil analysis toolbox shows that there are mult iple routes like Direct reading ferrography, PQ
monitor, Magnetic filter plug, Analytical ferrography, Patch test using optical microscope, Acid
digestion & Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) & Rotrode
filter spectroscopy (RFS), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), etc. that are available for investigation
of different wear modes covering small to large and critical size ranges. Any single method is neither
capable to track co mplete wear process path nor provides complete picture of wear process (Figure-1).
Figure-1 : Different stages of wear process & applicability of monitoring techniques
Other condition monitoring techniques like vibration analysis, particle counting in oil as per NAS or
ISO etc. are in place, but these are not well-focused towards the specific problem zone of equip ment
rather indicates merely presence of gross fault inside. Moreover, in milling system vib ration becomes
significant only at advanced stage of fault, causing much damage to system. A 3-Dimensional approach
of wear debris in lubricating oils is a promising selective package for wear particle analysis (as shown
by green arrows in figure-1), that warns fro m the very init iation stage of fault, thus can avoid any
catastrophic failure of oil lubricated rotary equipment. Superiority of this analysis package are: (i)
complete coverage of wear process or failure path (ii) techniques are simple that needs no human
expertise for analysis or diagnosis of result (iii) wide applicability with reliability.
THE UNIFIED APPROACH OF CONDITION MONITORING:

The unified approach comprises of three types of analysis in concerned oil :-
§ First dimension of oil analysis is basically the screening test to prioritize our attention towards
the equipment under threat of failure. Direct reading ferrography or PQ Index analysis on oil
samples using sensitive magnetometer or similar equipment that helps to sort the faulty
running equipment among others that needs attention. It measures the iron & other magnetic
particles present in oil samp le & indicates the extent of ferrous wear in system that is utilized
in trend analysis to adjudge severity of fault.
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§ Second dimension of oil analysis is spectroscopic investigation on oil to know about the
presence of wear elements, both ferrous & non-ferrous in origin as well its concentration in
ppm. The technique is popularly known as Rotary Disc Electrode Optical Emission
Spectroscopy (RDE-OES). This part of analysis points towards the component under wear &
tear process and its extent or severity.
§ Third dimension of oil analysis covers in-depth morphological analysis of wear part icles under
optical microscope or scanning electron microscope to know about the shape, size, colour
and surface texture of wear particles present. It helps to identify the type of wear along with
presence of extraneous / foreign elements if any. This is done through finger-print analysis of
image using image atlas or through computer assisted image analysis package that makes
identification of wear debris easy and less dependent upon human expertise.
WEAR DEB RIS - ITS ENTRY IN OIL, TYPES AND SOURCES :

Debris may arise in system either built in at the start or ingested from allied section in contact but wear
particles are generated by machine due to problem inside. Wear particles under optical microscope or
scanning electron microscope (SEM ) shows the following seven category- (1) spheres, (2) pebble
shaped, (3) chunks & slabs, (4) platelets & flakes, (5) curls-spirals-slivers, (6) rolls, (7) strands &
fibres. The pathways of orig in for such debris types are main ly- (a) rubbing wear or normal wear (b)
cutting wear (c) ro lling fat igue (d) severe slid ing wear & (e) co mbined ro lling & slid ing wear. Abrasive
wear particles are normally indicative of excess dirt or other hard particles in the oil that are cutting
away at the load bearing surfaces. Adhesive wear particles reveal problems with lubricant starvation as
a result of either low v iscosity, high load, high temperature, slow speed, or inadequate lubricant
delivery. Fatigue wear particles are often associated with mechanical problems such as imp roper
assembly, imp roper fit, misalign ment, imbalance, or other condition. Corrosive wear particles are the
result of corrosive fluids such as water or process materials contacting metal surfaces.
NEED FOR WEAR DEB RIS MONITORING :

The preventive maintenance is initiated as a result of knowledge of the condition of any equipment
fro m pro -active routine or continuous monitoring. As wear worsens the increase in average particle size
in oil is observed normally. Oil film thickness has very little influence on bearing life when high level
of contaminants is present. Early failure of bearing will occur if it is in contact with oil having high
level of contamination even only for a short period (say, ½ hour). Side filtrat ion / partial loop filt ration
system helps in extending life of equipment. Suitable proactive approach of wear monitoring must
detect the size shift immediately and nature of wear. During abnormal wear pattern sensed through 3-D
analytical approach of oil condition monitoring, it is diagnosed for the component which is wearing
and route cause of wear or failure.
SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY OF 3-D OIL CONDITION MONITORING :

For a coal pulverizer mill, bearings and gear require lubrication to reduce friction and wear, remove
heat and prevent rusting / corrosion. Lubrication system for bowl mills cover journal and gearbox
containing worm, worm gear, vertical shaft, radial & thrust bearing. Oil is supplied to the vertical shaft
upper radial bearing through a drilled hole in vertical shaft (Figure-2). The oil gets discharged above
the radial bearing, flooding the bearing it passes through and returns to gear box again. Presence of
higher and lighter / fine wear particle content in oil causes chocking of oil flo w path (drilled hole) in
vertical shaft and results high bearing temperature. Not only cooler problem but also high copper
content (>800 ppm) in oil generally causes clogging of oil passage resulting oil starvation to bearing
part. Therefore, mult i-d irectional wear debris analysis in oil in such condition plays significant role.
Figure-2 : Vert ical shaft fitted with bull gear of XRP-803 bowl mill
Also, higher relative frequency (>10%) of component failure are observed from gearbo x, bearings,
seals & shafts and excess wear process in case of bowl mills. Improper align ment or slight pitch
mis matching with gear teeth / imp roper hub to gear fit or poor lubrication causes unusual abrasive wear
initially, then starts producing chunks from gear part and finally leads to fatigue wear. Figure-3 shows
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NTPC Vindhyachal
the pattern of wear that has taken place on gear teeth compared to new one. Attention is paid to monitor
the excess wear process in mills via such directional oil analysis. Such wear parts contribute high
copper and tin content in oil and needs realign ment / matching of worm-gear set.
Figure-3: New bull gear & used gear having chi pped type wear pattern
Improper fit up of worm or misalignment results rapid wear of worm shaft also and sharpens its spiral
teeth, although it made up of high wear resistant alloy (Ni-Hard or high chro me cast iron). Continued
running of mill under such condition needs early rotation / inversion of worm-gear pair. Generally
abrasive wear is observed in worm part wh ich contributes high ferrous metal particle in oil along with
chromiu m and nickel as per severity of wear. Figure-4 shows condition of spiral teeth of used worm
vs. new one.
Figure-4 : Wi de teeth of new worm vs. sharpened teeth of used worm
The 3-D monitoring approach is applicable to Mill gear bo x o il, Turbine lubricating oil, Fire resistant
flu id, RAH o il, oils of PA fan, FD fan, ID fan, etc. Special Test Laboratory of Chemistry at NTPC-
Vindhyachal is engaged in monitoring of mill (XRP-803 / 1003) gear bo x oil & other oil samples
periodically to identify various types of wear, its intensity and evidences validity of aforesaid 3-D
analytical technique.
At first through PQ index analysis, the equipments are identified that needs special attention for trend
monitoring. PQ trend also indicates rate of wear or severity. All oil samp les undergo through this test.
Selected oil samples are then passed through atomic emission spectroscopic test to know the kind of
metals or elements present and its level. Trend plot is followed for typical fault indicating elements. At
this point knowledge of metallurgical co mposition of different components present in machinery
system becomes essential to the particular part of equipment under abnormal wear p rocess. For
example, the elements found in mill gear bo x o il analysis are indications of the condition of gear box
components. So me diagnostic facts concerning these elements are as follo ws :
Þ Copper co mes in oil form thrust washers, bronze gears, bearing cages and other bronze or brass
components that are contact with the oil. In bowl mill (XRP-803 or 1003) gear teeth are made
of bronze or brass. In case of bronze, copper & t in metal p redominates in oil.
Þ Iron co mes fro m worm shaft, gears, bearings, etc.
Þ Babbit bearing contains lead in alloy co mposition. Many bearing cages are made of leaded
bronze. Presence of excessive lead in oil indicates bearing problem.
Þ Foreign materials like silicon & water also find its way into gear bo x. Silicon in oil generally
comes fro m sand, dust and mineral matter present in coal. Water comes from external washing
or fro m internal leaks.
Þ Presence of lead usually indicates bearing problem (rad ial / thrust).
Þ Worm shaft is normally made of Ni-hard steel (C-3%, Ni-4%, Cr-2%, rest Fe) as it is having
very low wear coefficient (1.5 x 10-4 ). Ch ro miu m & Nickel co mes in oil fro m abnormal
wearing of worm shaft and rolling element bearing.
Þ Coal particles enter in oil through seal leakage or due to low seal air pressure.
Filter patch is prepared for oil having high level of contamination or high wear metal concentration as
observed through PQ and / or AES study and observed under microscope to recognize type of wear
particles present.
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NTPC Vindhyachal
RES ULTS AND S YS TEM FAULT DIAGNOS IS :

Close monitoring of mill gear bo x oil samp les of 210 MW & 500 MW units are taking place at NTPC-
Vindhyachal using this 3-D analytical approach. It has been observed that during normal running of
mills nominal increase in PQ index value (25-75 PQ per month) takes place. In case of abnormal
abrasive wear, sharp and steady rise in PQ index (200-250 PQ/ month) to 1200-1500 takes place,
chipped copper-alloy parts in oil & needs worm shaft servicing & re-alignment. So metimes PQ value
ju mps by 500 or more per month when major misalign ment of gear takes place. On further propagation
of fault, still higher PQ value (2000-2500) is reached, chunks (50-100 micron size or bigger) of copper
alloy parts are observed on filter patch and fatigue wear initiates. At this stage, requirement for
replacement of lower thrust bearing or stripping of gear & bearing set is felt.
CAS E STUDY-1 : Mill-4 E-VSTPS: Year: 2008-09

Mill-4E was running normally with PQ index of 245 in gear oil during August-2008 and normal PQ
index increasing trend. Fault was developed during November-2009 and PQ ju mped to 1468 (Dec-
2008) and 1970 (Mar-2009). During Nov-2008, samp le was not available for low o il level. Mill was
drawing abnormally h igh current. During inspection in March-2009, it was found that gear hub lock nut
in lose condition, vertical shaft & bowl assembly was shifted upward. Co mplete gear stripping was
done along with replacement of upper radial bearing, lower thrust bearing, oil, etc. to rect ify the
problem. Table-1 shows PQ index trend in gear box oil before and after the gear misalign ment
problem. During March-2009 the instrument for A ES study was not available at site.
Year Year-2008 Year-2009

01.08.2008
03.09.2008
15.10.2008
06.11.2008
05.12.2008
26.02.2009
19.03.2009
17.04.2009
18.06.2009
25.09.2009
20.10.2009
19.12.2009
Date
PQ 245 283 310 * 1468 1900 1970 108 154 190 210 425
Index
Table-1 : PQ index trend of M ill-4E gear bo x oil of NTPC-Vindhyachal
CAS E STUDY-2 : Mill-5B-VSTPS: Year: 2009

Mill-5B was running with abnormal sound from gear bo x since Feb-2009 and PQ index was 350.
Maintenance personnel attempted the several times since then to subside the problem through motor
align ment, attending bull ring segment, vane wheel, upper skirt re-fixing, scrapper air guided vane re-
affirming, etc. but still problem persisted. Mill was taken under overhaul during Oct-2009 for worm
shaft servicing and alignment and PQ index at that time was 500.After overhaul of mill PQ value
started shooting up at abnormal rate to reach at PQ index of 1525. A ES study in oil showed presence of
Fe, Cu, Cr, Ni, Sn, Si, A l, Zn, etc. at h igh level. Table-2 shows PQ index t rend and wear metal analysis
data. Abnormally high level of copper & tin in oil indicates severe wear of bull gear section and
presence of Fe, Cr, Ni indicates abrasion of worm gear part. Overall phenomenon is indication of
misalignment of worm-gear set after overhauling. Damage of bearing part is not prominent so far as
indicated by relative level o f Cr, Ni & Pb.
Year Mill- 5B : Year-2009
26.02.2009
19.03.2009
08.05.2009
09.07.2009
22.08.2009
20.09.2009
25.10.2009
12.11.2009
28.11.2009
14.12.2009
19.12.2009
Date
PQ 365 380 500 510 520 525 500 545 1000 1525 1560
Index
Atomic Emission Spectroscopic data for Mill -5B : VSTPS : Year- 2009
Wear metals Fe Cu Cr Ni Mn Al Zn Sn Pb Si
12.11.2009 920 1250 9 13 13 45 24 109 0 185
Date 28.11.2009 1020 1420 12 15 18 56 30 166 0 240
19.12.2009 1500 1640 13 16 22 70 40 190 0 340
Table-2 : PQ index trend and wear metal analysis data for Mill-5B gear bo x o il : VSTPS
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NTPC Vindhyachal
Figure- 5 : Microscopic view of wear debris found in Mill-5B gear o il
Microscopic view of wear particles found in gear oil of mill-5B (Figure-5) shows presence of oxid ized
ferrous chunks (15-40µ ). Smeared copper chunks of almost similar size are also found. Shape texture
of wear particles indicate fatigue wear mode in both cases as per finger-print matching fro m wear atlas.
Fibrous contamination of huge size (>100µ ) are also present from external sources. Above images are
captured from filter patch with 40X magnification & horizontal illu mination through blue filter.
CAS E STUDY-3 : Mill-2 E-VSTPS: Year: 2009

During June-2009 abnormal sound appeared in Mill-2E in spite of normal PQ index (300 PQ). Problem
was rectified by maintenance staff through scrapper repair & trump iron gate bend patching. Normal
PQ index growth rate (40-50 PQ/ month) afterwards assured that contribution towards abnormal sound
fro m gear assembly was absent. At the end of Oct-2009 PQ index started shooting up to reach at a level
of 1035 PQ during Dec-2009. Ato mic emission spectroscopic study showed high level of Cu, Sn, Fe,
Cr, Ni, Pb, Al & Zn (as shown in Table-3). It indicates that misalignment of worm gear assembly has
taken place during Oct/Nov-2009. Relative level of Cr, Ni & Pb indicates involvement of bearing
problem.
Year Mill- 2E : Year-2009
26.02.2009
19.03.2009
17.04.2009
08.05.2009
18.06.2009
09.07.2009
22.08.2009
25.09.2009
20.10.2009
12.11.2009
28.11.2009
21.12.2009
Date
PQ 180 190 280 300 335 370 400 450 490 880 1000 1035
Index
Atomic Emission Spectroscopic data for Mill -2E : VSTPS : Year- 2009
Wear metals Fe Cu Cr Ni Mn Al Zn Sn Pb Si
14.12.2009 1050 1510 14 30 15 44 32 175 10 140
Date
21.12.2009 1200 1600 14 32 16 47 36 185 12 150
Table-3 : PQ index trend and wear metal analysis data for Mill-2E gear bo x oil : VSTPS
Microscopic observation of filter patch also shows (Figure-6) chunks of copper alloy (<40µ ), o xid ized
ferrous in chunk & ribbon form (<50µ ) to support the adhesive and abrasive wear between worm &
bull gear part. Fibrous contamination (>100µ ) fro m external source is also observed in microscopic
view of patch obtained for mill-2E o il.
Figure-6 : M icroscopic view of wear debris found in Mill-2E gear o il
If oil contains high concentration of copper (>1000 ppm), chro miu m (>6 ppm), nickel (>10 pp m), etc.
it indicates abnormal wear in bearing part / rolling element bearings and bull gear section. High PQ
value originates form wear & tear of worm shaft-gear, bearing, etc. High copper content (>800 ppm) in
oil generally causes clogging of oil passage in vertical shaft, resulting oil starvation to upper radial
bearing part. It causes severe damages to concerned component and leaves none but the only option as
replacement.
The same 3-Dimensional condition monitoring technique was also applied for different turbine
lubricating oil samples (as shown in Table-4) and system conditions were found satisfactory with PQ
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NTPC Vindhyachal
index <30 and negligible wear metal level (<1 pp m). Other than mill gear bo x oil and turbine lube oil
systems, oil lubricated parts of PA fan, FD fan, ID fan, RAH, guide bearing & support bearing parts of
PAPH & SAPH are also covered under this monitoring program.
Name of Wear metal / Unit of MOT-VSTPS : STAGE-1 : 09.11. 2009

element measurement MOT-1 MOT-2 MOT-3 MOT-4 MOT-5 MOT-6
Aluminium Al PPM 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cadmium Cd PPM 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chromium Cr PPM 0 0 0 0 0 0
Copper Cu PPM 0 0 0 0 0 0
Iron Fe PPM 8 10 11 10 10 8
M anganese Mn PPM 0 0 0 0 0 0
M olybdenum Mo PPM 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nickel Ni PPM 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lead Pb PPM 2 0 0 1 1 2
Silicon Si PPM 5 6 5 5 5 5
Tin Sn PPM 1 0 0 0 0 1
Table-4 : Wear metal analysis data for Turbine lube oil (Stage-1) : VSTPS
INSTRUMENTS US ED:
Ferrous Debris Monitor (Analex PQM) of Kittiwake, U.K. make was used for PQ Index monitoring
purpose. MOA II Plus Rotary Disc Electrode Atomic Emission Spectrometer of MOA International,
U.S.A. was used for wear metal analysis. “Correct” Trinocular Microscope from Seiwa Optical, Japan
and wear particle at las of Emerson Process Management were used for image capture and analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
Author is thankful to Shri V. Thangapandian, GM (O&M ), NTPC-Vindhyachal for h is constant
encouragement, support in establishing laboratory with above instrumental facility, continued interest
in power plant chemistry & condition monitoring aspects. Author also acknowledges help and support
received fro m Mill maintenance section (BMD) for provid ing maintenance data history of mills.
Contributions of colleagues who have helped directly or indirectly in writ ing this article are also
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES:
1) A. Grunsky; Pulverizer maintenance guide, Volume-1, Raymond Bowl Mills, TR- 1005061,
August-2004; Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California- 94303,USA.
2) J. Ding; Determining fatigue wear using wear particle analysis tools; Practicing oil analysis,
September-October-2003, No ria publishing (www.noria.co m) and other issues related to wear
debris analysis.
3) Trevor M Hunt & Brain Roylance; Wear debris analysis handbook; January-1999
4) N. K. Myshkin et.al.; Classification of wear debris using neural network. Korea Institute of
Science & Technology, South Korea.
5) Mark Smith; Oil analysis Vs. Microscopic debris analysis: when and why to choose;
Practicing oil analysis, April-2007, Noria publishing (www.noria.co m).
6) J.L.Xuan & H.S. Cheng; Microscopic wear debris generation and surface topography;
Tribology series, Vo lu me-21, page 247-256, Year-1992.
7) John Keith Beddow, Sun T-sun Fong & A. F. Vetter; Morphological analysis of metallic wear
debris; Wear, Volu me-58, Issue-2, page 201-211, February-1998
8) D. Anderson; Wear particle atlas (revised edition), 1982.
9) Database of wear & contaminant particles in used lubricants (Wear Particle Atlas CD-ROM);
Spectro Inc., Littleton, MA-01460, USA.
10) Matt Spurlock; Monitoring large particles in gear oils; Noria Corporation.
11) Malte Lu kas, Robert Yu rko and Dan iel Anderson; New Rotrode Filter Spectroscopy Method.
Practicing Oil Analysis magazine, September-October 2006.
12) Robert L. Errichello and Jane Muller; How to analyze gear failure; Practicing Oil Analysis
magazine, No ria Corporat ion, January-2001.
13) Ray Garvey; Increasing reliability through oil analysis; Emerson Process Management / CSI.
14) Taisho Hasegawa; Tribology research Trends; Nova Science Publisher, 2008-10.
301
PULVERISERS MODIFICATIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS
IN O&M PRACTICES
J.G.KULKARNI
M.V.RAMANA MURTHY
PULVERISERS,
BHEL, HYDERABAD
1.0 INTRODUCTION:
BHEL has established a successful track record of supplying Power Generating Equip ments up to 500 MW
capacities to various customers. Today BHEL has geared up to supply Pulverisers up to 800MW size units.
Pulverisers are one of the major au xiliaries in a coal fired thermal power station. BHEL started its journey
by designing, manufacturing and supplying Ball Mills with indirect firing system to Czech. Design, at
Ennore Thermal Power Station 60 MW unit. Later on BHEL entered into Collaboration with M/s CE-USA
for Bowl M ills in the 70’s. Most of the power plants fro m this period onwards are supplied with XRP type
Bowl M ills of M/s Co mbustion Engineering USA design. In Mid 90’s BHEL entered into collaboration
with Stein Industrie, France for design and supply of direct fired Ball tube mills. Over a period of t wo
decades BHEL modified these mills, based on feedback received fro m the collaborator as well as fro m
project sites, for adaptation to high abrasive coal of India and to meet Indian O&M practices. The paper
presents modifications/ improvements carried out in Phase-I as well as Phase-II in the second generation of
these mills, which went into operation in the late 80’s and early 90’s, to make the Pulverisers more user
friendly and with h igh reliability and availability.
2.0 MODIFICATIONS IN B OWL MILLS
2.1 Mill base assembly and Lube oil system.
2.1.1 Breakage of Main Vertical Shafts were reported in XRS/ XRP 623 type Bowl M ills, same is
over come by providing cylindrical shaft in place of Taper Shaft and with external lube oil
system. As part of R&M work a hybrid design concept of cylindrical vertical shaft with oil
pump built on the shaft is developed for XRS/ XRP623 mills.
2.1.2 Mechanical face seals are provided in place of Lip type Dust Guard Seals to have better
sealing of gear bo x and to avoid coal and ash contamination of gear bo xes.
2.1.3 For XRP 663 to 703 type mills the mill base grey iron castings have been converted into Steel
Castings.
2.1.4 Wear Sleeves are provided on worm shaft as well as on the vertical shaft to protect the shafts
fro m wear due oil seal rubbing.
2.1.5 Standby Pump & Motors, Coolers and Filters and are provided in Lubrication system for
higher mill availability.
2.2 Mill Si de Air i nlet housing
2.2.1 Thicker insulation cover plates are provided to avoid warpage.
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2.2.2 Air inlet housing side insulation is provided with wear resistant plate material.
2.2.3 Insulation thickness increased to avoid heat loss and heat dissipation to the gearbox upper
bearing area.
2.3 Separator body and Classifier system
2.3.2 Ni-hard liners are provided on Journal Opening frames, Classifier Inner Surface for avoiding
wear on these critical areas.
2.3.3. Tall top classifiers are provided for better and uniform classificat ion. Nihard classifier vanes are
provided for better life and classification of pulverized coal.
2.3.4 Bearing less spring assemblies introduced to min imize maintenance problems. The locking
arrangement of the spring adjusting nut and lock nut improved.
2.3.5 Vane wheel assembly/ airport ring assembly introduced in place of separator body liners, for
uniform air distribution around the bowl leading to better mill performance, lesser Mill DP
operation (power saving).
2.4 Journal Assemblies
2.4.1 Introduced wear sleeve in the oil seal area to save the journal shaft from getting damaged in
XRP803 Bowl Mills.
2.4.2 Introduced HPMS system with carbide insert rolls and hi-chrome bull ring segments to improve
the grinding element life as well as to give consistent output and PF fineness from the mill.
2.5 Mill Discharge Val ve Assemblies
2.5.1 Rep laced the Butterfly type closing disc with flap type closing disc resulting in zero wear on edge
of the disc and having complete sealing of the mill fro m boiler, when the mill is isolated.
2.5.2 The size of the pneumatic operated power cylinder size increased for giving more force to operate
the valve smoothly, even with less compressed air pressure.
2.5.3. The pneumatic lines changed from copper to stainless steel. Further improvements are being done
to improve the operational availab ility of the mill discharge valves.
3.0 Lay out and other i mprovements in the Milling system
3.1.1 In the projects of 80’s the Pulverisers were located between Boiler and Turbine bay, due to which
there was no proper ventilation and proper reject handling system. For better ventilat ion, ease
of handling larger co mponents, the Pulverisers are now located between Boiler and ESP.
3.1.2. The Mill Rejects were handled with the help of wheel barrow in the olden days. Later on belt
conveyor system was provided for handling the rejects. Now a days pneumatic handling
systems are provided for clean area and better handling of the rejects.
3.1.3 Handling system for Mill co mponents. In the initial projects the mill components were removed
for replacement/ maintenance by having local temporary arrangement. Later on it was changed
to manual operated mechanical handling system with chain and pulley arrangement. Now we
are providing electric operated handling system for quicker working.
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4.0 Modi fications carried out in B owl Mills from the year 2005 onwards:
4.1.1 The wo rm and worm gear type mill base gear boxes are replaced by more efficient, co mpact
Planetary gear bo xes and having withdrawal facility. This point is detailed out separately in this
paper.
4.1.2 Increased the size o f breather vent and exhaust pipes, to avoid gearbox p ressurization
problem. Mechanical face seal introduced in XRP1003 size Bo wl Mills too.
4.1.3 XRP803/ 703 Bo wl mills are fitted with gearbo x having withdrawable facility (HP design
feature) so that the down time of mill due to gearbox maintenance is minimized. The shaft
being of cylindrical design, any vertical shaft breakage is avoided. External lube oil system is
provided for online filtering of oil and supply to the vertical shaft bearings and gearbox.
4.1.4 The mill inlet air guide vanes are re-located for better air distribution as well as minimize the
accumulat ion of rejects in the mill inlet air duct.
4.1.5 The scrapper assembly is modified with additional supports and better wear resistant material for
longer life.
4.1.6 Ceramic lined inner cones (lined on both sides) and venture outlets provided for higher wear
life and less maintenance.
4.1.7 Introduced inverted cone for XRP803 Bowl M ills for reducing the 50 mesh retention.
4.1.8 Improved Ceramic lining with fabricated Flap type Mill Discharge valves introduced for
improved wear life.
4.1.9 Introduced Sintered carbide insert rolls with matching bull ring segments as part of efforts to
give higher grinding elements wear life, compared to carbide insert rolls and matching bull
ring segments.
5.0 Planetary gear box :
M/s. BHEL went in tie-up with M/s. Flender Germany Heavy duty gear box div ision for
manufacturing of Planetary gear boxes in India for Bowl Mills. The main advantages of Planetary
gear box co mpared to existing worm and worm gear bo xes are:
• The worm gear bo x is very bulky and the grey iron casting is complicated and heavy.
• The worm gear box maintenance of Internals has to be carried out in situ thus resulting in long
shut down of mill and to be carried out in dirty at mosphere.
• The worm Gearbo x oil quantity requirement is high.
• The worm gear bo x efficiency is low.

• The Planetary gear bo x has Co mpact design and is placed independent of mill foundation.
• For Planetary gear box the Gears are made of hardened special steel material. Hence it gives long
trouble free operation life.
• The Planetary gear box is easy to replace. Hence, the gear box can be taken out to work shop for
maintenance, if any. (Clean area). The gear box is replaced with spare gear box within a day and
the mill is given back for operation.
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• There is less down time of the mill fo r maintenance of Planetary Gearbo x.
• The Planetary gear bo x requires Less Lube oil co mpared to worm gear bo x.
• Due to higher efficiency the auxiliary power consumption with planetary gear box is less than,
with worm gear bo xes.
• Fro m Sipat Stage-II 2x500MW project onwards all the higher size mills are provided with
planetary gear boxes.
6.0 Ball Tube mills:
Many Thermal power stations in India are provided with Ball tube mills wh ich BHEL has
manufactured under the license fro m Stein Industrie, France.
Major modifications carried out on these Tube mills are:
· Originally the shell was lined with Manganese Steel liners and the ball charge was of forged balls.
To improve the grinding wear life to have uniform output over along period, BHEL has introduced
high chromiu m liners with Hi-chro miu m balls. The liners shape is modified such that the wear is
uniform and the activity of the liner reversal is eliminated, resulting in continuous availability of
the mill.
· To have higher reliability and availability, the main lube oil system and main reducer lube oil
system are provided with standby pumps & motors, coolers and Filters.
· The Screw conveyor ribbon thickness has been doubled for longer life.
· The coal air path has been lined with Ceramic tiles for longer wear life and protection of the
critical co mponents.
· The greasing system has been improved by usage of synthetic oil/ grease which is environmental
friendly and also the consumption is drastically reduced compared to bitu minous based IOC
Servotek 40 g rease.
· The Delta ‘P’ Panels and Noise level are re-engineered for higher reliability.
· Steam inerting system has been provided for avoiding explosions in the mill at the time of starting
and stopping the mills.
· Screw conveyor rotation monitoring system developed and introduced in the recent supplied
projects.
· Jaw clutch developed and introduced in place of Free wheel type coupling. The jaw clutch would
detach the auxiliary drive fro m the main drive when the mill is in service. This has eliminated the
over speeding safety protection requirement for au xiliary drive and possible damage to the Free
wheel type coupling, wh ich was always rotating with the main drive motor.
· R&D work is under taken to use Ceramic balls in p lace of Hi-Chro miu m balls to improve the wear
life and to reduce au xiliary power consumption.
7.0 Higher capacity Pul verisers
7.1 BHEL 280 Mill
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With deteriorating coal quality and requirement of Higher out put per mill to meet the demand of
large size Steam generating units for 600 MW to 800 MW capacities, it was decided by BHEL to
manufacture state of art large size Bowl M ill (size XRP 1103), install in a suitable unit which is in
operation to study its performance. This mill of M/s Combustion Engineering USA Design, is in the
series of XRP 1043-1103, with modifications/ developments incorporated at design stage itself,
taking into consideration the site feed back, experience with Indian coal, in-house developments and
Corporate R&D suggestions. The mill hence has been named as BHEL 280 mill with a nominal
diameter of bowl as 280 cms (Fig.02).
The BHEL 280 mill has been installed at MAHA GENCO Chandrapur STPS 500 MW unit-6, C-
Mill. The M ill is in operation fo r last five years to the satisfaction of the customer.
As the capacity of the BHEL 280 mill is more than XRP1003 size mills, normally provided for
500MW projects, the number of mills required has been reduced from 10 to 8 mills per boiler fro m
MAHAGENCO – KHAPERKHEDA 500MW project onwards. Also, BHEL has been getting orders
for nu mber of 600MW capacity projects fro m North Chennai 2x600MW onwards, where in this high
capacity BHEL 280 mills are being offered.
7.1.1 The Salient Features of the B HEL 280 Mill are as follows:
· The gear box of this mill is planetary type in place of the triple reduction gear box existing
in XRP 1043 mill.
· Based on the Computer Flo w Dynamics analysis of air flow through the mill, the air in let
housing design is modified with split type entry for better air flow pattern and to avoid low
velocity zones. In th is the part of primary air is taken to the other side of the Air inlet housing
(i.e. at 180 deg) location resulting in better air velocity and distribution around the bowl.
Rejects falling and accumulat ion leading to mill fires are noticed to be drastically reduced
with this arrangement.
· Insert type grinding rolls (sintered carbide material) with high chro miu m bull ring segments
and airport ring assembly provided for higher wear life co mpared to conventional grinding
elements.
· Dynamic Classifier developed by Corporate R&D is provided for better classification and
distribution of Pulverised coal around the desired fineness value. At the same time the re-
circulat ion ratio is drastically reduced by 20 to 30% thereby increasing the mill output OR
reducing the wear rate of grinding elements as well as specific power consumption of the mill.
This part of the project is still at develop ment stage.
· Hydraulic loading system is incorporated in place of journal spring assembly. This system
applies adequate and equal load on the three journal assemblies for Pulverisation of Coal,
following the Calibrat ion curves charts of Hydraulic Pressure Vs Raw coal Feeder speed. The
benefits are:
a) Reduction in specific power consumption of mill.
b) Reduction in wear rate of grinding elements.
c) Reduction of pounding action at low load.
d) Elimination of possibility of uneven loading on the bowl and connected
Co mponents
7.2 HP MILLS:
BHEL has entered into Technical Collaboration with M/s ALSTOM, USA for High Capacity Pulverisers
suitable to meet the tender requirements of 660 MW and 800 MW projects. The first order bagged by
BHEL of 660MW capacity is NTPC Barh-II project and of 800MW capacity is APPDCL Krishnapatnam
Project. The Mills selected are HP1103 Mill with Static classifier for Barh-II project and HP1203 Mill with
Dynamic Classifier for Krishnapatnam Pro ject.
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One of the primary object ives considered in designing these pulverizers is cost reduction associated with
pulverizer maintenance. So me of the major features that would reduce maintenance cost are:
7.2.1 Removable Gearbo x - The Planetary Gearbo x can be disconnected from the mill proper and
repaired either locally at the mill or in a workshop environment. This eliminates the requirement
for a mill tear down to repair the gearbox. A separate gearbox can also be on hand to further
reduce down time.
7.2.2 Journal Tilt-out - Most journal maintenance can be accomplished without ever totally removing
the journal assembly fro m the mill. The journal can be rotated back on the trunnion shaft into an
inverted position. Fro m this position, the grinding roll, bearings can be replaced. Oil can also be
changed and bearing end plays set.
7.3.3 Grinding Elements - The grinding elements are designed to yield long operating lives. The
grinding element material selections are based on a review of the fuels being proposed in order to
optimize grinding element life with respect to normal desired maintenance cycles. The grinding
rolls are very large and utilize a material that is highly resistant to abrasive wear fo r applicat ions
using very abrasive fuels. Long operating hours between grinding element changes reduces down
time and maintenance costs.
7.3.4 Internal Wear Protection - All internal areas prone to wear pulverizers are protected with easily
replaceable liners. Mill internal wear is further min imized with the use of the vane wheel
arrangement that uniformly spreads primary classifier-wear over a large area.
7.3.5 Dynamic Classifier – Dynamic classifier imp roves coal fineness and classification more efficiently
compared to static classifier. The Dynamic classifier consists of one rotating wheel assembly, with
clockwise rotation. The rotor wheel contains the blades for generating particle separation. The
rotor blades are constructed of abrasion resistant plate. The who le assembly is supported by a
bearing assembly, which is located on top of the mill. The classifier is belt driven by a variable
speed electric motor.
The Dynamic classifier uses aerodynamic and centrifugal fo rces to separate the fine output
product from the larger part icles, thereby reducing the re-circulat ion of fine particles within the
mill for greatly improved grinding efficiency and mill capacity.
8.0 R&M Acti vi ties
· BHEL has geared up in a big way to take up R&M jobs, meet ing the customer demands/
desires, either by up gradation of the existing milling system or by replacing the mills,
(whether BHEL or NON-BHEL Make) with Bowl M ills of h igher capacity.
· Condition monitoring and performance study of the existing milling system and preparing a
project report with suggested modifications/ improvements/ replacements.
9.0 Improved O&M Practices.
• With above modificat ions it is observed that mill availability is mo re than 95% throughout the
year and the reports received normally indicates that there is no power generation loss due to non-
availability of mills.
• To reduce the down time of the mill, three journal assemblies should be kept ready along with bull
ring segments set for replacement.
• Pneumatic/ electric bolt tightening equipments, movable weld ing equipments etc. should be
readily availab le.
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• Removal of tramp iron and foreign material fro m the belt before feeding to coal crusher and
feeding right size of coal to Pulverisers.
• Trained skilled man power to be made availab le fo r faster rep lacement of co mponents.
• Preventive maintenance, Pred icted maintenance with condition monitoring practices need to be
applied with proper spares (genuine spares from OEM) management which is the order of the day
to achieve >95% mill availability and to meet the set performance targets.
• For pulverized coal sampling, more scientific method as per ISO 9931 is followed with dirty Pitot
tube and rotary probe. This gives results more close to actuals, based on which the mill can be
tuned in a better way.
10. WAS HED COAL, IMPORTED COAL AND COAL BLENDING
Use of Washed coal has picked up due to strict environmental restrictions and coal shortage at few
projects, which has come as a boon for both operation & maintenance personnel. The ash
percentage in washed coal comes down to 25-35%, but the surface moisture content goes up with
more fines in the raw coal leading to choking problems and possible coal drying problems. At
Tro mbay washed coal imported fro m Indonesia is being fired which has an Ash percentage of less
than “ONE” percent, 25 to 33% of Moisture and 43 to 45% volatile matter. This posses a problem
to the operation staff to keep a strict vigil on the mill outlet temperature (<60 Deg. C but >55
Deg.C) to avoid mill fires and explosion as well as mill choking. To avoid mill exp losions further
the maintenance staff has to keep the mills in tuned condition to avoid reject falling and
accumulat ion in the mill side air inlet housing and mill inlet duct; steam inerting has to be done at
the starting time as well as shut down time of the mill; once the mill is shut down the Mill has to
be totally bottled up.
BSES Dahanu has mastered the art of blending Indian Coal with Imported Australian Coal. The
Indian coal has a calorific value of 2500 kcal/Kg. Th is is blended with Australian Coal of high
calorific value of 6000 kcal/ Kg. In a ratio of appro ximately 70:30 (70% Indian and 30%
Australian). This gives following advantages-
Consistent output
Flexib ility in mix.
High volatile matter reduces carbon loss.
Imported high volatile coals can be easily and safely pulverized in Ball Tube mills.
However, co mpatib ility of the coals being blended has to be studied from both the Boiler as well
as the milling system, before taking up such plans.
The new trend that is being adopted by some customers is to blend the coals, after pulverization, in
the Boiler Furnace. That is, for examp le in a 210MW project, if 4 mills are in service, two of them
would be handling imported high volatile and high calorific value coal and two mills would be
handling Indian coal. However, the operation staff has to ensure that the correct parameters are
maintained in each mill based on the quality of coal being fed to the mills.
11.0 CONCLUS ION:
It is observed that with improved design of pulverisers and proper O&M practices, the
Pulverisers are no more a bottleneck in achieving very high percentages of availability of mills
and to provide the Pulverised coal to meet Boiler requirement as well as meeting the Power
Generation Targets.
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Continuous interaction between Designer / Manufacturer, and O&M staff of utilit ies as well as
between the utilities will go a long way in making Pulverisers most trouble free product.
*****
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IMPROVEMENT IN AIR PREHEATERS PERFORMANCE
A K Choudhary DGM(BMD)
S K Roy, DGM
B N Jha, Sr. Supdt.
Arvind Maharshi, Dy. Manager
Mukesh Kr Rajak, Sr. Engineer
D R Bhattacharjee, Engineer
ABSTRACT
Air Preheaters are vital equipments in any thermal power plant. Regenerative Air
Preheater is the most widely used heat exchanger in the steam generating industry.
The reas ons for this worldwide acceptance are its high thermal effectiveness,
compactness of its design, and its adaptability to most fuel burning process. It is both
designed and built to operate over extended periods with durable, uninterrupted
service. Simplicity of the design also makes it easy and economical to maintain in
operation and at scheduled out ages.
However the efficiency of Air P reheaters reduc es drastically within a very short period
of operation. This time period varies from 3 to 6 months. The decrease in the
efficiency not only results in increas ed fuel consumption but also affects other
equipments such as coal mills, draft fans, and electrostatic precipitat ors leading to
high emission levels.
Since Air P reheater is the last heat exchanger before the flue gas is exhausted to the
stack, improvement here, impacts directly on efficiency and performance of boiler.
Reducing and maintaining low seal leakages is vital to minimize the fan horsepower,
increase boiler efficiency and reduce stack emission. It also serves to reduce the
dilution effect and corrosion potential of the leaving gas stream due to mixing with
colder air at the air inlet temperature. Seals can wear due to soot blowing, corrosion,
erosion, and contact with the static sealing surfaces on start up and/or
shutdown. Experience shows that in Air P reheaters, the improvement leads to short
payback period. Hence it is worth to implement the improvements.
The authors, in this paper, have found out the c auses and remedial action for
improvement in performance of Air Preheaters. The paper is based on experience and
implementation of lat est technologies including
· Upgradation of ba sket material.

· Improved contour of basket elements.
· Adopting latest online cleaning devices.
· Provi sion of improved air seal arrangements.
· Arre sting of duct leakages.
· Proper identification of wear of Sector plates and seals.
· Procedure of rotor leveling and effective seal setting.
· Foreign material falling, their causes and remedies.
· Calculation of X-ratio.
· Comparative performance study of Air Preheaters & their analysi s.
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On meticulously following the above mentioned recommendations in our station, the
o o
Air Preheater gas outlet temperatures have reduced drastically from 165 C to 142 C.
This clearly indicates the improvement in t he performance of air preheaters and
efficiency of the boiler. Also, low air preheater outlet temperatures, improved the
efficiency of electrostatic precipitators leading to lower stack emissions. By adopting
all the above recommendations, we can s ustain the performance of Air P reheaters for
a longer period of time.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Modern high capacity thermal power plants are always provided with Air P reheaters.
Rotary regenerative Air Preheat ers are extremely compact and thus are still the
favourite reheating component for t he power industry. The flue gases from boiler
contain significant amount of thermal energy. Apart from the need to preheat air to dry
coal and improve combustion efficiency, the benefit from preheating combustion air
o
can be shown to be 1% improvement in boiler efficiency for each 20 C rise in the
combustion air temperat ure. By utilizing the Air Preheater, the temperature of the
o o
combustion product can be reduced from 370-450 C to 120-130 C, the later being
restricted by the acid due point temperature.
The characteristics of a good Air Preheater are high heat trans fer rate, low pressure
drop, low seal leakages and low sensitivity to fouling.
After condenser, Air Preheater is among the most important contributors to a plant’s
thermal efficiency. The total heat trans fer surface area of the regenerative air heater is
usually great er than the total heat transfer surface area of all elements of the steam –
water path. Since Air Preheater is the last heat exchanger before the flue gas is
exhausted to the stack, improvement here impacts directly on efficiency and
performance of boiler.
2.0 AIR PREHEATER P ERFORMANCE
There are many factors, which affect the performance of Air Preheater. Among them,
material of the heating element, contour of heating element, cleanliness of baskets,
effectiveness of seals, duct leakages, performance of cleaning devices and wear of
seal sector plates greatly contribute in Air Preheater’s performance. Ash carry over
from economizer hopper can also affect the performance of Air Preheaters. Erosion of
ducting and ex pansion joints at the upstream and downstream of Air Preheaters can
also contribute to loss of margin in draught system and poor Air Preheater
Performance. Exact reasons of Air Preheater’s performance deterioration needs to be
investigated before planning for overhaul or up-gradation. Proper instrumentation
along with vigilant monit oring and analysis would enable timely detection in
deterioration of Air Preheater’s performanc e.
2.1 Up-gradation of basket material
The heat transfer surface of the Air Preheater consists of thin profiled steel plates,
packed in frame baskets and installed in t he rotor. During each revolution of t he rotor,
heat is absorbed by the heating surface passing through the hot gas stream and
transferred to the combustion air stream. Presently heating elements used are made
of Carbon Steel or Corten Steel. The unprotected steel surface is easily affected by
corrosion, in particular if exposed to diluted sulphuric acid. The heating elements also
suffer from corrosion during plant shut downs and water washing of Air Preheaters. By
using coated / enameled heating elements, the service life can be considerably
enhanced and thus will drastically reduce the number of exchanges required for
heating element. An enameled surface will also help to reduce the plugging rate and
the fire hazards.
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The enameled / coated heating elements have the following advantages over the
conventional carbon / corten steel heating elements.
· High chemic al resistance against the aggressive c onstituents of flue gases, like
water vapour, acid, etc.
· High mechanic al resistance against erosive constituents of flue gases, like fly
ash.
· Sufficient resistance to soot blowing and water washing.
o
· High temperature resistance (> 450 C).
· High resistance to thermal shocks, e.g. in case of online high pressure water
washing of the heating elements.
· There is no need for applying anti rust coating on heating elements before
shipment or for prolonged storage and t hus preventing the extra burden
of removing the anti rust coating prior to installation of heating element in Air
Preheaters.
· Additionally, enamel coating has been found to provide a highly smooth glass-
like surface, more readily facilitating the cleaning of ash deposits.
· Used enameled heating elements can easily be dispos ed of without any
negative impact on the environment.
Comparison of Service Life of Heating

Elemets
Enameled
Corten Steel
Service Life Carbon Steel
Heating Elements
2.2 Improved contour / profile of basket elements.
Profile of basket element not only determines the thermal performance and durability
of elements but also determines the pressure drop and its adaptability with the fuel
being fired. The selection of the optimum heat transfer surface configuration for any
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given application res ults in the highest level of thermal efficiency and lowest fouling
potential.
Double Undulated(DU) s urface profile for hot end applications and Notched Flat(NF)
surface profile for cold end applications have been used in Air Preheaters for the last 5
decades and are still among the most widely used profiles in the world. The DU
profiles are now known to exhibit performance-related deficiencies that lead to flow
related fouling problems, whereas the NF profiles have been simply outdated.
In order to improve the performance, cleanability and life of our current heating
elements, or if there are operational changes planned for the future, then use of
improved profiles will become necessary. Among the variety of profiles available,
Double Undulate Notched(DUN), Double Undulate Notched Flat(DNF), Flat Notched
Corrugated((FNC), etc. have high thermal efficiency, minimum pressure drop and high
cleanability. Depending on the operating conditions and rotor design, depth of heating
elements may also be increased.
Improved profiles of enameled heating element
3.3 Latest cleaning devices.
To assure the availability of the Air Preheater and avoid uncontrolled fouling of the
heating surface, Air Preheaters are equipped with a cleaning device. The soot blowers
installed at the gas inlet and/or outlet side allow soot blowing with steam during boiler
operation. To ensure the efficiency of the cleaning device, superheat ed steam must be
used for soot blowing. Depending on the operating conditions and size of the Air
Preheater, different soot blower designs are available. For small-size Air P rehaters
swivel type soot blowers are normally used. Large Air Prehaters are equipped with a
retractable type soot blower with injector nozzles at the hot side and multi-nozzles at
the cold side. The retractable soot blowers are designed to operate with steam or air
during normal boiler operation but also allow for washing of the Air Prehaters with low-
pressure water during a shut-down of the unit. To remove hard and insoluble deposits,
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additional nozzles for high pressure water washing may be installed on the retractable
lances.
Retractable soot blower with high pressure water jets and steam jets
From the past experience, it is seen that hot end elements are clean due to erosive
action of the fly ash and do not need cleaning.
3.3.1 Computer Controlled Cleaning
Computer automated, high pressure water jet cleaning system helps in cleani ng
heating elements thoroughly, precisely and efficiently. This cleaning system is capable
2
of producing flows of up to 1100 liters per minutes and pressure up to 550 kg/cm .
These high pressure jets are concentrated in a very small area, resulting in less rotor
damage and more precise cleaning than manual methods allow.
3.3.2 Acoustic Cleaning Devices
Acoustic cleaning device has emerged as the latest device to prevent fouling of
heating elements. The properties of sound wave have been used to clean, even
inaccessible areas of Air Preheaters which greatly influence the thermal efficiency.
Sound waves generated by this device create pressure oscillations. Flue gas
molecules when exposed to these pressure oscillations migrate towards the low
pressure region. Since numerous pressure cycles per second travel past any given
point, the molecules oscillate back and forth. The amplitude of this displacement is
very small, but increases as the frequency decreases. This scrubbing action and
particle displacement is responsible for two effects, namely
The first effect prevents the settling of particles on the surfaces. Thus the particles
remain suspended and are carried away with the flue gas es.
The s econd effect is the removal of particles that have already accumulated on the
heating surfac es. The gas flow velocity will carry away the loosened deposits. Since
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the forces are miniscule, they affect only the small ash particles and have little or no
effect on internal structures of Air Preheat ers.
3.4 Improved air seal housing
Air seal housing of guide bearing area pose a different kind of challenge. They are
prone to hot air leakages. The performance of air seal housing det eriorates in a very
short int erval of time. This not only decreases the thermal efficiency of Air Preheaters
but also heats the guide bearing which affects the health of guide bearing.
Air seal housing with elaborate labyrint h arrangement has proved beyond doubt that
hot air leakages can be eliminat ed for longer duration. The labyrinth arrangement
allows the required expansion of rotor along with reduction of pressure on air seal.
Cent ral Section
Spool of rotor
Air Seal Housing (cross sectional view)
Restricted path of hot air Cent ral Section
Spool of rotor
Improved Labyrinth
Air Seal Housing with labyrinth arrangement (cross sectional view)
3.5 Arre sting of duct leakages
Duct leakages upstream and downstream of Air Preheatres not only affect the thermal
efficiency of Air Preheaters but also increase the fan horsepower and stack emission.
The corrosion potential of the leaving gas stream increases further due to mixing with
colder air at ambient temperatures.
For timely detection of duct leakages, proper instrumentation along with close
monitoring of Air Preheater’s performance is required. Erosion prone areas of ducts
are to be strengthened with material of suitable metallurgy. Metallurgy of expansion
joints has also to be reviewed and if possible less erosion prone metals like stainless
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steel may be used. Met allic expansion joints may be converted to fabric expansion
joints or metallic expansion joint along with fabric will give best results. Care should be
taken to cover all expansion joints with protection plat es, whic h will cert ainly enhance
the life of expansion joints to a larger extent.
3.6 Proper identification of wear of sector plate s and seals.
For identification of seal wear, aluminum finger tabs of known dimensions are to be
installed aft er every overhaul at three locations, namely at t he inboard, intermediate
board and at the outboard of rotor for radial seal. Similarly, for axial seal wear
identification, aluminum finger tabs are to be installed. The dimensions of the seal tab
are to be meas ured at any available opportunity or on scheduled outages. The change
in dimensions of finger tabs will clearly denote t he extent of seal wear and a base line
data for further analysis. T-bars are also to be properly inspected for their wear and
interference with by-pass seal.
During the operation of the boiler, the Air P reheat er temperatures are different from
the designed values. Sector Plates and rotor of Air Preheaters are subject to these
temperatures and thermal shocks. Many a times, Sector Plat es are found t o get
warped. Warping of Sector Plates remains unnoticed if not inspected by a
knowledgeable and experienced person. Warped Sector Plates should be replaced at
once, as in-situ repairing is not advisable. Thickness gauging of S ector Plates by ultra
sonic methods should be employed to det ermine its wear.
3.7 Procedure for rotor leveling and effective seal setting
3.7.1 Rotor leveling
Rotor leveling is the most important as pect for t he performance of Air P reheaters.
Properly leveled rotor makes Sector Plates leveling and Seal setting very easy.
Experienced manpower along with proper tools make rot or leveling easy and fast.
Well calibrated and good quality master levels should be used to level rotors.
3.7.2 Seal setting
Seal setting should be done judiciously taking in account the design values and past
experiences. All the seals should be set at values obtained by measurement of
dimensions of aluminum finger tabs installed during last overhaul. Rigid aluminum
channels supported at, three points, namely the ends and at the centre should be
used for accurate and fast seal settings. Negative tolerances are always better than
positive tolerances for seal settings.
3.7.3 Double seals
Incorporating double radial seals greatly reduces seal leakages.

Double sealing is a system which provides reduced leakage through modifications to
the rotor. Instead of a single leaf seal sweeping each sealing plate at any given
instant, there are two, which together create a moving plenum ac ross the sealing
surface. This is analogous to a double orifice - there is a double restriction to flow
crossing from one side of the Air Preheater to the other.
The formation of this intermediate pressure plenum between the air and gas streams
serves to reduce the air-to-gas pressure differential by a factor of nearly two. This
decrease in pressure differential can reduce direct leakage by as much as 30%.
Double sealing is normally applied to the radial and axial seals together but c an be
316
applied to either one separately, and in almost all c ases this system can be retrofitted
to existing Air Preheaters.
3.7.4 Spring Type New Generation Seals
Spring type seals allow hot end seals to be installed at negative clearances and thus
reduce leakages much more than the conventional seals. Stainless steel bellows have
exceptional spring characteristics and have high corrosion resistance. They can
maintain their full strength and integrity for more than 5 million flex cycles. Also wear
of the Seal Sector Plate is minimum by using spring type seals.
Spring Type Seals
3.7.5 Ca st ‘T’ Bar:
Currently rolled ‘T’ bars are used for bypass sealing. This rolled ‘T’ bar has more
variation in the radius. After setting it gives more leak age through by pass seal.
Whatever correction is made at site could not control the radius variations. The cast ‘T’
bars keep the radius within controlled dimension; thus reducing the leakage across
bypass seals.
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Cast ‘T’ Bar
Incorporating the above suggestion in the existing sealing system has shown to
reduced the air leakage from 24% to 4.7% and t he mass flow of flue gas has dropped
by the corres ponding amount. Flue gas leaving t he Air Preheater fell in temperature
from 195°C t o162°C (undiluted), and the boiler efficiency increas ed by 1.5%. An
additional benefit was that the considerable reduction in flow through the FD and ID
fans resulting in a significant saving in auxiliary power.
3.8 Cause s and remedies for foreign material falling in Air Preheater
There are quite some instances when operation of Air Preheaters is interrupted by
falling of foreign material. Foreign materials that fall in Air P reheat er are bracing pipes
and angles of ducts, lance t ubes of soot blowers, metallic pieces of ducts and even
seals of Air Preheaters. These foreign materials get stuck in between the rotor and
Sector Plates and jam the rotor. Interruption in operation of Air Preheaters may cause
expensive forced out ages and generation losses.
In order to avoid such outages, proper quality checks and inspections are required
during scheduled outages. All bracing pipes and angles in the flue gas ducts should
be thoroughly inspected and replaced when not found satisfactory. The welding quality
should be improved and welded portions should be suitably covered.
From the past experience, it is seen that hot end elements remain clean due to
erosive action of the fly ash and do not need cleaning. So the soot blowers provided at
hot end of Air Preheaters, may be removed and thus the chances of falling of lance
tube will be eliminated.
3.9 Calculation of X-ratio
X- ratio is the ratio of heat capacity of air passing through the air heater t o the heat
capacity of flue gas passing through the air heater.
318
= Weight of outlet air * Cpa
Weight of inlet gas * Cpg
= Temp(gas in) – Temp(gas out) (no leakage)

Temp(air out) – Temp(air in)
o o
Say AH leak age – 8.5%, Gas Inlet Temp – 352. 5 C, Gas Outlet Temp –135. 5
o o
C, Air Inlet Temp – 31.1 C, Air Oulet Temp – 330 C.
X ratio = (352. 5 – 135.5) / (330 –31.1) = 0.73
X-Ratio depends on
• moisture in fuel
• air infiltration
• air & gas mass flow rates
• leakage from the seals
• specific heats of air & flue gas
X-ratio does not provide a measure of thermal performance of the air heater, but is a
measure of the operating conditions.
A low X-ratio indicat es either excessive gas weight through t he air heater or that air
flow is bypassing the air heater.
A lower than design X-ratio leads to a higher than design gas outlet temperat ure & can
be used as an indication of excessive tempering air to the mills or excessive boiler
setting infiltration.
3.10 Comparative performance study of Air Preheater & their analysi s.
Performance study of Air Preheaters can be used to predict the performance of Air
Preheaters after incorporating the above mentioned improvements. The performance
evaluation program of a typical Air Preheater is shown in the table below. It is
o
observed that Flue gas outlet temperature can be reduced by as much as 20 C and
Air Preheater leakages can be reduced by 8 percent.
S Performance Parameter Unit Existin Predicte

N g d Values
o. Values
o
1 Flue Gas Outlet Temp. C 165.20 142
2 Gas side efficiency % 61.12 70.0
3 A vg. air side differential pressure mmWC 40 34
4 Air Preheater Leakage % 16.5 8.3
4.0 CONCLUSION
On meticulously following the above mentioned recommendations, the Air Preheater

o o
gas outlet temperatures can be reduced from 165 C to 142 C. This clearly indicat es
the improvement in the performance of Air P reheaters and efficiency of the boiler.
Also, low Air P reheaters outlet temperat ures will improve t he efficiency of electrostatic
precipitat ors leading to lower stack emissions. By adopting all the above
recommendations, we can sustain the performance of Air Preheaters for a longer
period of time.
319
5.0 REFERENCES
1. Product Information Brochure, Alstom Power Inc., A Division of ALS TOM P ower
Energy Recovery GmbH, Germany.
2. Operation and Maintenance Manual. Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited, Boiler

Auxiliaries Plant-Ranipet-632403.
3. Eugene A A vallone, Theodore B nameister, Ali Sadegh; Mechanical Engineering

Hand Book, McGraw Hill,
4. Rakesh K umar & Sanjeev Jain, Performance evaluation of Air Preheater at off
design condition. NTPC(Noida) & IIT(New Delhi).
5. Case study, Mat ra Power Station, Hungary, by Howden Group Limited, Howden
Spain.
6. Product Information Brochure, Riley Industrial limited.
7. Case study, Air Preheater enhancement-West Burton Power Station, UK.
TM
8. Wave Master Acoustic Cleaning, Advanced Acoustic Technologies, LLC,
3022 Shepperd Road, Monkton, MD 21111, USA.
320
CFD Analysis of Flue Gas Duct of 500 MW Pulverized coal Boiler
Ritesh Kumar, Dy. Supdt (O&M), NTPC-Singrauli
Abstract
Energy saving and efficiency are the key issues in power generation system not only fro m the
viewpoint of fuel consumption, but also for the protection of global environ ment. Flue gas ducts are the major
parts of coal-fired power plants, which are used to exhaust flue gases from boiler. As Govern ment regulations
on the emission of the power industry become more and more restrictive, increased mass flow rates are
practiced in the ducts by adding additives like ammon ia dosing etc. for emission control. But this results
increased load in the draught system wh ich cannot be met by the existing induced draught fans as they are
already over-loaded. The most economical solution of this problem seems to reduce the pressure drop in the
duct so that a higher flow at reduced pressure drop can be handled by the existing fans. Fluent software is used
for 3D simulation using its inbuilt discrete phase model (DPM). Actual pressure drops and ash collection are
validated with simu lated pressure drop and ash collection. Modification of turning vanes/baffles is done to
reduce the pressure losses and erosion in duct. Optimization of APH (Air Pre-heater) hopper is done for
maximu m ash collection with minimu m pressure loss.
Keywords: Air Pre-heater, discrete phase model, tangential fire boiler, CFD, Sieve analysis, turning vanes,
particle d istribution, hopper, particle trajectory, part icle-laden flow.
Nomenclature
Particle Reynolds number
Vp Particle velocity
I Turbulent intensity
K E Turbulent Kinetic Energy
l Turbulent length scale
Greek symbols
Particle volu me fraction
Turbulent dissipation rate f
1.
2. Introduction
Boiler flue gas is a diluted dust (particle) laden flow. After APH (Air Pre-heater) flue gas goes to ESP
(Electrostatic precipitator) through flue gas ducts. Ducts are used to transport the flue gas and ash hoppers are
used to collect the larger size dust (ash) particles. So there is imbedded pressure loss in duct [1] as there are
many bends, diffusers, distributors and turning vanes [2,3] are used to guide the flue gas flow. Flow is particle
laden [4] and having high turbulence [5,6], so there are more losses in duct. Prominent losses are pressure loss,
bending loss and erosion in duct material [6]. So detail analysis of particle laden flo w is needed to imp rove the
duct design and modification of duct and its internals. Therefore CFD modelling is a good tool to improve the
321
efficiency of duct in power p lant and it is very useful in modeling of flow characteristic [7], effect of turbulence,
effect of particle size, wall interaction with particles, pressure loss, ash particle separation etc. The wake behind
a particle, particle size, the loading ratio and the density difference between two phase of a paticle-laden flow
were considered as significant parameters, wh ich have an influence on the turbulence [8] of a particle-laden
flow, and the relat ive velocity of the laden particles caculated by using a terminal velocity.
Flue gas ducts are the major parts of coal-fired power p lants, which are used to exhaust flue gases from
boiler. Flue gas is used as heating mediu m and produced due to pulverized coal combustion. Flue gas is a
mixtu re of gases like CO, , , , NOx etc and solid particles of ash. Flue gas produces in furnace and it
passes through super heater, re-heater, economizer and air pre-heater before it goes to duct. For sustainable
development of thermal electric power p lant, the power industries have to adopt state-of-art technologies to
reduce suspended particles, SOx and NOx emissions. Various technologies have been developed and used to
reduce these emissions[9,10], and research is underway to improve their processing and economic performance.
However, these techniques result in additional flows along with the flue gas flow in ducts. Thus, more power is
required to drive the flue gases out to atmosphere. Since the existing induced draught fans already operate at full
capacity, this problem can be handled in one of the two different ways. The first and more expensive method is
to retrofit the unit with fans of higher capacity. The second solution is to reduce the pressure drop in the duct so
that a higher flow of mass at reduced pressure drop can be handled by the existing fans. Duct provides passage
for the flue gas to chimney via electrostatic precipitator. Duct having rectangular cross sectional area is normally
used in thermal power plant. Flue gas flow rate is more than 500 Kg/s in 500 MW pulverized coal fired boiler.
So, pressure loss and erosion in the duct are very critical problems in thermal power plant. The solution of these
problems is to reduce the pressure drop by duct modifications and provide proper guidance to the flue gas to
minimize erosion. Hoppers are used in flue gas path to collect larger ash particles. It is better to remove ash
particles at the beginning and so hoppers are always provided at the beginning of duct which reduces erosion
rate inside duct. ESP (Electro-Static Precipretator) is more efficient for collect ing small particles of ash. Ash
collection in hopper is an important parameter for hopper design. So duct hopper is to be designed for maximu m
ash collection without sacrificing much pressure drop in duct. As bend angle of duct increases, ash collection in
hopper increases but pressure loss also increases. So, we can optimise the bend angle for ash collection.
Co mputational fluid dynamics (CFD) simu lations helps in identifying the possibilit ies of reducing the pressure
loss, erosion in duct and improving ash collection in hoppers.
3 Numarical Simulations
Particle transport by a fluid carrier is a phenomenon of great interest since it is frequently found in
many scientific fields and industrial processes. The numerical simu lation of particle transport used in FLUENT
[11] by a fluid carrier requires the modeling of the continuous phase (flu id), the discrete phase (particles) and
the interaction between them. The continuous phase – whether liquid or gas – is modeled using a Eulerian
formulat ion. The discrete phase – solid (ash) – may be approached a Eulerian or fro m a Lagrangian point of
view. Th is has given place to two distinctive strategies, the so called Eulerian– Eulerian and the Eulerian–
Lagrangian methods. In the Eulerian–Eu lerian approach, particle velocity and concentration fields are calculated
for each point of the numerical do main. The Eu lerian–Eulerian method can be employed both using a one-fluid
formulat ion and a two-flu id formulation. In the latter, mass conservation and momentu m conservation equations
are used to calculate the particle concentration and velocity fields, so the phases are treated as two
interpenetrating fluids which interact through their interfacial properties. In the one-fluid fo rmulat ion, on the
other hand, no momentu m conservation equation is used. Particle velocity is usually determined by an algebraic
equation for the particle–fluid slip velocity.
Eu lerian–Lagrangian formu lation [12] is used in Particle-Laden flo w. Discrete (particle) phase follows
Lagrangian approach and continuum phase (flue gas) follows the Eulerian approach in which each particle
trajectory is simulated. One-way or Two -way coupling is decided on the basis of particle concentration and
mass loading. The particle dynamic is generally governed by the Basset–Boussinesq–Oseen (BBO) equation
[13] and a random walk model is applied to account for the turbulence effect. In order to solve the BBO
equation, the continuous phase properties must be calculated at particle position.
The interaction between phases is modeled according to the strength of the coupling between them. For dense
particle concentration, particle action on the fluid and the interaction between particles must be accounted for
(four way coupling). For intermediate concentrations, particle interaction can be neglected but particle influence
on the continuous phase cannot (two-way coupling). For dilute concentrations, the fluid flow may be considered
regardless of the particles flow (one-way coupling).
According to Elghobashi, a criterion to determine the type of interaction in terms of the particle volu me fract ion
of particles ( ) is as follo ws:
322
, for one-way coupling
, for two-way coupling
, for four-way coupling
In the present work, Eu lerian–Lagrangian fo rmulat ion (used in FLUENT) will be used to solve the problem.
Trajectory of a discrete phase particle is predicted by integrating the force balance on the particle. This force
balance equates the particle inert ia with the forces acting on the particle and can be written as
=g , the weight of the particle: “grav ity force”
=g , the weight of displaced fluid : “buoyancy force”
= Drag force on particle
Where is an additional acceleration (force/unit particle mass),
is the drag force per unit part icle mass and
Here, u is fluid phase velocity, is the particle velocity, is the molecu lar viscosity of the fluid, is the
flu id density, is the density of the particle and is the particle diameter. is Drag co-efficient depends
upon Reynolds number.
is the relat ive Reynolds number, Which is defined as
In a Lagrangian formu lation of the particle transport process(used in FLUENT), the motion of particles is
described by solving a set of ordinary differential equations along the trajectory in order to calculate the change
of particle location and the components of particle velocity.
Particle velocity is calculated fro m the contributions of a term resulting fro m the solution of the BBO equation,
particle velocity and a second term that takes into account turbulent fluctuations [14] of the flow field. The BBO
equation is solved for each particle using a backward Euler scheme. Part icle velocity due to turbulent
fluctuations [15] is obtained using a discrete random-walk model [16, 17]. As a result of these, two particles
with same init ial conditions may have different trajectories. When many particles are considered, an effective
diffusion [18] results from turbulence effects.
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4 Simulation Setup and data input
The computational fluid dynamics software FLUENT is emp loyed in this work. The governing equations are
discretized by using the finite volume method. Flue gas which contains Nox, So x, ash particles etc is lightly
loaded particle-laden flo w. So Eulerian-Lagrangian approach with Two-way coupling is suitable for modelling
which is decided on the basis of calculated volume fraction of particle and mass loading. The pressure–velocity
coupling is achieved through the SIMPLE algorithm. The grid-independent study is done for all cases. All
simu lations are run in Fluent dispersed phase model (DPM).Boundary conditions used are inlet velocity,
Pressure outlet and hopper trap wall boundary for simu lation and Rosin-Rammler used for particle size
distribution. Ash sample collected at outlet of SAPH of 500 MW p lant of NTPC. Sieve Analysis and laser
particle counter of the ash sample done at IIT, Delh i. Rosin-Rammler d istribution [11] used for non-uniform
particle d istribution at SAPH outlet, parameters used for particles in jection:- Design Data used
Mass flow rate =9.125 Kg/s, Flue gas velocity =5.3 m/s
Relative velocity of particles (63µm) =1.63 m/s, Min part icle size = 1µm,Max particle size =300 µm
Mean particle size = 49.67 µm
Total coal required for 500 MW =320 T/h. Ash in coal = 40 %, Primary Air Flo w = 500 T/h
Secondary Air Flow =1300 T/h
Bottom Ash = 20%, Fly Ash =80%
Total Ash produced = 128 T/h
Total Air Flow = 1800 T/h
Ash collection in Economizer hopper =5% Ash flo w rate at inlet of duct (after APH) =92 T/h
Flue gas mass increase due to combustion = 228T/h
Total flue gas flow = Total Air + co mbustibles=1800+228=2028 T/h = 563 Kg/s
Mass loading =mass flow rate of ash/Total mass flow of flue gas =5.4%
Vo lu me fraction of dispersed phase (particles) =.0319% , Which is very less. (dilute part icle laden flow) .
According toElghobashi criteria.
So, flue gas flow is lightly loaded particle laden flow, Cross Sectional Area at Duct inlet = 10x4.5=45
Hydraulic Diameter
=6.20 m
Particle Reynolds number /µ (At inlet of boundary) = 3.57x
Assuming relative velocity of particle= 1.64 m/s (for particle size 63 µm)
Turbulent intensity (I) = 2.88%, Estimating Turbulent Kinetic Energy fro m turbulent intensity [11]
K.E = 1.5x =0.0199
Turbulent length scale (l) = 0.07x =0.434 m
Estimated turbulent dissipation rate fro m length scale ,
Density of flue gas =.844 Kg/ , Dynamic viscosity of flue gas=2.34x
Ash particle density = 1260 Kg/
324
Mass of Ash particle flo w to SAPH (Secondary Air Pre-heater) = 9.125 Kg/s.
The design data used for simu lation is taken from 500MWe tangential fired boiler using by NTPC Ltd,
Manufactured by BHEL and Designed by CE USA.
Fluent 6.2.26 set-up (Boundary condi tions)
Flue gas Ρ=.85 ΅=2.34e5 T=140
Pressure_outlet 0 Pascal & escape
Vel_ inlet 5.3 m/s
Hopper wall(DPM) Trap
Wall No slip & escape
Defult_interior Flu id(Flue Gas)
Discrete phase model
Interaction ON
Drag Law Spherical
Injection Setting
Injection Type surface
Release fro m surface Inlet Velocity

Particle Type Inert
material Ash (density -1200kg/ m3)
Dia- Distribution Rosin-Rammler distribution
Injection Using Face Normal Direct ion ON

Velocity Magnitude(m/s) 4.5
Total Flow Rate (Kg/s) 9.0
Min Dia (m) 1e-06
Max Dia(m) .0003
Mean Dia(m) 5e-5

Nu mber of Dia 26
Solver Setting
solver segregated
Formulat ion implicit
Time steady
Velocity formu lation absolute
325
Gradient option Cell based
Viscous Model
Model k-ε (2-eq)standard
Near wall treat ment Standard wall fuct ions
Model constants
Cµ .09
C1-ε 1.44
C2-ε 1.92
KTE Prdtl number 1
k-ε model standard
Boundary conditions
Flue gas Ρ=.85 ΅=2.34e5 T=140
Pressure_outlet_1234 -1750 pa
Vel_ inlet_saph 5.0 m/s
Vel_ inlet_paph 5.0 m/s
Wall No slip
Defult_interior Flu id
Solution controls
Equations Flow
Turbulence
Under-relaxat ion factors
Pressre 0.3
Density 1
Body force 1
326
mo mentu m 0.7
Discretization
Pressure Standard
Momentum Second order UDS
Turbulent kinetic energy Second order UDS
Turbulent dissipation rate Second order UDS
Assuming all part icles have attended there terminal velocity at inlet of boundary because particles are moving in
downward direction along with flow field fro m a long distance. Particles are entering perpendicular to the inlet
boundary plane.
5 Results and Discussion
Hoppers are positioned directly underneath the bend, to collect the coarser ash particles [19] which fall
out of the turning gas flow. It takes advantage of the fact that the particles have much greater inert ia than the gas
and are less responsive to changes in their flow paths. Thus by forcing the gas–solid flo w to turn through 90°,
one can easily separate the coarse ash particles which are under the influence of centrifugal effect fro m the
turning gas flow. Six different geometries of APH hopper along with duct bend are created on the basis of six
bend angles i.e 0º (Fig-2), 21.8º, 30.9º (Fig-3), 45º and 50.2º for optimization of hopper.
First bend geometry (Fig-4, 5, 6, 7) includes Flue gas duct from APH outlet to horizontal section. Simu lations
are performed on First bend for the follo wing cases.
Ø First Bend without turning vanes (Fig-4)
Ø First Bend with actual vanes (Fig-5)
Ø First Bend with modified turning vanes (Fig-6) and
Ø Optimu m First Bend (Fig-5).
5.1 Optimization of ash collection hopper:
CFD simu lations are done on six different bend geometries wh ich is created on the basis of six bend different
angles i.e 0º (Fig -2), 21.8º, 30.9º (Fig-3), 45º and 50.2º.
In actual plant First bend along with APH hopper is joining to horizontal section which is 2 meters long. This
horizontal length can be adjusted with six different bend angles. Optimizat ion technique used is a constrained
optimization adaptable to geometric programming.
Flo w rate of flue gas and ash (40% in coal) are calculated on the basis of plant design data. Most of the coarse
particles are co llected in hopper due to high inertia and gravity because they do not follow the flo w field and get
separated and collected in hopper which is at the beginning of flue gas duct. Coarse particles will not enter into
the duct and hence erosion in duct reduces drastically. Fro m results (table-1), it is very clear that percentage ash
collection in hopper increases as bend angle increases. Pressure loss also increases along with bend angle. Graph
between bend angle and percentage ash collection/total pressure loss shows that the pressure loss and magnitude
of outlet velocity are increasing with increasing bend angle. It is also very clear that ash collection in hopper is
increasing till bend angle 30.9º but further increasing of bend angle does not improve the ash collection in
hopper (Fig-1). But total pressure loss is exponentially increasing when bend angle is increasing beyond 30.9º.
So the maximu m ash collection is taking place in bend with bend angle 30.9º in which ash collection is 20.5%
and total loss is 58.5 Pascal. But this bend angle is optimu m for the fixed hopper geometry and baffle length (2
meters).
The geometry of actual flue gas duct, its internals and hopper of 500MW tangential fire boiler of NTPC-
Singrauli created in GAM BIT 2.4.6. Drawings of duct are used for geometry creation. Meshing is done in
GAM BIT 2.4.6. In let surface meshed with Quad Type-map and volu me meshing done with Hexahedral and/or
327
Tetrahedral cells. Further refinement of mesh is done by adaptation by using velocity gradient. Numbers of cells
are varying fro m 500000 to 1000000 as per geo metry dimension and requirement for grid independent solution.
Simu lations done on existing geometry o f duct along with hopper and results like pressure drop and ash
collection in hopper validated with running plant control roo m data and design data
.
Simulated Results for First Bend Using Rosin-Rammler distri bution
Table-1
Geometry Bend Angle % Ash Static Pressure Total Pressure Velocity Inlet Velocity Outlet
(degree) collection Loss(Pascal) Loss(Pascal) (m/s) (m/s)
First Bend 1 0 16.9 127.4 45.6 5.2 12.5
First Bend 2 21.8 15.6 143.5 47.4 5.2 13.4
First Bend 3 30.9 20.2 174.3 58.5 5.2 14.6
First Bend 4 38.6 19.3 209.7 66.2 5.2 16.0
First Bend 5 45 19.2 254.6 76.7 5.2 17.7
First Bend 6 50.2 19.8 311.2 89.6 5.2 19.6
Figure- 1
Geometries for Hopper Optimization
Fig-2 Bend Angle 0º Fig-3 Bend Angle 30.9º
328
5.2 Modification of First Bend:
I. First Bend Without Turning Vanes (Fig-4):- Simu lat ion is done on actual first bend of 500MW
boiler without turning vanes and result shows that average outlet velocity of flue gas 12.5 m/s, pressure
loss 232 Pascal across first bend and 15.8 % ash collection in APH hopper. Out let velocity profile is
highly non-uniform and turbulence level is also very high. Looking at velocity profile, it is very clear
that velocity of flue gas at bottom of outlet is almost zero. That will pro mote the ash accumulation at
bottom of duct and hence reduce the flow area for the flue gas.
Figure-4 Actual First Bend of the duct without vanes
II. First Bend With Actual Turning Vanes (Fig-5):- In actual First Bend, two 90º bends with three
turning vanes are provided to make the flow horizontal and streamlines(Fig-5). But these bends
increases the path resistance and loss in first bend. Simulation is done on actual first bend with actual
turning vanes and found that the average outlet velocity 14.1 m/s, pressure loss 453 Pascal with 16.2%
ash collection in hopper.
Figure-5 Actual First Bend of the duct without vanes
III. First Bend With Modi fied Turning Vanes (Fig-6):- In actual First Bend of duct, three turning vanes
increase the path resistance and loss in first bend. So reduced the turning vanes and modified to make
the flow stream-line, Simu lation is done on actual first bend with modified turning vanes and result
shows that the average outlet velocity 14.2 m/s, pressure loss 366 Pascal with 16.4% ash collection in
APH hopper. This modificat ion reduces the pressure loss along with turbulent level at outlet.
329
Figure-6 Actual First Bend of the duct with modified vanes
IV. Opti mum First Bend of the duct (Fig-7):- Optimu m duct is selected on the basis of maximu m ash
collection and min imu m loss (As discussed in 5.1). Simu lation is done on optimu m first bend (bend
angle 30.9º) and result shows that the average outlet velocity 14.6 m/s, pressure loss 195 Pascal with
20.5% ash collection in APH hopper.
Figure-7 Optimum First Bend of the duct
Results Table -2
Geome try Pressure drop (pascal) Outlet Velocity(m/s) Collection (%)
First Bend Without Vanes 372 12.52 15.8
First Bend With Actual Vanes 453 14.1 16.2
First Bend With Modified Vanes 366 14.1 16.4
Optimum First( Bend Angle 30º ) 195 14.6 20.5
330
6. Conclusions
Full scale CFD analysis of actual flue gas duct of 500M w boiler o f NTPC-Singrau li is done. Results (Pressure
drop and ash collection) are validated with running 500MW Thermal power station. Opt imization of the bend
angle of duct is done for maximu m ash collection and minimu m pressure loss. APH Hopper ash collection can
be increased fro m 16% to 20% along with 258 Pascal gain in pressure by modification of bend angle. Mostly
larger particles are collected in APH hoppers. So they will not enter into duct. Therefore erosion will reduce
drastically and life of duct along with its internals will increase. Pressure loss in existing bend (First bend with
actual three turning vanes) is 453 Pascal and after modification of turning vanes pressure loss reduced to 366
Pascal with significant decreased in turbulent intensity and variation in outlet velocity. So modificat ion of
turning vanes reduced the pressure loss by 87 Pascal without sacrificing the ash collection in APH hopper. This
is best practical way to improve efficiency of duct in running plant. Optimu m bend is having min imu m pressure
loss (195 Pascal) and maximu m ash collection (20.5%). So we can reduce pressure drop by 258 Pascal using
optimu m bend with 4% more ash collect ion. We can increase the flow rate 70 t/h with same loading of ID
(Induced Draft) fan. This will help to increase the unit load by 20 MW and will prov ide 8% more flo w in ID fan.
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332
PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT ON “REDUCTION IN BOILER TUBE
EROSION NEAR SOOT BLOWING ZONE IN 200MW UNITS OF NTPC,
FARAKKA”
ASESH CHATTOPADHYAY , DGM (OPRN) , NTPC Ltd, Farakka

SNEHASIS BHATTACHARYYA , Sr. Supdt. (C&I) , NTPC Ltd, Farakka
ALOKE SAHA, Supdt (BMD) , NTPC Ltd, Farakka
ABSTRACT
This paper describes a new operation & maintenance approach in Soot Blowing Operating Cycle to reduce boiler
tube erosion near soot blowing zone in stage-1 units of NTPC/Farakka. It includes Optimization of soot blowing
steam parameters , proper thermal drain ing of condensate from soot blowing lines , automatic closing of soot
blowing drain valves based on soot blowing drain temperatures and provision of extra drain lines for bottom tier
soot blower operation. As a result of this reduction in SH & RH Sp ray water flow , improvement in APH in let and
outlet temperatures and in the long run increase the life of the Steam Generator is greatly achieved.
INTR ODUCTION
At NTPC/Farakka, we are having 3X200MW units and 2 X 500 MW units. Each 200 MW Boiler has a tangential
pulverized coal fired furnace of CE design having 3 oil elevations & 6 coal elevations. Also it contains 56 no wall
blowers,10 no Long Retractable Soot Blowers (LRSB) and 4 no APH Soot Blowers. To achieve optimu m boiler
operation and performance it is necessary to control the cleanliness and limit the fouling of the heat transfer surfaces
by steam blowing soot blowers on scheduled time-based and/or parameter-based intervals. Improper soot blowing
may cause
1) Primary erosion during wall blowi ng- Due to the factors like poor steam quality, higher blowing
pressure, blowing valve head passing, blower misalignment & non retraction of defective blo wers in t ime.
2) Secondary erosion during tube failure - Due to impingement of steam on neighboring tubes leads to
increase in boiler tube failures.
PROBLEMS FACED DURING CONVENTIONAL SOOT BLOWING OPERATION
Soot blowing was carried out based on Human Experience causing increase in no of soot blowing cycles & thermal
draining of condensate fro m the steam line was taken place through irregular drain ing by soot blower d rain valves.
Restricted gas flow path leading to increase in draft losses and higher gas velocity and higher tube erosion.
Formation of large size clinker that may fall fro m height cause boiler tube damage as well as erosion. High sulphur
contained fuel causes more clinkering that accelerate the boiler tube erosion. Use of quality steam during soot
blowing was not properly ensured.
333
FARAKKA”
THICKNESS MEASUREMENT
Thickness measurement of boiler tubes near soot blowing zone in water wall area was carried out during last
overhauling of unit#3.The thickness of the normal boiler tube which is being used is OD 63.5 X 6.3 mm thick. The
20 % thickness reduction (i.e. below 4.8mm) is marked as red and are replaced during unit overhauling. Thickness
measurement is done taking left & right side water wall tubes w.r.t a particular soot blower.
L SB - 43 R L SB - 44 R
SL T M B SL T M B SL T M B SL T M B
1 6.3 6.1 5.7 1 5.6 5.9 3.2 1 6.2 5.7 3.5 1 5.1 5.5 3.8
2 7.1 7.2 5.9 2 6.5 7.0 5.2 2 7.1 7.0 5.3 2 5.3 7.0 4.5
3 7.0 6.7 4.9 3 5.4 5.2 3.5 3 6.0 5.5 5.2 3 5.7 6.8 6.0
4 5.6 5.0 4.1 4 5.8 6.2 5.8 4 6.2 5.8 6.0 4 4.5 5.4 4.4
5 6.8 5.8 5.8 5 4.6 4.3 3.9 5 5.8 5.9 6.2 5 4.9 5.4 5.4
6 4.5 4.2 4.1 6 4.7 4.3 3.8 6 5.4 5.0 5.7 6 4.9 6.4 6.1
7 4.3 4.9 4.9 7 4.5 5.0 4.0 7 5.8 5.2 5.4 7 4.5 4.3 3.8
8 7.0 6.8 6.4 8 6.8 6.7 6.4 8 5.3 4.3 5.2 8 5.8 5.7 6.1
9 5.5 4.5 4.5 9 5.0 4.9 4.0 9 6.5 4.5 5.3 9 4.5 3.8 3.7
10 5.2 5.4 5.7 10 5.4 5.4 4.8 10 6.6 4.9 6.8 10 4.6 4.4 4.3
11 5.4 6.8 6.8 11 4.5 4.9 4.5 11 6.7 7.0 6.7 11 5.4 4.9 4.8
12 6. 2 6.6 6.4 12 5.0 6.2 6.4 12 6.3 6.3 6.6 12 5.0 6.5 6.7
13 6.0 6.7 6.8 13 6.8 6.8 6.2 NOMENCLATURE 13 7.0 7.0 6.8 13 5.6 5.8 5.9
6.7 5.5 6.0 5.5 5.2 5.0 14 6.5 5.5 5.0 14 6.4 6.1 6.0
SB :- SOOT BLOWER
14 14
15 15 5.8 5.1 4.7 15 15 6.6 6.4 6.5
'L' - LEFT
L SB - 45 R 'R'- RIGHT L
SL T M B
SB - 46
SL T M
R
B
SL T M B SL T M B
1 4.9 5.2 4.4 1 6.1 5.5 4.1 T'- TOP 1 5.4 4.4 5.7 1 6.2 5.6 4.5
2 4.5 6.0 5.4 2 5.1 6.3 3.8
2 4.3 6.4 3.9 2 6.1 6.7 6.4 B'- BOTTOM 3 5.7 4.5 6.2 3 4.0 5.1 4.4
3 5.7 4.4 3.8 3 5.2 6.3 5.6
4 5.8 4.5 5.1 4 6.1 5.2 4.5 M'- MIDDLE 4 5.7 5.4 6.5 4 6.3 5.6 5.1
5 6.2 4.9 4.4 5 5.9 5.5 5.6
5 6.3 4.4 5.2 5 4.7 4.5 3.3 SL- SERIAL NO. 6 4.9 6.1 6.0 6 5.2 4.8 3.8
6 6.0 3.0 4.2 6 5.0 4.5 3.8 7 5.5 3.9 4.7 7 4.5 5.4 5.2
7 5.7 4.4 5.6 7 4.9 5.3 5.6 8 4.2 4.0 5.6 8 4.6 4.1 3.5
8 6.0 3.4 3.9 8 5.2 5.1 4.7 9 4.3 4.4 6.4 9 6.1 4.4 4.3
9 6.6 3.9 4.8 9 5.1 5.5 5.4 10 6.1 3.9 5.0 10 6.1 4.5 4.3
10 6.0 4.1 4.5 10 6.3 6.0 5.6 11 5.6 4.4 6.0 11 6.5 4.7 5.5
11 6.6 4.5 3.9 11 6.0 4.5 4.2 12 5.9 5.4 4.1 12 4.7 5.8 4.5
13 5.9 5.6 5.8 13 5.3 5.9 5.9
12 6.4 6.5 6.6 12 4.9 6.2 4.6
14 6.0 5.7 5.7 14 5.5 5.2 5.7
13 6.2 6.5 6.5 13 6.3 6.6 6.3
15 4.5 5.5 5.6 15 5.5 6.0 5.1
14 6.2 4.7 5.0 14 5.7 5.6 5.7 16 6.5 5.2 6.3 16 5.8 4.4 6.1
15 15 5.6 5.9 5.5 17 6.1 4.4 6.4 17 5.3 5.3 5.2
16 16 5.7 6.7 6.8 18 18 5.5 5.1 5.3
17 17 5.5 5.3 4.4 19 19 5.8 5.0 5.5
334
FARAKKA”
L SB - 47 R
SL T M B SL T M B L SB - 48 R
1 6.3 7.5 3.7 1 6.7 7.0 5.8
2 7.3 5.8 6.5 2 7.6 6.0 7.2 SL T M B SL T M B
3
4
7.3 4.4
7.8 5.6
6.4
4.5
3
4
7.6
7.0
5.5
5.0
5.8
4.5 1 5.3 5.6 7.2 1 6.7 7.5 7.5
5
6
7.1 6.8
7.7 6.8
6.9
6.5
5
6
7.6
5.6
5.7
6.8
4.5
4.5 2 5.6 7.9 7.7 2 6.0 7.0 7.7
7
8
6.9 7.0
7.8 4.5
6.8
4.7
7
8
7.0
7.7
6.8
6.6
6.9
6.7 3 7.2 7.0 7.4 3 6.6 6.8 4.5
9
10
7.7 6.6
7.9 6.3
6.7
6.0
9 7.3
10 6.0
7.4
5.7
6.0
6.8 4 7.9 7.8 7.8 4 7.1 5.1 6.9
11
12
11 6.0
12 6.5
6.0
6.5
6.8
6.8 5 7.9 7.8 7.7 5 5.2 5.6 4.4
13
14
13 6.6
14 6.1
7.3
7.8
4.5
7.3 6 7.8 7.7 7.7 6 6.0 5.9 4.4
15
16
15 7.7
16 6.9
7.8
6.0
5.6
5.3 7 7.8 7.6 7.6 7 5.5 6.6 4.5
17
18
17 5.4
18 6.0
5.8
5.2
5.7
5.6 8 7.8 7.7 7.7 8 6.5 7.9 6.3
19
20
19 7.8
20 6.6
5.3
5.7
5.5
5.8 9 7.8 7.8 7.6 9 7.7 7.9 7.9
21
22
21 6.5
22 7.4
5.6
5.6
5.7
5.3 10 7.7 7.7 7.5 10 6.7 6.9 6.3
L SB - 49 R
SL T M B SL T M B L SB - 51 R
1 6.5 5.3 5.6 1 6.5 5.3 4.5
2 6.1 7.0 6.4 2 5.6 6.3 3.4
SL T M B SL T M B
3
4
6.0 6.4 4.8
5.9 5.7 5.5
3
4
5.5
4.8
6.4
5.1
4.4
4.0
1 7.6 6.1 6.4 1 7.2 7.6 5.2
5 3.9 4.3 3.3 5 5.0 4.7 3.8 2 7.7 7.5 4.0 2 7.5 7.8 7.0
6 4.3 4.5 4.5 6 4.5 4.5 4.2
7 4.3 5.0 4.0 7 5.4 5.4 5.0 3 7.4 5.9 5.4 3 7.8 7.9 4.2
4.5 4.3 4.2 4.6 5.5 5.1
4 7.3 7.5 4.5 4 7.9 7.6 6.7
8 8
9 4.5 4.8 4.8 9 4.8 4.5 4.5
4.9 4.5 4.5 10 4.8 5.8 4.5
10
11 6.7 6.4 6.7 11 4.7 5.4 5.2 5 7.6 6.0 4.5 5 7.8 6.5 4.4
12
13
5.7 5.5 5.3
6.6 6.4 6.7
12 6.0
13 6.7
5.1
6.7
5.3
6.4
6 7.9 7.9 6.7 6 7.6 7.6 4.9
14
15
7.0 5.7 6.9
5.6 5.9 6.1
14
15
7 7.8 6.3 6.6 7 7.1 6.2 6.0
16 5.8 5.6 5.9 16 8 7.5 7.9 6.8 8 7.7 6.9 6.0
17 6.1 5.7 6.1 17
18 6.8 5.3 6.0 18 9 8.0 7.7 6.4 9 5.3 7.3 6.0
19 6.2 5.7 5.7 19
20 6.8 6.7 5.8 20 10 7.0 6.6 6.8 10 7.3 7.8 7.8
21 6.2 6.8 5.8 21
22 6.6 6.9 7.0 22 11 7.3 6.2 6.5 11 7.0 6.2 6.3
335
FARAKKA”
50 46.15
45
40 %
35 32.05
30 Tube
25 21.79 Erosion
20 Points
15
10
5
0
28 to 52% 5 to 27% Less than 5%
thickness thickness thickness
reduction reduction reduction)
Picture-1
Unit#3 Boiler Tube thickness measurement around soot blowers were carried out to observe the extent of erosion
due to soot blowing. Soot blowers 49 was identified for analysis purpose. Thickness measurement at 78 points
around soot blowers were done and following observations were made. Fro m the Picture-1 , it is found that at 46%
of sampling points at Water wall Tubes nearby soot blower operating zone having thickness erosion 28 to 52%, 32%
of sampling points at Water wall Tubes nearby soot blower operating zone having thickness erosion 5 to 27%. Here
Tube erosion is observed to be excessive and hence soot blowing optimization program was taken up.
INNOVATIVE APPROACH
In each stage-1 unit , 56 no. soot blowers are divided in four Tiers. Each tier consists of 14 nos. soot blowers. Soot
blowing is carried out from topmost tier to bottom most tier by Cascading Approach Method. Soot blowing steam is
taken fro m super heater header 10 outlet. The temperature & pressure of this steam is generally 485 Deg-C and 150
Kg/Cm2.Th is line has one main electrical valve (VE) , one pneumatic control valve (VP) wh ich control the soot
blowing steam pressure and one manual isolating valve (VM). Fo r charging the steam, manual & electrical valves
are kept open and the control valve will modulate as per the soot blowing steam pressure demand. Generally soot
blowing steam pressure is maintained at 25 Kg/Cm2 during soot blowing and the temperature nearly 387 Deg-C.
This steam is again d ivided into two lines . One line is being used for 56 nos wall soot blowers & LRSB’s wh ich has
to travel a long path and another line is being used for APH soot blowing purpose. Soot blowing steam temperature
should not be less than the design temperature i.e 240 Deg-C. Th is is ensured by monitoring the drain temperature of
the APH & Wall Blowers. Before this new approach, it is found that the drain temperature of APH soot blowing
drain line is achieved more than 240 Deg-C due to traveling shortest path but for wall blo wers, it is found near 220
Deg-C when bottom most tier soot blowing was going on. Hence this tier was highly affected due to wet steam soot
blowing. Hence tube erosion around 4th tier was more as co mpared to top three tiers. Due to this erosion, Bo iler tube
leak near soot blowing region of water wall was 2-3 nos per year as shown in Figure-1. The electrical Soot blowing
drain valves ( 02 nos for wall blowers & 02 nos for the APH ‘s) were closed by giving manual closing command to
them after ensuring the proper drain temperatures. If it takes much time to close the drain valves, then make up
water consumption would be more as mo re steam is being drained to the drain line.
336
FARAKKA”
WATER WALL TUBE LEAK
5
NO OF TUBE LEAK
4
3
W/W TUBE LEAK
2
1
0
2005- 2006- 2007- 2008- 2009-
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
YEAR
FIGURE-1: Water wall tube leakage due to boiler tube erosion
To overcome this problem , it is felt that the soot blowing should be carried out with proper steam parameters fo r all
the four tiers and closing of soot blowing drain valves can be done based on design drain temperature is achieved.
To do this , for top three tiers soot blowing i.e for SB1 to SB42 was done by previous Cascading Approach Method.
It means that soot blowing is carried out fro m top tier (soot blowers 1 to 14) to 3rd tier (soot blowers 15 to 28) &
finally 2nd tier (soot blowers 29 to 42) and after comp letion of soot blowing instead of going to the 4th tier , the
remain ing steam is directly going to the drain line to CBD. Operating soot blowing steam pressure is set as 8 - 9
Kg/Cm2 .
For supplying the steam to the 4th tier soot blowers , one new line is taken fro m the APH soot blowing header wh ich
has the temperature 387 Deg-C & pressure 25 Kg/Cm2 with provision of extra two drain lines & two nos. manual
drain valves (DVM). Presently these manual drain valves are closed by the local operators after ensuring the drain
temperature more than 240 Deg-C. Th is is shown in Figure-3. The advantages of doing such approach is to have the
design steam parameters for 4th tier soot blowers to restrict tube erosion. Fro m the Figure-1 , it is revealed that the
boiler tube leakage due to tube erosion near soot blowing zone has reduced & till date it is nil as compared to
previous years. To remove Condensate from the steam lines , additional 03 nos manual d rain points have been
provided in addition to the existing drain lines in each unit The design temperature of the soot blowing steam at the
each soot blower is also ensured by noncontact type thermo meter at a regular interval basis. Temperature mapping
of the insulation zone is being carried out on regular interval to maintain temperature near 60 Deg-C. The strength
of insulation in the steam lines has been increased by reinforcment of insulation where insulation was not proper.
337
FARAKKA”
TO APH SOOT BLOWERS
TO APH SOOT BLOWERS

DVE DVE
DVE DVE
VM DVE DVE
VM Drain Line to CBD DVE DVE DVE
DVE VP
VP DVE Drain Line to CBD
DVE VE
VE DVE
DVE SH HDR-10
SH HDR-10 TO WALL BLOWERS
TO WALL BLOWERS
1ST TOP TIER 1ST TOP TIER

SB1 to 14
SB1 to 14
2ND T OP TIER 2ND T OP TIER

SB15 T O 28 SB15 T O 28
3RD T OP TIER 3RD T OP TIER

SB29 T O 42 SB29 T O 42
DVE DVE
DVE DVE
4T H TIER
SB43 T O 56
4T H TIER
SB43 T O 56
DVE
DVE DVE DVM
DVE DVM ISOLAING V/V
TO CBD TO CBD
Drain Line Drain Line
ISOLAING V/V ISOLAING V/V
FIGURE -2 (BEFORE M ODIFICATION) FIGURE-3 (AFTER MODIFICATION)
338
FARAKKA”
Closing of drain valves (DVE) is made on auto after the drain temperature is more than 240 Deg-C. Th is interlock
has been provided from the newly co mmissioned DDCMIS system in stage-1 ( 3 X 200 MW). Earlier drain
temperatures were only monitored and closing of drain valves were done manually after ensuring the proper drain
temperature . The modified logic is shown in Figure-4
Drain temperature (PV) is measured direct ly by the temperature element which is installed in four the drain lines
near electrically operated drain valves. There are four drain valves (DVE). 2 for wall b lowing drain lines & 2 for
APH soot blowing drain lines. This temperature signal is processed by the Input Card. The processed Signal is then
compared with the set point (SP) that is 240. If the drain temperature is > 240 Deg-C ,then the closing command
will be generated from the SR flip-flop which will in turn energize the Relay “RLY”. The “NO” contact of the relay
is used for actual closing of the individual drain valves. This logic has been incorporated for all the electrically drain
valves.
SOOT
BLOWING
S R To closing
Input PV H Output
DRAIN TEMP Card
L circuit of
Card LVM Drain v/v
Y
R
L
Closing Co mmand
L
SP = 240 Deg-C
FIGURE-4
Now soot blowing is carried out from bottom tier to top tier soot blowers to avoid excess quantity of ash deposition
on bottom ash hoppers and also ensuring the soot blower nozzle hole at the vertically downwards i.e. at 6 O’clock
position to avoid accumulation of extra condensate in the soot blowing steam line. Hence make up water
consumption due to automatic closing of drain valves has also reduced.
TANGIBLE GA IN :-
Due to this new innovative approach, if we could save one forced unit outage then the total saving can be calculated
as follows:
Based on our experience , one tube leakage can result 35 hours of unit shutdown to repair the leak and put the unit
into Bar. Total loss has two parts , generation loss and profit loss.
(A) Generat ion Loss : It has two parts

i) DC Loss per hour =12.29 %
=Rs.0.98 Lacs
ii) Loss in Profit ( Revenue-Cost of Sales) per Hour =Rs.0.27 Lacs
So, Total estimated loss for one hour of unit shutdown =0.98 + 0.27
=Rs.1.25 Lacs.
For 35 hours of unit shutdown , the total loss will be =35 X 1.25
=Rs.43.75 Lacs.
339
FARAKKA”
TANGIBLE GA IN (Contd.) :-
(B) The o il consumption for one 200 MW boiler light up =25 KL (appro x.)
Now considering cost of I KL of oil is Rs.25,000/-, then Loss due to oil =25 X 25,000
=Rs.6.25 Lacs.
(C ) To repair Boiler Tube Leak ,

manpower mobilizat ion& consumables cost =Rs.1.00 Lacs (appro x.)
Hence overwall estimated loss for one boiler tube leakage will be Rs.51 Lacs (appro x.)
CONCLUSION
As previously discussed, such type of performance improvement program is a continual process and one year may
not be sufficient enough to yield appreciable quantum gain. The change in performance trend shows the direction
towards which the remedial measures have been undertaken to be correct and is going to yield appreciable gain over
the days to come. Besides such gains, many other intangible gains like emp loyee satisfaction; better plant reliab ility
and enhanced performance will bear forth as automated offspring.
If an all round effort is maintained, a day is not too far off, when 100% achievement of “Achievable Level of
Performance (A LP)”, will be a reality at Farakka station and the designed or guaranteed level of performance will be
surpassed.
ACKNOWLE DGME NTS
The authors would like to extend a special thanks to Sri R K Pal , the then AGM (O&M) , Sri P Tiwari , the then
AGM (Operat ion) & Sri P K Upadhyay , the then AGM (Maintenance ) for their inspiration and support. The
authors would like to extend thanks to Sri S K Mitra , DGM (Operation) for his technical guidance and support ,
EEM G & MTP department for providing valuable information about the plant. for this technical paper.
REFERRENCES
1. Boiler Manuals of Stage-1 (3 X 200 MW)Units.

2. DDCMIS Manuals of Stage-1 (3 X 200 MW)Un its.
340
Microstructure Evolution in SA213-TP 321H Steel Tubes during
Service in NTPC Power Plant at Elevated Temperature
By
Sandeep Bansala, R.N.Mehrotrab and S. Raya
a) Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee – 247 667
b) National Thermal Power Corporation, Engineering office Complex, Plot No. A-8 A, Sector – 24, Noida – 201301.
ABSTRACT
This study discusses the c hange in microstructure in SA 213-TP steel t ube during long term
elevated temperature service leading to failure at a power plant in NTP C. There is σ-phase formation
along the grain boundaries and the formation of carbides alt hough SA 213-TP steel has Creq of 18.73 and
Nieq of 13.42 and the ratio of Creq/Nieq is 1.39, which appears well inside γ region. The commonly
available phas e diagrams may not correctly represent equilibrium with respect to σ-phase formation.
Carbide formation has been observed in steels wit h similar equivalent chromium of 17.62 and lower
carbon content of .03% and c arbide formation may have promoted t he formation of σ-phase. There is
depletion of chromium and nickel along the grain boundary leading to penetration of corrodent and failure
of the tube. Molybdenum, possibly originating from the scrap used during melting, cont ributes to high
chromium equivalent leading to formation of σ-phas e.
INTRODUCTION:
Austenitic stainless steels are extensively used in heat resistant structural components in power
generating and chemic al industries due to their metallurgical stability, excellent corrosion resistance, good
creep strengt h and ductility at elevated temperatures (Mills 1997 and Karimiyan et al 2007). However, the
presence of high amounts of chromium in these steels is prone to the formation of brittle intermetallic
phases like σ, χ and η etc. when exposed to elevated temperatures (S asmal 1987). The formation of
these phases is responsible for brittleness and loss of corrosion resistance and in Cr-rich iron alloys,
sigma-phase often results in corrosion penetration impairing the mec hanical properties of the mat erial
(Lopez et al., 1999), leading to high temperature failure (Steinkush, 1998), met al dusting (Coreflo- Alonso
et al., 2004) and loss of toughness in heat treating and welding (Sieurin and Sandstrom, 2004). In
general, sigma phase forms with long-time exposure in the range of 838–1253 K, although this range can
vary somewhat with composition and proc essing (Davis, 1994). Since only a small amount of precipitation
is required t o reduce the tensile ductility, toughness and pit-corrosion resistance, precipitation of sigma-
phase has been extensively investigated.
In the present investigation, the changes in the microstructure of SA213-TP 321H steel tubes,
leading to its failure has been studies while the material was in service at a power plant of National
Thermal Power Corporation.
EXP ERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
The chemical analysis of the failed tube has been provided by NTP C and t he microstructure of
as received t ube sample has been examined under optical microscope, Olympus, PME3, Tokyo, Japan.
The Murakami’s etchant (50 g of K3Fe(CN)6 (potassium ferricyanide) + 50 g KOH (potassium hydroxide) +
100 ml distilled water) has been used to etch the sample to reveal the microstructure and constituent
phases. A fter breaking t he samples along the crack, the fractured surface has been examined under the
field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) having E DX facility, FEI QUANTA 200 FEG, Czech
Republic. The analysis of some major constituents has also been carried out by JEOL 8600M EPMA in
the middle of the grains and in the grain boundary region.
RESULTS :
The failed tube shows that the crack has started from the gas side and the chemical analysis of
the sample is given in Table-1. The analysis shows the presence of molybdenum, which is not required
as per specification and also, it is a costly element.
341
Table – 1 Chemical Analysi s
Element Analyzed SA213-TP 321H
Carbon 0.05 0.04-0.10
Silicon 0.56 0.75 max
Manganese 1.36 2.00 max
Sulphur 0.005 0.030 max
Phosphorus 0.017 0.40 max
Chromium 17.68 17.00 - 20.0
Nickel 11.24 9.0 - 13.0
Molybdenum 0.21 ------
Titanium 0.35 5X% C (0. 6max)
The optical micrographs of the polished surface near the crack at low and high magnifications are
shown in Fig. 1. The material has non-uniform grain size as shown in Fig. 1(a) and at higher magnification
one may observe dark precipitat es and cavities along the grain boundary as shown in Fig. 1(b). In the
cracked area there are cavities at the grain boundary and at triple points as revealed Fig. 1(c).
(a) (b)
(c)
342
Fig. 1: Etched microstructure of Tube Material at (a) lower magnification of X100 and (b) higher
magnification of X500 and (c) at X200
The specimen has been etched in Murakami’s etchant to reveal the state of the grain boundary
as shown in Fig. 2. It appears that the problem starts with the formation of particles of σ-phase shown in
Fig. 2(a) and it eventually leads to chromium depletion in the grain boundary region as shown in Fig. 2(b),
leading to corrosion penetration.
(a) (b)
Fig.2: Microstructure of Tube Material Etched by Murakami’s etchant (a) showing the
precipitation of σ-pha se along the grain boundary and (b) chromium depleted region along
the grain boundary
The partially cracked specimen was broken and the fractured surface was examined under
scanning electron microscope having EDX facility. The fractured region shows inter-granular cracking as
shown in Fig. 3. An area over a grain has also been analyzed for composition by EDX and it shows the
concentration for some of the elements as shown in Fig.4.
Fig. 3: SEM micrograph of the fractured surface (a) showing the boundary of failed region and
that fractured in the laboratory, and (b) inside the fractured region
343
Element Wt% At%
TiK 00.88 01.02
VK 00.41 00.45
CrK 19.66 20.88
FeK 68.50 67.73
NiK 10.55 09.92
Matrix Correction ZAF
Fig. 4: The analysi s of an area on the grain surface in the cracked region.
There are numerous particles on the fracture surface. Some of thes e particles have shown strong
carbon peaks indicating to be carbide and others are possibly σ-phase particles.
Element Wt% At%

TiK 00.67 00.77
VK 00.60 00.65
CrK 18.82 20.01
FeK 68.99 68.29
NiK 10.92 10.29
Matrix Correction ZAF
Fig.5: The analysi s of a particle on the surface of a grain in the cracked region
The analysis of some major c onstituents has been carried out by EPMA in the middle of the
grains in Fig. 2(b) as given in Table -2. It is clearly observed that well inside the grains the constituents
have not depleted.
Table-2: EPMA analysi s at grain centre
Location Ti Cr Ni Mo
1 0.31 19.68 9.73 0.41
2 0.31 20.08 9.95 0.31
3 0.29 19.65 9.89 0.32
4 0.31 19.37 10.24 0.25
EPMA analysis has also been carried out in the grain boundary region in Fig. 2(b) and t he results
are given in Table-3. It is surprising that constituents like Ti, Cr and Ni have got severely depleted and Mo
is not at all present inside the grain boundary region.
344
Table-3: EPMA Analysi s inside the grain boundary region
Location Ti Cr Ni Mo
1 0 2.94 0.21 0
2 0.02 2.77 0.22 0
3 0.02 2.89 0.2 0
4 0.04 3.07 0.38 0
5 0.02 3.65 0.15 0
6 0.05 4.61 0.8 0
7 0.03 5.15 0.49 0
8 0.04 2.57 0.62 0
9 0.02 3.26 0.25 0
10 0.04 3.7 0.6 0
11 0.04 5.72 0.99 0
12 0.04 5.22 1.01 0
13 0.05 6.07 1.05 0
14 0.03 5.65 0.44 0
15 0 5.87 0.16 0
16 0 5.02 0.14 0
17 0 5.04 0.3 0
18 0.06 6.38 1.95 0
19 0.04 5.38 0.81 0
20 0.07 4.21 0.89 0
21 0.1 8.88 2.77 0
22 0.16 8.46 3.93 0
23 0.1 7.75 2.06 0
DISCUSSION:
The tube material is a low carbon austenitic stainless steel containing 0.21 wt% Mo and Ti in excess
of specified 0.25 wt%. Molybdenum, which is not required as per specification, may have c ome from the
scrap used during melting. In general moly bdenum-bearing stainless steel has improved creep rupture
strength [Clauss, 1969]. However, in some circumstances, it may embrittle the steel after prolonged
exposure at elevated temperatures as a result of the formation of carbide or intermetallic compound
phases. One of the most important of these embrittling phases has been suggested to be the σ-phase. In
o
Fe-Cr-Ni t ernary alloys α + γ + δ phas e field at 650 C is shown in Fig.6. Alloy 321 is within this α + γ + δ
phase field. However, many phase diagrams available are based on annealing experiments of short
duration. Since the kinetics of σ-phase formation is slow, short annealing is unlikely to establish
equilibrium conditions with respect to σ-phas e. Furthermore, the alloys us ed in practice generally contain
different other elements, which are either ferrite stabilizers (chromium, silicon, molybdenum, aluminium,
titanium and niobium) and promote σ-phase formation or austenite stabilizers (carbon, nitrogen, nickel
and manganese) retarding σ -phase formation [Hill and Harries, 1960; Hattersley and Hume-Rothery,
1966; Williams et al, 1972; Weiss and Stickler, 1972; Natesan et al, 1972; Ponamarenko and Grigorc huk,
1971; Bojarski, 1971]. The Creq and Nieq equivalent may be used to determine the effect of ot her elements
(Creq =Cr + Mo + 1. 5Si + 0.5Nb; Nieq =Ni + 0. 5Mn + 30C + 25N in weight percent of each element) [Long
and Delong, 1973; Schaeffler, 1949]. The Cr/ Ni equivalent ratio was used to estimate precipitation level of
*
σ-phase by Sasmal [1987], who has used the concept of ‘the effective equivalent chromium’, Cr = Cr +
0.31Mn + 1.76Mo + 0.97W + 2.02V + 1.58Si + 2.44Ti + 1.7Nb + 1.22Ta - 0.226Ni - 0.177Co, to rationalize
precipitation of Laves phase, chi phase, σ-phase and ferrite. Cr* is termed the effective equivalent
chromium as it is compensated for the presence of austenite stabilizers.
345
Chastell and Flewitt [1979] has examined similar failure of secondary super heater boiler tube
made of 316 steel and have given the following isothermal cross section for Fe-Cr-Ni phase diagram at
923 K in terms of Creq and Nieq as shown in Fig.7.
o
Fig 6: Ternary Fe-Ni-Cr pha se diagram showing α + γ + δ phase field at 650 C and α + γ phase
o
field at 1000 C
Fig.7: Isothermal cross section for Fe-Cr-Ni phase diagram at 923 K. The phase fields are marked
in composition range in terms of Cr and Ni equivalent of 316 steel.
The steel used in the failed SA 213-TP steel tube has Creq of 18.73 and Nieq of 13.42 and the ratio
of Creq/Nieq is 1.39, which appears well inside γ region in Fig.7 and should not normally show σ-phase
precipitation as it is observed near the cracked region in Fig.1. In Fe-Cr-Ni-alloys it is claimed that at least
18% Cr is required to induce σ-phase formation [Nicholson et al, 1952]. Weigand and Doruk [1962] have
suggested that σ-phas e cannot readily accommodate carbon in its lattice, and, based on this, Weiss and
Stickler [1972] have hypothesized t hat carbon in the matrix must be depleted to a certain critical value
before the intermetallic phases can form. Thus, low carbon of the present steel makes it more prone for
the formation of σ-phas e. In many alloys, carbide precipitation precedes σ-phase formation for this reason
as observed in type 310 stainless steel employed in boiler tubes for annealing at different temperatures
shown in Fig. 8. In steels of lower "equivalent chromium" c ontent shows that carbides and χ-phase have
formed in a type-321 steel [Grot and Spruieli, 1975] having 0.66% C and 17.91% equivalent Cr whereas
in a 21Cr-24Ni-Ti steel (0.03%C and 17.62% equivalent Cr) [Singhal and Martin, 1968] σ-phas e has
formed in addition to carbides. In another type-321 steel [Weigand and Doruk, 1962] with a still lower
"effective equivalent chromium" content (0.09% C and 17.85% equivalent Cr) the precipitated phases are
346
Fig.8: The sequence of precipitation at different annealing temperatures in type 312 stainless
steel.
carbides, ferrite and σ-phase. The critical effective equivalent chromium in the failed SA 213-TP steel
tube is 17.67. The 21Cr-24Ni-Ti steel used by Singhal and Martin (1968), has equivalent chromium of
17.62, similar to that in the failed SA 213-TP steel tube and the carbon content has been .03%, which is
lower than t hat in SA 213-TP, still there has been carbide precipitation. White and LeMay (1970) have
observed the microstructural changes taking place in commercial AIS I Type 310 steel at temperatures in
the range 650 °C to 950 °C for times of up to 900 hours as shown in Fig.8. Interestingly, the sequence of
precipitation depends also on the temperat ure. In the failed SA 213-TP steel tube, it appears that carbide
has precipitated initially leading thereafter to precipit ation of σ -phase. Mo and Chromium depletion from
the grain boundary area may be due to t he formation of carbide and σ-phase as shown in Table-3 but
Nickel depletion is perplexing. The composition of σ-phas e in equilibrium with eit her γ and/or ferrite in Fe-
Cr-Ni phase diagram is given in Table-4 (Sopousek and K rum1, 1996).
Table-4 Phase Compositions (in wt%) of the Fe-Cr-Ni Alloys in equilibria at different Annealing
Temperature
Nickel content in σ -phase is around 9-10 wt%. Hsieh, Lin and Wu (2007) have examined σ -phase
o
formed after hot rolling of 19Cr-9Ni-2Mn steel at 800 C and observed that σ-phas e has higher Cr and Mo
but lower Ni. Nickel and molybdenum is of the order of 5% and 4-5% respectively.
The presence of zones depleted in chromium and molybdenum in connection with formation of σ-
and χ-phase along grain boundaries have been reported earlier by Weiss and Stickler [1972] when
investigating a A IS I316-type steel. Efficient grain boundary diffusion in austenitic stainless steels is also
the cause of s ensitization [Stawstrom and Hillert, 1969, Henjered, 1983]. When chromium-rich carbides
form at grain boundaries, zones depleted in chromium form along grain boundaries even on locations
where there are no carbide particles. The depletion is more pronounc ed in this c ase, and when the
material is ex posed t o aggressive environments localized corrosion occurs at grain boundaries. Since it
has been observed that the cracking has started in the failed SA 213-TP steel tube from the gas side, it is
possible that nickel may have depleted from grain boundary by some loc alized corrosion propagating
along it, possibly involving sulphur bearing gases. Schwind et al (2000) have carried out modeling of σ-
phase formation, and observed that there is stabilizing influence of silicon on σ -phase, which forms by
grain boundary diffusion, explaining therefore the dependence on grain size. It has also been noted that
silicon accelerates grain boundary diffusion.
347
CONCLUDING REMARKS:
It may be concluded from the above study that the SA 213-TP steel t ube has failed due to σ-
phase formation along the grain boundaries but the formation of carbide may have preceded σ-phase
formation as σ-phase cannot readily accommodate carbon in its lattice. It has been also suggested that
higher carbon may prevent formation of σ-phase. One may also avoid molybdenum, which encourages σ-
phase formation and also increases chromium equivalent. Silicon may also help in enhancing grain
boundary diffusion and help in the formation of σ-phase. The SA 213-TP steel has Creq of 18.73 and Nieq
of 13.42 and the ratio of Creq/Nieq is 1.39, which appears well inside γ region but many phase diagrams
available are based on short duration annealing experiments, which is unlikely to establish equilibrium
conditions with respect to σ-phase, since the kinetics of σ -phase formation is slow. The critical effective
equivalent chromium in t he failed SA 213-TP steel tube is 17. 67 but in 21Cr-24Ni-Ti steel with equivalent
chromium of 17.62 and carbon content has been .03%, there has been carbide precipitation.
REFERENCES
1. Bojarski Z., Pr. Inst. Hutn., 23 (1971) 1.
2. Chastell D. J. and Flewitt P. E. J., Materials Science and Engineering, 38 (1979) 153 – 162.
3. Clauss F. J., Engineers Guide to High-Temperature Materials, Addison-Wesley, London, 1969.
4. Corenõ-Alonso, O., Duffus-Scott, A., Zánchez-Conejo, C., Corenõ-Alons o, J., Sánchez-de
Jesús, F., Bolarín-Miró, A., Mater. Chem. Phys. 84(2004), 20–28.
5. Davis, J.R., Steels. ASM International, Materials Park,(1994) pp. 66–88.
6. Grot A. S. and Spruiell J. E., ibid. 6A (1975) 2023.
7. Hattersley B. and Hume-Rothery W., J. Iron Steel Inst., 204 (1966) 683.
8. Henjered, A., Norden, H., Thorvaldsson, T. and Andren, A., Scripta metall., 1983, 17, 1275.
9. Hill R. F. and Harries D. R., Chem. Process Eng. (London), 2 {1960) 391.
10. Hsieh C. C., Lin D.Y. and Wu W. Materials Science and Engineering A 467 (2007) 181–189
11. Karimiyan, A., Farhangi, H and Allahy ari, A.A., Prooceedings of 8th International Fracture
Conference 7 – 9 November 2007 Istanbul/ TURKEY, 518-526.
12. Long C.J., Delong W.T., Weld. J. Res. Suppl. 32 (1973) 281s–297s.
13. Mills, W., International Mat erial Reviews, 42 (1997), pp. 45-82.
14. Natesan K., Kassner T. F. and Li C., Reactor Technol., 15 (1972) 244.
15. Nicholson M. E., Samans C.H. and Shortsleeve F.J., Trans. ASM 44 (1952) 601.
16. Ponamarenko E. P. and Grigorchuk G. P., Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Met., 6 (1971) 125.
17. Sasmal B., J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 6 (1987) 100–102.
18. Schaeffler A.L., Met. Prog. 56 (1949) 680–680B.
19. Schwind M., Kallqvist J., Nilsson J., Agren J. and Andrean H, Acta mater. 48 (2000) 2473-2481
20. Sieurin, H., Sandstrom, R., Mater. Sci. Eng. A 444(2004), 271–276.
21. Singhal L. K. and Martin J. W., Acta Metall. 16(1968) 1441.
22. Sopousek J. and Krum1T., Scripta Mat eriah, Vol. 35, No. 6, pp. 689-693, 1996
23. Stawstrom, C. and Hillert, M., J. Iron Steel Inst., 1969, 207, 77.
24. Steinkush, W., Mater. Corros. 49 (1998), 69–87.
25. Weiss, B. and Stickler, R., Metall. Trans. A, 1972, 3, 851.
26. White W. E. and Le May I., Metallography, 3 (1970) 35-50
27. Wiegand H. and Doruk M., Arch. Eisenhuttenw. 33(1962) 559.
28. Williams T. M., Harries D. R. and Furnival D., J. Iron Steel Inst., 210 (1972) 351.
348
IN SEARCH OF A HIGH LONGEVITY BURNER ASSEMBLY
FOR 200 MW UNITS
RAVINDRA, DGM (BMD)

NTPC-Farakka
INTRODUCTION:
NTPC-Farakka has been linked with Rajmahal mines in the state of Jharkhand for its coal requirement and the
units are designed for a coal of calorific value ranging fro m 2700 to 4000 k.cal/kg. The coal contains ash as
high as 45% with silica as high as 57%. Since the lin ked mine is not able to meet the coal requirements,
arrangements are being made for coal supply fro m various other mines including impo rt through railway
rakes. As on date Farakka has been receiving coal fro m sources as high as 25.
The 200 MW units are having corner fired burner system and the milling system consists of 6 nos. XRP-803
mills. Due to the poor quality of coal, the units are forced to operate with 5 mills against the designed 4 mills
to achieve the full load. The poor operating conditions have resulted in enormous wear in the components of
PF lines, burner assembly, boiler tube as well as flue gas ducting system. The severity of the erosion can be
assessed with the poor life of the grinding ro ll (Nihard <1000 hours) itself.
DES CRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM:
The erosive nature of the coal badly affects the coal burner assembly and restricts its life to megre 3-4
months. This is an area of majo r concern for the boiler tube leakage and there used to be 2-3 leakages every
year in the past due to coal erosion. Apart fro m this the poor condition of the coal burner tips badly affects
the combustion process and finally effects on the performance of the boiler as well as the efficiency.
The photograph below shows a BTL caused out of the coal erosion and the damaged coal burner assembly
Leakage in transition tube Eroded coal burner assembly
The coal burner life is of major constraint to achieve the strategy of unit overhaul once in two years,
COAL B URNER ASS EMB LY:
The coal burner assembly consists of mainly t wo co mponents namely coal burner t ip and the coal burner
nozzle. There is a SS seal plate provided in between the two to minimize the PF leakages during burner tilt.
The coal burner tip is made out of the SS-310 material and the coal burner nozzle is made out of ASTM-A
536 (cast steel) material.
The coal burner tips normally supplied by the OEM is hard faced at the leading edges of the splitter plates and
the coal burner nozzles are simple castings. But to enhance the life of these components additional hardfacing
of the tips and nozzles is resorted as shown in the photographs. But there is no substantial increase in the
burner life.
349
New coal burner t ip Additional Hard facing Eroded burner tip
New nozzle Additional hardfacing Eroded burner nozzle
Burner t ips were developed through other vendors with out splitter plates, hard faced on the inner shell and
assembled with the fully hard faced splitter plates and tried for the life. Various electrodes including tubular
electrodes were also tried for the hardfacing. The performance of the tips against the service duration is
shown below.
Tip after 2 months After 5 months After 8 months

As a short term measure practice has been made to replace eroded burner assemblies during opportunities like
unit tripping due to BTL or stoppage of unit due to coal / water shortage or any other reasons. For this
purpose spare burner assemblies are made available in all the units.
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAR RES IS TANT COAL B URNER TIPS:

To enhance life o f coal burner assemblies several init iatives were taken by Farakka in the past few years. The
experience and the performance of the new burner tips is discussed in the following pages.
A. SS BURNER TIP WITH SILICON CARB IDE SPLITTER PLATES :

The splitter plates are the most important component, which decides the life of the burner tip. An effort was
made to procure burner tip with Silicon carbide splitter plates in p lace of SS-310 splitter plates. The
dimensions of the splitter plates have been maintained as per the original drawing. Four such burner tips were
350
procured and installed in unit-3 at B-elevation in Sept.-06. The tips were inspected after about a year and it
was found that the tips were badly damaged both in splitter plate as well as in the inner shell area.
The cause of failure was analysed and following deficiencies were observed.
a. The splitter plate is of Silicon carb ide material and not weldable. Hence, a mach ined slot has been
made on both sides of the inner shell of the SS coal burner tip and the splitter plates were fitted and
locked on the other end by welding.
b. No wear protection provided against the erosion on the inner surface of the SS inner shell.
c. Due to erosion of inner shell, the splitter plates got dislodged from the slot and failed.
d. Wear was observed on the splitter plates and the splitter plates found cracked at some places.
SS Burner tips with silicon carbide splitter plates & performance after a year.
Photographs show the new tip with silicon carbide splitter plate and the tip condition during inspection after
a year. The overall performance was not satisfactory.
B. B URNER TIP WITH WELD OVERLAY PLATES:
The erosion is the major reason for the poor life of the coal burner tips. Another effort was made for procuring
a burner tip with weld overlay plates having SS-310 base material. Here both the inner shell as well as the
splitter plates were made out of the weld overlay material and four tips were procured and installed in unit-1 in
May-2007.
Weld overlay tip after 5 months After 12 months

The tips were inspected in position after 5 months and it was found that the splitter plates were in partially worn
out condition. The tip was allowed to run further and after one year it was found that the splitter plates were in
damaged condition but the inner shell was found in good condition.
Overall performance of the weld overlay tip was found to be very much better than normal SS hard faced burner
tip. But our interest was to develop a burner tip with a life of at least one year.
C. TUNGS TEN CARB IDE CLADDED SS B URNER TIPS:
351
A new technology called Tungsten carbide cladding was being introduced in India, the cladding shall have a
Rockwell C Hardness of 64 to 70 and shall be capable of withstanding wear at higher temperatures as claimed
by the vendor. The vendor was apprised of the wear conditions at Farakka asked to prove the product.
Accordingly one new burner tip was spared for the applicat ion of the cladding as requested by the vendor.
Since the cladding facility was not available in India and the vendor got the tip cladded in United States and
returned for trial on “co mplimentary / Demo” basis.
The cladded tip was installed in unit-1 at corner B1 in April-07 with a cast steel coal nozzle (NTPC supply).
The tip was inspected after a period of n ine months. It was found that the burner tip was intact at about 75-80%
of the area, but damaged partially at one corner. Ho wever the splitter plates were found to be in better
condition.
Burner assembly in position Burner t ip (front) Burner t ip (rear)
The following are the observations on the coal burner tip during inspection.
a. Severe erosion damage was found on one corner of the coal burner tip. The erosion was also found on
the coal nozzle as well as the seal plate.
b. The erosion in all other areas was minimu m on the surface of the tip facing the furnace.
c. There was more erosion in rear face of the splitter plate on one side in co mparison to the other areas.
Eroded coal nozzle Eroded sealing plate
The observations on the coal burner nozzle and the sealing plate during the inspection are as follows.
a. Top and left sides of the coal nozzle was badly eroded.
b. The sealing plate in between the coal nozzle and the tip also eroded in this portion.
Analysis of the failure:

1. The life of the coal burner tip is totally dependent on the life of the coal burner nozzle. Since the life
of existing cast steel coal nozzle is very short, the erosion started from the coal nozzle init ially. The
major reason for the erosion on one side was due to the coal flow profile, which beyond control.
2. The coal burner tip was cladded on the splitter plates on both top and bottom sides and also on the
inner annulus of the inner shell of the burner tip. The erosion initially started from the coal nozzle,
damaged at one corner on both top and side, further damaged the sealing plate outside and finally
started eroding the burner tip.
3. The vendor after analyzing the tip performance has suggested the following to ensure a trouble free life
of two years.
352
a. Enhance the cladding thickness from the existing 0.75 mm to 1.5mm
b. Additional cladding thickness on the leading edges of the splitter plate
c. Additional cladding thickness on the inner annulus in the nozzle tip exit area
d. Use of a co mbination of ceramic and cladded coal burner nozzle.
D. SS BURNER TIP WITH S ILICONE CARB IDE INNER ASSEMB LY

It is experienced that the most crit ical wear zones in the coal burner t ip is the splitter plates and the inner shell.
The latest initiative in the enhancement of the coal burner tip life is the use of a SS-310 burner tip with the total
inner assembly made out of a silicon carbide material (Brand name Cryston-178). The inner assembly is the
combination of a bucket and three splitter plates, all made out of Cryston-178 material. All the silicon carbide
components are locked with SS plates for positioning.
Four sets of silicon carbide inner assembly were procured, assembled with the outer shell of the burner tip
available at site. The tip assemblies with the combination of ceramic lined burner nozzle were installed in unit-1
‘A’ elevation on all corners during the month of April-09. The assembly detail of the burner t ip is shown below.
Inner shell of the Burner t ip First splitter plate All splitter plates in position
Locking of inner assembly Tip with sealing plate Tip ready for installat ion
There was an opportunity to inspect the tip in the month of June-09 after t wo months of installation. The t ips were
found to be in perfectly healthy condition and no trace of erosion was seen on the splitter plate or the inner shell.
However the splitter plates of the fully hard faced normal SS burner tips, installed at the same time were badly
eroded and big holes developed within this short span of two months. Photographs below are self exp lanatory on
the tip performance.
Cryston-178 tip at Corner 2 Cryston-178 tip at Corner 3 Normal SS Tip
353
No opportunity was found to inspect the tip since June-09 and further performance of the burner tip can only be
confirmed after having the next inspection.
DEVELOPMENT OF CERAMIC LINED COAL B URNER NOZZLES :

As discussed earlier the life of the coal nozzle plays a crucial role in the boiler tube leakage due to coal erosion.
Since the hardfacing measure taken earlier did not succeed, it was essential to enhance the coal nozzle life by any
other means.
The ceramic lined coal burners are functioning satisfactorily in the 500 MW Ansaldo units and the ceramic lined
PF bend/ burner elbows are also working well in both stage-I and II. It was found that no one has developed the
ceramic lined coal burner no zzle for the 200 MW units. Considering the severity of the erosion problem it was
decided to try the ceramic coal no zzles.
Following problems were faced during the development stage of ceramic lined burner nozzles.
1. Original nozzle is a steel casting with varying thickness at different places
2. Limitation of increasing the outside dimensions due to matching components.
3. Limitations in reducing inside dimensions of the coal nozzles, which may affect the PF/air flow.
These problems were overco me as fo llo ws.
1. The coal nozzle shell was fabricated out of 6 mm IS: 2062 plates
2. Different thickness ceramic tiles (15,10 and 6mm) were used at different places.
Ceramic lined coal burner nozzles
16 nos. of ceramic lined burner nozzles were procured fro m a reputed vendor and first set of 8 nos. installed in
unit-3 in September 2007. The nozzles were inspected after a year and found to be in healthy condition but one or
two tiles were found peeled off at the discharge end.
Ceramic lined coal burner nozzles after one year
The reason for the peeling off of ceramic t iles was also analysed. The discharge end of the coal burner nozzle is
exposed to high temperatures (>5000 C) and no mortar can withstand this temperature. The deficiency shall be
taken care in the future procurements by restricting the ceramic tiles up to reducer portion and make use of wear
resistant material for the diffuser portion.
354
New lots of ceramic lined coal burner nozzles were procured and installed in unit-1 & 2 in Apr/May-09 during
overhaul. The graph below shows the expenditure incurred in the burner spare procurement for stage-I alone in the
last few years. The reduced trend in expenditure is due to shifting of overhauls, vendor development of coal
burners and introduction of ceramic lined nozzles.
CONCLUS ION:
We have been utilizing the opportunities like coal shortage, water shortage etc where units were to be kept
under shut down for days/weeks for rep lacing the worn out burner assemblies. We may not get such
opportunities in future. Hence in order to meet our goal of unit overhaul in alternative years we must overcome
the deficiencies of poor burner assembly life. We are confident that the above trials shall help in finalizing the
future action plan for the procurement of wear resistant burner assemblies.
We have been spending huge amount on the coal burner assemblies and hardfacing of these components.
Analysis show that the use high longevity burner assemblies shall no way increase our maintenance cost but
shall reduce the outages of coal erosion and also improve the combustion and boiler efficiency. Site has already
processed a proposal for the procurement of the wear resistant coal burner assembly on guaranteed operating
hours basis for two years life, which is in advanced stage. We are open for adopting other technologies available
in the market, wh ich we might not have tried. We hope the feedbacks of our trials might be of interest for the
boiler personnel who are working day in and day out against the wear.
****
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VIBRATION SPECTRUM ANALYSIS IN POWER PLANT-“VIB-TUTOR©”
Vishnuvenkatesh M Dhage, Ritesh B. Kanojiya
vmdhage@gmail.com / rbkanojiya@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In new era, the issue of machinery condition monitoring and fault diagnosis as a part of maintenance system became
global due to the potential advantages to be gained from reduced maintenance costs, improved productivity and
increased machine availab ility. The aim of this work is to provide training to user and to investigate the effectiveness
of a new fault diagnosis method based on machinery vib ration spectrum analysis. The developed copyright software
package is named as “Vi b-Tutor©”.
The “Vib-Tutor©” provides a learning environment to facilitate efficient learning. It is basically an interactive trainer
to support maintenance engineer and help them to find an “Optimal Path”, with the use of Case-Based Reasoning
(CBR) technique. The “Vib-Tutor©” assists a maintenance engineer in predicting the need for repair action before
equipment failu re occurs!
Keywords: Machinery Condition Monitoring, Training System; Diagnosis System; Vibration Spectru m Analysis;
Power Plant, Interactive Trainer; Optimal Path; Case-Based Reasoning Technique; “Vib-Tutor©”
BACKGROUND
Vibrat ion is a vast subject and needs wide range of experience to understand and become expert in this field.
Consequently, we became interested in the prospects for creating a system that would allo w us to provide:
· a good “on-hand” practice to student discovering machinery v ibration.
· teaching with Examp le
· Vibrat ion analysis with built-in database relations.
· extensive diagnostic tool to determine both their causes and severity
· useful feedback for necessary action.
And we start working on it and final outcome is “Vi b-Tutor©”, which is copyrighted from Govern ment of India.
INTRODUCTION
In today’s expense conscious world, the cost of implementing preventive/predictive/proactive maintenance systems in
process plants can be proved to be lower than losses caused by machine failures. Figure shows
preventive/predictive/proactive maintenance system and condition mon itoring objectives. The predictive or ‘on
condition’ maintenance methods imp ly the ability to know when a machine or component will need repair or
overhaul. These methods preclude classic preventive maintenance techniques of periodic and scheduled inspections.
Time based part replacement can be very expensive if the components still have useful life remain ing. Condition
Monitoring of rotating and reciprocating machines has assumed greater importance in today’s context of
implementing dynamic predictive maintenance. Though many methods of condition monitoring can be effectively
implemented, one of the most practical methods is implemented of vibration analysis and diagnostics. Applying
mach ines condition monitoring programme using vibration measurement and analysis leads to the early detection of
component deterioration.
Vibrat ion monitoring
Condition monitoring for separate machines

Preventive/Predictive/Proactive Maintenance for the Plant
Figure 1 Maintenance System

Many types of equipment today are required in service well beyond their intended lifet imes. Dismantling them for
inspection is expensive and owners need to consider all relevant information in making the decision. Application of
condition monitoring in all the applicable methods is justified, with each showing different degradation modes. Yet
many things are discovered regarding vibration analysis but implementing the data in decision process software is
never tried. This is very new concept. And it may be possible that by some time all the industrialist replace his or her
conventional procedure of monitoring into a decision-making monitoring.
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VIB-TUTOR© SYS TEM OVERVIEW
An effective Vibration Spectrum Analysis is a total program of the fo llo wing:
1. TRAINING
2. DETECTION
3. ANALYSIS
4. CORRECTION
5. VERIFICATION
This is a logical sequence of steps. The Vib-Tutor© program first Train the user to helps him to detect the onset of a
problem. It then provides means for analyzing the problem in order to determine its cause. It puts you in a position to
correct the problem, effect ively and efficiently, at a convenient time. And finally, it gives you a means to verify that
any correction taken did in fact correct the problem and that no other problems were included.
Vibrat ion Spectrum Analysis Programs begin with Baseline (or init ial) surveys of machines. Later, follow up surveys
are conducted at periodic intervals dependent on machine type, criticality, operating and maintenance cost, operating
speed and design of components within such as bearing type, gearing type, etc. Follo wing either Baseline or Follow up
Period ic Survey measurements, an analysis of collected data is made and written survey reports are compiled
summarizing diagnostic results as well as providing overall recommendations such as those which follo w:
1. No problem found.
2. Minor problems found - trend only at this time during future surveys.
3. Potentially serious problems detected which might tend to deteriorate within weeks - continue to monitor
equipment at shorter intervals.
4. Potentially serious problems detected, but problem source not yet confirmed - perform vibrat ion diagnostics to
determine problem source and severity.
5. Significant problem(s) detected which want corrective act ion - replace parts at next scheduled shutdown.
6. Very severe problem(s) detected which mandate corrective action - shut down and replace immed iately.
One of the overall purposes of this training will be to teach the student / Technocrat how to begin making these
diagnostic calls using vibration signature analysis, how to evaluate problem severit ies and what thought process
should be used to either recommended further diagnostic tests, or how to go ahead and recommend what corrective
actions should be made in which chronological order. Docu menting what actions were taken, along with the data they
were co mpleted, is an essential step to any successful program. However, taking the extra step to document the
“Before” and “After” condition is what is critically needed to keep the program visib le and effective in the minds of
those associated, not only with Maintenance and Plant Management, but also to those in the production department.
Hence there is enormous field that is remaining for finding the best method of maintenance. As it also an attempt
made to use Vi b-Tutor© user friendly and make Vi b-Tutor© applicable to lay men also. Vi b-Tutor© will also the
trains for decision-making purpose without aid of the experienced person.
Vi b-Tutor© system facilitates organization of knowledge in such a manner, which fills up the gap of absence of an
expert in vibration spectrum analysis. An expert system with hypertext facility will be particularly useful in organizing
knowledge in logical manner and facilitates storing of large amount of information with a very effective retrieval
mechanism. Hence these two techniques namely expert system and hypertext have been chosen by the researcher to
design expert system.
In general intelligent systems are not intelligent, they are just better than traditional computer programs. The term
‘intelligent’ has misled many people. The idea is to have a computer program, which captures the skill, and the
expertise needed a particular problem. The whole idea of intelligent systems is to use more knowledge to solve a
problem. Tradit ionally, any computer program in any language can achieve the same purpose, but is often too difficult
to put in the knowledge of an experienced machinery engineer into a vibration diagnostics program can be very
difficult in a low level computer programming language. Fundamentally intelligent systems then provide tools to
implement the knowledge needed to solve a particular problem. In many cases the same problem could be solved with
conventional computer technology but it is too difficu lt to be cost effective. Because of this emphasis on knowledge,
most intelligent systems today are referred to as knowledge based systems.”
Another common misconception about intelligent systems is that they learn or improve. Intelligent systems do not
exhibit learning and do not change their behavior dramat ically over time. The main idea behind intelligent systems is
to provide a powerful means of representing the knowledge and then manipulating this knowledge at a much higher
level. The basic intelligent systems implementation captures the knowledge of the experienced engineer in the form of
rules. These rules are intended to be true facts that are facts that are true in a solution and not dependent on other
surrounding computer code. Very often these facts are called ‘rules’ or ‘production rules’ or ‘if-then rules’, and the
total system is called a rule based system. The collection of knowledge is most commonly referred to as the rule base
or knowledge base. A basic examp le is in the form if a nu mber of items are true, then a conclusion must be true.
357
If Machine axial v ibration is high, And 1x co mponent is predominant Then
The machine is misaligned
Or a more co mp lex examp le;
If the machine bearing temperature is too high, And having heavy noise, And the Horizontal reading is high, And the
Axial read ing is high Then
The bearing is misaligned, Check machine for misalign ment, And stops the machine co mp letely immed iately, And
notify the maintenance engineer to performed work.
The intelligent systems application consists of many hundreds of rules of this style. The use of ‘if-then’ rule can be
contrasted with other programming techniques that use a variety of co mputer commands and instructions.
ARCHITECTUR E OF VIB-TUTOR©
Recognizing the deficiencies of traditional Computer Aided Instruction System, Intelligent Training System were
subsequently developed which attempted to adapt the speed and level of presentation to that required by a trainee. These
three components of an Intelligent Training System are often referred to as the “Traditional Trinity “of Intelligent Training
Systems.
Figure 3 Architecture of Vib-Tutor©

· Expert Module
The Expert Module contains information about the subject knowledge domain, such as the facts and concepts being
taught and the processes needed to complete s within the system. The Expert Module may be thought of as
manipulating a data structure called an Expert Model a dynamic vision of the knowledge domain.
The key feature that distinguishes a knowledge communication system from, standard ITS on the Domain Expertise
dimension is that the representation of the subject matter is not merely a set of static frames, but actually is a dynamic
model of the domain knowledge and a set of rules by which the system can "reason."
· Trai nee Module

The Trainee Module contains information about the Trainee's understanding of the knowledge domain. It does this by
having a model of how Trainee's learn and using diagnostic tools contained within the Curriculum Module to extract the
learner's knowledge state about the subject.
The Trainee model must account for the data by performing some type of diagnosis, both of the state of the Trainee's
knowledge and in terms of selecting optimal pedagogical strategies for presenting subsequent domain information to the
Trainee.
· Curriculum Module
The Curriculum Module contains rules or other decision making tools that allow it to judge how well the Trainee
understands of the, subject domain (as represented by the Trainee Model) matches actual knowledge structure (as
represented by the Expert Model). It may then generate correct forms of instruction or remediation to give to the
Interface Module.
· Modelling the Knowledge of the Domain

The system that meets the educational needs and objectives of each particular learner is to structure the domain
knowledge in such a way that will be possible to do adaptations.
An important issue in the development of an environment that will support pedagogical decisions is to provide
various types of educational material on the same knowledge. As a first step towards this direction we have mapped
the domain knowledge in the three layers as shown in Figure, with each layer providing a different type of
information.
358
Figure 2: Do main Knowledge in Three layers
In the first layer the knowledge goals which referred to a subset of the domain knowledge, are defined while the
second layer, is consists of the concepts of the domain knowledge. In the third layer the educational material related
to each concept is represented in different categories, such as text, images, simulations, examples, solved and
unsolved-exercise and so on.
· Interface Module
Interface module is responsible for processing the flow of communications between the Vib-Tutor© and the trainee.
Although it operates in conjunction with the trainee and pedagogical modules, it is important that the interface be
described on its own due to its importance as the mechanism for co mmunication.
FLOWCHART OF VIB-TUTOR©
For successful working of Vi b-Tutor© Training, and Analysis flowchart is designed
VIB-TUTOR© MENUS
There are fo llowing important menus in the Vi b-Tutor©
· Admin istrator Menu to Add, Delete, Modify, Login and User Informat ion
· Train ing Menu (Web based Training) and Knowledge Test Menu
· After successful completion of all train ing examination, a Vibrat ion Analysis Menu will be unlocked which
consists of Machine Sympto m and Diagnosis Menu.
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· Diagnosis Menu Consists of Simp le Diagnosis Case Based Reasoning and Advanced Diagnosis.
· Knowledge Based Menu, enable to Vib-Tutor© ad ministrator to add new knowledge to database.
· Vi b-Tutor© Help menu
COMPARING HUMAN TRAINER WITH VIB -TUTOR© TRAINING S YS TEMS
1. Trainer will spend years accumulating co mprehensive knowledge of the subject they are to teach.
2. Trainer will be taught how to teach and how to evaluate the level of their Trainees.
3. If they are good Trainers, they will have the ability to assess their Trainees and adapt their teaching methods to
suit their Trainees.
4. Vi b-Tutor© has a large and co mprehensive knowledge bank of the subject matter or do main.
5. Vi b-Tutor© will interact with its Trainee to determine the level of the Trainee’s knowledge.
6. It will be able to adapt to the performance of the Trainee.
A good Training system needs to monitor both types of knowledge effectively, but “tracking the interaction of both
types is a complicated task". Both types of knowledge need to be monitored because no subject realise solely on one type
of knowledge; both types are always used. For example programming requires knowledge of computer syntax and
commands (declarat ive) and also knowledge of how to b u ild a program in that language procedural.
TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES

The basic idea behind selecting theses tool is that they must be efficient and independent of any other technologies.
· Front-end Tool (Microsoft VB .NET)
Microsoft VB.Net is used for developing The Vib-TutorÓ software. The VB.NET is a complete set of
development tools for building ITS applications, web based, desktop applications. VB.NET consists of IDE,
which allo ws them to share tools and facilitates in the creation of mixed-language solutions. The .NET
Framework has two main co mponents: the common language runtime and the .NET Framework class library. The
common language runtime is the foundation of the .NET Framework.
· Backend Tool (Microsoft Access)

The conventional approach to knowledge management keeps data in a database. In this case, the database schema
provides the context for the data. A convenient tool to designed database is Microsoft Access, so that Access
provides the context for turning a data set into information, and knowledge management provides the tools for
managing this information superficially, Access is a RDBM S, so it is easy to handle the records.
CONCLUS ION
At the conclusion of Vib-TutorÓ, it is hoped that the user of this trainer will be able to effectively commun icate on a
technical level with others in the field of v ibration analysis. In addition, he should also gain a fundamental
understanding of how to effectively start up and fully implement an effective Predict ive Maintenance Program.
Furthermore, an introduction into the use of vibration analysis for purposes of troubleshooting equipment problems
will have been presented by this trainer.
The project developed for the purpose of being an expert in the field of vibration. The system questions the Trainees and
on the bas is of their answers guides the Trainee through co n t ro lled interaction to the next topic using a natural
language dialogue. Th is project can evaluate and grade the Trainees based on the performance of their answering the
questions correctly at every stage of the learning processes and grade the Trainees accordingly.
Having reached the end of this project, it is time to point out to the reader that it is only the beginning of one’s study of
vibration analysis. A good understanding of the princip les of modern FFT v ibration analysis and monitoring is only
the beginning of establishing competence in the field.
REFERENCES
· Books and Articles
[1] Dalp iaz G., Rivola A., “Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics in Automatic Machines: Co mparison of
Vibrat ion Analysis Techniques”, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing (1997).
[2] Go ld man Steve, “Vib ration Spectru m Analysis-A Practical Approach, Industrial press inc, (1999)
[3] Harris C.M., Crede C.E., “Shock & vibration Handbook-Vol-1”, McGraw-Hill, (1961)
[4] Lin Daming, Wiseman Murray, “CBM Decision Making with Expert Systems” (2006)
[5] Mitchell J. S., “Introduction to Machinery Analysis and Monitoring”, Penn Well Books, Tulsa (1993).
[6] SKF, “M icrolog CM VA 40 User Manual” Rev A, (1995)
[7] SPM Technical Manual, SPM Instrument Inc.
[8] Sleeman D.H., Bro wn J. S., “Intelligent Tutoring System”, New York, Academic Press, (1982)
[9] Taylor J. I.,Back to the Basics of Rotating Machinery Vibrat ion Analysis, Vibrat ion Consultants, FL, (1994)
[10] Ramakrishna, Ramchandra, Ramachandran, Vibration Monitoring : A Crit ical Appraisal, Industrial Product
Finder, Annual 1996
360
· Web Sites Referred
[1] http://www.brunel.ac.uk/-csstgdm/
[2] http://www.emersonprocess.com
[3] http://www.howstuffwork.co m
[4] http://www.seimen.co m
[5] http://www.skf.co m
[6] http://www.wikipedia.co m
[7] http:// www.sp minstrument.co m
Screen shots of Vi b-Tutor©
Screenshot 1: Vib-TutorÓ Training Module Screenshot 2: Vib-TutorÓ Advanced Analysis Module
Screenshot 3: Vib-TutorÓ Knowledge Test Screen Screenshot 4: Vib-TutorÓ Machine Sy mptom
Screenshot 5: Vib-TutorÓ Advanced Analysis Report Screenshot 6: Vib-TutorÓ About
361
Case Study-
Resolving Kawas ST-2C Journal Bearing failure and
High Thrust bearing Temperature problem
AK Sehgal, DGM (Corp.OS- ST)
B. Kanungo, DGM (TMD-Simhadri)
S.K Chattopadhyay, DGM (MM-Kawas)
Abstract: The paper describes the steps taken and checks done to solve the above problem.
Interestingly the checks done in cold condition revealed that bearing temperature was getting
monitored at a inappropriate place i.e. Bottom left, whereas it should have been at bottom-right.
Further the leakage form turbine gland was established as the root cause, for which mitigation
measures taken and machine is able to run normal. The given bearing arrangement is incapable to
self align in case of any misaligning forces occurring due to performance deterioration.
1.0 Problem; The case relates to a 116.1 MW steam turbine (Fig. 1) of a combined cycle station
(2xGT+ 1ST). At full load (116 MW+) problem of thrust bearing working pads temperature
high (95 0C) was reported (Normally used to run maximum 860 C-but problem appeared after
recent bearing replacement). The axial shift already was maintaining on higher side though
below alarm (0.53 mm). With in few days, working pads temperature increased to 1030 C+ and
then with load restriction (maximum 90 MW) has to be done to manage running the machine.
Machine was taken under shut down on 11.11.2009 to inspect the thrust bearing assembly, but
during coasting down, journal bearing 2 (HPT inlet end, see Fig.1) temperature touched
120 0C+ at 805 rpm (see fig. 2) with moderate change in vibrations (65 micron) (see trend). The
problem was all the more discomforting because with in 3 months it was the 3rd outage.
1.1 Maintenance History:

· HP+LP overhauling (Aug. 2004)
· All Bearing inspection and alignment (Aug.-Sep. 2009)
· Bearing 2 failure due to Lubricating oil problem due to power supply (05-11.10.2009).
2.0 Parameter analysis and Scope of work:

· In running condition Journal bearing 2 temperature was only 71, it was surprising that with
no disturbance in lubricating oil supply, bearing temperature went up to 120+ 0 C during
Coasting down. It was decided to check bearing 2 Loading and HP/LP Alignment.
· The oil film pressure was found normal prior to the shut down (40 bar).
· Possible reasons for high axial shift were examined. 1st stage pressure was operating well (50
bar at 108 MW against limit of 52 Bar) with in limits and there was no change or long term
increase observed in past one year. It was observed that axial shift in 2004-05 after last
overhaul was 0.49-0.51 mm and since past 4 years is maintaining around 0.53-0.60 mm,
hence correlation to thrust bearing high temperature was not seen and increase in thrust
force was ruled out.
· For thrust bearing problem, it was decided to inspect thrust bearing assembly.
· During last technical audit, it was pointed out that Lubricating oil temperature at cooler outlet
was maintaining 480 C + during any weather. It was decided to clean Oil cooler tubing from
Oil side.
362
Brg. 2
journal
temp.
Fig. 2: Trend of HPT bearing temperature/vibration during Coasting down
3.0 Dismantling observations, checks and rectification:

3.1 HPT inlet end Journal bearing 1 (2): Bearing 2 Babbitt flow was observed on bottom but it
was only on Front end i.e. HPT inlet end which indicates there it was having more loading and
relatively lesser oil film thickness (Fig. 3). In the event of any hydrodynamic oil film weakening
e.g. during coasting down when jacking oil pump has not cut in, this zone will touch first.
1.
It is a interference fit bearing having four support pads, one on bottom, two on sides and one on top
with cylindrical contact . The side collar on bottom of bearing grips the bearing support on its sides,
restricting any self align ment freedom, hence making it a totally rigid bearing.
· It was observed that Bearing temperature measuring points are located on Bottom left (Front
and Rear). However as per direction of rotation, the oil wedge will form on Bottom right side
and accordingly that location –BR will have maximum bearing load after formation of
hydrodynamic oil film and hence will reflect the maximum prevailing bearing temperature
(Fig. 4).
· The old bearing pad/support contact area and journal-Babbitt contact area was checked
and found uniform.
· Journal bearing was replaced (with bottom right- front and rear thermocouples points drilled
at the plant workshop) with new one after ensuring proper contact at Babbitt and pads.
3.2 Thrust bearing: Non-working pads were OK, but on active pads symptoms of high Babbitt
temperature (Initiation of Babbitt softening-Fig. 5a,5b.).
· The active working pads indicated that Babbitt has faced high temperature; however the
intensity was not uniform across all the 6 pads. The pad which was coming on vertical top
has faced the maximum intensity of metal to metal rubbing due to loading (Fig. 5a), which
decreased on moving from top pad to bottom most pad.
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· Perpendicularity of thrust bearing housing w.r.t. thrust collar checked though distance
between thrust box and Collar at three places (L,R and bottom) and found OK both on
working and non working pad side.
· Thrust collar facial run out:0.025 (working pad side), 0.0275 mm (Non working : pad
side)-OK
· Thrust collar float: 0.60 mm (as per protocol)-OK
· Thickness difference between old and new pads was only of the order of 02-03 mm, no
abnormal wear observed.
· For oil flow into each thrust pad, a nipple with O-ring is provided which connects pad and
thrust pad carrier. Slight O-ring Compression observed. Current problem may not be
attributable to O-ring but same were replaced.
· Slight dents were observed at the self aligning levelling plate surface where spherical seat
surface of thrust pad sits-OK. No such dents observed on Non-working side.
· Thrust Bearing-active pads replaced after blue check.
3.3 Alignment during dismantling was checked and indicated abnormality in vertical direction, as
expected due to wear and some misalignment in horizontal direction.
· Axial: Left/Right/Top/Bottom: 0/04/02/02 mm
· Radial (with dial on LP) : Left/Right/Top/Bottom :5.20/4.95/5.0/5.14 mm.
3.4 Pedestal: The journal Babbitt and thrust pads failure and loading pattern indicated correlation
between the commonality to the problem. It indicated that if pedestal 2 housing gets axially
swivelled in vertical direction with slope towards HPT inlet (Fig. 6) then the observed
pattern of differential loading is likely. Its various possible reasons were checked/discussed;
i. Pedestal slope/sinking: The unit had history of foundation sinking in 90's, its slope was
checked at pedestal parting plane and found OK.
ii. Thermal growth: There existed a possibility of differential pedestal upliftment If any
leaking steam impinges pedestal, such observation was not there in the past by station.
iii. Steam inlet Piping pull/push: HPT casing is resting on pedestal front and its palms are
covered with brackets. In case of any vertical force coming from steam piping pedestal is
likely to get lifted. That could happen if pedestal holding bolts were having clearance and no
casing palm top/bracket clearance in hot condition. Holding bolts were ensured to be tight
and further were hand tightened. Clearance at bracket was 0.15 mm in cold but in hot
condition getting reduced to 0 mm-left side and 0.06 mm in right side). This was kept as a
observation.
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HPT inlet
end
LPT end
Fig. 3 : Failed brg. 2 –More Loading and babbit flow only –HP side
Minimum oil
thickness-wedge
Bottom left points Bottom –Right

given optional points –New must
Fig. 4: Journal Bearing-temperature monitoring
Pad having
One Half maximum Another half
metalmetal
rubbing
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Fig 5: Thrust bearing Top and Bottom half , Working pads
Thrust pads
working- highest
LPLPT temp zone
Swivelling
action
TH HP-LP
RU CPLG.
ST
CO
LL
AR
Highest loading
zone in J. Brg.
HPT LPT
Fig 6: Pedestal 2 arrangement
3.5 Lubricating Oil condition:

· In view of high lubricating oil temperature at cooler outlet, oil coolers were dismantled
and tubes were found very very dirty from oil side. Both the coolers cleaned one by one.
It led to improvement of 3 degrees in Oil temperature.
· Pedestal /bearing oil piping mouth were checked thoroughly to see if any partial blockade
of oil flow is there, however everything was normal. Pressure gauges were mounted at
inlet to bearing 2 (journal and thrust bearing), to further quantify the amount of oil
entering actually inside the bearing.
· 3 way Lubricating oil temperature controller, all the six thermostatic valves were
replaced.
4.0 Machine rolling and subsequent corrections:
366
1. After the inspection and various checks in cold condition, machine rolled and observed
stable at 3000 rpm and subsequently unit synchronized. Bearing 2 maximum
temperatures observed at 700 C up to 25-30 MW. With in 1 hour of synchronisation, load
increased to 40 MW then front bottom right started increasing from 70 deg to 860 C, but
front bottom left was normal. With time it was seen to be increasing and reached 1000 C.
Thrust brg temp active pad temperature was also normal 74 deg C. (remained normal).
Lubricating oil temp at cooler outlet 45.30 C Deg C (Lubricating oil supply temperature
issue resolved for both the steam turbines).
2. Machine was hand tripped. During coasting down the bearing 2 temperature was normal.
(By this time jacking oil cut in value was changed to 2800 rpm and cut off-2860 rpm in
place of 540/600 rpm respectively).
Now from the operating behaviour it was clear that when the machine is getting hot, the
journal bearing loading is increasing and temperature is increasing only at front end. (It may
be noted that this phenomenon have not been understood earlier as the Bottom left
measurements still continued to indicate 62-680 C. e.g. earlier even at load of 108.3 MW
maximum bearing 2 temperature through observed (through left) was 71.60 C).
4.1 During the subsequent run, it was observed that steam inlet end of the pedestal is very hot
and steam is leaking from Steam inlet end gland. It became clear that leaking steam is hitting
the pedestal and causing thermal growth of the pedestal (reason no. 3.4-ii) and loading of
bearing is getting differential i.e. more on Front i.e. towards HP which is Inlet side (which was
also the pattern of failure- as indicated in Fig. 3, 6 and 5). Now the reason of high temperature
of journal bearing number 2 temperature became clear. To manage the problem, took three
actions;
· Provided extra heat shield with lesser clearance between shield and shaft, though very little
space available to tight mount the shield (Fig. 8)
· Made cooling air piping fixture for inserting air between shield and pedestal for diverting
steam away from pedestal (Fig.8)
· After rolling again, seeing the vacuum, gland steam pressure controller set point changed
by 0.15 kg/cm2 in steps of 0.05 kg/cm2 so as to reduce seal steam pressure from 1.25
kg/cm2 to 1.10 kg/cm2.
The deviation regarding reduced palm top/bracket clearance was kept as observation, shall be
addressed in long term.
5.0 Result: At full load (112.4 MW), the machine is running fine, with maximum journal bearing
temperature 72.50 C (Bottom right), thrust bearing 77.6/55.50 C, gland steam pressure 1.05-1.10
kg/cm2 and lubricating oil temperature 44.50 C. Now the currently machine is being operated
with Leak steam control and bypass valve full open. Overhauling is planned in September 2010
when the glands shall also be replaced. Further the need for cooling air minimized by reducing
gland steam pressure- 1.02-1.05 kg/cm2.
6.0 Conclusion:
· It has been established that Turbine is having Gland steam leakage from HPT inlet end,
which is hitting Bottom right corner of the pedestal. This abnormality is leading to
localised thermal growth of the pedestal. As bearing 2 is totally rigid bearing, this is
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resulting in higher differential loading of the bearing 2 at front right. With mitigation
measures taken, steam turbine is able to run without any problem.
· The paper highlights the importance of appropriateness of bearing temperature
measurements in resolving and monitoring the problems.
· During recent bearing replacement, bearing got fitted without the bottom right
temperature measurements.
· Excessive steam leakage from turbine gland is not a overnight phenomenon, to extent it
may have been there earlier, however the increased levels ask for early overhauls, which
is being taken care.
· The major reason of gland seal wear is the vibration hiccups, which used to occur during
start-ups, to eliminate which, start up procedure has been amended and implemented.
During the course of bearing replacement in such type of arrangement, without opening
Cylinder, bearing replacement is a difficult task because of which shaft is required to be
lifted and moved sideways. It is also possible that some of the seal fins could have bent
in the process (twice required), hence increasing the clearance. It is also because of
alignment corrections being done at bearing which is leading to unequal clearances at the
glands, though the left / right clearances remain within limits as specified by the
manufacturer. At present the gland clearances at right to the extent of 0.9mm and at left it
is to the extent of 0.4mm.
· The paper also highlights the incapability of the existing journal bearings to self align
to shaft axis in case of any performance deviation takes place.
Acknowledgements: The problem could be solved with Unconditional and round the clock
support right from Station Top management to Operation, C&I, Workshop and Mechanical
Maintenance in providing data as well as carrying out modifications.
Modifications done;
· Jacking oil cut in /cut off at 2800/2860 rpm, in place of 540/600 rpm.
· Drilling of additional two measurements for journal bearing and for accessing the same in
system.
· Drilling of 2 additional measurements for thrust bearing (45 0R-active and non-active
pad).
· Drilling of tappings and arranging for pressure measurements for bearing 2 and 3
lubricating oil supply.
· Reduced Original gland steam pressure settings: : 1.1 kg/cm2 (Seal steam valve close)-
1.25 kg/cm2 (Leak steam valve starts opening) to 1.05-1.10 Kg/cm2 setting.
· Cooling air arrangement for diverting steam away from pedestal.
368
SHARING EXPERIENCE OF SITE REBLADING, BLADE SHROUD
MACHINING AND SLOW SPEED BALANCING OF 10 0 MW LM Z TURBINE
LP ROTOR AT BTPS, BADARPUR .
RAJ KUMAR, AGM(O&M)

D. SEN, AGM(Maint)
H.C.VERMA, DGM(TMD)
S.K.GARG, SUPDT(TMD)
SYNOPSIS.:
BTPS has 3 x 95 MW(LMZ design) and 2 x 210 MW( LMZ Design) units .Originally
95 MW unit was of 100 MW units, which were commissioned in the year 1973, 1974 &
1975 and later on derated to 95 MW and one 210 MW unit was commissioned in the year
1978 and second unit in the year 1981.
100 MW units are oldest unit in India and other three units are at Obra Thermal
Power station, Obra ( U.P.)& three units at Neyveli Lignite Corporation , Neyveli,
Tamil Nadu. Since these are the oldest units and various problem of blade failure are
experienced in capital Overhauls .
Paper will discuss the reblading experience at site of LP rotor 100 MW for early
revival of unit#2 at BTPS, Badarpur.
BACK GROUND:
Unit#2, 95 MW was taken for capital overhaul from 22/10/2009 because unit was not
able to operate on rated load 95 MW due to Curtis wheel pressure was going higher than
the recommended pr of 68 kg/cm2 and tendency of axial shift was towards positive
(+0.53) against the limit value of +1.2 mm. Last capital overhaul was done in November
2003 and capital overhaul was already due from Sept 2009. After opening the HP&LP
cylinders , it was found that LP rotor was having 2 blades broken in 26th stage and
secondary damage in all the 26th stage blades. One blade and damping wires were found
broken in 28th stage. Now ,unit can be revived either by replacing damaged blades by
new one and subsequent blade shroud machining , axial seal formation on new blades by
formed tools and balancing of rotor or replace the damaged rotor by another spare rotor.
ACTION PLAN:-
For unit revival following two action plan was decided.
1) PLAN -1
Spare rotor of 100mw LP turbine was at M/S BHEL, Hardwar for
residual life assessment , integrity test and replacement of damage components.
Since spare rotor is already operated more than 2.5 lac running hours and 35
years since commissioning. Therefore , as per M/S BHEL, recommendation rotor
discs has to be taken out for detailed checking of rotor discs, rotor shaft and
blades by MPI, UT,DPT, BOROSCOPIC INSPECTION etc for assessing the
healthiness of components.
369
During checking of rotor , no crack was found in the key way zone of disc
22nd,24th and shrink fit area of disc(no key way) 25th , 30th .
Other 6 stages 21st ,23rd, 26th , 27th , 28th ,29th were having cracks.
Detail is as under
SL NO DISC STAGE LENGTH OF

CRACK
1. 21st 9mm
2. 23rd 10.5mm
3. 26th 8 mm
4. 27th 24mm
5. 28th 5mm
6. 29th 7 mm
27th stage disc was having more than 20 mm crack which was beyond rectification
was changed by new one and rebladding was done. Other 5 discs key way
modified , corner radius increased, suitable new key were made from the forging.
2 nos damaged blades in 25th stage were replaced. HP Turbine side coupling half
was replaced and rotor assembly was done. Rotor machining, journal polishing,
run out checking was completed by 12/10/2009 . Rotor was ready for high speed
vacuum tunnel balancing and awaiting for slot in balancing tunnel. It is to be
mentioned that before taking unit#2 shut down rotor was awaiting for balancing
and matter was being pursued at Executive Director BHEL,Hardwar level.
In the mean time, there was some modification work being done at BHEL
hardwar in vacuum tunnel and which took another two weeks to get normalized.
After normalizing of vacuum tunnel when our LP rotor was sent for high speed
balancing , it could not be balanced
due to high vibration and high bearing temperature problem faced in tunnel. A
lot of efforts were made but it could not be balanced after so many trial done in
vacuum tunnel foe about a week. Ultimately LP rotor was taken out from vaccum
tunnel on 19/11/2009, for further analysis of problem and for further corrective
action.
After detailed inspection and analysis it was decided to use new fixture for holding
of Lp rotor in tunnel because in the old one 0.92 mm diametral clearance was found .
In addition to this rotor radial and axial run out was corrected . At coupling face
0.24 axial run out was found and and corrected to 0.02mm. The Lp rotor was sent
again to vacuum tunnel on 01/12/2009 . High speed balancing in tunnel was tried ,
after many attempts Lp rotor achieved 2942 RPM. On 07/12/2009 LP rotor was
taken out of vacuum tunnel without complete balancing in order to balance other
waiting new rotors and further analysis of problem and hence taking long time for
balancing.
370
2) PLAN-2
REPAIR OF DAMAGED ROTOR AT BTPS SITE:-
This was an unprecedented and unexpected situation for BTPS where in the mid
of overhaul of unit#2 , we were having one damaged LP rotor at site and one
unbalanced LP rotor at M/S BHEL , Hardwar due to frequent non availability of
balancing tunnel and work load of new 500MW and other new rotors related to
commissioning of new units before commonwealth games at NEW DELHI
,October,2010.
Therefore , availability of blade and blading materials was checked and on
priority old rotor alumina blasting was started for cleaning of rotor. Before taking
of any repair job it is essential to take up complete RLA to assess healthiness of
other components. Hence after alumina blast cleaning , rotor RLA by DPT, MPI
of rotor disc, rotor blades were done. Natural frequency test of 24th and 29th stage
was done . borosonic inspection of rotor by removing boroscopic plug was done
and rotor found ok except known broken blades of 26th and 28th stages.
In view of repeated problem of balancing tunnel at M/S BHEL, Hardwar and
overloading of new rotors of 500mw units of DVC and NTPC Ltd we proceeded
for repair of damaged rotor as second action plan in addition to first action of high
speed balancing and overspeed testing in vacuum tunnel at BHEL,Hardwar.
REBLADING ACTIVITIES:-
1.) 26T H STAGE:-
A)
1.Removal of shrouds of damaged blades in 26th stage .
2. Removal of locking pins by drilling in two locking blades
at 180 degree apart.
3. Removal of locking blades first and subsequently
removing other blades.
4. DPT and MPI of disc root of 26th stage .
5. Blue matching of blades.
6. Refixing of blades as per blade weight and blade
momentum.
7. Fitting of locking blade with 0.05 interference and
ensure that filler gauge of 0.03mm should not pass.
8. Profile cutting of tennon shape by EDM and heat
treatment of punch.
9. Profile cutting for die and heat treatment.
10. Surface grinding of shroud plate.
11. Marking on shroud plate as per blade position.
12. Punching on the shroud plate at Faridabad.
13. Tennon hole filing and chamfering for proper
locking.
14. Fixing of shroud plate on the tennon of blades.
15. Locking of tennons by tip flaring by hammer.
371
16. Gap between shrouds is to be maintained as per
drawings.
17. Drilling of locking blade hole at two locations at
180 degree apart and machining of suitable
pin which should be fitted in 0.04 mm clearance.
B) SHROUD MACHINING:-
a) For shroud machining Abro machine tools, Ghaziabad was

contacted for providing balancing machine . same machine was used
for rotation of rotor. For machining one local party M/S Syndicate
engineers was contacted . Radial and axial machining of shroud was
done.
b) For axial sealing near the blade root axial seal is made by machining
by formed tools.
372
2. Reblading of 28th stage:-
1. Broken blade of the stage removed. Old damping wires were removed. To
ensure the healthiness all the blades all the stage removed. Individual
blades checked by MPI. Disc roots were checked by MPI. New blade
weight were checked and by matching with old blades were fitted. Each
blade was locked by drilling two holes and each hole is fitted by suitable
pins in0.04 mm clearance.
373
2. As per drawing damping wire were fitted in blade packets. Damping wires
were suitably locked by welding drop to avoid wire movement from the
position during running.
3. SLOW SPEED BALANCING OF ROTOR:-

Slow speed balancing was done at 160 RPM
and balancing at bearing one and two was at
the range of 45 gm and 50 gm.
CONCLUSION AND LEARNING:-
1. Site repaired rotor was used in unit#2 to bring back the machine when second time
BHEL removed Badarpur rotor to balance new rotor of another utility. Machine assembly
was done and finally machine was synchronized on 28/12/2009 in go smoothly and
maximum vibration is 60 micron peak to peak.
2. As per our first action plan, repaired rotor was in the advance stage after all
refurbishment job except high speed balancing but situation at the works of OEM was
arised in such a way that rotor could not bebalanced and not made available for unit
revival. Ultimately, under second plan under the able leadership of our General Manager
Shri NK Kothari and his support to take up the challenge for using the site repaired rotor
without high speed balancing in unit#2 while site BHEL was not much in favour to use
rotor without high speed balancing. Finally we succeeded in bringing the uit#2 on bar.
374
Management of Ageing Fleet: On-Site repair of IP Turbine Nozzle at
Vindhyachal Stage-I Units (6 x 210 MW)
V A Sharma, DGM (TMD)
A.Sengupta, Sr. Supdt(TMD)
Alok Singh, Sr. Supdt (TMD)
Prologue:
NTPC Vindhyachal Stage-I LMZ make 210 MW Steam Turbine is Impulse reaction, tandem compound,
reheat type, with three cylinders (HP,IP & LP), horizontal and diaphrag m type with nozzle governing and
regenerative feed water heating.
In the changing scenario of the power sector and ever increasing stringent environmental and other stiff
regulatory norms, safety and availability based tariff, our power p lants need to operate efficiently and
with high reliability.
Performance Analysis & Concern:
In the days during the years 2005-2006 the Vindhyachal stage-I (6 X 210 MW) units were not capable of
delivering 105 % capability whenever grid conditions demanded. The efficiency of the power generation
needed to be boosted up. The major contributor for the poor efficiency was the below par turbine cylinder
efficiency in all the six units of stage I. The reasons of performance gap were analyzed and all possible
defects resulting in poorer efficiency were listed. One of the major defects was badly eroded IP turbine
nozzles in all the units due to severe wet steam erosion.
The Root Cause Anal ysis pin-pointed:

· IP rolling not in pract ice due to non availability of CRH NRV.
· Wet steam flow through IP casing due to HP ro lling till the set is synchronized.
These problems lead to erosion of IP turbine nozzles, loss in turbine efficiency, turbine overloading due to
high steam flow, h igh in let pressure and possible total turbine damage. Turb ine operating away fro m best
efficiency point (BEP) is known to exh ibit sympto ms that can lead to premature failure.
Damages observed in the IP nozzle:
1. Erosion of the nozzle vanes.

2. Erosion at inner and outer side
walls of the nozzle.
Simp ly replacing a non-performing co mponent by a

new one is not always the best and economic solution.
In situ repair of IPT nozzles was preferred rather than
replacement as it saves five days of overhaul time.
IP Nozzle before Repair
375
In situ repair of IPT nozzles:
Repair of diaphragms is a useful practice

world wide. But IPT nozzle repair was
taken up for the first time in Vindhyachal.
A process of in-situ repair of IP nozzle
was evolved keeping in view the best
practices across the world. After the
initial measurements like vane discharge
height (H), the dia (di) of the inner side
walls and the dia (do) of the outer side
walls of the nozzle, the vanes are dressed
to remove material that would prevent
strong bonding. This also allows the form
of the vane and opening to be established
with considerable accuracy.
Preparation of copper pl ug:
Before the weld repair begins, it is

necessary to prepare a copper backing
plug. This plug was used as a backing
plate to control the form o f the weld metal
to be deposited. It should take the form
of the pressure face of the stationary blade
vane so that min imu m d ressing to be
required on the pressure face. The form
and fit of the plug is of ut most critical
importance to the success of the total
repair. The plug form is constructed from
data measured or gauged from the
material remain ing at the side walls.
Weld preheat:
A weld preheat of 250°C is applied to all

the nozzle vanes prior to weld deposit. This
can be done by gas heating devices or electric
ovens. After preheating the diaphragm should
be covered with insulation to prevent
excessive heat loss from the surfaces. The
temperature in the region being worked should
not drop below 165 °C and has to be reheated
when the temperature falls below 165 °C.
Preheating is required, even if weld filler wire
is Inconel, for base metal so as to prevent
formation of britt le reg ions in the heat affected
zone.
Weld deposit:
The initial weld deposits should be made

fro m the vane to the inner and outer side
walls with the copper plug in position.
With the plug in place and preheat
checked subsequent layers are to be built
up, the weld passes being made in a series
of deposits along the vane radial height.
This build-up is to be continued until the
weld metal extents beyond the punch
marks on the inner and outer side walls.
376
Weld Filler materi al:
Weld filler material used is of ERNiCr-3 filler electrode depending upon the stage working temperature.
Vane Dressing:
(a) Excess deposit on the discharge tail is to be

grinded back. This should be done to establish a
straight line through the punch marks on the inner
and outer side walls to obtain mirror finish.
(b) Pressure face of the vane is to be lightly dressed,
removing excess material and establishing
conformance with the copper plug.
(c) Grind and dress the suction face of the vane to
reestablish the contour of the stationary vane. The
fin ish obtained should be mirror fin ish. For this a
power file can be employed.
(d) Remove material fro m the discharge tail to
achieve a thickness of about 1.5mm.
(e) When finishing the vane shape, a fillet rad ius
should be left at the transition points from the vane
to inner and outer side walls.
(f)The d ischarge tail is to be fin ished to a rounded
form.
Stress relieving:
In case Inconel filler material is used no stress

relieving is required.
Remarks:
· Dye penetrant test of repaired vanes and repairing of the same are required if any flaws are found.
· Weld repair of the nozzle vanes is done with ERNiCr-3 filler electrode, ensuring temperature
above 165°C all the time.
· Grinding and polishing was carried out to maintain the original vane profile with mirror finish.
· To achieve the original profile template was fabricated as per the original vane dimensions.
Cost Benefit Analysis: (Repair vis-à-vis Repl acement)
Repair Costs: 8.955 lakhs
MANPOW ER COST
a For normal working hours: Teams/shift x No of shifts/days x No of days x Rs 7,96,000.00
rate for 10 hour shift = 2X2X2X99,500.00
b Overtime charges for extra hours (assuming double rates for overtime Rs 99,500.00
hours) = 2x2x2x2 x2x99,500.00/ 10
TOTAL ES TIMATED VALUE = Rs 8,95,500.00
( Rupees Eight l akhs, ninety fi ve thousand, fi ve hundred only )
Replacement Cost: 28.5 lakhs
Cost of new nozzle: 28 lakhs

Works cost: 0.5 lakhs
Benefits:
Monetary Gain : 19.5 lakhs (appro x)
377
Results of the Mai ntenance Strategy:
1. Achieved designed turbine inlet steam pressure.

2. Improvement in turbine efficiency near to design.
3. Increased marg in for load control.
4. Reduction in steam flo w and thereby less fuel
consumption leading to less CO2 emission.
5. Improved reliability.
6. Reduction in overhaul time.
The in house maintenance initiat ive has helped in gaining expert ise
and confidence, improved turbine performance, increase of unit IP Nozzle After Repair
capacity, check on wear and tear o f steam path co mponents due to
Reduced steam flow, raising mean time between repairs and achieving the target efficiency.
378
Date :15.01.2010
‘Zero - Accident’ Approach in MGR
S K Gujrania, DGM(FM), NTPC

1.0 Summary:
Coal has been the predominant source of energy in the World. In large capacity power
stations the source of coal is near the plant. In NTPC it is transported to the power house
through in-house Railway system known as ‘Merry-Go-Round’ or in short MGR system. MGR
System is an enabler of fuel security of the power station Any accident in MGR system
affects continuous coal traffic movement and is the main source of causing loss of valuable
assets like humans, animals and machinery. Although systems are in place to avoid
untoward incidents yet effort are made to highlight the initiatives and best practices
which are undertaken towards the achievement of ZERO ACCIDENT IN MGR SYSTEM IN
NTPC.
2.0 Coal Transportation in NTPC:

The coal is transported to NTPC power stations trough two modes viz. MGR and Indian
Railways. Out of NTPC’s 15 coal based stations, 9 stations have dedicated MGR and 6
stations are Rail fed. The stations having MGR also receive coal through Indian Railways
due to availability of less coal in the linked mines in the country. NTPC’s different power
stations primarily get coal through MGR from various mines as shown below.
S. No. Station State Coal Source
1. Singrauli UP Nort hern Coal Fields
2. Rihand UP Nort hern Coal Fields
3 Farakka WB Eastern Coal Fields
4 Kahalgaon Bihar Eastern Coal Fields
5 Talcher- Kaniha Orissa Mahanadi Coal Fields
6 Korba Chhattisgarh South Eastern Coal Fields
7 Vindhyachal MP Nort hern Coal Fields
8 Sipat Chhatisgarh South Eastern Coal Fields
9 Ramagundam AP South Eastern Coal Fields
Other stations Dadri, Badarpur, Unchahar, Tanda, Simhadri and Talcher-Thermal receive
coal through Indian Railways from various mines and import.
3.0 Overview of MGR system in NTPC:
379
NTPC today owns approx 700 km track length, 100 Locomotives and 2000 Wagons in MGR
system of all stations put together. These assets are utilized to for efficient transportation of
coal to power houses from various linked coal mines. The lay out of a typical MGR system is
as shown in attached Fig 3a.
Fig 3a
One operating cycle of a rake in MGR system is like this.

· The empty rake moves from power station to mines .
· Coal is loaded in the rake at the mining end through Silos.
· The loaded rake transports the coal to the power station.
· Coal is unloaded at the Track Hopper from where it is moved to coal handling Plant
via Conveyors.
The rakes comes back again to the mine source for loading. This cycle is repeated for
different rakes depending on the coal requirement at the power station and availabilty of coal
at the mines. The allowed Rake Cycle Time for one rake varies from 4.0 Hrs at Singrauli to
10.0 Hrs at Farakka.
NTPC transports coal only through BOBR Wagons for transporting coal from mines but
Indian Railways uses both BOBR and BOXN Wagons. The coal transported by Indian
Railways through BOXN Wagons is unloaded at Wagon Tippler from where it is moved to
380
Coal handling Plant via conveyors. The MGR track length & Rolling stock details at various
NTPC stations are shown in fig 3b.
Fig 3b: Track Length & Rolling Stock details
S. Station Capacity Annual Coal Req. : Track Length Locomotives Wagons Track Wagon
No. (MW) Linkage (MMT) (Km) Hoppers Tipplers
1 Unchahar 1050 5.8 37.5 3 2 2
2 Rihand 2000 9.28 107 10 215 2
3 Singrauli 2000 9.8 42 6 105 2
4 Tanda 440 2.7 46.75 3 2
5 Kahalgoan 2340 5.8+8.82=14.62 32.94 10 212 2 1
6 Farakka 1600+500 11.0+2.233=13.233 90 13 234 2 2
7 Talcher-Th 460 2.3 10.2 1
8 Talcher-K 3000 14.65 59 11 212 3
9 Ramagundam 2600 12.75 57.5 9 154 2 2
10 Simhadri 2000 5.1+4.62=9.72 28.15 1 1 2
11 Korba 2100+500 11.7+2.233=13.933 36.742 6 157 2
12 Vindhyachal 3260 15.41 19.6 10 265 3
13 Sipat 2980 8 179+118 2
14 Badarpur 705 4 13.585 4 3
15 Dadri 840+980 4.45+4.62=9.07 45 3 2 2
4.0 Safety Practices deployed in MGR systems:
In MGR system , safety is of utmost importance on which ‘no compromise ‘ attitude is upheld
in NTPC. Although it does not affect passenger safety as in case of Indian Railways yet
safety of MGR trains affect the coal availabilty for power station. Various safety measures as
applicable in Indian Railways are in vogue in NTPC MGR systems. Even slightest deviation
from safety norms are taken with due diligence. The following safety practices are in place in
NTPC MGR systems.
4.1 Locomotives:
· Well trained loco drivers are recruited from Indian Railways and route –learning is
ensured.
· Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) assuring safety in loco operation, loco parking
and during shift change over are followed.
381
· Signal Overshoot Protection Devices(SOPD) have been developed indegeneously by
NTPC stations and one of the station got patent from Govt of India on this innovation.
SOPD enacts the safety feature of Locomotive in case any ‘Red’ signal is crossed by the
train driver, it stops the train by applying the Brakes. It has also a special characteristic
that once it operates, driver has to get down the train and reset it.
382
4.2 Track:
· Tracks in NTPC MGRs are laid and maintained as per Indian Railway norms and
standards.
· Tracks are maintained by NTPC through reputed agencies attached to Indian Railways
like RITES.
· All stations have Ex Railway staff and Officers manning the operation and maintenance of
track with regular inspection by senior NTPXC officers.
· Various safety procedures are followed to avoid accidents during trolley movement, foot
plate inspection and track maintenance .
· Ultrasonic testing of MGR tracks , thorough technical inspection of Bridges and level
crossings are done to prevent accidents.
· To maintain healthy Track parameters , off-track tie tampers are also used at various
stations.
· Anti theft Pandrol clips are used in the theft prone areas
· Total track inspection is done on daily basis by foot by Key man for any looseness of
track fittings which form a probable cause of accident
· Technical inspection of bridges is carried out through expert Railway agencies as per
norms. Yearly inspection is also taken up through Railway / Ex Railway bridge inspectors.
· Technical Audits of entire MGR System is also an essential tool for assessment of
standard practices of MGR on yearly basis. What are the systems’ requirement to
enhance safe practices towards ZERO accident, are suggested by the Expert Knowledge
team members of MGR during the audit.
383
ANTI THEFT RAIL CLIPS WITH CIRCLIP
IN POSITION
4.3 Signaling & Telecommunication(S&T):

· A good S&T system is the main feature of Railway working to ensure operational safety.
· S&T system in NTPC MGRs at various stations are well maintained to ensure highest
safety standards.
· Maintenance of S&T systems faces extreme difficulties due to frequent theft of S& T
installations and cables. Various stations have developed many good practices to ensure
safety of rake movement under such exigency conditions, in resonance with existing
Railway systems.
· LED based signals, signal flashes, motorized points are the key equipments which are
being maintained to the Indian railway standards. NTPC is pioneer in the field of latest
technological development in S&T area in line with Indian Railways.
384
· NTPC has started using solar panel based Signal lamps deployed at various unmanned
level crossings inside plant to warn the road users.
· S&T system is being used in SOSPD system as a anti collision measure in case of
overshooting of signal by loco driver.
4.4 Operations:
· Each MGR system is unique in terms of movement, infrastructure and operational/
loading activities.
· NTPC has established station Working rules and Work procedures in line with existing
safety norms of Indian Railways.
· NTPC utilizes the vast experience of Railways staff as Station Masters / Controllers and
NTPC officers trained at various Railway institutes for efficient operation.
· NTPC MGR heads take due responsibility in regular safety briefing and safety meetings
with MGR staff along with foot plate & trolley inspection to ensure safety in the system.
· Wherever established S&T system is not envisaged, a system of communication, line
clear/route availability, messaging the cautions are ensured through private no. exchange
method which is effective and in use at Railway also.
· MGR shift Engineers are trained to take due care in prioritizing rake movement to ensure
safety in case of signal failures, point flashing, track irregularities/ fractures etc.
· Effective systems are established to prevent accidents during rake placement at
unloading points ad unloading.
· Various MGR activities related to maintenance , safety &performance get reflected in the
ORT for assessment of MGR system
· Corporate FM has developed a system of assessment of overall health of MGR function
at stations, in the form of ‘Tech. and Safety Audit of MGR’ and recommendations of which
are placed on the radar of regional top management so that the reasons undermining the
safety get controlled effectively.
· The system of technical audit has yielded results in terms of enhancement of
effectiveness and knowledge updation in MGR
· NTPC follows a system of analysis of reasons behind the accidents and sharing of the
findings among the stations through Corp. FM
385
5.0 Safety Practices in other Railway Systems:
· ‘Adherence to the Basics’ is the approach, in Railways, to ensure the safety

· MGR is part and parcel of IR system, All safety systems and procedures are in vogue
in NTPC.
· RDSO has to be involved in any of the change prescribed in the existing system and
practices, related with the safety (be it technical, operational or any other) along with
railway safety deptt.
· There are various improvement projects in the process of development at various
stages on which RDSO is working to enhance safety such as Development of fire
retardant wagons, vibration signature analysis of bridges, Development of
derailment detection system and Anti-collision device using GPS technology
(under field trials).
6.0 Strategy for ‘Zero-Accident’ in MGR:
· Major accidents at NTPC MGRs are rare. To further strengthen the system to move
towards ‘zero-accident’, a plan is underway to implement the following technologies as
and when these will be available.
· Anti Collision Device (ACD)
High end Technologies of ‘Anti Collision Devices’ (ACD) are under trials at Konkan
Railways and yet to be opened to market. Once the ACD is tested successfully and is
available in the market, NTPC is planning to install it in the MGR system.
· GPS based system in Locomotives
Corporate Fuel Management of NTPC in collaboration with Corporate IT are jointly
working on the installation of GPS based system in locomotives. It will help to track
locomotive movememts and prevent any premature failure of information leading to
accidents.
386
· Composite sleepers / fiber reinforced sleepers, use of hi-capacity wagons, Aluminum / SS
wagons etc are the technological changes we may see and adopt.
· Facing the quality Manpower crunch in the fields of MGR /Railway system, particularly
operating staff, NTPC may have to devise the plans and programs to attract, retain, train
and appoint the suitable manpower in this very specialized field.
· NTPC has to always fine tune its MGR operations to maintain high quality and safety
standards to ensure the consistency in coal supplies, irrespective of external factors
7.0 Conclusion
NTPC has an attitude towards the adaptation of new ideas and initiatives in resonance with
the quality in performance. To achieve the perfection it has taken up the theme target of
ZERO ACCIDENT IN MGR.
NTPC is taking the steps to achieve this by means of aligning the systems, procedures,
adapting the new technologies in operation and maintenance of MGR
Let us begin the NEW ERA of Accident free MGR
387
COAL AUGMENTATION FOR FARAKKA AND KAHALGAON- RE
EXPLORING ALTERNATE SOURCES
By : N. S he kha r , D GM ( FM ), C C &
A . Da sbur m a n, D GM ( FM), Ko lka t a
Preamble
Power sector across the country is facing severe coal deficit leading to loss of
generation on numerous occasions. The coal shortage is generally borne out of
the fact that the coal sector development has not been able to keep pace with
the growth of power sector and that there has been a vast improvement in the
performance of power utilities in terms of availability and PLF. NTPC stations at
Farakka and Kahalgaon are facing acute coal shortage leading to loss of
generation on perpetual basis. While Kahalgaon –II units have been
commissioned, the linked mines of Eastern Coalfields Ltd namely Rajmahal
expansion, Chupervita and Hurra C are far from getting developed resulting into
a huge gap between demand and supply. The supply from the linked sources is
only of the order of 10 MMT against a linkage of 25.8 MMT. As there does not
seem to be a tailor-made solution to this problem, this paper tries to explore the
possible way outs for long term, medium term and short term remedies.
1. Long Term - In the long term , the installed capacities of Farakka and
Kahalgaon will get major chunk of their coal requirement from the linked
sources i.e. Rajmahal, Rajmahal expansion, Chupervita and Hurra C.
However, the present status of these mines is far from encouraging. Despite
repeated follow ups at CIL/ ECL level and various assurances from them from
time to time, there is no shift in the status. The inordinate delays in
commissioning of these mines has led to a situation where we have to
contemplate interim measures on a medium term and short term basis.
388
2. Medium Term – It was informed by ECL that coal production from ECL
would commence from small portions of land under their control at Hurra C
and Chupervita mines wef March ’10 and 2010-!! respectively. This
immediately threw open the requirement of having an evacuation scheme in
place as an interim arrangement as the MGR system for off take of coal from
these mines would not be ready pending completion of land acquisition. The
following was mutually agreed between NTPC and ECL for evacuation of coal
from Hurra C and Chupervita:
· For coal evacuation from Hurra C, transporting the coal by road to a
wharfwall at Rajmahal to be constructed by ECL with NTPC to do the
rail linking. The arrangement was to come in force wef March ’10.
· For evacuation of coal from Chupervita, coal was decided to be
transported by road to Pakur siding for rail movement to NTPC
station, cost of a dedicated siding at Pakur to be borne by NTPC and
ECL in equal measure.
However, considerable time has lapsed after the above were agreed but no
development has come to the fore. It seems that ECL is not serious about
implementing the above propositions.
3. Short Term – Considering the desperate state of affairs at Farakka and

Kahalgaon where loss of generation on account of coal shortage has become
a regular phenomemnon, the following immediate measures have been
resorted to :
· Import of coal
· Bilateral tie ups with ECL for supply of coal from Raniganj at a
premium price and with SCCL
· Diversion of coal a/c Singrauli and Rihand from NCL
· Procurement through e-auction.
389
But all of the above arrangements call for movement of railway rakes in the
circuit. Given the limitations of railway infrastructure, movement beyond 6.5
rakes has not been feasible. Further, there is a limitation with respect to use
of imported coal in the blend. Coupled with the port and rail bottlenecks,
imported coal remains only a part of the solution to our coal problems.
The requirement of railway rakes and the limitations in terms of infrastructure
and logistics are as under:
Logistics for Railway Rakes for For Farakka and Kahalgaon
a) Requirement through railway system – 12 rakes/day

b) Present arrangement/ tie up in place –
ECL - 2.5 (MOU + FSA)

BCCL/CCL – 1.0
MCL – 2.0
NCL – 2.0
SCCL- 2.0
Imported – 3.0
E- Auction – 0.5 to 1.0
Total – 13 Rakes/day
c) Till date maximum average rakes/day provided by Railways – 6.5

rakes/day
Railway constraints in movement
a) The line section between Andal to Fkk and Barhaora route is a non-
electrified Double line section and thoroughly congested. Barhaora to
390
Kahalgaon in non-electrified single line section causing restricted
movement.
b) The non- electrified double line section with present signaling
system can move a maximum of 66 to 70 pairs of rakes.
c) At present Railways are moving around 62 to 66 plus rakes/day
which includes passenger trains also. This section is already over
loaded.
d) This is also the main line connecting North-Eastern states of India
and through this line food grains and fertilizers are moved. This
movement generally gets priority.
e) MCL, NCL, Sigerani coal etc Rakes coming from other Railways i.e.,
from EC Railways from Dhanbad side or S.E Railways from Adra –
Chakradharpur are coming with Electric Locos upto Andal/Asansol.
Change of Loco from Electric to Diesel is taking place here.
f) Imported rakes from Paradeep and Haldia are also coming with
Electric loco upto Burdwan and change to Diesel loco is taking place
here.
g) Because of this change of loco the rakes get stabled in these stations
Andal / Asansol and Burdwan for a very longtime.
h) Also less number of Diesel locos are available in this section for
catering the load.
i) Movement of additional rakes in this ckt –
· From Pakur station as on date 6 to 8 coal rakes per day are being
loaded for PSEB. These rakes moves via Pakur –Rampurhat-
Saithia-Andal-Asansol.
· For WBPDL plant at Sagardighi – 2 to 3 rakes are moving from
Andal –Saithia-Rampurhat-Pakkur-Gumani.
391
Short term solution as an interim measure
A few propositions have been explored to facilitate augmentation of railway

rakes to Farakka and Kahalgaon beyond 6.5 rakes a day. The proposals are as
under:
1. Punjab Emta is loading coal rakes from Pakur for PSEB which is moving
via Pakur – Rampurhat-Saithia-Andal-Asansol.
Whereas Bengal Emta is loading coal rakes for WBPDCL Sagardighi Plant
from Andal and the same is moving via Andal-Saithia –Rampurhat-Pakur-
Gumani. That is just the opposite direction of Punjab Emta.
This results in a criss-cross movement of 2 pairs of rakes.
So it is proposed if Punjab Emta supplies 2 rakes to Sagardighi and Bengal
Emta Supplies 2 rakes to PSEB, then the section Saithia to Gumani
becomes free of 4 rakes/day.
This can help in Farakka and Kahalgoan getting 2 more rakes/day.
2. Movement or coal rakes for Kahalgaon via Kuil side. Distance between Kuil
to Kahalgaon is 110 to 120 kms.
Railways can bring the rakes upto Kuil with Electric loco. At Kuil some
diesel locos with crew members to be arranged which will operate
between Kuil and Kahalgaon.
This can enhance supplies to Kahalgaon.
Disadvantage- This movement needs reversal of locos at Kuil and at
Kahalgaon station.
If a loop at Kuil be constructed then reversal of rakes at Kuil will
not arise. This will help in moving more rakes. Also a loop is to be
made at Kahalgaon station to avoid Rly rake reversal.
3. Movement of rakes for Kahalgaon via Sitaramppur –Jamtara- Madhupur –

Joshidih-Deoghar-Katuria-Banka-Bhagalpur-Kahagaon.
392
It is a new line being constructed from Josidih to Bhagalpur via Deoghar –
Katuria – Banka. Lline from Bhagalpur to Banka is already under
operation. From Banka to Joshidih which is around 55 kms. is under
construction.
If Railways speed up this job then movement for Kahalgaon through this
line will augment its supplies.
4. A third line between Saithia and Gumani may be constructed. This
will ease the traffic flow to a great extent. The proposal already
raised by Eastern Railway to its board.
This construction will take minimum 3 to 4 yrs.
As can be seen, most of the propositions as above will necessitate creation of

infrastructure and therefore, may not cater to our immediate requirement. The
proposal of sno 1, however may be looked to for immediate application.
The idea can be further extended to cover up coal requirement of Farakka and
Kahalgaon on a larger scale. At present, the short supply through the railway
system is of the order of 4 rakes a day. It can be contemplated that 4 rakes of
Punjab Emta can be supplied to Farakka and Kahalgaon and in lieu, same
number of Farakka/ Kahalgaon rakes loaded from MCL, NCL, BCCL and imported
coal can be diverted to PSEB. The basic idea is to beat out the infrastructural
limitation of railways in the Andal- Sainthia- Gumani route, permanent solution
for which may take longer time. The sketch enclosed explains the situation and
the contingency arrangement as above clearly. The arrangement will ensure
optimal utilization of country’s resources and power sector as a whole will stand
benefited.
Subject to respective parties agreeing to the above proposition, the commercial

issues will need to addressed. Punjab Emta is having D & E grade coal whereas
393
the coal from MCL, BCCL will be F grade and imported coal of higher CV of 6000
kcal/kg. The issue lower CV of coal can be suitably addressed and duly
compensated.
The other commercial issue that will need to be sorted out is that of railway
freight. The extra freight, if any, for movement of MCL/ BCCL/ NCL coal to PSEB
will have to absorbed by NTPC stations. A monthly reconciliation of commercial
issues can be done between NTPC Farakka & Kahalgaon with PSEB.
Conclusion
· Coal supply to Farakka and Kahalgaon from linked sources is only 10
rakes a day against a requirement of 22 rakes.
· Supply augmentation has to be done from alternate sources through
railway system. But railways are not in a position to move more than 6.5
rakes a day at present due to infrastructural limitations.
· There is a possibility of decongesting the railway link between Andal-
Sainthis- Dumani but adopting swapping of rakes.
· Punjab Emta coal can be spared for Farakka and Kahalgaon which will
not burden the Andal- Sainthis- Dumani route and equal no of rakes a/c
Farakka and Kahalgaon from other sources like MCL/ NCL/ BCCL can be
diverted to PSEB. This will facilitate movement of more rakes to Farakka
and Kahalgaon through Andal-Sainthia- Dumani route.
· Considering the fact that PSEB is a beneficiary of Kahalgaon –II, the
above arrangement will afford as win-win situation to both NTPC and
PSEB and ensure optimal utilization of national resources.
394
TO NJP
PATNA KUIL BARAUNI KATIHAR
TO NJP
KAHALGAON STN
Double Line
PIRPAINTI
Single Line
SAHIBGUNJ FROM NECL
JHAJA
GAYA
KhSTPP
BARHAORA BONIDANGA TILDANGA
JOSHIDI
E RLY LALMATIA GUMANI
S E RLY
PAKUR FSTPP
EC RLY PANEM
East Coast FARAKKA STN
Rly MADHUPUR
JMT SAITHIA RLY NETWORK

FROM ECL
FROM NCL
BCCL, CCL TO HOWRAH
ASANSOL JTL BURDWAN
ANDAL KHANA JN
DHANBAD SITARAMPUR
ADRA
Bengal Emta DANKUNI
CHAKRADHARPUR PANSKURA
BHADRAK
FROM MCL CUTTACK HALDIA
AND SECL
IMPORTED
PARADEEP
395
“REFORM IN NATURAL GAS POLICY, KEY FOR ENERGY SECURITY”
By: - H. S. Bagga, Senior Engineer (operation), Kawas GPP, Surat
ENERGY SECURITY
What is "ENERGY SECURITY" of a nation? The world energy assessment (UNDP) report defined Energy
Security as the “Continuous availability of energy in varied forms in sufficient quantities at reasonable
prices”. For India, the Parikh Committee report stated that a country is energy secure when it can supply
energy to all its citizens and meet their demand for safe and convenient energy at affordable costs at all
times with a prescribed confidence level considering shocks and disruptions that can be expected.
The relationship between energy consumption and

Per capita energy consumption
growth of a nation is well documented. In fact, it is the
steady economic rise of India and China that in Japan
4.13
substantial measure has placed the issue of energy
Korea
security on the forefront. However with nearly a sixth of 4.48
the world's population in India, India's per capita US 7.44
consumption of energy is extremely low as compared to
China
other countries and the world average. the Total Primary 1.44
Energy Consumpt ion (TPES) in India is just 0.51 tonnes World 1.8
of oil equivalent(toe), compared to 1.44 toe/capita by India 0.51
China and 7.44 toe/capita by USA. India stands fifth in
terms of average per capita energy consumption. 0 2 4 6 8
toe/capita
Source:-IEA, Key world statistics 2008 fig-01
Energy Security has also emerged as a primary concern for Indian policy makers because India’s energy
needs are growing w ith rising income levels and a growing population. At the same time, our dependence
on imported energy has increased. Oil imports constitute 72% of our total oil consumption and 26% of our
Total Primary Commercial Energy Supply. The dependence on imports of oil causes two main concerns:
the first is the uncertainty regarding the supply of oil; the second is its volatility of the Indian society.
IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL GAS
Amongst all the policies, reforms of the energy sector will be decisive for accelerating growth as well as for
promoting economic security. Within the energy sector, however, natural gas will be of strategic
importance to our country and, hence, the need for a reforms in natural gas policy.
What oil was for the 20th century, natural gas will be for the 21st century? ‘Go green’ initiatives and
increased concerns for global warming will further encourage the gas consumption across the world.
In India, gas constitutes barely 9% of the energy basket against a global average of 24%. We believe ‘go
green’ initiatives and increased concerns for global warming will further encourage the gas consumption
across the world. The low share of gas in India's energy consumption can be attributed to limited
availability and nascent infrastructure. However, the share of gas in the energy mix is set to increase
mainly due to growing demand from the industrial sector, city gas distribution, power sector and
opportunities in the gas-to-liquids business.
Gas has cost competitiveness and environmental advantages over other alternative fossil. Moreover,
improved availability and transportation, combined with growing demand from Asia, are resulting in the
evolution of long-term gas contracts.
396
World primery energy mix India primery energy mix
nuclear nuclear hydro
6%
Oil 2% 2%
36% hydro
6%
Oil
36%
coal
coal 51%
28%
Gas Gas
24% 9%
coal Gas Oil nuclear hydro coal Gas Oil nuclear hydro
fig-02 Sou rce:-Planning commission of India, BP Statistics fig-03
According to Integrated energy policy to maintain a growth of 8-9 per cent over the next few decades,
India’s energy requirement will increase three fold. According to the report by 2030, the per annum total
energy requirement will be 1.8 billion tonnes of oil equivalent (btoe) w ith natural gas increasing its
present share between 6 – 10 per cent which translates to a need of 295 to 430 MMSCMD (million metric
standard cubic meter per day). As per report that the share of natural gas would grow upto 10 per cent.
In the advanced countries, the share is now almost 25 per cent. In other words, if the supply of gas is
abundant, India’s demand can even grow more, probably exceeding 500 MMSCMD.
DEMAND/SUPPLY SCENERIO OF NATURAL GAS IN INDIA
Projected De mand break up of Natura l gas in MMSC MD The gas consumption in India has come
2009-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 long way from 35 MMSCMD in 1990 to
Power 103 114 127 97.7 130 MMSCMD in 2008-09. The current
Fertilizer 52 79 79 58.2 chasm between demand and supply is
Petrochemica ls 14 6.7 6.7 6.7 expected to continue for a foreseeable
period despite increase in supplies. The
Sponge iron 4.9 4.9 5 5
current shortage in gas supply is,
Re finery use 10.6 10.6 10.6 11.3
mainly due to rising demand from the
City gas 13.7 15 16 22.1
fertilizer, power and refinery sectors.
Tota l 149. 1 165. 1 185. 6 201
As per “Hydrocarbon Vision
2025”natural gas demand is estimated
to be around 391 MMSCMD by 2025,
Projected s upply brea k up of Natura l gas in MMSC MD rising from 149 MMSCMD in 2009-10.
India had 1075 BCM (billion cubic
2009-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 meters) of recoverable natural gas
Existing fields 66.3 59.2 51.7 46 reserve.As per the Planning
Ne w 53 67 96 100. 4 Commission demand for gas in India is
discoveries set to increase from 179 MMSCMD to
Coal base 2.5 4 5 6 280 MMSCMD over the next decade.
methane Supply, however, is unlikely to keep
(CBM) pace with demand and the share of
LNG supplies 24.2 28.3 28.3 28..3 imports, which is currently 5%, is likely
Pipeline import 0 0 10.6 0 to rise.
Tota l 145. 1 158. 5 180. 9 180. 7
Surplus -3.2 -6.6 -4.6 -20.3
Source: - CRISIL Table:-01
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KEY DRIVERS OF NATURAL GAS
1. Longe r reserves of gas
Worldwide reserves of natural gas at the current production rates are of the order of 60 plus years, about
20 years longer than Crude Oil. This does not take into account non-conventional sources of natural gas
like shale gas, gas hydrates and potential as a result of technological developments to convert coal into
natural gas. Once these become technically viable, reserves could increase exponentially. We must also
keep in mind that as far back as early 80s, most oil companies would walk away from gas finds. Only
when the world accepted that crude oil w ill peak in early part of this century, natural gas got it s due
importance. This would mean that new discoveries of hydrocarbon are more likely to be in the form of
natural gas. Present discovery in the KG basin in India is a good example. Similar examples are available
worldwide.
2. Less emission of greenhouse gases
Compared to the petroleum products, natural gas burns cleanly and efficiently in any fuel application.
For instance, CNG emissions of carbon monoxide are approximately 70% lower, non- methane organic gas
emissions are 89% lower, and oxides of nitrogen emissions are 87% lower. Today control of the CO2
emission to the environment is of utmost importance. As compared to liquid petroleum products, natural
gas would emit 25 to 30% less carbon dioxide and roughly half w hen compared with coal per unit of heat
generated. This in itself would be a compelling reason to substitute natural gas in place of petroleum
products and or coal in any and every application possible. In other words, natural gas is a “green” fuel
compared to coal or oil
3. Economics
International price of natural gas

on heating value basis, including
transportation costs, has always
been signif icantly lower when
compared w ith petroleum products.
For the last decade, it has been
nearly half. In India various fuels
like Petrol, Diesel, LPG, Kerosene,
Naphtha, Fuel Oil and Coal are
being used for different purposes in
households, automotives and
industries. All alternative fuel
prices are multiple times higher
than that of $1.8 per mmbtu of
APM barring domestic coal.
fig:-04
Prices of all these petroleum products, with or without Government subsidies, are beyond the Natural gas
gas price of $1.8/mmbtu of APM & $4.2/mmbtu of KGD-6 gas. However, price of domestic as well as
imported coal are in the range of $1.8 and 3.69 per mmbtu respectively, which are comparable than $1.8
price of gas. Nonetheless, the adverse environmental effects of coal make gas a better choice; however in
India there is limited availability of gas & lack of gas transport infrastructure across the country. Coal w ill
continue to play a lead role as far as power sector is concern & gas w ill act as a key supplement to it.
Some countries w ith abundance of natural gas like Russia has as much as 50% share of natural gas in
commercial energy basket as compared to world average of about 25%.
398
4. Sa fety
Vehicles that run on clean burning natural gas are as safe as vehicles operating on traditional fuels. Being
lighter than air, CNG, unlike gasoline, dissipates into the atmosphere in the event of an accident. CNG fuel
systems are “sealed,” which prevents any spills or evaporative losses. Further, natural gas is not toxic or
corrosive and does not pollute ground water.
5. Widespread availability
The availability of natural gas is widespread geographically or less concentrated geographically than crude
oil and thus enhancing energy security and market stability. This will become an issue of growing
importance for our country.
DRAWBACKS OF PRESENT GAS POLICY:
1. Severa l pricing re gime of natural gas
Natural gas pricing in India is heterogeneous and complex in nature. The current procedure for
determination of gas pricing being somew hat non-transparent, there is an element of uncertainty and
enormous variance in gas prices in the same markets in India. For instance, both in Gujarat and Andhra
Pradesh, amongst consumers, the gas prices vary by almost 200 per cent. Such price variation and non-
transparency in price determination ironically discourages anchor customers such as fertilizer and power
sector creating further difficulties for making any large invest ments required for laying the pipeline
infrastructure. In other words, the present pricing policy framework is not leading to more rapid
development of natural gas sector in India – whether in terms of creating supply or demand. This is
unfortunate as with better policies for the gas sector, one can foresee a reduction in total imports of
hydrocarbons in our economy and enhancement of the country’s energy security.
Prese nt Natural gas pricing regimes in India:
I. Administe red gas pricing mec hanism (APM)
It includes gas which produced from the nominated blocks by ONGC & Oil India Ltd. (OIL) Out of about
140 MMSCMD presently being supplied, almost 40% is based on Administered Pricing Mechanism (APM).
II. Non APM gas Pricing:-
It includes gas produced by the JVs like PMT (Panna,mukta,tapti),RAVVA etc rate of this gas coming out
of production sharing contracts (PSC).
III. Ne w Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) Pricing:-
The new Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) was launched by the Government in 1997 for accelerating the
pace of hydrocarbon exploration in the country. The gas produced by the JVs and by NELP operat ors is
governed by the respective production sharing contracts (PSC) between the Government and the
producers. As per the provision of PSC, the gas price is to be determined on arms length basis. Further,
the gas price formula or basis needs to be approved by the Govt. / Regula before sale of gas.
IV. LNG pric ing: - LNG is broadly available at prices based on buyer-seller relations, largely governed
through the pooled price mechanism decided by government to take care of comparatively high prices of
imported gas.
399
fig:-05
2. Considering Natural gas distinct from oil:
The other conceptual shortcoming of the present framework is that when people think about gas, it is
thought of as something distinct from crude oil while in reality both being hydrocarbons, are close
substitutes. The fact that they are close substitutes is vividly reflected by how closely they are tracked in
terms of prices in the international markets. For instance, if you look at the international LNG prices or
Henry Hub price for domestic gas in USA, both track very closely to the corresponding crude oil prices.
3. Short te rm policy:
Y et another shortcoming in the approach is forgetting that we have to think long term and that is of even
greater relevance to natural gas. As buyers and sellers usually adopt long term contracts, our own policies
need to be stable and free from ambiguities. The authorities should always honor explicit or implicit
commitments as this reduces policy uncertainties.
HOW TO ACHIEVE THIS PARADIGM SHIFT?
1. Change in mindset
Firstly, and most importantly, the policymakers w ill have to change their perspectives or their mindset by
recognizing two important factors. Firstly, both oil and gas being hydrocarbons are close substitutes
internationally. However, in India, where power sector is an anchor customer of gas, gas should be
competitive to the main competing fuel i.e. coal for becoming a substitute or supplementary Second factor
is that India is potentially a “gas-abundant” country. Given the right incentives for producers, it is possible
to foresee India as achieving over a decade or so gas output level of more than 500 million standard cu. m
per day (MCMD) from current supply level of 120 MCMD.
2. Uniform pric ing regime for natural gas
Probably, India may be the only country where 15 different types of basic prices of gas are prevailing. It
would be worth mentioning that worldw ide, single uniform benchmark price is the prevailing practice in
different countries like the US (Henry Hub), the UK (National Balancing Point) and Europe (Zubreggedude
index). However, in these countries, the gas market has matured gradually over the time towards free
market, whereas the gas industry in India is far from such reality and still in the evolvement stage.
400
Complexity in the pricing of natural gas in India has resulted in problems w ith all the three players—
namely producers, sellers and consumers of natural gas. Consumers have been subjected to inequitable
situations because they buy their requirement of natural gas at different prices and finally complete for
their f inished products in the open market. This in turn creates regional imbalances for the market
development of natural gas. Under the circumstances, it may be worthwhile to explore development of a
uniform price of natural gas in India, which may be in the larger interest of the producers, suppliers and
consumers, and also benefit the market development of natural gas in this country. The pooled price
concept decided by the government in case of LNG has given a good indicator for bringing a simple
solution to this complex issue.
Gas pooling may support uniform gas price in the country, which bring stability and help the market
development of natural gas. It may encourage usage of LNG in the country. However, while determining
the price for different consuming sectors like power, fertilizer industries etc., it needs to be kept in mind
that different sectors have different price appetite. Thus, the price should be determined based on
affordability of the respective sectors.
3. Sta bility & Tra nspa rency in production sharing contracts (PSC)
The new technology of horizontal drilling makes it possible to access shale gas. For instance, in USA, in a
decade or so, the share of shale gas increased by 20 per cent. Our geologists in India also estimate the
presence of shale gas in Gujarat and Assam. All these potentially large gas reserves can become a reality
only if we develop proper policies and allow right incentives to the producers. This requires that our
exploration contracts should have transparency and complete stability. In recent years, there have been
instances of unilateral deviations from the stated policy and practices regarding the Production Sharing
Contracts and these needs to be eschewed if we want to make any radical gains in finding new gas which
is indeed there to tap. Exploration and production of hydrocarbons is inherently hugely risky and such
policy instability makes it even riskier thus discouraging the oil companies.
4. Developme nt of Nationa l gas grid
We know natural gas is different than oil because of its transportation requirements. Large pipelines are
required to transport gas and once such pipelines are created, the market structure can become locally
monopolistic. To create competitive national gas market, we require national gas pipeline grid, w hat I call
NAT GAS grid. But working of this NATGAS grid will have to be supervised by a regulator for ensuring
transparency, competition and safety. This inter-state network has to work as a common carrier and all
inter-state pipelines would be built either through public sector or private sector companies where
construction, sizing, routing and pricing will be done on open tender basis in consultation with the
regulator.
5. Promoting gas market by using common pipe line
One possible way of promoting gas markets could be that even where the cross-country or inter-state
pipelines are under the private sector, 25-30% of capacity of such pipelines can be “crown” capacity,
which can be either on “carried interest” or “participating interest” basis, and such capacity will be
available to any buyer or supplier of gas with the toll charges which are determined by the regulator. This
will enable the development of a gas market in India where third-party suppliers and buyers can use the
common carrier. Given the multiple sources of gas such as ONGC, Reliance, GSPC Cairn or other operators
and multiple sources of import like Petronet LNG, Shell, GAIL, or the new ones, under a new policy
approach, India’s gas market will become competitive like the one obtained in USA or Europe giving
consumers choice as well as supply stability
CONCLUSION:
The rapid growth of economies and impact of increasing oil princes, especially for countries such as India
and China, have compelled them to look for more energy sources. So driven by these factors natural gas
is going to play a dominant role in the near future as coal played in 19th century and oil in 20th century.
And it is matter of years that gas w ill overtake oil as the most preferred fuel of the 21st century. With
401
these second generation reforms of the natural gas sector, we can change the energy base of our
economy and this will prove as a key for achieving energy security for India.
Reference:
· Intregated energy policy report of GOI.

· Oil and gas india overview 2009 by KPMG
· Various news articles on natural gas reforms
· Speech of Honorable Petroleum & Natural gas Minister on energy security prospective.
402
VOLATILITY OF INTERNATIONAL COAL MARKET- A CHALLENGE FOR
MITITIGATION OF COAL IMPORT
BY
M K GUHA, SR MANAGER (FM)
&
D K SAHA, DGM (FM)
1.0 INTRODUCTION.
Supply demand mismatch of thermal coal Power in recent time is a great concern for the
power utilities when they have their aggressive capacity addition programme. Coal India
Ltd, the main producer of coal in India, has indicated their production target along with
the projection of coal demand. The targeted coal production left a gap of more than 100
MMT at the end of terminal year of XI th Plan.
In this situation, only alternative left to power utilities is to augment coal supply to fuel
their plants through Import. There are several internal and external constraints for coal
import. Govt of India is looking out for solution to internal constrains e.g. port and rail
infrastructure development. However, external constraints is the volatility coal prices but
also ocean freight too.
This study tries to focus the aspects of external constrains e.g. volatility of coal price,
ocean freight in global market and Asia Pacific Region in particular because of fast
growing economy in China and India.
2.0 Projected Domestic Coal Supply Scenario in Command Area of CIL (as on
01.01.2010):
Qty in MMT
YEAR 2009- 2010- 2011- 2012- 2013- 2014- 2015- 2016-
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Production 435.00 460.50 486.50 514.75 542.75 575.25 609.00 647.50
Comitment/ 524.75 570.52 721.24 820.11 822.91 826.16 829.53 833.88
Demand
Balance/ (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-)
availability 89.75 110.02 234.74 305.36 280.16 250.91 220.53 185.88
Therefore, import of coal by India shall continue to remain in the least in the range of
100 MMT by the terminal year of XI th plan and XII th plan period.
3.0 Globally, coal reserves are distributed in five countries and these five countries
produce 75% of total production of 900 Billion tones. But of these top five coal
producing countries, 3 countries consume their production domestically. Surplus is
generated by only 2 countries. Table gives below shows the reserves, production,
consumption along with deficit and surplus in these top five coal resources countries
in the year 2007.
Qty in BT Qty in MMT Qty in MMT
Country Reserve Country Producti Consumpt Country Producti Consu
USA 246 on ion on mption
Russia 157 China 2537 2580 USSR 314 200
China 115 USA 1039 1015 Australia 394 97
India 93 India 458 493
Australia 79
Others 220
403
Total 900
4.0 THERMAL COAL TRADE IN INTERNATIONAL MARKET:
4.1 Coal market, internationally, is well established. There are multiple bench mark
price indices for global thermal coal spot prices and these indices with their
features are as below::
API 2: Delivered (CIF) ARA (Europe)

Published by TFS (Tradition Financial Services, a
French Brokerage)
Most widely traded in paper market
Has a very large bearing on the spot electricity
prices in Europe
API 4 Ex- RBCT – FOB (South Africa)

Published by TFS
Has a large paper market
Global Coal New Castle Index: Ex NewCastle

Published by Global Coal
Singapore based e- auction trading platform
Increasingly becoming the Benchmark for all
supplies Ex Australia
Also used for pricing of Indonesian coal
All these price indices have their Standardized Terms and Conditions for trading. Quality
parameters and delivery are as below:
Delivery 3 Months
API 2/ API 4 New Castle Index
Gross Calorific Value 6000 Cal/ Kg 6700 Cal/ Kg

(Net As Received) (Gross Air Dried)
Sulphur Content (Max) 1% 1%
A new Indonesian Coal Index (ICI) launched on 28th July,2006 where there are
provisions for quality adjustment but modeled on New Castle Index.
4.2 Thermal Coal Trade flow from countries:
Australia 105-110 MMT

Indonesia 110-120 MMT
South Africa 65-70 MMT
404
4.3 Region wise surplus/ Deficit of Non Coking coal:
Deficit Surplus
Asia Pacific (-) 15 MMT Africa 71 MMT
Europe (-) 28 MMT South Africa 69 MMT
North America (-) 62 MMT
4.4 Nature of Coal Trade Contracts:
a) Coal contracts are mostly short terms because:-
Þ Producers not willing to commit long term price because of volatility

in prices i.e. rapid and unprecedented rise and fall of prices in spot
market. Increase / decrease of crude price in the international market
have also a bearing in coal price coupled with the reason of robust
market demand in Asia Pacific Region. Such a situation was
witnessed during April to September’09 when spot price touches a all
time highest level at USD 150 per tonne from a trade price of USD
50-60 per tonne.
Þ Consolidation in the Industry which has increased the power to sellers
Þ Most producers are normally opt for selling 40% of production on

spot market and 60% in long terms contract.
b) Long Term Contract:
Þ Long term contract are rarely more than 3-4 years even with a
provision for annual adjustment with the indices.
4.5 Because of ocean freight account for a substantial element on cost. Long term
charter is initially a viable option. However, with the passage of time owning
ships could also prove to be cheaper option. Table given below would give an
approximate idea on time of voyage from different countries to west coast port at
Mundra.
From To Distance (Nautical Days (at 14

Miles) Knots speed)
Kalimanton (Indonesia) Mundra 3089 9.19
New Castle (Australia) Mundra 6400 19.05
RBCT (South Africa) Mundra 3802 11.32
Waiting time at port for berthing is also to be considered. Sometime such
waiting time are as high as 10 -15 day.
405
A. Key determinants for selection of Bulk carrie rs:
Þ Size of Vessels: Higher the size of vessel, lower is the cost of ocean
freight. A typical Charter rate for Panamax vessel is USD 6000 per
day. Assuming 10 days voyage freight from Indonesia would be –
USD 1 per tonne. Vessel Sizes are defined as :-
Handy Size 20000 t -- 40000 t

Handymax 40000 t – 60000t t
Panamax 60000 t -- 100000 t
Capesize Beyond 100000 t
Þ Arrival Depth: Draft at discharge port is key factor in selection of

vessel size.
Þ Bunker Adjustment: Fuel oil price at Singapore and separate Index are
maintained bulk freight carriers.
5.0 Coal Quality of Predominant Coal Exporter Countries
Country GCV in K Moisture % Ash % VM Sulphur %

Cal/ Kg
South Africa 5000-7000 2-5 10-30 22-33 0.3-1.6
Australia 6000-7000 7-16 10-16 25-34 0.4-1.0
Indonesia 5300- 6500 10-30 3-10 37-43 0.2-1.0
6.0 Possible Import Strategies:
a) Sourcing through trading platform: Not favored because market risk /

uncertainties
b) Sourcing by owning coal concessions / with minimum stake:
Ø Provide security of supply but selection process to take into account of

· Geography
· Quality & Quantity
· Type of assets : Producing/ Explored/ Unexplored
· Multiple/ Single suppliers: Trade off between price & supply risk
c) Logistic Issue:
Shipping and logistic cost about 15-25% of FOB price for spot coal where as it is
almost equal to the mining coat of coal.
Ø Choice :
§ Owning ships
§ Long Term Charter.
406
7.0 A typical coal mine in Indonesia optimally supplying coal to India at USD 40 per
tonne including cost of mining, storage & handling,, Ocean freight , Duty & cess ,
internal freight and barging when supplied from own mine. But when such coal is
sourced from Spot market, comparable cost becomes USD 100 per tonne.
7.1 Landed cost of imported coal shall remain competitive with domestic if the same
remains within the range USD 55-60 per tonne. Therefore, only option for
imported to remain competitive with domestic coal is acquisition or equity stake
in mine along with owning bulk freight carriers.
8.0 Key issues for acquisitions coal assets abroad:
¨ Nature of assets
¨ Infrastructure
¨ Commercial / Market Issue
¨ Country / Policy Issue
To understand all such key issues, two separate comparisons have been made for
those already established countries and exporting coal and also two such countries
where opportunity exists but not established so far. Comparisons are enclosed in
Annexure –I of this study.
Steps involved in screening is a cumbersome which requires due diligence.

Typical steps in acquisition of coal concession are as below:
Ø Screening of Opportunity
Ø Non Disclosure agreement
Ø Technical due diligence from geological, operational and legal perspective
Ø Negotiation/ Agreement
Ø Token Payments
Ø Drilling to prove up resource
Ø Acquisition
9.0 Conclusions:
Ø Driven by the spurt in power projects , China and India will emerge as
major players in the coal import market
Ø Australia and Indonesia will continue as major suppliers in the region after
sorting out their logistics constraints and domestic demand pressure
respectively
Ø Coal market is expected to remain tight in terms of supply
407
Ø Shipping would be a key component in the landed cost of coal. Taking
strategic stakes in shipping to make sense in view of high volatility in
freight rates.
Ø In the current situation, there is little appetite among suppliers for long
terms contract. Though things may change, having strategic position by
acquiring coal properties abroad or by way of equity stake participation in
coal mines remains the most viable option for ensuring competitive and
sustained supply.
Ø Limited opportunities in Australia and South Africa. However, countries

like Indonesia, Mozambique and Bostwana throw exciting opportunities.
Ø Acquisition, though, of strategic importance involves many risks and

requires careful due diligence of various risk and issues – geological,
policy, legal and logistics before closing the transaction.
408
Gas Based Generation in NTPC - Achieving Fuel Security and
Competitiveness
Prem Prakash (DGM-Gas Sourcing)

Kishore K. Hota (DGM-Gas Sourcing)
Alok Shrivastava (Sr.Engr-Gas Sourcing)
Synopsis
Gas based power plants of NTPC were conceptualised and set up along with the
development of HVJ gas pipeline in the country. These plants except at Gandhar have back
up liquid fuel firing facilities. These plants were based on the long term linkages of APM gas
from the Government of India and accordingly, long term gas supply agreements were
executed with GAIL. However, over the years, the gas supplies under these contracts have
fallen behind the contracted quantities and rather have been on the declining trend,
primarily on account of reduction in gas supplies from nominated fields of ONGC. With the
reduction in these supplies, dependence on liquid fuel increased at these stations. Liquid
fuel being costlier than domestic gas and in view of merit order operation, gas based plants
remained under-utilized over the years. With the advent of RLNG in the country, NTPC
started procuring Spot RLNG from various domestic suppliers from the year 2006 and
thereby improving the utilization of these power plants. NTPC has been exploring various
possibilities for tie-up of gas / RLNG and policy advocacy for allocation of domestic gas for
power sector. With the onset of KG D6 gas in 2009, NTPC played a key role in highlighting
the importance of power sector in the gas utilization policy of the Government. NTPC was
also allocated significant quantity of KG D6 gas for its NCR gas based stations. As the Gas /
RLNG availability scenario is improving with the additional infrastructure being set up, the
existing gas based stations are in a position to run at around 85% PLF. Further, there is a
renewed effort towards augmenting the gas based power generation capacity in the
portfolio of NTPC. The existing NCR stations and Kayamkulam plant are planned to be
expanded and new gas plants at Badarpur has been identified. This paper dwells upon
various strategies towards achieving fuel security for the gas based generation in NTPC.
1. Conception of Gas based power plants
Use of natural gas in India was initially restricted only for the purposes of fertilizer,
petrochemicals and extraction of liquefied petroleum gas. However, discovery of natural gas
in early 80’s in large quantity in the Western offshore region influenced Government of India
(GOI) to consider utilization of this gas for power generation. In June 1984, a working group,
under the convenorship of Advisor (Energy), Planning Commission, concluded that
approximately 4 to 6 MMSCMD of lean gas could be made available for power generation of
around 1000 to 1500 MW, using combined cycle technology. Following this, GOI requested
NTPC to set up 3 Combined Cycle Power Projects. Subsequently, in 1985, NTPC took up the
work of 3 gas-based power projects namely, Kawas in Gujarat, Anta in Rajasthan and Auraiya
in Uttar Pradesh.
Based on further gas commitment/ linkage by the Government, projects at Dadri, Gandhar
and Faridabad were taken up. Thus, during the period from 1989 to 1999, NTPC
commissioned 7 gas/ liquid fuels based plants at Anta, Auraiya, Kawas, Dadri, Gandhar,
Faridabad and Kayamkulam. The details of these plants are as seen in the table below:
409
Nominal capacity Unit sizes Primary Fuel/
Station (MW) Secondary Fuel
Anta 413 3 GT + 1 ST Gas/ Naphtha
Auriaya 652 4 GT+ 2 ST Gas/ Naphtha
Dadri 817 4 GT+ 2 ST Gas/ HSD
Faridabad 430 2 GT + 1 ST Gas/ Naphtha
Kawas 645 4 GT+ 2 ST Gas/ Naphtha
Gandhar 648 3 GT + 1 ST Gas
Kayamkulam 350 2 GT + 1 ST Naphtha
Total 3955
NTPC stations except Kayamkulam were developed along with conceptualisation and
development of the Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) gas pipeline of GAIL (India) Ltd.
NTPC Gas based plants along with the HVJ/ DVPL/DUPL Pipeline
HVJ gas pipeline network is the first cross country gas pipeline through which GAIL
transports and markets the gas delivered by ONGC and other joint venture companies in
Western, Central and Northern India. It was laid to link the gas sourced from Bassein fields
landing at Hazira with the fertilizer, power and industrial consumers in Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The first section of HVJ gas pipeline was commissioned
in 1987 with a gas transportation capacity of 18.2 MMSCMD. Since then, the pipeline
capacity has been increased through GREP line and project up-gradation work was
completed by 1997-98. As on date the pipe line is 2,800 km long, with a capacity of 33.4
MMSCMD.
The Dahej Vijaipur pipeline (DVPL) is the country's first pipeline to carry R-LNG from PLL’s
Dahej terminal in the country. DVPL is a 42", 770 km onshore natural gas trunk pipeline with
410
a capacity of 24 MMSCMD. Both GREP and DVPL pipelines are presently being further
expanded by GAIL.
2. APM Gas availability
For all of the 6 gas based plants of NTPC along with the HVJ pipeline, GOI had committed for
a linkage of 13.74 MMSCMD which included 0.75 MMSCMD of gas for Gandhar on fallback
basis. However, GAIL contracted for 12.93 MMSCMD of gas. The difference between the
linkage and contracted quantity was due to the fact that GAIL did not commit for 0.75
MMSCMD of fallback gas and for Kawas, GAIL contracted only 2.19 MMSCMD against GOI
committment of 2.25 MMSCMD.
Gas Figures in MMSCMD
Station Linkage from GOI Contracted with GAIL
Anta 1.75 1.75
Auriaya 2.49 2.49
Dadri 3.00 3.00
Faridabad 2.00 2.00
Kawas 2.25 2.19
Gandhar 2.25* 1.50
Total 13.74* 12.93
* 0.75 MMSCMD on fallback basis
Subsequently, over the years, APM gas supplies from GAIL followed a declining trend due to
reduction in gas supplies from nominated fields of ONGC. Due to this declining trend, the
APM supplies were further supplemented with PMT gas supplies at APM prices by GAIL as
decided by GOI. Accordingly, supply of 2.1 MMSCMD of PMT gas was allocated for NTPC
stations which was later revised to 1.77 MMSCMD. The trend of APM supplies can be seen
in the figure below.
Declining trend of APM/ PMT gas
The APM and PMT agreements have been subsequently renewed/ extended during the year
2009-10 for another 12 years (till Jul’2021) and 10 years (till Dec’2019) respectively. The
revised quantities are as given below:
Gas Figures in MMSCMD

Station APM gas contracted PMT gas contracted
411
Anta 1.71 0.27
Auriaya 2.43 0.38
Dadri 2.93 0.46
Faridabad 1.95 0.31
Kawas 2.19 0.35
Gandhar 1.50* -
Total 12.71 1.77
*0.90 MMSCMD of gas is on fallback basis
The initial gas linkage by Govt. was mainly based on the then tariff norms of 68.49% deemed
PLF to recover the annual fixed charges. Over the years, the tariff norms by CERC have
changed significantly, with Availability target increased to 80% in the period 2001-2008 and
further to 85% for the tariff period 2009-14 for full recovery of fixed charges. Accordingly,
the gas requirement of NTPC’s 6 gas based stations has increased to 17.35 MMSCMD
corresponding to a PLF of 90%.
3. Dependence on Liquid fuel on account of gas shortage
Since NTPC gas based plants were designed to operate on both gas and liquid fuel, in the
event of declining gas supplies dependence on liquid fuel gradually increased. The cost of
power using liquid fuel was around 1.45-1.63 Rs/ Kwh in the 1990s. However, starting from
1999-00 the prices of liquid fuel have increased substantially with increase in crude oil
prices. The cost of generation on liquid fuel increased with high liquid fuel prices. Thus, over
the years, NTPC gas based plants remained under utilized due to lack of generation schedule
from the beneficiaries. Therefore, the PLF of gas based stations declined to around 65% in
2004-05.
To supplement APM gas continuous efforts were made to tie up other available Gas/ RLNG
from alternate sources on both short term and long term basis. To that effect, 1MMSCMD
gas was tied up from GSPCL in June-2005 for a period of one year. Further, agreements were
executed with GAIL, IOCL, BPCL for supply of Dahej RLNG on fallback basis subject to
availability of RLNG with them.
412
80 16
78
14
Gas Spplies (MMSCMD)

76
74 12
72 10
PLF %
70
8
68
66 6
64 4
62
2
60
58 0
20 4
20 5
20 6
20 7
to -09
)
09
-0
-0
-0
-0
-0
03
04
05
06
07
c''
0( 200
De
20
upPLF
-1
09
20
Gas Supplies
NTPC gas based station’s Gas Supply/ PLF
4. Re-gasified Liquefied Natural Gas (RLNG) scenario
Petronet LNG Limited (PLL), promoted by ONGC, GAIL, IOCL & BPCL, was formed in order to
import LNG and to set up an LNG regasification plant at Dahej. Commercial operation in
Dahej terminal began in April 2004. The Hazira LNG terminal of Shell with present capacity
of 3.5 MMTPA is also operational. While PLL mainly gets long term RLNG from Ras Laffan
LNG co. Ltd( RasGas), Hazira LNG operates on merchant basis with spot cargoes.
Units in MTPA
Expected
Present operable Long term LNG
RLNG Terminal Capacity
Capacity contracts in place
(2011-12)
DAHEJ 10 7.5 10
HAZIRA 3.5 - 3.5
DABHOL 1 to 1.5* - 5.00
KOCHI** - 1.5 2.5
*Likely to be commissioned in 2010 with part capacity. Full terminal capacity of 5MTPA will be
operational after completion of breakwater facilities
**Under construction likely to be commissioned by 2012
5. Efforts for tie up of additional Gas/ RLNG
To meet the shortages of gas at NTPC stations continuous efforts were being made to tie up
available gas/ RLNG on both short term basis and long term basis.
5.1. Tie up of Spot RLNG and fallback RLNG
413
With the commencement of import of spot LNG cargoes in the country in 2006, NTPC
started procuring spot RLNG from the various domestic suppliers viz. GAIL, BPCL, IOCL,
GSPCL and HLPL starting from June-2006 through tendering to meet the gas shortage. The
procurement of spot RLNG is being done on reasonable endeavour basis wherein there is no
Take or Pay obligation for buyer and no Supply or Pay obligation for seller. The spot RLNG
tenders are conducted on frequent short term basis at about every 15-30 days because of
the fact that offers of spot RLNG by suppliers depend on supply of LNG on cargo to cargo
basis. As on 31st Dec’09, 54 spot RLNG contracts have been executed with various domestic
suppliers.
The spot RLNG tie ups significantly improved the overall gas supply position of NTPC gas
based plants from 2005-06 onwards, thereby increasing the performance (both PLF and DC)
of the gas based plants. The supplement of fallback RLNG through contracts with GAIL/
IOCL/ BPCL have also improved overall RLNG supply position as depicted in the table below:
2009-10
Total Gas Supply
2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 (up to
(MMSCMD)
Dec’09)
APM/PMT 10.70 9.39 8.98 8.68 9.07
Spot RLNG - 2.98 2.78 1.99 2.62
0.30
Fallback RLNG 0.22 (incl. GSPCL - 0.08 1.65
gas)
- - 0.13
Other - -
(KG D6 gas)
Total 10.92 12.67 11.76 10.75 13.47
PLF (%) 65.80 71.90 68.10 67.01 77.52
There was a decline in PLF in the year 2007-08 and 2008-09 because there was a shortage in
availability of spot RLNG in the international market due to forced shutdown of nuclear
power plant of 8000MW in Japan creating a higher demand vis-à-vis supply position and
also due to constraint in PLL’s Dahej terminal due to supply of RLNG to Ratnagiri. The
capacity constraint at Dahej has been removed with expansion of Dahej terminal to 10
MTPA in early 2009. In 2008-09, the average RLNG consumption was also lower because
from 16th October’2008 onwards, Naphtha price became cheaper than prices of Spot RLNG.
Accordingly, liquid fuel consumption at the stations increased substantially.
During 2009-10, transportation capacity constraint in GREP line (Vijaypur to Dadri) has
affected gas/ RLNG supplies to Auraiya, Dadri and Faridabad stations. Despite tie up of
additional gas/ RLNG, supplies to these stations were affected and consequently,
dependence on liquid fuel restricted the generation schedule from beneficiaries.
5.2. Tie up of Long term RLNG
Apart from the spot RLNG, NTPC has also contracted 2.5MMSCMD (2.00 MMSCMD on firm
basis and 0.5MMSCMD on fallback basis) of long term RLNG with GAIL for NCR stations viz.
Anta, Auraiya, Dadri and Faridabad, for a period of 10 years. The supplies have commenced
from 01.01.2010 onwards.
5.3. Tie up of KG D6 gas
414
Natural gas production from Krishna Godavari (KG) basin deepwater block (D6) commenced
in April 2009. Empowered Group of Ministers (EGOM) , in its meeting in April’09 and Oct’09,
have allocated 4.46 MMSCMD of KG D6 gas for NTPC NCR stations viz. Anta, Auraiya, Dadri
and Faridabad. 0.61 MMSCMD gas already been contracted and supplies have commenced
w.e.f. 1st Nov’09. Tie up of the balance 3.85 MMSCMD gas is under process.
6. Overall Gas/ RLNG supply position for NTPC’s gas based stations
The overall gas supply position for NTPC’s existing gas based stations, with various long term
tie ups of gas/ RLNG is likely to be as under:
Gas figures in MMSCMD
Sl. Station APM/ PMT KG D6 Gas Long term Total
No. supplies allocation RLNG(firm Expected
(based on basis) from availability
2009-10 up GAIL of gas/RLNG
to Dec’09)
1 Anta 0.88 0.64 0.50 2.02
2 Auriaya 1.16 0.90 1.00 3.06
3 Dadri 1.25 2.08 0.30 3.63
4 Faridabad 1.02 0.84 0.20 2.06
5 Kawas 2.16 - - 2.16
6 Gandhar 2.60 - - 2.60
Total 9.07 4.46* 2.00 15.53
* 0.61 MMSCMD contracted
** Apart from above firm tie-ups, NTPC is also having Fallback RLNG Agreements and
arrangement to procure spot RLNG based on requirement
NTPC has been continuously making best efforts to procure gas/ RLNG and has achieved
substantial success in its endeavours. With the advent of various sources of gas/ RLNG and
proactive measures taken by NTPC, the gas availability scenario and hence in turn the PLF of
gas based plants have been started improving to operate over 85% PLF. Further, with
increasing declared capability (DC) there are opportunities to earn tariff incentives as per
CERC tariff regulation 2009-14. Thus, the future of gas availability looks bright and gas based
stations are all set to deliver good performances.
7. Opportunities for Future Gas based projects
There are several merits of gas based power stations including environmentally cleaner
mode of power generation with lower carbon footprint, higher thermal efficiency, lower
capital cost, shorter gestation period, less land and water requirement and faster response
during peak load requirements of the grid.
To capitalize the benefits of gas power stations and with the increased availability of
domestic gas from new/ future discoveries and RLNG. NTPC has identified various gas based
projects and is continuously pursuing MOP/ GOI for allocation of gas for these projects in
order to commence further activities. The details of gas based expansion projects are as
given in the table below:
415
Sl Project Nominal Capacity Gas Requirement Readiness of site
No Name (MW) (MMSCMD)
1 Kawas 1300 6.0 Ready *

expansion
2 Gandhar 1300 6.0 Ready *

Expansion
3 Badarpur 2100 10.65 Ready for 1050 MW

Gas and readiness for
another 1050 MW
after commissioning
of 1st Module of
1050MW and after
decommissioning of
existing St-I Units at a
later date
4 Anta Stage 1050 5.325 Ready
II
5 Auraiya 1400 7.10 Ready
Stage II
6 Faridabad 1050 5.325 Ready for 1500 MW.
Stage II Readiness for another
1500 MW after
dismantling of naptha
storage facility at a
later date
7 NCTPP at 700 3.55 Ready
Dadri
8 Ratnagiri 3000 15.21 Ready
Gas
TOTAL 11900 59.16

* Gas supply matter is sub-judice in Bombay High Court. GOI has been requested to allocate 12
MMSCMD @ 2.34 $/MMBtu without prejudice to NTPC’s rights & contentions in the suit.
Further, for NTPC’s RGCCPP, Kayamkulam gas based project in Kerala, NTPC has executed
agreements with GAIL, IOCL, BPCL for around 1.2 MTPA RLNG to be supplied from PLL’s
upcoming Kochi terminal.
8. Conclusion
Increased availability of domestic natural gas as well as RLNG in the country have thrown
upon various opportunities not only for achieving fuel security and competitiveness for
NTPC’s existing gas based stations which have been languishing for gas shortage over the
416
years, but also adding new gas based projects in the portfolio of NTPC to harness the
advantages of gas based power generation.
************
417
Development in Natural Gas availability and Policy/ Regulatory
scenario in India - Opportunities & Challenges for Power Sector
Prem Prakash, DGM (Gas Sourcing)
Ki shore K Hota, DGM (Gas Sourcing)
Pankaj Mittal, Sr. Engr. (Gas Sourcing)
Synopsis
Hitherto Indian gas mark et has been saddled with big Demand-S upply gap. Additionally, there have
been issues of inadequate infrastructure, and the consumers hardly had any choice. Due t o gas
shortage, substantial Gas based power capacities in India were remained severely under-utilized over
the years. In a high power demand scenario, the beneficiary customers of power were compelled to
accept significant quantity of very high cost of power generated on liquid fuel lik e Naphtha / Spot RLNG
etc. However, thank s to the NELP initiative of the Government, the big K G D6 discovery started flowing
gas to t he mark et in A pril'2009, whic h has ushered s ubstantial improvement in the availability scenario
of domestic natural gas in India. With more discoveries expected to be developed in near future, the
natural gas availability scenario appears bright er. Parallelly, inf rastructure lik e new/ expansion LNG
regasification terminals and pipeline are being planned. Power sector, being the anchor customer of
gas, it has been allotted due import ance in t he Gas Utilization Polic y of the Government. Now that
additional gas/RLNG are actually going to be made available, there is opport unity for not only running
the existing Gas based power capacity at better utilization levels, but also planning of new Gas based
power projects. The National Action Plan on Climate Change also recommends additional gas based
power generation in view of discovery of significant gas res erves in India, thus deriving the
environmental benefits of low carbon int ensity power generation. There has been development in the
fronts of regulations wit h establishment of the Downstream Regulator i.e. PNGRB. The will ensure
establishing a competitive gas mark et in India in days to come, though in a gradual and c alibrated
manner. There is a serious requirement for timely development/ up gradation of the gas pipeline
infrastructure before the availability of new gas/RLNG in the gas mark et. Further, there is a need to
allocate the gas to new power plants in advance s o that these c an go ahead for project related
activities. There is need for int ra & inter-pipeline system connectivit y with adequate capacity so that gas
can supplied / diverted / s wapped as per requirement of various suppliers and cons umers. Government
is planning to develop Gas Highways leading to a National Gas Grid covering the entire length and
breadth of the country for uniform economic development. Earlier the Gas suppliers used t o deliver the
gas at the customer's plant boundary. However, now with multiple gas suppliers and transporters and
interconnectivit y bet ween various pipelines, the contracts are getting complicated with multiple Gas
supply agreements and Gas Transportation agreements for delivery of gas to customer's premises. In
such situations, there is a strong requirement for a Gas Management System on a common platform
with unif orm system. This paper deliberates on the developments in the Gas/ RLNG scenario in India
along with corres ponding polic y and regulatory changes and evaluat es the opportunities & challenges
for Gas based power generation.
Development of Natural Gas Industry in India
Natural Gas in India currently occupies about 8.5% of the total energy basket of t he country. This is
much below the world average of around 24%.India’s proven gas reserves currently stand at 38.5
trillion cubic feet (as per BP Statistical Review 2009) , which are 0.6% of the world’s total proven gas
reserves. The development of natural gas industry in India started in 1960s with discovery of gas fields
in Assam and Gujarat. A fter t he discovery of S outh B assein field by ONGC in 1970s, Govt. set up Gas
Authority of India Limited (P resently GAIL (India) Limited) in 1984 wit h the mandate of development of
pipeline infrastructure in the country so as to ensure the economic progress of the country. GAIL
constructed the country 's first interstate cross-country pipeline namely Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HV J)
Pipeline in 1987. The capacity of HVJ was expanded by laying a new 505 km Gas Rehabilitation &
Expansion Project (GREP) pipeline from Vijaipur to Dadri.
418
The major step towards bridging the gap between demand and supply of natural gas was taken when
the country embarked on an accelerated programme of exploration and production through the New
Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP ).
In 2004, liquefied nat ural gas (LNG) import from Qatar started at PLL’s LNG terminal at Dahej, and R-
LNG (Re-gasified LNG) was transported through a new 600 km long Dahej-Vijaipur pipeline (DVPL)
connecting HV J pipeline at Vijaypur. In 2008, GA IL laid a pipeline connecting Dahej to Uran and Dabhol
viz. DUPL and DPPL pipelines. The HVJ-DVPL lines are further being expanded at present.
Gas Production and Availability Scenario
As on Dec’2009, the availability of nat ural gas/ RLNG in the country was around 160 million metric
standard cubic meters per day (mmscmd), out of which about 53 mmscmd was produced from
nominated fields given to Oil & Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) and Oil India Ltd (OIL), around 74
mmscmd from P vt/ JV/NELP fields operated by various Contractors, and 25 mmscmd was imported gas
in the form of LNG. Against this, the estimated demand of natural gas was around 197 mmscmd.
Category Quantity
(MMSCMD)
R L NG
APM Gas ~ 53 (incl.
(ONGC+ OIL) S pot
R L NG ) AP M
P vt. /JV/NELP ~ 24 0% G as
Gas 16%
(O NG C +
NELP (KGD6) ~ 50 O IL
Gas 35%
RLNG (incl. ~ 25
Spot RLNG)
K G D6
Total ~ 160 gas
(As on Dec’09) 33% P vt. /J V
G as
16%
As per Govt. projections, Gas availability scenario in the country is as given below:
(Fig. in MMS CMD)

Source s 2007- 2008- 2009- 2010- 2011-
08 09 10 11 12
ONGC (FIRM + INDICA TIVE) 47.19 47.06 47.69 51.45 51.65
OIL 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
P vt. / JVs (As per DGH) 22.21 62.67 82.57 82.03 102.57
Projected Domestic Production 79.40 119.73 140.26 143.48 164.22

- Conservative
GSPC 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.50 4.50

Additional Gas Anticipated 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.50 6.50
Total Projected Supply - 79.40 119.73 140.26 146.98 170.72

Optimi stic
The LNG projections are given below:
419
LNG Supply Source 2007-08 2011-12
Dahej 6.50 12.00
Hazira 2.50 2.50

Dabhol - 5.00
Kochi - 2.50
Mangalore - 1.25
Ennore - -
Total LNG Supply (MMTP A) 9.00 23.25
Total LNG Supply (MMS CMD) 31.50 81.38
If we tak e into account the projections regarding availability of indigenous gas and LNG, the total
availability of natural gas in the country as of 2011-12 is as follows:
2007-08 2011-12
Total Domestic Gas + LNG (Normal) (MMSCMD) 110.9 245.59
Total Domestic Gas + LNG (Optimistic) (MMSCMD) 110.9 252.09
Source: XI plan document on Pet roleum & Natural Gas
Gas Demand Scenario
The demand projections of gas from various sectors as c ompiled in the Report by Working Group on
Petroleum and Natural Gas for XI plan is given below:-
Fig. in MMSCMD
2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
POWER* 80 91 103 114 127
FERTILI ZER 41 43 52 79 79
CITY GAS 12 13 14 15 16
INDUSTRI AL 15 16 17 18 20
PETRO-CHEM/REFINARY 25 27 29 31 33
SPONGE IRON/STEEL 6 6 7 7 8
TOTAL 179 196 222 264 283
Power and fertilizer sectors are the major anchor consumers of gas in India, consuming about 40%
and 30% gas res pectively. Furt her, as per above projections, these two sectors will continue to remain
as the anchor customers for the fut ure gas/RLNG in India
The gas supply scenario is fast changing in the country, largely because of the expected increase in
the availability of natural gas in the count ry due to commencement of gas production from domestic
420
discoveries and increased import pot ential of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) thus res ulting in narrowing
the Demand –Supply gap. However, for the year 2011-12, considering the availability of 252 mmscmd
(optimistic scenario) against demand projection of 285 mmscmd, still the demand –supply gap is likely
to continue.
LNG Infrastructure in India
LNG import from Qat ar to India started with the development of Dahej terminal of P etronet LNG Ltd
(PLL) in 2004.Subsequently Hazira LNG terminal was commissioned and being operated by S hell on
merchant capacity basis. The brief on the existing LNG terminals is depicted below:
S. LNG Developer Capacity Remarks

No. Regasification (MMtpa)
Terminal
1 Dahej (Gujarat) Petronet 10 - Expansion from 5MTPA to 10
LNG Ltd MTPA completed in early 2009.
(PLL)
- 7.5 MTPA Long term contract
exists with Ras Gas ,Qatar
2 Hazira (Gujarat) Hazira LNG ~3.5 - No long term contracts exist at

P vt. Ltd. present.
(HLP L)
- Operates as merchant terminal
processing spot cargoes.
3 Dabhol Ratnagiri 5 - Likely to be commissioned in 2010
(Maharashtra) Gas & with part capacity in fair weather.
Power P vt.
Ltd.(RGPPL) - To operate Full capacity after
completion of breakwater
facilities
- Long term LNG contract yet to be

firmed up.
4 Kochi (Kerala) Petronet 2.5, - Long term contract of 1.5MTPA
LNG expandable LNG signed with Gorgon LNG
Ltd.(PLL) to 5 plant, Australia.
- Planned to be commissioned in
early 2012
Number of additional LNG terminals at Mangalore, Ennore, Mundra, Pipavav, etc. are also in the
planning stage by various promoters. However, the RLNG availability from these terminals will be
known after the finalization of LNG contracts. Further, the LNG quantity to be imported in the count ry
will depend upon the availability of gas from new/ future domestic gas discoveries.
Policy/Regulatory Scenario in India

New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP)
The New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) was introduced in 1997-98 by the Government to boost
hydrocarbon exploration in the count ry. The Directorate General of Hydrocarbon (DGH) has held eight
rounds of bidding under NE LP I to NELP V III to dat e. Several Oil & Gas discoveries have been made
421
under these NELP awarded blocks including the prolific KGD6 gas fields, which started production in
April'2009.
NTPC in its initiative to participat e in various elements of Gas/LNG value chain for long term fuel
security, through NE LP-V of GOI, have vent ured into E&P activities starting with a pet roleum block in
Arunachal Pradesh, won along with consortium partners. Exploration in the Block is presently in
progress. Through NELP - V III of GOI, as per provisional res ults of DGH, NTP C also have won one
block in Cambay basin with 100% participating interest and three blocks along with ONGC and other
partners.
Coal Bed Methane (CBM)

GOI has also formulated CBM (Coal B ed Methane) Policy and so far 3 bidding rounds have been
successfully undert aken. A t otal of 26 contracts for CBM blocks have been signed for exploitation of
CBM gas. The fourth round of CBM license round is over along with NE LP-V III, inviting for 10 CBM
blocks. Exploitation of unconventional sources like CBM, Shale Gas etc. will help to augment gas
supplies. Further, implementation of Natural Gas Hydrate Programme (NGHP) by Government for
evaluation of rich Gas Hydrate discoveries and t heir possible commercial production holds very good
promise of getting huge gas quantities in future after development of suitable technology for
exploitation.
Natural Gas Pipeline Policy

Government of India on Dec ember 20, 2006 notified the policy for development of natural gas pipelines
and city or local natural gas distribution networks in India. The salient features of the policy for gas
pipelines are as under:
- Gas pipelines can be laid, built, operated or expanded after authorization by the Downstream
Regulator- P NGRB
- Authorization for gas pipelines to be granted to any entity for design capacity of the pipeline to be
at least 33% more than the capacity requirement of concerned entity + firm capacity bookings
- Extra capacity to be available on ‘open access’ basis on transparent & non-discriminatary manner
- Suo-moto PNGRB can also offer authorization for any gas pipelines (which it is felt necessary) to
any entity selected on basis of competitive bidding
- Trans port ation tariff and the principle of determining tariff to be laid down by the Board
- FDI up to 100% in laying gas pipelines
- Gas Advisory Board (GAB) for promoting NG/ CGD network
- Cent ral Govt. to prepare long-t erm plan of National Gas Grid
Gas Utilization Policy
In line with the PS C under NELP, the GOI have formulated Gas Utilization Policy for the NE LP gas and
have allocated the production of K GD6 Gas to various sectors as per priority. Fertilizer and power
sectors have been given top category priorities.
The salient features of this policy are:
- Gas from NE LP fields to be sold t o consumers in accordance with the marketing priorities
determined by the Government.
- The marketing priority does not entail any ‘reservation’ of gas. It implies that in case the
consumers in a particular sector, which is higher in priority, are not in position to take the gas
when it becomes available, it would go to sector which is in next order of priority.
- Priority of supply of gas from a particular source would be applic able amongst those customers
who are connected / can be connected to pipeline net work connected to the source.
- Priority would not impact the process of price discovery whenever it is undertaken, as all
customers would participate in the price discovery process.
422
- These policy-guidelines are to be reviewed every five-years in view of demand-supply position of
gas/ RLNG.
Gas Utilization Policy aims for optimal use of Natural Gas and maximizing value addition to the
economy.
Pricing of Natural Gas in India
Presently, there are broadly two pricing regimes for gas in India - gas priced under APM (A dministered
Price Mechanism) and non-APM or market gas. As regards non-APM/ gas, this could also be broadly
divided into two categories, namely, imported LNG and domestically produced gas from P vt. / JV /
NELP fields.
Gas Pricing under APM : The price of APM gas is set by the Government. The last price notification
was issued in year 2006.Under this notification, the consumer price for Power and Fertilizer sector is
Rs. 3200/ 1000 SCM. Govt. is contemplating revision of APM gas price.
Gas Pricing under Pre-NELP fields: The pricing of gas for various fields alloc ated to Joint Ventures
like PMT, Rava JV gas is det ermined as per the P roduction S haring Contract (PSC) provisions. 5
MMSCMD of PMT gas is being given to Power and Fertilizer sectors at APM prices.
Gas Pricing under NE LP fields: The pricing of gas for the fields allocat ed under NE LP regime is as
per the PSC provisions as per which the price basis or formula is to be approved by the Government.
Pricing of RLNG: The pricing of LNG under term contracts is governed as per the terms of the
contracts entered between LNG Supplier and B uyer. In the Asian market, LNG price is generally
pegged to crude oil prices. As per present policy of Govt., the pric e of LNG under long term contracts of
PLL is sold at uniform ‘pooled pric e’ basis. The P rices of S pot RLNG are being governed by market
forces i.e. demand and supply position prevailing at a particular point of time. The pricing is generally
on cargo to cargo or series of cargo basis.
As regards the pricing of domestic natural gas, there is no rationale why pricing of domestic natural gas,
which is produced and consumed within the country, should have any linkage with any international
indexing e.g. crude oil, liquid fuel etc. In matured markets like US, UK etc, there is market driven gas
pricing on account of existence of true market i.e. multiple buyer-seller interplays, Demand-Supply
balance and adequate transportation infrastructure. The market has moved from regulated to de-
regulated in a gradual and calibrated manner.
In India, the gas market and gas infrastructure are still evolving. As long as there is shortage of natural
gas in the country and the two major users of gas, namely fertilizer and power, operate primarily in a
regulated cost plus environment, a competitive market determined price would be highly distorted. In
such a situation price of domestic natural gas and its allocation should be independently regulat ed on a
cost plus basis including reasonable returns. This view has been supported in the Integrated Energy
Policy of GOI. If at all there is a need to index the gas pric e, it should be done with the competing fuel
i.e. Coal. It may be noted that, in China, where gas scenario for power sector is akin t o the situation in
India, the pricing of domestic gas is also linked to the coal price with certain weightage.
Further, Govt. is understood t o be evaluating the option of pooling of gas prices wit h the objective of
having a uniform gas pric e in place of the present regime of multiple prices from different sources.
However, while contemplating pooling of prices of various gases, it needs to be borne in mind that
different gas consuming sectors like power, fertilizer industry etc. have different price appetite. Thus,
Gas prices for the end cons uming sectors need to be fixed accordingly.
423
Regulatory Overview
Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB)
The Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB ) Act 2006 provides for t he establishment of
an independent regulatory board (P NGRB) as a downstream regulator to regulate the activities of
companies relat ed to refining, processing, storage, transportation, distribution, marketing and sale of
petroleum, petroleum products and natural gas and City Gas Distribution(CGD). The board has been
established and started functioning w.e.f. June'2007. The PNGRB have formulated several regulations
pertaining to above areas. The important regulations relating to natural gas pipelines are as given
below:
(i) Regulations for determination of transportation tariff for Common/ Contract Carrier
pipelines
This regulation defines the principles of determination of transportation tariff on reasonable return
basis for Common/ Contract Carrier pipelines for which authorization has been given by Govt./
Regulator. It may be mentioned that the gas pipelines dedicated to specific customer don’t come
under this regulation.
(ii) Regulations for laying of pipelines on Common/ Contract Carrier basis
This regulation mainly defines the procedure for authorization for laying of new pipelines on
Common Carrier/ contract Carrier basis, on the basis of competitive bidding to select the promoters,
in line with Pipeline Policy, 2006. Dedicated gas pipelines to s pecific customer don’t come under
the above bidding procedure.
(iii) Regulations for Access code for Common Carrier and Contract Carrier gas
pipelines
This regulation defines the terms of access amongst various pipeline systems of different entities at
interconnecting points. It also describes the terms and conditions for various shippers who wish to
access various transporters to transport the gas of shipper from any ent ry point(s) to any exit
point(s). The transporter is supposed to allocate pipeline common carrier / contract carrier basis to
various shipper on non-discriminatory basis. The penalty limits for maintaining pipeline system
discipline have also been stipulated by the regulator.
(iv) Regulations for Affiliate Code of conduct
This regulation defines the boundary between gas marketing activities and transportation activities
by any entity who is engaged in bot h activities. The basic objectives are to segregate the costs
associated with both the activities. Secondly, the transporter will have to treat non-discriminately
with different shippers including its own marketing activities while allocating transportation
capacities.
Gas Highways leading to National Gas Grid
In the near future large quantities of gas are expected to be available in the count ry, both from domestic
sources, LNG terminals and trans-national pipelines. This reinforces the requirement of development of
gas pipelines across the country similar to the National Highways for broad-basing the social and
economic benefits of natural gas usage. Such gas highways when integrated wit h the existing gas
pipelines shall ultimately lead to the National Gas Grid. The indic ative National Gas Grid shall consist of
the existing pipelines, authorized / planned pipelines and the missing links to the remote and under-
developed areas.
424
At present Gujurat, Maharastra, Rajastan, MP, UP, Delhi, Haryana, AP, Tamilnadu, Tripura and Assam
have gas pipelines and relat ed infrastructure which were developed in last 2-3 decades.
Proposed Natural Gas Grid
Tu
rk-
Af
g- Pa
k- I
nd
ia NANGAL
Pip
eli
ne
BHATINDA
Iran
-Pa
k-In DELHI
dia
Pip BAREILLY
elin GURGAUN
e
AURAIYA LUCKNOW
MATHANIA AGRA DISPUR
JAGDISHPUR
DAHEJ I & II BARMER KANPUR
GWALIOR PATNA
10 mmtpa PHOOLPUR
KOTA JHANSI GAYA AGARTALA
VARANASI
UJJAIN VIJAYPUR
RAJKOT BOKARO
BHOPAL
AHMEDABAD
KOLKATA LNG
HAZIRA BHARUCH
BARODA
CUTTACK
3.5 mmtpa SURAT DAMRA Existing
BHUBANESHWAR Upcoming
MUMBAI PUNE
KRISHNAPATNAM
SOLAPUR
RAJAMUNDRY Transmission Pipelines
DABHOL KAKINADA
5 mmtpa KOLHAPUR HYDERABAD Existing GAIL Pipelines
VIJAYAWADA
GOA GAIL’s Planned Pipeline
NELLORE
RIL’s East West Pipeline
BANGALORE ENNORE RIL’s Planned Pipeline
HASAN 2.5 mmtpa
MANGALORE
CHENNAI GSPC’s Planned Pipeline
MANGALORE
2.5 mmtpa City Gas/ CNG
KANJIKKOD TIRUCHCHIRAPALLI Existing
COIMBATORE
Planned
KOCHI
5 mmtpa
TUTICORIN LNG Terminal 5
Source: GAIL
Souce:GA IL
Existing pipelines - The existing main trunk pipelines are as under:
· GAIL : owns and operat es around 7000km pipelines (mainly HV J-DVPL and DUPL-DP RL) with
capacity around 150 mmscmd.
· Reliance Gas Transportation Infrastructure Ltd. (RGTIL) : owns and operates around 1400 km
long East - West Pipeline (EWPL)- (Kakinada-Hyderabad-Uran-Ahmedabad)with capacity of 80
MMSCMD.
· Other major regional players:
Gujurat State Petronet Ltd (GSPL)- owns & operates ~ 1200km pipelines
Assam Gas Company Ltd (AGCL
Authorized Pipelines – Following authorized pipelined are being developed at present
· GAIL
o Dadri-B awana-Nangal (600 ksm)
o Chainsa-Jhajjar-Hissar (400 kms)
o Jagdishpur-Haldia (2000 kms)
o Dabhol-Bangalore (1400 kms)
o Kochi-Kanjirrkod-B angalore (1100 kms)
425
· RGTIL
o Kakinada-Haldia (1100 kms)
o Kakinada-Chennai (445 kms)
o Chennai-Bangalore-Mangalore (600 kms)
o Chennai-Tuticorin (670 kms)
Pipelines ( EOI Publi shed) - Following are the planned pipelines for which EOI have been published
· GAIL : Central India Pipeline (Vijayawada to Vijaipur, about 1100 kms)

· GSPL: Kakinada - Bhilwara (on similar route to GAIL's proposed pipeline)
· GSPL : Mehsana -Bhatinda (about 1000 kms)
In addition, Govt. is also planning for the missing links by having pipelines to remote areas in order to
have regional balanc e and uniform development of gas infrastructure ac ross the country.
Opportunities for Power Sector
The existing Gas based power installed capacity in India as on Dec 31, 2009 is 17055.85 MW. Due to
gas shortage, substantial Gas based power capacities in India were remained s everely under-utilized
over the years, thereby putting large investments at risk. In a high power demand scenario, the
beneficiary customers of power were compelled to accept significant quantity of very high cost of power
generated on liquid fuel like Naphtha / Spot RLNG etc. As per Integrat ed Energy Policy, share of gas is
to increase from the present around 10% to around 16% by the year 2031-32. This is against the
corresponding worldwide figure of around 19%, which is expected to go up to around 24%. To sustain
GDP growth rates of 9-10% in India, power generation will necessarily have to be exploited from all
available sources viz. Coal, Hydel, Nuclear, Renewable etc. including Natural Gas. For India, though
coal will remain the main stay fuel for power generation, Natural Gas would play a key supplementary
role to harness the advantage of gas based power generation. With increasing availability of domestic
gas as well as import LNG in the country, Power Sector has following opportunities:
I. Better Utilization of Exi sting Gas based power stations
The inc reased availability of gas/ RLNG has resulted in better utilization of capacity for t he existing
Gas based power stations in the country. Power generation at gas based power plants registered a
growth rate of 30.92% during April-Dec 2009. The region wise average PLFs of gas based power
plants are given in t he table below. NTP C Gas based stations also registered improved performance
during the year 2009-10(upto Dec’09) with PLF of 77.52%.
April' 09 - Dec'09 April' 08 - Dec'08
Region G e ne r a ti o n PLF G e ne r a ti o n PLF (%)

(M U ) (%) (M U )
Nort hern 17025 72.75 15107.84 64.68
Western 31049 61.67 22597.14 58.42
Southern 18978 71.16 12687.26 52.61
Eastern 0.14 0.01 0 0
426
Nort h Eastern 3292.12 65.12 327631 64.81
All India 70344 65.91 53668.55 58.04
Source: CEA website :April – December (Provisional bas ed an actual-cum-assessment )
II. Addition of more Gas Based proj ects
With the availability of additional domestic gas/RLNG, there is an opportunity for planning of new Gas
based power projects in view of advantages of lower green house gases with less carbon footprint,
shorter gestation period, higher thermal efficiency, lower capital cost etc. The National Action Plan on
Climate Change also recommends additional gas based capacities based on new domestic gas
discoveries. Prime minister’s Economic Advisory Council has also advis ed t he same. Various
promoters have identified several green field/ brown field gas based projects in the country. Taking
advantage of CDM benefits will make the Gas based generation more competitive. NTPC, apart from
its Kawas & Gandhar expansion projects, have identified around 9300 MW Gas based power projects
for which Govt. has been requested to allocate gas so that project activities can be started. It may be
noted that Govt. needs to ensure faster development of the gas discoveries along with development
of adequate pipeline infrastructure. In view of implementation of new gas based power projects, it is
imperative for the Govt. to allocate gas for the identified projects on advance basis.
III. Pl anning for Peaking Gas based Power Stations
Most of the gas based power plants are installed for Bas e Load Generation. However, in view of
peaking shortages in the country and advant ages of gas based stations for their better response to
peak load requirement of grid and increasing availability of gas in t he country, P eaking gas based
plants can also be planned. However, this may require formulation of suitable policy by Government.
Challenges for Power Sector
Though increasing domestic gas/RLNG have given impet us to the gas market including Power sector,
following are the list of challenges needing address for power sector:
I. Competi tive Gas Price
In Gas based power generation, the fuel component in the power tariff is around 70%. Thus, the price
of gas should be appropriate for the fuel cost of generation to be competitive against the main
competing fuel i.e. coal. As discussed in previous para under Pricing of Natural Gas, there is a
requirement t o determine price of domestic gas by independent regulator on t he basis of cost plus
reasonable return, till the demand supply gap is bridged. In case of any linkage to alternate fuel, gas
price could be linked to t he competing fuel i.e. coal in power sector. In case there is any price pooling
of gas, the gas price for end consuming sectors may be fixed on the basis of price appetite of the
sectors. Since the price of LNG/ RLNG is linked to crude prices in line with international pricing, the
price gets exposed to increasing volatility. Hence, for power generation the proportion of domestic
gas should be kept higher as compared to RLNG to keep the overall cost of power generation
competitive.
II. Transportation Network
With the increasing availability of gas/ RLNG in the country, it has become mandatory to upgrade/
expand the gas pipeline net work. Henc e, the gas pipeline infrastructure should be planned &
implemented before the gas/ RLNG comes to the market. Otherwise, the transportation constraint
may impair t he capit al intensive assets like gas power plants. Further, there is need for intra and inter
427
pipeline systems connectivities, so that gas can be supplied/ diverted/ swapped as per requirement of
consumers.
III. E stabli shment of uniform Gas managem ent system and model GTA
The present scenario of multiple trans port ers operating on different platforms and different systems
have created confusion in daily allocation and scheduling by the Shippers/ consumers. There is a
strong requirement for a Gas Management System on a common platform with uniform system. For
non discretionary open access, the Regulator should develop model Gas Transportation Agreement
(GTA) in line with Regulation for Access code.
IV. Scheduling of Gas based generation
In power industry in India, the generation of power from various sourc es is generally on the basis of
merit order generation. Thus, the fuel cost of generation on natural gas/ RLNG should be competitive.
Moreover, by nature of all long-term cont racts of gas/RLNG, the supply is on firm ‘take or pay’ basis
where the power plants need to consume the requisite cont racted quantity of gas/RLNG during a
specific period (say annual basis). Thus, with gas /RLNG tied up from multiple sources/ suppliers,
there are challenges to offtake the gas at power plants in line with the gas agreement.
V. Optimization in Tax regime for Gas industry
Presently in the Gas industry, there are different types of taxes like CS T, Ent ry Tax, Local Sales tax/
VAT, Customs Duty for import of LNG etc. VAT/Local Sales Tax varies widely from state to state
ranging from 4% in Rajasthan to 21% in Utter P radesh. Thes e taxes and duties have substantial
impact on t he final gas price delivered at power plant boundary. To promote gas based generation to
make it competitive, Natural Gas/RLNG should be in the category of ‘Declared Goods’ so that uniform
Cent ral Sales Tax (CS T) is applicable on gas/RLNG, as in case of Coal. Further to promote use of
RLNG for power generation, Customs duty on LNG should be waived to make the RLNG more
competitive.
Conclusion
The increased availability of natural gas/ RLNG will have a positive impact on the Indian Power Sector
in view of t he advantages associated with natural gas, which has been a preferred fuel for power
generation world wide. However, Government needs to ensure timely development of the gas
discoveries and necessary infrastructure for t ransportation of gas with clear time frames. Down stream
customers like power plants can plan their activities simult aneously if gas is allocat ed in advance. The
policy/ regulat ory environment and the taxation regime need to be aligned accordingly to take
advantage of the low carbon intensity Gas based power generation.
*******************
References:
BP Stastical Review of World Energy 2009
PNGRB Act, 2006 and P NGRB Regulations
XI Plan document on Petroleum & Natural gas
Gas Utilization Policy
NELP Policy. PSC
Infraline database
CEA Website
428
CONDENSER TUBE LEAKAGE – A REVIEW ON DETECTION , CAUSES , IMPACT ON CYCLE
CHEMISTRY AND OPTIMUM MANAGEMENT APPROACH
A.K..Sahay
DGM(OS)
NTPC LTD
Introduction
It is an established fact that irrespective of the rating and configuration power utility units rely on high
purity water in the Condensate / Feed water cycle. Regardless of the type of Boiler Chemistry program
used, the utility boilers operate the condensate /Feed water system on all-Volatile treatment (AVT) i.e.
AVT(O) in case of all ferrous system while AVT( R ) when the Condensate / Feed water system has
mixed metallurgy i.e Copper alloys tube. It is important to note that both AVT(O) and AVT(R) regime
calls for low air in- leakage ( < 10 ppb Dissolved oxygen in Condenser ) and a relatively tight condenser
( ACC < 0.2 us/cm). The latter part i.e maintaining a leak proof condenser especially with older units as
well as units operating with brackish / sea water has always been a challenging task.
Sources of Condensate contamination
a) Condenser tube leakage : In almost all cases this has the largest potential impact.
b) Make up water impurities : Organics plus upset in make up water treatment can introduce
significant impurities. Contaminants can also be introduced into the make up or the
Condensate storage tanks. On line specific conductivity monitoring at DM make up
discharge line is handy for locating the upset in water treatment program and also facilitate
the timely intervention by the concerned group.
c) Impurities in Condensate /Feed water treatment chemicals : Contaminated / inferior grade
treatment chemicals can also introduce impurities into the condensate system.
d) Impurities in water used for chemical dilution is another potential problem.
e) Debris and contaminants remaining in hotwell. de-aerator, feed water train or boiler
following an outage.
From the above it is desirable that while investigating then deterioration of condensate quality , all
the above five sources needs to be investigated . But experience reveals that condenser leaks are
often the culprit.
Detection of Leakage
ON LINE MONITORING
Trend analysis of any one of the following online parameters to be monitored on continuous
basis
429
Parameters Values
Condensate Cation Once the value of cation conductivity of condensate
conductivity starts increasing from design value.
Sodium sodium value of condensate shows an increasing
trend from the recommended value
Boiler pH pH of boiler water starts drifting down ( i.e. < 8 or
below ). However in a few cases where C.W. Water
is alkaline, it may not exhibit this tendency
OFF LINE MONITORING

If any one of the above parameters ( A ) showing its respective trend as mentioned above, then the
following parameters needs to be checked on an hourly basis to further ascertain the trend:
· Silica in condensate
· Silica and Chloride in boiler
(Sodium in boiler water also to be monitored where AVT treatment is in practice)
· Silica in feed water
If the analytical values of above mentioned parameters show an increasing trend from their
respective recommended values , condenser tube seepage / leakage is confirmed.
Causes of Condenser leakage

a) Condenser in- leakage is typically the result of some type of perforation in the tube or some gap (
as imperfection )between the tube and the tube sheet. In some cases due to mechanical stresses
tubes can completely shear off leading to significant changes in the chemical parameters like
ACC / SiO2 in the condensate sample of the unit.
b) Another reason is the fact that that if during rolling of the condenser tubes into the tube sheet is
not done properly or if the rolled area is corroded
( as shown below ) , then cooling water getting drawn into the steam side through the gap
between the tube and then tube sheet is a strong possibility.
430
c) Also in case where the condenser is frequently backwashed to clean the mechanical debris
sticking on the tube sheets, the tiny gap between the tube and tube sheet gets widened slightly
and there by triggering off the ingress of cooling water into the steam-water cycle as the
condenser operates on vacuum.
d) Loosening / falling of the condenser tube plugs ( usually applied in the leaking tubes )
invariably leads to the ingress of cooling water into the steam- water system.
e) Fouling /Corrosion / Erosion of tubes :
( i) Copper alloys especially the admiralty brass are soft material and are quite susceptible to
flow induced inlet end corrosion. If the cooling water is raw water ( as in case of once
through system ), then erosion of even the relatively stronger copper alloys ( like Cu : Ni
90 : 10 ) are also observed due to sand /mechanical debris leading in the raw water.
( ii) Copper alloys are particularly affected when condensate ammonia level are on higher
side. The most vulnerable area is the support plate where ammonia usually gets
concentrated.
(iii ) It happens usually due to under deposit corrosion or Microbiologically influenced

corrosion. SS tubes are also vulnerable to MIC attack and other pitting mechanism.
Biofouling in Condenser tubes
431
The various damage mechanisms vis-a-vis the most commonly affected material is listed below.
Damage Mechanism Most Commonly Affected

Material(s)
Erosion-Corrosion Coppe r alloys
Sulphide Attack Coppe r alloys

Pitting Some Stainless Steels, Coppe r alloys
Crevice Corrosion Coppe r alloys, some Stainless Steels
Dealloying Coppe r alloys
Microbiologically Induced Coppe r alloys, Stainless Steels
Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion Requires susceptible combination of metals
Wate rside SCC Coppe r alloys, 300 Series Stainless Steels
Hydriding Titanium
Hydrogen Embrittleme nt Ferritic Stainless steels
Cleaning Damage Coppe r alloys most affected by mechanical
Cleaning damage.
Coppe r alloys & Stainless steels most affected
by chemical cleaning damage
Cavitation Damage from All materials potentially s usceptible
Tube Vibration
Impact of condenser Tube leakage

Impact of the leakage is profoundly dependent on the magnitude of leakage, the total dissolved solid of
cooling water and also the type of contaminants especially chloride. The recent trend of switching over
to zero discharge and operating the C.W. system at higher COC ( to leverage conservation of water and
cost of CW treatment ) invariably increases the TDS and consequently lowers the tolerance for the
leak.
432
Analysis of Circ. Amt of diff. Condensate Increase Increase in
Wate r constituents in flow, m3/hr in 1 hour 24 hr (ppb)
(RIVER) 1% of tube (ppb)
leak, g/hr
Param. Value ST 1 ST 2 ST ST 2 ST ST ST ST
1 1 2 1 2
pH 7.5 700 1500
Cond 115
TH 41 1.417 2.323 2.0 1.5 48.6 37.2
CaH 29 1.003 1.643 1.4 1.1 34.4 26.3
MgH 12 0.415 0.680 0.6 0.5 14.2 10.9
Cl 5 0173 0.283 0.2 0.2 5.9 4.5
SO4 12 0415 0.680 0.6 0.5 14.2 10.9
P-alk 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
M-alk 36 1.245 2.040 1.8 1.4 42.7 32.6
TDS 0 0 0 0 0 0
Na/K 12 0.415 0.680 0.6 0.5 14.2 10.9
SiO2 8.3 0.287 0.470 0.4 0.3 9.8 7.5
Reservoir CW Flow No. of Tubes in 1 Wate r 1%

Wate r m3/hr tubes pass flow/ flow/
tube tube
m3/hr L/hr
ST 1 27000 15620 7810 3.5 34.6
ST 2 70000 24710 12355 5.7 56.7
433
Analysis of Amt of diff. Conde Increase in 1 Increase in
Circ. Water constituents in nsate hour (ppb) 24 hr (ppb)
(SEAWATER) 1% of tube leak, flow,
g/hr m3/hr
Param. High Low High Low High Low High Low
pH 8.4 8
Cond 62280 270
TH 6350 70 224.118 2.471 700 320.2 3.5 7684 84.7
CaH 1100 50 38.824 1.765 55.5 2.5 1331.1 60.5
MgH 5250 20 185.294 0.706 264.7 1.0 6352.9 24.2
Cl 19896 46 702.212 1.624 1003.2 2.3 24075.8 55.7
SO4 0 0 0 0 0 0
P-alk 0 0 0 0 0 0
M-alk 190 50 6.706 1.765 9.6 2.5 229.9 60.5
TDS 29657 129 1046.72 4.538 1495.3 6.5 35887.6 155.6
3
Leak detection techniques

The commonly prevalent condenser tube leak detection techniques require the presence of a
vacuum. Normally this means that one pass is taken out of service with the remainder of the
condenser is in service thereby providing sufficient vacuum for testing. It is possible that in some
cases vacuum can be maintained for some time after a unit is shut down with vacuum pumps if
steam seals can be maintained.
Summary of available condenser tube leak detection techniques is as follows :
Method Vacuum required Online or Off line

Smoke/Candle Yes On line
Shaving cream yes On line
Plastic wrap Yes On line
Dimple plug Yes On line
Accoustic Yes On line
Helium Yes Online
Sulphur Hexafluoride Yes Onl line
Accoustic with Sound No Offline

Generator
Flooding No Offline
434
Smoke / Candle
Relatively old and low sensitivity techniques. The movement of air caused by the leak will pull the
candle flame towards the leaking tube. Though not very sensitive, this technique is relatively quick
in locating significant tube leaks.
Shaving cream / Foam

It is also a relatively low sensitive technique where one end of the tubes can be blocked and other
end is coated with a foam such as shaving cream. A leaking tube will pull the foam into the tube .
Plastic Wrap
Plastic wrap preferably with a good seal can be applied over both end of the tube . The plastic wrap
will be pulled into the leaking tubes by the vacuum.
Dimple plug
Dimple plugs are partially hallowed out rubber stoppers. These are placed in both ends of the tubes
in case there is blockage inside the time or if any blockage is suspected dimple plug is placed one
end and a rubber stopper palced in the other end. The vacuum generated by a leaking tube will pull
the membrane portion of the plug inward.
Acoustic
This is conducted with the condenser under vacuum. This technique can range from simply listening
of for the sound of air being drawn through the leak( ear test ) to the use of more sensitive acoustic
and ultrasonic instruments. The ear test in relatively less sensitive and requires substantial leak.
Acoustic and ultrasonic probe s can be inserted into individual tubes and sensitivity of the
instrument can be adjusted. Ultrasonic probe can pick up sounds in the ultrasonic range and
435
eliminate the low frequency sound produced by a no. of plant equipments. Frequency tuning also
increases the sensitivity .
Helium
Helium is used to locate both condenser leaks and air leaks. For condenser leaks the helium is
injected into a portion of the tube sheet and the vacuum pump exhaust tested with a helium mass
spectrometer. Here the skill of the operator is an important factor in ensuring its effectiveness.
Sulphur hexafluoride
The SF6 technique is akin to the helium method except the fact that as the instrument is more
sensitive , a smaller gas bottle is used and the equipment is more portable. Because of the
sensitivity of the technique , it is often possible to inject the gas into the circulating water with the
unit on line and detect the SF6 at the vacuum pump discharge. In this way, the condenser section
where the leak is occurring can be identified on line.
Flooding
As the name implies this can be done during shut down of the unit. The hotwell is filled with
condensate and water will appear in the leaking tube. It is imperative that the condenser is built to
stand the weight of the water. There are numerous refinements on this technique. Air drying the
436
tube sheet before filling the condenser will facilitate observation of the leak. With a fluorescent dye
being mixed in water and use of a torch light will improve the sensitivity of this technique. Here
care needs to be taken the some dyes contain Sodium or other potential impurities that could impact
feed water quality following the flooding procedure. For example uranine yellow is a common UV
reactive dye but contains sodium. It is desirable that dyes with low-sodium formula and non
carcinogen and cycle chemistry compatible dye needs to be used.
Combination of techniques
For expediting the leak detection , often the usage of more than one technique comes in handy. The
use of cation conductivity plus sp. conductivity on each of hotwell is used to determine the
particular condenser pass is leaking. The use of helium / SF6 to narrow down the search to a
section of the tubes and then used dimple plug / plastic wrap to determine the exact location of the
leak
Optimum management approach in a condenser leak situation

If the analytical values of parameters( as mentioned at point A in page 2 ) show an increasing
trend from their respective recommended values , condenser tube seepage / leakage is
confirmed. Once condenser tube leakage is confirmed, the unit must be taken under shutdown
subject to the following:
( i) * When the values of the parameters as mentioned above for boiler water is four
times of their respective recommended values.
OR
* When the parameters above have just started showing an increasing trend and it is
not possible to isolate each side of condenser to identify and attend the leakage
while the unit is on load the unit is to be taken under shut down.
( ii ) In case of the parameters above have just started showing an increasing trend and it is
possible to isolate each side of condenser to identify and attend the leakage while the
unit is on load then the following actions are to be carried out :
437
· boiler blow down to be 100 % opened
· Reduce drum pressure to meet the pressure versus Silica curve
· Put 100% condensate through CPU vessel ( if available )
· Feed sufficient Na3 PO4 to maintain boiler pH ( in case of units where AVT
treatment is in practice, suitable amount of ammonia is to be used for maintaining
the pH )
· Recommended steam quality to be maintained by keeping drum pressure within
limit as advised by the chemist
· To isolate one side of condenser at a time to identify and attend the leakage and
also to re-establish the recommended steam- water parameters maximum within
one week’s time failing which the unit is to be taken under shut down and the
leakage is to be attended.
( iii ) After the unit is taken under shutdown (due to any of the above circumstances )
Hotwell, Feed Storage Tank and Boiler are to be drained at the earliest opportunity as
permitted by unit operational parameters/ procedures and these equipments are to be
flushed with alkaline water (pH 9.5 –10 ) using suitable quantity of ammonia.
BOILER WATER CONTAMINATION

Irrespective of condenser tube leak, whenever boiler water reflects a pH of < 8, keep close watch by
frequent chemical analysis. In the event of the boiler water pH is drifting down below 7.5 the unit
should be taken under shut down immediately and draining and flushing of various equipments
should be carried as mentioned above.
Acknowledgement
Grateful thanks are due to Sh.A.K.Sinha , AGM(NETRA) for providing the values of chemical
parameters of circulating water during condenser leakage in different magnitude both in case of
River water and Sea water.
438
CONTROL OF BIOFOULING AND CONCOMITANT
BIO CORROSION USING CHLORINE DIOXIDE
N. Anbananthan
Ion exchange India Ltd
19/A, Phase II, IDA, Patancheru, Medak Dist, AP
ABSTRACT
Review of biofouling and its effect on corrosion is presented. The role of chlorine dio xide in controlling the
biofouling is addressed.
INTRODUCTION
Biofouling occurs due to the buildup of materials of biological orig in on an engineered surface. The surface in
contact with water forms a thin film (appro ximately 20–80 n m thick), due to the deposition of inorganic ions and
organic compounds of high molecu lar mass. This init ial film can alter the electrostatic charges and wettability of the
metal surface. This initial film serves as a substrate to which bacteria are attracted, are called chemotaxis. The
bacteria colonize on this layer and secrete muco-polysaccharides or exopolysaccharidic substances, which anchor on
the surface result in the build up of a biofilm [1]. It attracts more organic material fro m the water and mu ltiplies the
housing of micro organis m and their secretion of muco-polysaccharides [2]. M icrofouling can act as a precursor for
macrofouling [3].
Industrial cooling water system can be broadly classified into three different types viz., once through system, open
re-circulat ing system and closed loop system. In closed loop system the microbial gro wth is limited and primarily
associated with the make up water used to control the loss due to leak. However, in once through system and open
re-circulat ing system, the recurrence of microbial growth is inevitable as they are exposed directly to the
environment. Once through systems generally associated with sea water or river water as the cooling media. In such
cases, the biofilm is the constituent of both micro and macro organis m. In open recirculat ion system, the bio film
normally limited to micro organis m. However, in exceptional cases, the growth of macro-organis ms was observed.
The present article addresses the biofouling related problems present in these two types of industrial cooling water
system. The biofouling [4] in an industrial cooling water system lead to
· an increase in heat transfer resistance by the insulative properties of the biofilm.
· direct loss of conductive heat transfer efficiency
· reduction in flow turbulence leads to the reduction in convective heat transfer efficiency.
· creation of differential aeration cell and subsequent localized corrosion
· housing of anaerobic microorganism whose metabolites causes corrosion
· housing of pathogenic organism
· the development of resistant strains
Though the aforesaid problems are really causing lot of loss to the industrial operation, the corrosion damage is very
high. Besides the replacement cost, it accounts for shut down loss. Therefore, it is our aim to address the corrosion
phenomena.
Corrosion due to Biofouling

The volume of research work conducted on MIC enunciates that it was one of the important and most vulnerable
forms of corrosion. MIC occurs due to biofouling. The biofilm alters the passive or active behavior of the metallic
substrate and its corrosion products, as well as the electrochemical variab les used for assessing corrosion rates [5,6].
The understanding of MIC is a continuous process [7,8]. M icrobial co lonization of metal surfaces drastically
changes the classical concept of the electrical interface. Biofouling weakens or breaks the anodic passivity in the
first step. The role of SRB is indirect, through the production of final metabolites (sulfides, bisulfides, hydrogen
sulfide) or intermed iate metabolites (thiosulfates, polythionates) that are corrosive to carbon steel. Cathodic effects,
such as cathodic depolarization, which have been attributed to either SRB hydrogenase or iron sulfide films, develop
at a later stage. The corrosive action of biogenic sulfides can be enhanced by other corrosive ions already present in
the biofilm (e.g. ch lorides).
439
Biofouling Monitoring
Biofouling is normally mon itored through a biofouling monitor operated by differential pressure methodology. This
method gives indicates biofilm formation in the pipeline. It is a known fact that biofouling is concomitant with
corrosion phenomena. Therefore, the identification o f b iofilm format ion tendency in early period is much helpful to
control MIC.
In addition, monitoring programs include the assessment of planktonic populations in water samp les and generalized
corrosion by using corrosion coupons or some kind of resistance or polarization resistance probes. Results from
these methods are indicative than actual. One of the primary reasons is that planktonic populations do not properly
reflect the types and numbers of o rganisms living in b iofilms and causing corrosion. Moreover, the susceptibility of
planktonic microorganisms to antimicrobial agents markedly differs fro m that of sessile microorganis ms within the
biofilm, mainly because of the protective action of the EPS.
The electrical resistance method is widely used in the industry for corrosion assessment. It is only appropriate for
indicating a change in the general corrosion rate, but the results are difficult to interpret in the presence of localized
corrosion such as pitting, the most frequent form o f attack found in MIC [9]. Due to the formation of biofilm there
is a change in polarization resistance. This method also gives an indication but may not give an accurate measure of
the corrosion. There is also a need for monitoring methods which would provide in formation on well-established
biofilms such as those that develop in water systems and also provide info rmation about corrosion in its early stage.
The microbial induced corrosion is mon itored thorough impedance spectroscopy [10]. This method requires skills to
do the experiment an also to interpret the impedance data. The direct use of this system in the field is a d ifficult task.
An electrochemical sensor for monitoring biofilms on metallic surfaces in real time was developed [11]. One of the
advantageous of this system is that it can be used in the field directly. It does not require any sophisticated
instrumentation and interpretation skills. This system provides an immediate indication of the condition of bio logical
activity on probe surfaces and it is a powerfu l tool to optimize b iocide t reatment [12]. It is based on the application
of a known voltage signal during testing and measure the current flow. The current is tracked on a daily basis, and a
significant increase in that current indicates the onset of biofilm formation. The difference in the magnitude of the
applied current fro m the baseline (the applied current in the absence of biofilm) provides a measure of bio film
activity. This kind of device has been successfully used jointly with integrated data acquisition and data analysis
capabilit ies for mon itoring b iofilm activ ities on metallic surfaces to optimize biocide addit ions in a p lant [12]. To
our knowledge, the use of this technique to monitor the efficiency of chlorine dio xide is not available in the
literature. On understanding the basic principles, we strongly believe that this is a very simple and effective tool to
monitor the biofouling and would defin itely helpfu l to control the microbiologically induced corrosion.
CONTROL OF B IOFOULING IN WATER S YSTEMS

The goal of disinfect ion for industrial cooling systems is the removal or minimization of any biofilm, [13]. Chemical
treatment offers a better control. A biodispersant is used prior to the dosing of biocide to enable it to reach the
microbial population housed inside the biofilms. The co mmon biocides used for the microbial control in the water
system include o xidizing and non o xidizing biocides. The o xid izing b iocides include chlorine, bro mine, o zone,
hydrogen peroxide peracetic acid etc. Chlorine is co mmonly used as an oxidizing biocide. Various studies were
conducted to improve its efficacy [14,15]. One of the important disadvantageous chlorine is its inability to penetrate
into biofilm. Therefore, its activity is limited to the plan kotonic organism and not on the sessile one. Ozone is
known to be a very effective biocide. 50pp m of ozone is required to reduce the biofouling of corrosion in cooling
water system [16]. The environ mentally friendly peracetic acid needs to be dosed at very high concentration in its
formulat ion form. The high quantity demand of o zone and peracetic acid makes it economically unviable.
The demand of ch lorine is very high when a system is contaminated with ammonia. To overco me such issue the
bromination was recommended initially by all cooling tower chemical suppliers. Bro mine in the form of sodium
bromide or on-site bro mine release co mpounds with out the aid of ch lorine type o xidants. It performed well in
controlling the microbial gro wth in the running water. Despite this there are severe failures occur in the cooling
water circuit. Bro mine has been shown to be significantly better than chlorine with regard to biofilm control by
some researchers[17]. Ho wever, few others reported that there were litt le difference between chlorine and
bromine[18]. Our own experience show that bromine is better or equal to chlorine, and is purely on the type of
contamination and the degree of fouling.
440
ClO2 is found to be more effective in controlling b iofouling[19]. It has got a strong anti-vegetative effect and is
able to lessen the development of the primary slime. They are able to reduce the bio mass by weakening the
polymeric matrix and the number and type of the “Pioneer species (diato ms, cyanophyceae, silicoflagellate etc)
which have a market tendency to colonize the surface promoting biofouling. [20,21]. Co mparison of the efficiency
of UV irradiat ion and ClO2 treat ment on the biofilm formation in a public drinking water system was studied in
detail. [22]. It was found that some of e-coli species could sustain UV disinfection barrier and persist in the biofilm
but not with ClO2 . ClO2 maintained total bacteria (microscopic counts) and heterotrophic plate count levels below
2×105 cells/mL and 1000 CFU/ mL, respectively. The change in disinfectant fro m chlorine to ClO2 led to an 85%
reduction in t rihalo methanes (i.e., fro m 30 to 5 µ g/L) and a 60% reduction in haloacetic acids (i.e., fro m 20 to 8
µ g/L). [23]. The effect of ClO2 on biofilm was reported by Simpson et al [24].
Many researchers have cited the excellent b iofilm remov ing properties of ClO2 . The effect of ClO2 on the biofilm
control in recycled water system was reported by in late seventies by Synan [25-29]. The use of ClO2 to control
biofouling and associated corrosion problem in various industries were studied in detail [30-34]. In a case history,
the introduction of ClO2 into a heavily fouled cooling system resulted in an increase in both turbidity and calciu m
concentration [35] These were exp lained by a dispersing of the biofilm, which both increased turbidity and released
small calciu m carbonate particulates which had been trapped in the biofilm.
The performance of ClO2 was consistent in controlling the microbial growth especially when the system is
contaminated with ammon ia. ClO2 not only controls the growth of microbes but also its regrowth. One possible
reason for the relatively slow re-growth of bacteria after sterilization by ClO2 lies that its present in water for long
time due to its non reactivity with water and other pollutants commonly p resent in cooling water circuit. By
effectively killing and stripping off any biofilm, bacteria are much slower to re-establish than when the biofilm is
left intact. One more advantageous over the use of ClO2 is the by product chlorate is bacteriostatic agent. Therefore,
even after ClO2 consumption, the system is prevented from microbial growth.
It is suggested to make a slug dose than a continuous dosage for cooling water treat ment programme. In once
through system also such type of slug dose gives better result with out affecting the economics of the treatment. To
control of microbial growth, it is reco mmended to use 1 ppm of ClO2 in open recirculating system. If the system is
heavily fouled, in itially the dosage is increased to 2 ppm fo r a period of one month. This helps to remove the
biofilms deposited in the system. When the biofilm dislodges from the system the water turb idity increases. There
are instances that dead biomass float on the water surface. They usually need to be collected manually or strainers.
When ClO2 is used in a cooling circuit, the ORP values of the water g ive an indication about the presence of ClO2 . It
is not a quantitative method but can be a tool to monitor the system qualitatively.
ClO2 ORP values

ClO2 ORP values
800 900
750 800
700
ORP values in mV vs. SCE
ORP values in mV vs. SCE
700
650 600
600
500
550
400
500
300
450
200
400
100
350
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0 5 10 15 20 25
Concentration in mg/L
Concentration in mg/L
Figure 1:ORP values of chlorine dioxide in water at Figure 2:ORP values of chlorine dioxide in water at
low concentration high concentrations.
The ORP values between 550 and 650 are normally maintained to control the bacterial population and biofouling.
Figure 1 shows that the ORP corresponds to 0.4 pp m. The ORP values remains almost constant beyond 750 mV.
There was no significant increase in ORP beyond 2 ppm (Figure 2). Therefore one should be very careful in
maintaining the ORP values in the cooling water system. If the ORP values are exceeding 700 in the cooling tower it
is an indication that the ORP may be due to chlorine or bro mine. In such cases, it won’t stay for a long time and the
441
ORP values drops below 500 mV. In case of ClO2 , the ORP would be stable for a long time. Usually the demand for
ClO2 would be higher in itially and in those periods the ORP values may not be stable. Once the system is stabilized
we can believe the ORP values to certain extend.
The analysis of low concentration of ClO2 is possible through DPD method in presence of glycine with out the
interference of chlo rine. Standard test kits are available in the market fro m the water treat ment chemical suppliers.
Daily monitoring of ClO2 concentration by this chemical method is advisable for effective control o f bio logical
growth and biofouling accumu lation in the system.
ClO2 is also found to be more effective biocide in cooling water treat ment system which uses sea water [36]. ClO2
has allowed minimizing the growing of both micro and macro-fouling inside cooling systems of power stations and
petrochemical plant at very low dosage rate. [37]. At a steel plant in Southern Italy, 120,000 M 3 /h of sea water are
taken fro m a sea water basin with a limited water exchange with the open sea. The ClO2 demand of the feed water is
between 1.2 and 1.8 mg/l. Initially 0.5 pp m of ClO2 was used though out the day. Further it was optimized to 12
hours per day [38]. ClO2 was used to control the development of macro-fouling (equivalent to 25 Kg/M 2 per year) in
the cooling water of an Italian 1260 MW power p lant that uses 120,000 M 3 /h of sea water. The treat ment was
applied continuously dosing fro m 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l of ClO2 , equivalent to an annual average of 0.13 mg/l [39]. A case
study on the use of ClO2 for sea water based cooling system reported that 0.1 ppm of ClO2 effectively removes the
biofouling on 20 days exposure. In addition, there were no adhesive species present in the system. It was suggested
that 0.1pp m should be made as a shock dose per day while a continuous dosage is required, 0.05 to 0.25 pp m is
sufficient. However, in order to remove the heavily fouled system, it is reco mmended to maintain a high
concentration of 0.5 pp m only for few hours for a month period. It was observed that lower doses of ClO2 and
shorter contact time are good enough to obtain maximu m mo rtality of mussels of different size [40].
ACTION OF CLO2 ON MICROB ES AND B IOFILMS

The antimicrobial activ ity of ClO2 is extremely broad spectrum. It is highly effective against gram negative and
gram positive, aerobic and anaerobic, spore forming and non spore forming pathogenic and saprophytic bacteria.
This includes bacterial spores, one of the most resistant forms of microbial life to d isinfection. The broad spectra
also include organisms such as algae and protozoans, including Cryptosporidiu m, Microsporicliu m and Giardia
lamblia. ClO2 is also effect ive against molds and yeasts -. both categorized as fungi.
Microbes have two differing cell types, prokaryotic and eukaryotic structures. Most bacteria have the more
simp listic prokaryotic cell type, where enzy mes are located just inside the cellu lar membrane. These locations come
under oxidative attack almost immed iately fro m ClO2 and therefore these cell types are most rapidly destroyed.
Fungi and protozoa are of the eukaryotic cell type, where their en zy me systems are located deeper within the cell
structure and therefore are slightly mo re resistant to rapid destruction. Bacterial spores have many layers of
protective material surrounding them and therefore are more resistant. For examp le, a vegetative bacterial cell may
require only 30 seconds exposure to ClO2 for cell death to occur, while its spore form may require 5 minutes.
The mechanism of action by wh ich ClO2 inactivates microorganis ms was not entirely well understood. It was known
that ClO2 destroys microbes by attacking their cell walls (or viral envelopes) and interfering with essential protein
formation. ClO2 is a “rad ical species”. It is stabilized as a radical through the delocalization of its unpaired electrons.
The unpaired electron of the ClO2 radical is localized on o xygen atom. [41]. It is a true gas even when it is dissolved
in water. Therefore, it is able to penetrate through the cell wall of the micro organism and biofilms. Once ClO2
penetrates the cell wall, it starts its reaction with the vital amino acids in the cytoplasm of the cell, thus killing the
organism. Thus, it can easily control plan ktonic (free floating) bacteria. The gas molecules of ClO2 in water can also
penetrate the sessile bacteria containing b iofilm layer. Further it loosens and releases it fro m the walls of the
cooling tower system.
Experiments were conducted to understand the mechanism of ClO2 action on microbes and bacteria. In this attempt,
the reactivity of ClO2 , rad ical with 20 amino acids and 3 proteins using an ESR method was analyzed in order to
understand the mechanism of ClO2 interaction with amino acids. The ESR signal was strongly quenched by adding
L-Tyr, L-Trp, L-Cys, and all the proteins. This result indicates ClO2 reacts with these amino acids and proteins of
the micro organisms and it explains the disinfection mechanis m of ClO2 . [42]. It is evident that ClO2 is reactive
toward amino acids through radical transfer mechanism. Due to the radical nature and the gaseous form of the
mo lecule, it is able to penetrate the cell walls of the micro-organis m and tough biofilms.
442
CONCLUS ION
Chemically, ClO2 is the proven and effective biocide. The method and quantity of ClO2 is to be designed based on
demand. Though the cost and generation of ClO2 are little prohibit ive, the final performance on the control of
biofouling is significant. The monitoring and preventive action is very much essential to control biofouling and the
associated corrosion.
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444
“Use of degraded water at Badarpur Power Station and improving efficiency &
life of the plant components”
Ashwini K. Sinha
AGM (NETRA)
ABSTRACT
Obtaining good quality water for power generation is becoming very difficult especially for
rivers like Yamuna at Delhi. As per the data domestic and industrial waste water loading in
Yamuna in Delhi suddenly increases by 2100 Million Litres per Day (MLD). Yamuna is relatively
clean before entering Delhi but after Delhi pollutant levels are very high. Delhi generates large
quantities of sewage. At present, the total quantity of sewage generated is 2871 MLD whereas
the total capacity of the sewage treatment plants in Delhi is 1478 MLD. The remaining 48%
untreated sewage (1393 MLD) finds its way into the Yamuna river through the 19 major drains
which carry sewage and industrial effluents from the city. As a result, the quality of water in the
river has been deteriorating.
Power plants which are at the downstream of Yamuna in Delhi or nearby region, get the
contaminated water containing high amount of untreated sewage and organic matter. This
contaminated water causes many operational problems such as high conductivity in DM water;
high conductivity in SPU; lowering of boiler water pH; increase condenser & boiler tube
leakages; etc. Such waters have to be treated properly and since proper treatment is not being
undertaken by concerned municipal authorities, power plant management is left with no other
alternative but to undertake suitable treatment at their end. The treatment required will consist
of pretreatment; secondary treatment to remove untreated sewage/organic matter; tertiary
treatment to remove suspended matter & disinfection; followed by DM streams for boiler water
and specialized chemical treatment to control scaling, fouling, corrosion & biofouing in Cooling
water system.
The present paper intends to highlight the processing required for such waters for use in power
plant applications along with other measures that are required such as internal coating of
condenser tubes; cathodic protection with anticorrosive coatings for condenser water boxes;
recirculation of cooling water; treatment of CW blow down for recycling; etc, for improving
availability, reliability and efficiency of power plant taking case of Badarpur Power station.
Key Words:
Effluent; Sewage; Sewage Treatment Plants (STP); Waste water treatment; Recycling; chemical
treatment; primary treatment; secondary treatment; tertiary treatment; anticorrosive coatings;
internal coatings for condenser tubes; cathodic protection; cycles of concentration; etc.
445
Introduction:
Steam electric power plants produce electricity by heating purified water to create high-
pressure steam. The steam expands inside turbines, driving the generators that produce
electricity. After leaving the turbines, the steam must be cooled. In the India, nearly all steam
electric plant cooling relies on water as the heat sink. Steam passes through a condenser that
has multiple tubes and a large surface area. A large volume of cool water circulates through the
tubes, absorbing heat from the steam. As the steam cools and condenses, the temperature of
the cooling water rises.
Water-based cooling systems follow either once-through or closed-cycle designs. Once-through

cooling systems withdraw large volumes of water — typically in the range of tens of millions to
billions of gallons per day from a river, lake, estuary, or ocean. The water is pumped through
the condenser in a single pass and returned to the same or a nearby water body. Although the
water withdrawal rates are very high, most of the water is subsequently returned to the water
body.
Closed-cycle cooling systems receive their cooling water from and return it to a cooling tower
and basin, cooling pond, or cooling lake. Because evaporation and planned cooling tower
Badarpur power station consisting of 3 X 95 MW (Stage 1) and 2 X 210 MW is situated at the

downstream of Yamuna in Delhi (Agra Canal). Okhla Sewage treatment plant is at the upstream
of Badarpur. As per some published data on the web 1 “sewage generated in Delhi is around
2871 MLD whereas the total capacity of the sewage treatment plants in Delhi is 1478 MLD. The
remaining 48% untreated sewage (1393 MLD) finds its way into the Yamuna river through the
19 major drains which carry sewage and industrial effluents from the city. Okhla sewage
treatment plant has a capacity of 635 MLD whereas the actual flow is of the order of around
595 MLD”. This means around 40 MLD of sewage is bypassed besides other untreated waste
water coming from upstream. All this untreated sewage is passed on to Yamuna which flows
out of Delhi. Some portion of Yamuna is taken for irrigation purposes through Agra Canal. Agra
Canal provides water to Badarpur for DM and Cooling water applications.
The paper intends to highlight the problems associated with using degraded water at Badarpur
and intends to provide a comprehensive solution to the problem (using a combination of
technology to treat the sewage in the water, chemical treatment for cooling water, recycling of
waste water (near zero liquid discharge), application of anticorrosive coating & cathodic
protection of condenser water boxes, possibility of applying anticorrosive/antifouling coating in
the inside of condenser tubes, possibility of retrofitting the condenser tube with more
corrosion resistant material, etc (summary depicted in Fig. 4). The paper intends to discuss the
issues connected with likely solutions. It is hoped that detailed discussions can be held to arrive
at most appropriate solution.
446
Problems Experienced:
Water quality at Badarpur is heavily burdened with untreated sewage & organic matter (both
dissolved & undissolved). The water also contains lot of other pollutants & nutrients. Net result
of all this is that the water available at Badarpur is neither fit for DM plant application nor for
cooling applications.
1. Problems faced in CW system (Once through mode of cooling water) because of poor water
quality:
- Despite the provision of Bar Screen and Travelling water screen at Control Structure Pump
House some of the Floating debris pass along with the raw water & causes choking in cond.
tubes resulting in reduced flow through some of the tubes and increased flow through
other tubes. Condenser vacuum also gets adversely affected resulting in generation loss. To
avoid this backwashing of condenser is carried out.
- Backwashing results in heavy vibration affecting the life of cond. Tubes and also causing
tube leakages/ seepages and high ACC in cond. water
-Due to abnormal ACC, difficulty in maintaining Boiler water alkalinity resulting in tube
failures.
- Abnormally high concentration of Microbes present in raw water causing microbiological

fouling and corrosion, resulting frequent failure of condenser tubes.
To check Microbiological growth in open cycle is not techno economically feasible,

therefore the system needs to be modified to closed cycle with chemical treatment.
• Raw water (sewerage) due to high organics does not get clarified even after three
stages of clarification for DM generation.
• For auxiliary cooling, there is only one stage of clarification resulting in poor clarified
water quality. This demands:
- Frequent cleaning of stator water cooler,
- Frequent cleaning of Generator gas cooler to maintain cold gas temperature,
- Frequent cleaning of BFP working oil & lube oil coolers to maintain oil
temperature.
- Compressor inter stage coolers/after cooler/jacket cooling is not effective due

to poor water quality,
447
- Fouling / corrosion takes place in motor bearing coolers (e.g., CW pump, CEP)
due to poor quality of clarified water.
- Bowl mills oil bath temp runs high in the summer due to poor quality of
clarified water.
2. Problems faced in DM plant:
During canal closure in summer, township STP effluents are used for making DM water,
this results in better clarification but due to very high ionic load & high Silica to the tune of
approx. 30 ppm, OBR of streams gets reduced drastically resulting in frequent regeneration &
high chemical consumption.
• DM conductivity: 0.4 – 0.5 Us/cm (usual) (Desired <0.1Us/cm)

• DM conductivity In Summer: 1.0 – 1.5 Us/cm at MB outlet.
• Conductivity of DM water further increases on storage.
(On storage from 1.1 Us/cm it reaches 13.5 Us/cm in four days, this has been verified in
lab also.)
• DM water TOC : 2.2 – 3.8 ppm (Desired <0.3 ppm)
3. Problems faced in the cycle chemistry:
• Steam TOC : 0.25 -0.46 ppm(Desired<0.1ppm)

• Steam ACC : 0.4- 0.7 US/cm (Desired <0.2 Us/cm)
• As a result of all this there is drop in pH of boiler water up to 8.0 (sometimes) ,makes it
prone to corrosive attack, requires addition of Caustic soda for pH control.
• Stator water resistivity goes down, to counter this problem SPU’s have been installed in
Unit-IV & V.
4. Water Quality:
The designed and actual water quality of the station is as given below:
Parameter Design Water analysis Present Raw Water

analysis
Conductivity (us/cm) 1300 1000-1800
pH 7.0 – 8.0
Ca –Hardness (mg/l as CaCO3) 240 70 - 280
Mg –Hardness (mg/l as CaCO3) 64 50 - 130
448
Total –Hardness (mg/l as CaCO3) 304 120 - 410
Sodium + Potassium (mg/l as CaCO3) 306 140 - 444
Total Cations (mg/l as CaCO3) 612 260 - 844
M-Alk. (mg/l as CaCO3) 326 140 - 460
Sulphates (mg/l as CaCO3) 72 20 - 140
Chlorides (mg/l as CaCO3) 214 90 - 220
Total Anions (mg/l as CaCO3) 612 260 - 844
Fe as Fe mg/l 0.1 0.2 – 0.6
Silica as SiO2 ,mg/l 13 12 – 33.6
Chlorine Demand ,mg/l 120 - 210
BOD, mg/l 40 - 60
COD, mg/l 60 -140
TOC, mg/l 32 – 43.4
Total Bacteriological Count 5.0 X 10*6 counts/ml
Total Fungal Count 10 counts/ml
Acid Producing Bacteria > 1600/100ml
Nitrifying Bacteria 20/100 ml
De Nitrifying Bacteria 5/100 ml
Sulphate Reducing Bacteria > 1600/100ml
ClO2 demand 30 – 35 ppm
Studies conducted:
The water quality at Badarpur has a wide variation even during a year and over the years. As a
matter of fact water the water quality varies substantially during a day itself and causes lot of
upsets in the plant operation. These upsets are mainly due to the fact that there is no control
on quality of water and lot of untreated sewage & organic matter is present in the input water.
The table 1 presents the minimum, maximum & average values of different constituents of
449
Badarpur water during the last few years. Fig. 1 depicts the general layout of water system at
Badarpur. Table 2 indicates the values of maximum values of different chemical constituents at
higher COC (uptil 8 COC) of the Badarpur water in 2009 – 10 including saturation indices at
different COC. Observation of the saturation indices data clearly indicates that even in once
through condition the water is slightly scaling in nature. However; due to very high
microbiological activities the water is corrosive in nature. It is apparent that the water has to be
made suitable for use as either feed to DM plant or as a make up to cooling waters.
The same water with alkali adjusted to 200 (Table 3) shows similar behaviour but the water can
be easily treated to prevent scaling, fouling, corrosion and biofouling. If the alkalinity of the
water is adjusted to 80 ppm (with sulphuric acid) (Table 4) the water is slightly in corrosive
range till about 2.5 COC after which it becomes scaling in nature but it can be chemically
treated till even 8 COC (till about RSI 4). However, this calculation is based on the raw water
quality (Maximum values in 09-10). It is expected once pretreatment is carried out the quality
of water will be changing. That water is expected to be more suited for use in cooling water
system.
Table 5 gives the data on retubing of condensers in different units at Badarpur. Recently during
health assessment of condensers by eddy current inspection of unit # II, indicated that many of
the tubes have suffered from pitting, corrosion, loss of thickness, etc. Also it is understood that
some more tubes of unit # 2 were recently replaced. This data indicates that condenser tubes
are getting severely corroded. Failure investigations of such condenser tubes has indicated that
the failure is due to localized corrosion and microbiologically induced corrosion from the water
side, though a few tubes had suffered due to Ammonia grooving/steam side impingement.
The samples of condenser tubes were investigated for causes of failure. The samples were vertically cut
into two pieces and the surfaces were observed. The surfaces of the tubes were covered with (Blackish-
brown) deposits that were unevenly spread over the surfaces. Some pitting and corrosion marks were
also observed. (Photographs 1 - 3). The tube samples were also observed under scanning electron
microscopy and deposits analysed through EDS at National Physical Laboratory (NPL). Pitting and
corrosion was observed on the tube surface (Photographs 4 - 6). Sulphide was detected in the deposit
Refer EDS analysis report of NPL (Fig. 2). This suggested corrosion due to microbiological
fouling/pollutants.
S.No. Unit # Condenser A – Condenser A – Condenser B – Condenser B –

Top Half Bottom Half Top Half Bottom Half
1. I March 1998 March 1998 March 1998 March 1998
2. I Oct. 2007 Nov. 2005 Oct. 2007 Nov. 2005
3. II Apr. – May 1998 Apr. – May 1998 Apr. – May 1998 Apr. – May 1998
4. II March 2007 March 2007 March 2007 March 2007
5. III Sep. 1997 Sep. 1997 Sep. 1997 Sep. 1997
6. III July 2007 Dec. 2005 July 2007 Dec. 2005
7. IV Apr. – May 1997 Nov. 1999 Apr. – May 1997 Nov. 1999
450
8. IV March – Apr. March – Apr. March – Apr. March – Apr.
2008 2008 2008 2008
9. V March 2002 Nov. 2000 – Jan. March 2002 Nov. 2000 – Jan.
2001 2001
10. V - 695 tubes Aug. 157 Tubes Aug. 2246 Tubes Aug.
2007 2007 2007
Corrosion of Copper Alloys:
Cu2+ + 2e - = Cu
Copper dissolves anodically in most aqueous environments forming the divalent ion Cu2+ .
Equilibrium relations at the metal surface indicate that the reaction Cu + Cu2+ Û 2Cu+ is
displaced to the left on the other hand if complexes are formed, as for example, between
Cu+ & Cl- in a chloride solution, continuous depletion of copper ions take place forming
CuCl2.
Polluted waters are identified as one of the most important factor in the failure of copper
based condenser tubes. The attack of copper containing materials by polluted waters has
been studied by number of authors. The primary causes of accelerated attack of copper
base alloys in polluted water are (1) the action of sulphate reducing bacteria, under
anaerobic conditions (for example in bottom muds or sediments), on the natural sulphates
present in water and (2) the putrefaction of organic sulphur compounds from decaying
plant and animal matter within water systems. Partial putrefaction of organic sulphur
compounds may also result in the formation of organic sulphides, such as cystine or
glutathione, which can cause pitting in cooling waters. Even low levels of sulphide (0.01
ppm) can result into pitting of copper nickel alloys in high chloride aerated waters. Velocity
of cooling water is also critical. In addition ammonia is detrimental to copper based alloys
causing general, pitting and stress corrosion to copper alloys.
In case of Badarpur water sulphide is present along with ammonia & other micronutrients
from the untreated sewage. Chloride and sulphate are also high. The microbiological
loading is high and the situation becomes worse with all sorts of micronutrients present in
the system. Even debris and dead organic matter (such as leaves, plant materials, remains
of dead animals, etc) contribute towards biofouling and subsequently to microbiologically
induced corrosion (MIC). No pretreatment/post treatment is given to the cooling waters
and the tubes are also uncoated/unpassivated. A combination of all these factors is
responsible for the accelerated corrosion/fouling of condenser tubes. This in turn reduces
plant efficiency and increases condenser tube leakage which affects the boiler tubes also.
Corrosion Control & Performance Improvement Options for Badarpur Cooling Water
System:
1. Pre-treatment of raw water to remove organic matter:
451
As the water quality is bad with lot of untreated sewage & organic matter, the first step
is to treat the raw water. Considering the nature of raw water it is essential that a
suitable sewage treatment technology is adopted to remove the waste material and
organic matter. The basic treatment philosophy for such a treatment is depicted in Fig.
3. There are three possibilities a) NTPC ties up with Delhi Jal Board (DJB) for supplying
treated water to Badarpur including pipeline at suitable price; b) Delhi Jal Board treats
the water through an exclusive plant to be set up (may be by NTPC) and NTPC lays &
maintains the pipeline for supply of treated water to Badarpur; and c) NTPC sets up &
operates and maintains a treatment plant at or around Badarpur. In the possibility a)
NTPC has to tie up Delhi Jal Board for either supplying the required quantity of treated
water through their pipelines or NTPC ties up with DJB for setting up an exclusive plant
(financed by NTPC) to be operated & maintained by DJB for Badarpur only. In the
possibility b) NTPC ties with to supply treated water through pipeline owned &
maintained by NTPC to Badarpur. In the possibility C) NTPC has to set up a suitable
sewage treatment plant (STP) based on technology suited to Badarpur raw water. The
major hurdle is availability of sufficient land at Badarpur. As regards selection of
technology NETRA has already taken up a project with IIT Delhi to identify a technology
that will treat Badarpur raw water and requires least space. (It is expected by March
2010 this job will be completed).
The different technologies for treatment of sewage water are as indicated below:
· Activated sludge · Distillation · Parallel plate oil-

systems · Desalination water separator
· Constructed Soil Filter · EcocyclET systems · Recirculating Sand
· Advanced Oxidation · Electrocoagulation Filter
Process · Electrodeionization · Reed bed
· Aerated lagoon · Electrolysis · Retention basin
· Aerobic granular reactor · Electro-Fenton process · Reverse osmosis
· Aerobic treatment · Expanded granular · Rotating biological
system sludge bed digestion contactor
· Anaerobic clarigester · Facultative lagoon · Sand filter
· Anaerobic digestion · Fenton's reagent · Septic tank
· API oil- water separator · Flocculation & · Sequencing batch
· Anaerobic lagoon sedimentation reactor
· ATP test · Fluidized Bed Biofilter · Sewage treatment
· Bead Filter · Flotation process · Stabilization pond
· Belt press · Froth flotation · Submerged aerated
· Bioconversion of · Fuzzy Filter filter [4][5]
biomass to mixed · Humanure · Treatment pond
alcohol fuels (composting) · Trickling filter
· Bioreactor · Imhoff tank · Ultrafiltration
· Bioretention · Iodine (industrial)
· Biorotor · Ion exchange · Ultraviolet
452
· Bioroll · Life Saver bottle disinfection
· Biolytix · Living machines · Upflow anaerobic
· Carbon filtering · Maceration (sewage) sludge blanket
· Cesspit · Membrane bioreactor digestion
· Chlorine disinfection · Nanotechnology · Upflow Sludge
· Combined sewer · NERV (Natural Blanket Filtration
· Composting toilet Endogenous (USBF)
· Constructed wetland Respiration Vessel) · Wet oxidation
· Dark fermentation · N-Viro
· Dissolved air flotation
As seen from Table 5, in once through cooling water system around 104000 m3/hour water
which makes it economically unviable to provide any kind of treatment to the raw water. To
make a viable treatment it will be necessary to make the system a re-circulatory and treat the
make-up water only. At around 5 COC the quantity to be treated is around 3500 m3/hour which
means a STP of around 85 MLD is required for Badarpur.
453
2. Converting the once through CW system to re-circulating mode and adopting chemical
treatment to control scaling, fouling, corrosion and biofouling:
As indicated in Table 2 the water has slightly scaling nature even in once through mode
as per saturation indices, however; these saturation indices only take into account
parameters responsible for scaling but do not take into account the microbiological
factors that are responsible for fouling, biofouling and MIC. Presence of any of the 4
factors namely scaling, fouling, biofouling and corrosion lead to occurrence of other
454
situation. The same water after adjusting the alkalinity to 80 ppm with sulphuric acid
becomes corrosive in nature till over 6 COC (Table 4)
For any successful cooling water treatment program it is necessary that all 4, i.e. scaling,
fouling, biofouling and corrosion are taken care of. Technically it is possible to provide a
chemical and mechanical treatment in once through systems, however; it would be cost
prohibitive. In order to have a techno-economically viable treatment option it is
necessary that the cooling water system is converted into a re-circulated system and
using a combination of STP, Badarpur specific chemical treatment & recycling of waste
water, the water can be used safely at higher COC (5 +). As indicated in Table 5 at 5 COC
the make-up water requirement for the station is around 2800 m3/hour. Thus around
3500 m3/hour of water needs to be treated by STP and specific chemical treatment
developed for STP treated water at Badarpur. The cooling tower blow down can be
recycled after treatment with ultrafilteration and reverse osmosis and the treated water
can be used as input to DM plant and balance treated water can be mixed with cooling
water make-up. This will ensure that DM plant gets good quality input water without
employing additional STP and reduce chemical consumption for DM plant besides
reducing boiler tube failure. This will be much more applicable if at later stage a decision
is taken to retire the stage 1 units and a gas based station is planned at Badarpur.
3. Anticorrosive coatings and application of cathodic protection system for condenser

water boxes:
Application of anticorrosive coatings and sacrificial cathodic protection system will help
in protecting condenser water boxes and also protect the tube – tube plate joints along
with inlet & outlet end of condenser tubes (about 6 – 12” from tube plate). Detailed
design of Magnesium based cathodic protection system and suitable anticorrosive
coatings have been recommended by NETRA to the station. These are to be
implemented at station. Photograph 7 & 8 depict typical coating & cathode for
condenser water box
Photograph 7 – Vinyl Ester Glass flake coating Photograph 8 – Magnesium Anode
455
4. Ferrous Sulphate dozing on new tubes to form a protective layer:
In some applications, the corrosion resistance of copper alloys is further enhanced by

adding iron to the seawater or polluted water. This iron is introduced either through
the addition of ferrous sulfate (FeSO 4) or by direct oxidation of a sacrificial iron anode
either with or without an externally applied current.
The effectiveness of environmental iron addition against sulfide corrosion of copper-

nickel alloys was evaluated. Iron added continuously at a level of 0.2 mg/L by a
stimulated iron anode was effective against low level (0.01 mg/L) sulfide corrosion of
both C70600 Cu/Ni – 90/10)and C71500 (Cu/Ni - &0/30), although some attack was still
observed. Corrosion, already actively proceeding, was significantly reduced, and the
effects of additional low-level sulfide exposure were nullified by ferrous ion (Fe2 +)
treatment. Intermittent injection of FeSO 4 for 2 h per day at 1.0 to 5.0 mg/L was not
found effective against high sulfide levels (0.2 mg/L), but was effective in reducing
corrosion at lower sulfide levels (0.01 to 0.04 mg/L). Additional work demonstrated that
conscious low-level additions of FeSO4 could counteract sulfide accelerated corrosion of
copper-nickel alloys.
In the use of FeSO4 or stimulated iron anodes to counteract sulfide-induced corrosion, it

should also be considered that iron additions affect heat-exchanger efficiency. The
continued use of iron additions can result in a significant buildup of scale on the tube
surface. At high enough levels of iron addition, sufficient sludge or precipitate may
develop to result in complete blockage of the heat-exchanger tubes. At lower levels of
iron addition, a bulky deposit will develop on the tube surface that may also interfere
with heat transfer.
In a study of the increase in deposit formation and loss of heat transfer for aluminum
brass in seawater with both intermittent and continuous Fe2 + ion dosing. It was
recommended that some consideration be given to a gradual reduction in dosing levels
after the initial film formation.
Other preventive measures can be taken to minimize the deleterious effects of sulfides.
Elimination of decaying plant and animal life from inlet pipes and channels can alleviate
the effects of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Initial design or operational procedures, such as
eliminating stagnant legs in a piping system or careful use of screening and filtration
systems, can yield a valuable return on investment. Aeration of the seawater, such as
by the use of cooling towers or cascading systems, also helps to displace any dissolved
hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In one study, impingement tests were performed on C71500 in
seawater/polluted water containing 10 mg/L cystine (an organic sulfur compound) and
456
varying amounts of an inhibitor, sodium dimethyldithiocarbamate). The results indicted
a reduction in the depth or impingement attack, it was noted, however, and that a
0.10% solution would be cost prohibitive on a once-through basis. It was further noted
that inhibitor injection is necessary only when the cooling water source is polluted
estuarine seawater.
NETRA has taken up a study to ascertain the effect of Ferrous Sulphate Dosing on
Copper-Nickel condenser tubes in Badarpur water. The study results are expected to be
completed by March end.
5. Application of anticorrosive coatings on internal surfaces of condenser tubes:
As the present condenser tubes are failing in 3 – 4 years, it will be beneficial to extend
the life of the tube through application of anticorrosive coatings on the internal surface
with some loss on account of heat transfer. EPRI Test data, taken from various testing,
shows that coatings can now be seriously considered an alternative to retubing. Florida
Power has intact coatings with six years' service history. Benefits of coating condenser
tubes include:
· Extending tube life and increasing availability of condenser units by shortening the
downtime experienced during retubing
· Extending the life of condensers on older units whose remaining life is less than the
life of a retubed condenser -- at lower cost
· Limiting copper levels discharged from tubes in routine operation to those allowed
under new EPA or regulatory agency limits
· Extending the life of tubes in one waterbox to correspond with the remainder of the
unit's waterbox tubes end-of-life, or to meet budget and/or outage restraints.
· Prevention of biofouling and corrosion of condenser tubes.
At present the technology is imported but Indian representatives are available. As per
EPRI studies coating material found suitable are Teflon modified epoxy, 100% solids
Epoxy, Epoxy phenolic, etc. For Badarpur coating can be tried on one condenser of stage
1. A very rough estimate suggests that the cost of per tube of 25 mm dia and 10 m long
will be in the range of US $10 – 15. Photograph 9 indicates a coated copper-nickel
condenser tube.
457
Photograph 9 – Teflon modified epoxy coated copper nickel condenser tube
6. Retrofitting Condenser tubes with more corrosion resistant material:
One of the options for the long term performance and life enhancement of condensers
is to retrofit them with more corrosion resistant material. In the present case the copper
nickel tubes are prone to severe corrosion in polluted water. In such case these tubes
can be replaced by Stainless or Dupleix Stainless Steel or Titanium tubes. Similar
retrofitting jobs have been carried out internationally. Following fig. depicts the
performance of retrofitted SS tubes and admiralty brass tubes.
The advantages of such retrofitting are enhanced life, improved vacuum, conversion to
all ferrous metallurgy thus reduction in copper pick up, reduction in cation conductivity,
reduction in condensate dissolved oxygen, etc
458
7. Recycling of Cooling water blow down after treatment with Membrane filters and
reverse osmosis plant (economize water & treatment cost/space):
In order to save the treated water, cost of chemicals, obtain better quality of DM water,
moving towards near zero liquid discharge, etc it is proposed that the cooling tower
blow down will be recycled using ultra-filteration and reverse osmosis. After meeting
the requirements for DM plant make up balance recycled water will be blended with
STP treated water which will be used as a make-up to cooling water. This will eventually
lead to reduction in chemical consumption for DM and cooling water applications.
Conclusions and Recommendations:
Based on the studies conducted following can be concluded:

1. Present water is not fit for proper operation of boiler water or condenser cooling.
2. Due to poor quality of water the plant is facing problems in obtaining good quality of
DM water, frequent failure of condenser & boiler tubes, frequent upsets in control of
water chemistry, higher deposition in boiler tubes resulting in increased chemical
cleaning, loss of efficiency of condenser and boiler, etc
3. Treating this water through appropriate treatment technology can help in minimizing
the problems
4. Additional corrosion protection measures can improve the life and performance of the
plant
In order to minimize these problems following is recommended:

1. As Delhi Jal Board is not able to treat the sewage laden water sufficiently, NTPC should
install and operate a sewage treatment plant (STP) for plant needs
2. Suitable STP technology is being located which can be accommodated in little space and
still treat the incoming water to meet plant requirements
3. Plant should install anticorrosive coatings and cathodic protection for corrosion
protection of condenser water boxes as already recommended
4. The Cooling water system should be converted to re-circulating one so that proper
chemical treatment can be developed
5. Plant should explore the possibility of applying anticorrosive/antifouling coatings on the
internal surfaces of condenser tubes and possibility of retrofitting with SS tubes
6. Application of Ferrous Sulphate dosing is being studied.
Acknowledgements:
Author wishes to place his appreciation of his colleagues namely Dr. M. Malik (DGM – NETRA),
Shri Jaldeep Singh (DGM – NETRA), Shri P.S.Deshmukh (DGM – Chem., Badarpur), and Dr.
R.K.Sharma (Sr. Manager – NETRA) for providing necessary help in conducting the studies.
Author would like to acknowledge the guidance given by Shri Sharad Anand (ED – NETRA) and
Shri A.K.Mohindru (GM – NETRA). Author is also thankful to Shri Chandan Roy (Director –
Operations) and Shri R.K.Jain (Director – Technical) for their encouragement in conducting the
459
studies. Finally Author is thankful to the Management of NTPC for permitting to present this
work.
References:
1. “In-Situ Coating of Condenser Tubes as an Alternative to Retubing”, TR 107068, EPRI

2. “Selecting Tubing Materials for Power Generation Heat Exchangers”, Daniel S.
Janikowski, Plymouth Tube Co., East Troy, Wisconsi, Material Performance, Sep. 2008.
3. Condenser Performance Optimization and Life Extension - A Case Study, www. My
Condenser.com
4. Use of Degraded water for Cooling applications, ANL Report
5. Guidelines for water reuse, USEPA
6. Sewage Treatment and Technology, Sulabh Newsletter
7. Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment, USEPA
8. Use of Treated Municipal Waste W at er as power plant cooling system Make u p Water:
Tertiary Treatment Versus expanded chemical regimen for recircu lat ing Wat er Quality
Management : promis /projecT no.: de -nT0006550, NETL
9. Condenser in-leakage Guidelines, EPRI
10. Use of Degraded water sources as cooling water in power plants, EPRI
460
Fig. 2 - EDS results on failed condenser tube of Badarpur (indicating presence of Sulphur)
461
Photograph 1 – Condenser tube with deposit Photograph 2 – After cleaning
Photograph 3 – Severe localized corrosion Photograph 4 – SEM photo of deposit
Photograph 5 – Pits under SEM Photograph 6 – Cracks on tube (SEM)
462
Water analysis of Badarpur over last 6 years (Minimum, Maximum and Average values) – Table 1
0405 0506 0607 0708 0809 0910

Pa rameters /Yea rs mi n ma x Avg mi n ma x Avg mi n ma x Avg mi n ma x Avg mi n ma x Avg mi n ma x Avg
pH 7.1 7.36 7.36 7.15 7.58 7.4 7.11 7.47 7.3 7.13 7.44 7.3 7.16 7.61 7.37 7.47 7.56 7.53
Conducti vi ty,
us /cm(yea rl y
mi n-ma x) 310 1583 1280 328 1796 889.9 337 1860 972.8 322 1468 935.1 330 1363 867 478 1646 1096
Turbidity 54 110 76 40 220 80.7 40 160 73.7 38 67 56.5 31 130 55.9 22 138 64
Ca -Ha rdness 110 185 182 88 162 131.4 88 196 133.4 102 160 123.2 88 140 123.6 128 196 153
Mg-Ha rdness 102 158 158 76 154 118.2 74 144 101.0 60 114 88.0 60 112 93 62 124 107
p-alkalinity nil nil nil nil nil nil
m-alkalani tty 202 340 340 170 314 253.3 130 340 247.2 190 326 241.7 130 296 225 180 336 276
Chl oride 120 194 194 98 180 132.3 70 330 200.8 94 302 189.2 88 220 165 116 250 212
sulpha te 42 84 84 24 72 45.9 28 72 56.3 32 52 41.3 28 58 44.8 36 80 57
EMA 165 278 278 109 244 178.2 98 398 257.2 172 326 230.5 140 260 212 152 334 268
Sili ca 13.8 19.4 14.8 12 18.4 14.4 9.8 19.2 14.5 12.1 23.6 14.9 12 15.4 13.8 13.9 18.5 16
chlori ne demand 40 150 110 60 180 99.2 40 210 122.5 40 210 141.7 40 190 132.5 110 200 157
BOD 18 64 54 14 40 31.8 22 56 43.8 20 56 44.2 24 48.4 34.4 35.4 72 47
COD 40 120 96 24 112 80.7 46 130 114.3 50 130 116.8 50 126 76.8 80 176 106
KMnO4 No - - - 10 19.2 14.2 10 41.3 26.7 14.6 41.3 33.6 15.3 49.3 34.8 36.9 54 42
463
Schematic diagram of BTPS open cycle
CW. system.
Water from the Agra canal is drawn by CW

pumps of (2 X 50% capacity) in the
individual units and discharged to outlet
canal to be discharged to Agra canal/
Gurgaon Canal. Provision for isolating the
station from the Agra canal exists at Canal
end for running the station in closed cycle.
Fig 1 – Layout of water flow at Badarpur
464
Expected Cooling water quality at different COC at Badarpur based on Raw water as make up to
CW – Table 2
09-10 Maximum
Cycles of Concentration
S.No Parameter Unit 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
1 pH 7.56 9.26 9.89 10.06 10.21 10.33 10.43 10.52 10.61 10.68 10.75 10.81 10.87 10.92 10.97
2 cond µmhos/cm 1646 2469 3292 4115 4938 5761 6584 7407 8230 9053 9876 10699 11522 12345 13168
3 Turbidity NTU 138 207 276 345 414 483 552 621 690 759 828 897 966 1035 1104
4 CaH ppm as CaCO3 196 294 392 490 588 686 784 882 980 1078 1176 1274 1372 1470 1568
5 MgH ppm as CaCO3 124 186 248 310 372 434 496 558 620 682 744 806 868 930 992
6 Total hardness ppm as CaCO3 320 480 640 800 960 1120 1280 1440 1600 1760 1920 2080 2240 2400 2560
7 P alk. ppm as CaCO3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 M alk. ppm as CaCO3 336 504 672 840 1008 1176 1344 1512 1680 1848 2016 2184 2352 2520 2688
9 T. alk. ppm as CaCO3 336 504 672 840 1008 1176 1344 1512 1680 1848 2016 2184 2352 2520 2688
10 Chloride ppm as Cl 250 375 500 625 750 875 1000 1125 1250 1375 1500 1625 1750 1875 2000
11 Shulphate ppm as CaCO3 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520 560 600 640
12 EMA ppm as CaCO3 334 501 668 835 1002 1169 1336 1503 1670 1837 2004 2171 2338 2505 2672
13 Silica ppm as SiO2 18.5 27.75 37 46.25 55.5 64.75 74 83.25 92.5 101.8 111 120.3 129.5 138.8 148
14 Chloride demand ppm 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
15 BOD 72 108 144 180 216 252 288 324 360 396 432 468 504 540 576
16 COD 176 264 352 440 528 616 704 792 880 968 1056 1144 1232 1320 1408
17 KMnO4 No 54 81 108 135 162 189 216 243 270 297 324 351 378 405 432
PSI 5.39 4.46 3.81 3.30 2.88 2.53 2.23 1.96 1.72 1.50 1.30 1.12 0.95 0.79 0.65
RSI 6.03 3.66 2.56 2.02 1.57 1.20 0.87 0.59 0.33 0.10 -0.11 -0.31 -0.49 -0.66 -0.81
LSI 0.76 2.80 3.67 4.02 4.32 4.56 4.78 4.97 5.14 5.29 5.43 5.56 5.68 5.79 5.89
465
Expected Cooling water quality at different COC at Badarpur based on Raw water as make up to CW - (At 200 ppm alkalinity) –
Table 3
09-10 Maximum
1 pH 7.56 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54
2 cond µmhos/cm 1646 2469 3292 4115 4938 5761 6584 7407 8230 9053 9876 10699 11522 12345 13168
3 Turbidity NTU 138 207 276 345 414 483 552 621 690 759 828 897 966 1035 1104
4 CaH ppm as CaCO3 196 294 392 490 588 686 784 882 980 1078 1176 1274 1372 1470 1568
5 MgH ppm as CaCO3 124 186 248 310 372 434 496 558 620 682 744 806 868 930 992
7 P alk. ppm as CaCO3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 M alk. ppm as CaCO3 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
9 T. alk. ppm as CaCO3 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
12 EMA ppm as CaCO3 334 501 668 835 1002 1169 1336 1503 1670 1837 2004 2171 2338 2505 2672
13 Silica ppm as SiO2 18.5 27.75 37 46.25 55.5 64.75 74 83.25 92.5 101.8 111 120.3 129.5 138.8 148
Chloride
14 demand ppm 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
15 BOD 72 108 144 180 216 252 288 324 360 396 432 468 504 540 576
16 COD 176 264 352 440 528 616 704 792 880 968 1056 1144 1232 1320 1408
17 KMnO4 No 54 81 108 135 162 189 216 243 270 297 324 351 378 405 432
PSI 6.17 5.85 5.62 5.45 5.31 5.19 5.08 4.99 4.91 4.83 4.76 4.70 4.64 4.59 4.54
RSI 6.48 5.18 4.96 4.78 4.64 4.52 4.42 4.32 4.24 4.17 4.10 4.04 3.98 3.93 3.87
LSI 0.54 1.68 1.79 1.88 1.95 2.01 2.06 2.11 2.15 2.19 2.22 2.25 2.28 2.31 2.33
466
Expected Cooling water quality at different COC at Badarpur based on Raw water as make up to CW – Table 4
At 80 ppm alkalinity
09-10 Maximum
1 pH 7.56 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83 7.83
2 cond µmhos/cm 1646 2469 3292 4115 4938 5761 6584 7407 8230 9053 9876 10699 11522 12345 13168
3 Turbidity NTU 138 207 276 345 414 483 552 621 690 759 828 897 966 1035 1104
4 CaH ppm as CaCO3 196 294 392 490 588 686 784 882 980 1078 1176 1274 1372 1470 1568
5 MgH ppm as CaCO3 124 186 248 310 372 434 496 558 620 682 744 806 868 930 992
7 P alk. ppm as CaCO3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 M alk. ppm as CaCO3 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80
9 T. alk. ppm as CaCO3 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

12 EMA ppm as CaCO3 334 501 668 835 1002 1169 1336 1503 1670 1837 2004 2171 2338 2505 2672
13 Silica ppm as SiO2 18.5 27.75 37 46.25 55.5 64.75 74 83.25 92.5 101.8 111 120.3 129.5 138.8 148
14 Chloride demand ppm 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
15 BOD 72 108 144 180 216 252 288 324 360 396 432 468 504 540 576
16 COD 176 264 352 440 528 616 704 792 880 968 1056 1144 1232 1320 1408
17 KMnO4 No 54 81 108 135 162 189 216 243 270 297 324 351 378 405 432
PSI 7.54 7.22 7.00 6.82 6.68 6.56 6.45 6.36 6.28 6.21 6.14 6.08 6.02 5.96 5.91
RSI 7.28 6.70 6.47 6.30 6.15 6.03 5.93 5.84 5.75 5.68 5.61 5.55 5.49 5.44 5.39
LSI 0.14 0.57 0.68 0.76 0.84 0.90 0.95 0.99 1.04 1.07 1.11 1.14 1.17 1.19 1.22
467
WATER BALANCE DIAGRAM ( BTPS ) IN ONCE THROUGH MODE
AGRA CANAL 6000 M 3 / HR ( APPROX )
AUXILIARY CLARIFIERS FOR D. M. PLANT

APPROX. 100 M 3 / HR
INTAKE
CHANNEL
1,12,500
M 3 / HR
( APPROX.) 6400 M
3
/ HR
C. R. W. PUMPS 4 X 3500 M 3 / HR
CONTROL H. P. PUMPS 4 X 500 M 3 / HR

IN GENERAL
H. P. PUMPS 2 X 400 M 3 / HR FLOW =
DISCHARGE CHANNEL
STRUCTURE 2100 M 3 / HR
L. P. PUMPS 3 X 600 M 3 / HR
FIRE & SAFETY PUMPS 2 X 500 M 3 / HR

PUMP HOUSE
Fig. 3 Water Balance FOR C. W. COOLIN G 95 MW UNITS STAGE – 1 18000 X 3 = 54000 M 3 / HR

210 MW UNITS STAGE – 2 30000 X 2 = 60000 M 3 / HR
TOTAL = 104000 M 3 / HR
468
Calculations for Cooling Tower Parameters – Table 5
Unit No. of Circ. Total Total Make

S.No. Station Rating Units Rate Circ. COC Delta T Evapo. Drift Blow Dow n Make up Make up 2 up
MW M3/Hour M3/Hour oF M3/Hr. M3/Hr. M3/Hr. M3/Hr. M3/Hour M3/Hour
D=0.5%
Cr TCr C DT E=0.001*Cr *DT Cr B=E/C-1 M=EC/C-1 M=E+D+B TM=N*M
1oC=1.8
Per Unit Total oF Per Unit Per Unit Per Unit Per Unit Per Unit Station
1 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 1.1 18 1872 520 18720 20592 21112 21112
2 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 1.2 18 1872 520 9360 11232 11752 11752
3 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 1.5 18 1872 520 3744 5616 6136 6136
4 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 2 18 1872 520 1872 3744 4264 4264
5 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 2.5 18 1872 520 1248 3120 3640 3640
6 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 3 18 1872 520 936 2808 3328 3328
7 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 3.5 18 1872 520 748.8 2620.8 3140.8 3140.8
8 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 4 18 1872 520 624 2496 3016 3016
9 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 4.5 18 1872 520 534.8571429 2406.8571 2926.857143 2926.857143
10 Badarpur 705 1 104000 104000 5 18 1872 520 468 2340 2860 2860
469
470
CHEMICAL FREE PRODUCTION
OF ULTRAPURE WATER BY CONTINUOUS
ELECTRODEIONIZATION & APPLICATION TO POWER INDUSTRY
Jonathan Wood, Stephen Willis, R. Rajkumar, Paresh Vora
Corresponding Author: paresh.vora@siemens.com
Siemens Ltd., Water Technologies, I IS WT
Plot 2, Sector 2, Kharghar Node, Navi Mumbai, 410210. India
water.india@siemens.com
1 INTRODUCTI ON
Electrodeionization (E DI) is a process that removes ionizable species from liquids using electrically active
media and an electrical potential to effect ion transport. The electrically active media in EDI devices may
function to alternately collect and discharge ioniz able species, or to facilitate the transport of ions continuously
by ionic or electronic substitution mechanisms. E DI devices may comprise media of permanent or temporary
charge, and may be operated batch wise, intermittently, or continuously.
The continuous electrodeionization (CE DI) process, a subset of EDI, is distinguished from the EDI
collection/discharge processes such as electrochemical ion exchange (E IX) or capacitive deionization (CapDI),
in that CEDI performance is determined by the ionic transport properties of the active media, not the ionic
capacity of t he media. CE DI devices typically contain semi-permeable ion-exchange membranes and
permanently charged media such as ion-exchange resin. The CE DI process is essentially a hybrid of two well-
known separation processes - ion exchange deionization and electrodialysis, and is sometimes referred to as
filled-cell electrodialysis.
2 TECHNOLOGY OV ERVI EW
A typical CEDI device cont ains alternating permselective anion-exchange and c ation-exchange membranes.
The spaces between the membranes are configured to create liquid flow compartments wit h inlets and outlets.
A trans verse DC electrical field is applied by an external power source using electrodes at the ends of the
membranes and compartments, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Ion transport and electrochemical regeneration in a CEDI cell
471
When the compartments are subjected to an electric field, ions in the liquid are attracted t o their respective
counterelectrodes. The res ult is that the compartments bounded by the anion membrane facing t he anode (+ )
and the cation membrane facing the cathode (-) become deplet ed of ions and are t hus called diluting
compartments. The compartments bounded by the anion membrane facing the cathode and cation membrane
facing the anode will then “trap” ions that have transferred in from the diluting compartments and thus are
called concentrating compartments. The wat er flowing through them is referred to as the concentrate stream
(or sometimes, the reject stream).
In a CEDI device, the space within the ion depleting compartments (and in some cases also in the ion
concentrating compartments) is filled with ion exchange resin. The resin enhances the transport of ions and
+
can also participate as a substrate for electroc hemical reactions, such as splitting of water int o hy drogen (H )
-
and hydroxyl (OH ) ions. Different media configurations are possible, such as intimat ely mixed anion and
cation exchange resins or separate sections of ion-exchange resin, each section substantially comprised of
resins of the same polarity: e.g., either anion or cation resin.
3 CEDI MODULE CONSTRUCTI ON

The process of electrodeionization has been studied since the mid-1950s, for a number of different
applications, as reviewed previously [1]. The process of continuous electrodeionization was first
commercialized in 1987 [2] by the Process Water Division of Millipore Corporation (now part of Siemens Water
Technologies). This proc ess has been described extensively in the literature and is now a widely accepted
water purific ation process [3]. For the first ten years, nearly all commercial CE DI devices were plate and
frame design, and used what can be described as “thin c ell” product water compartments (about 2.5 mm
between ion exchange membranes) with a mixed-bed ion exchange resin filler. The principal application for
these devic es was in t he production of pharmaceutical-grade water. In recent years a variety of new designs
have emerged, including different module c onfigurations (spiral wound), thicker product cells (8-9 mm inter-
membrane spacing), and different resin configurations (clustered bed, layered bed, separat e bed). CE DI is
now seeing more extensive use in higher flow applications such as power and microelectronics.
The employment of thicker cells offers the advantages of reduced ion exchange membrane area and thus
lower cost, as well as greater mechanical strength and the possibility of incorporating O-ring seals to prevent
both internal and external leaking. In most early CEDI devices, the concentrate compartment is some type of
gasketed screen. In such devices, the amount of s alt in the concentrate streams controls the overall electrical
resistance of the module. Some CE DI suppliers incorporate concentrate recirculation and/or salt injection to
increase the conductivity of the concentrate and reduce the electrical resistance of the module. It is preferable
to lower the module resistance wit hout resorting to such measures. This can be accomplished by using ion
exchange resin in the concentrate and electrode cells as well as t he dilute cells, to mak e the resistance
independent of the concentrate water conductivity [4]
While spiral wound CE DI devices have now been around for over a decade, the plate-and-frame configuration
still predominates, estimated at over 90% of the installed base of CEDI systems. One type of spiral CEDI
device is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Spiral-wound CEDI device (shown without housing)
472
One advant age of the plat e-and-frame arrangement is that because all the product compartments are identical
to each other (as are the reject compartments), the water flow and the DC current is equally distribut ed among
the cells, which are hydraulically in parallel and electrically in series. This is not possible in a spirally-wound
devic e, where the outer leaves have more membrane area and thus lower current density than the inner ones,
and the cell cross-section tapers near the end of the leaf, which could cause uneven current distribution across
the cell.
A recent development is the use of a plate-and-frame device in a “stacked disk” configuration inside an FRP
vessel [5]. In this case the vessel is used to provide mechanical support and to simplify system plumbing,
using RO-like interconnectors to manifold together CEDI stacks in parallel. The vessels can then be stacked
or mounted on a frame like RO pressure vessels, resulting in systems that take up considerably less floor
space than a conventional ion-exchange deionization system. Examples of such a vessel-based stacked-disk
CEDI system are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Plate-and frame CEDI device (stacked-disk type)
Ion E xc hange Resin S elec tion

Ion exchange resins function much differently in CE DI devices than in a conventional demineralizer. In CEDI,
the ability of the resin filler to rapidly transport ions to the surfac e of the ion exchange membranes is much
more import ant than the ion exchange capacity of the resin. The resins are therefore not optimized for
capacity, but for other properties that influence transport, such as water retention and selectivity.
Membrane/resin combinations must also be carefully chosen to selecti vely catalyze the electrochemical
splitting of water at various locations within the CEDI device. Considerable research has gone into optimization
of resin fillers for CE DI devices, mostly by the manufacturers of the CE DI devices rather than the
manufacturers of the ion exchange resins.
4 COMP ARIS ON TO CONV ENTIONAL I ON EX CHANGE DEIONI ZATI ON

CEDI systems offer several benefits over conventional resin-based, chemically regenerated deionization
equipment. Foremost is elimination of the regeneration process and its associated hazardous chemicals - acid
and caustic. The DC current causes CE DI system product water quality to remain constant over time,
whereas in regenerable deionization, product water quality degrades as the resins approac h exhaustion. If a
continuous supply of DI water is required, conventional systems must be duplexed so that one system can
provide water while the other is regenerated, adding cost, complexity, and size. Because CE DI is continuous,
duplexing is not nec essary. As a result of this, as well as the avoidance of chemical storage tanks, chemical
pumps and regenerant waste neutralization equipment, CEDI system foot prints are often one half of the size of
their conventional counterparts and overall capital cost for new systems is lower.
CEDI replaces the costs of regeneration labor and chemicals with a small amount of electricity, resulting in
lower operating costs. A typical CE DI system will use approximately 0.25 kW-hr of electricity to deionize one
3
m of water. Since the CEDI concentrate (or reject) stream contains only t he feed water cont aminants at 10-
20 times higher conc entration, it can usually be discharged without treatment, and often is reclaimed.
473
CEDI also provides some less tangible benefits. By eliminating hazardous chemicals, workplace health and
safety conditions are improved. The storage, use, neutralization, and disposal of hazardous chemicals can
also result in hidden costs associated with monitoring and paperwork to conform to safety and environmental
requirements. In addition, the fumes, particularly from acid, often cause corrosive structural damage to
facilities and equipment.
The elimination of regenerant chemicals is generally considered advant ageous, but the chemicals do offer at
least one benefit. In conventional demineralizers, acid and caustic is applied t o the ion exchange resins at
concentrations of 2-8% by weight. At these concentrations the chemicals not only regenerat e the resins but
clean them as well. The electrochemical regeneration that occurs in a CEDI device does not provide the same
level of resin cleaning. Therefore proper pretreatment is even more import ant with a CE DI device, in order to
prevent fouling or scaling. This is one of the reasons that RO pretreatment is normally required upstream of a
CEDI system. In general, the feed water requirements for CE DI systems are more stringent than for
chemically regenerated demineralizers.
5 FEED WATER REQUI REMENTS

CEDI feed water requirements can be split into t wo cat egories. The first relates to performance. Feed water
TDS, CO2 and temperature must be restricted so t hat the system can achieve the desired product water
quality - usually equivalent to that of a mixed-bed deionizer. The second includes things that could damage
the module - high temperature/pressure or foulants like organics and hardness.
A typical list of CEDI feed water requirements is given in Table 1, above. This includes ranges based on
specifications from several CE DI manufacturers, but it is important to follow the guidelines specific to the
devic e being used. Most of these requirements can be met by pretreatment wit h single or double-pass RO.
Paramete r Uni ts Mini mum Maximum Late st

CEDI Module s
Feed conductivity µS/cm N/A 25-50 25-50

Carbon dioxide ppm CO2 N/A 10-20 10-20
Temperat ure °C (°F) 5-10 (41-50) 35-45 (95-113) 35-45 (95-113)
Pressure bar (psig) 1.0-1. 7 (15-25) 4.0-6. 9 (60-100) 4.0-6. 9 (60-100)
Free chlorine ppm Cl2 N/A 0.02-0.05 0.02-0.05
-
Fe, Mn, S ppm N/A 0.01 0.01
Silica ppm SiO2 N/A 0.5-1. 0 0.5-1. 0
Hardness Ppm CaCO 3 N/A 0. 5-1.0 Upt o 2. 0
TOC ppm C N/A 0.5 0.5
Table1: Typical CEDI Feed Water Requirements.
6 APP LI CATIONS IN P OW ER I NDUSTRY

Power plants use deionized wat er as makeup to high pressure boilers, for producing steam to drive turbines
and generate electricity. The conventional means of purifying boiler feed wat er has been to use chemically
regenerat ed ion-exchange deionization. This is a widely accepted technology that has been in use for half a
century but has the disadvantage of requiring the use of haz ardous chemicals for regeneration of the ion
exchange resins. Ion-exchange also produces a considerable amount of chemical waste, which requires
neutralization before it can be discharged.
Over the past decade the power industry has increasingly utilized reverse osmosis (RO) as a roughing
demineralizer to remove the bulk of the mineral, organic and particulate contaminants, and reduce the
chemical consumption of t he ion-exchange system. In the past few years, improvements in continuous
electrodeionization (CEDI) technology have caused a movement towards chemical-free deionization systems,
as RO/CEDI has become more cost competitive wit h conventional ion-exchange technology. Anot her reason
for incorporation of the RO/ CEDI process is that it offers better removal of colloidal silica and dissolved organic
matter than conventional deionization.
474
The early nineties saw the first adoption of CE DI at power plants to produce DI water to feed a high pressure
boiler [6] or for NOx control. With development and improvement of thick-cell CEDI devices, the cost of CE DI
systems dropped significantly, making the technology more competitive with conventional deionization for
higher flow rate applications. Boiler makeup water must meet strict limits for conductivity, sodium and silica.
The higher flow rates also affect the design of the RO pretreatment equipment, introducing other factors that
must be considered in t he design of t he overall RO/ CEDI system [7]. The power industry has been somewhat
cautious in implementing the use of membrane technologies for water treatment, but now seems to have
widely accepted CEDI. It is believed that the world’s largest CEDI system is one that provides boiler feed
water for district heating [8].
7 CEDI S YS TEM DESIGN

With the “all-filled” module construction described in 3 above, there is no need for salt injection or recirculation
pumps, reducing system complexity and potential downtime for maint enance. This also lowers the operating
cost, since a concentrate recirculation pump may use nearly as much electricity as the CEDI modules. The
CEDI modules themselves typically use only about 1 megajoule of electricity per c ubic meter of product wat er,
compared to 20-50 MJ/m3 for the high pressure RO pump.
CEDI systems often use multiple smaller modules in parallel to attain high product flow rates. This type of
modularity in itself provides redundancy. If t here is a problem with one particular module, it can simply be
isolated from t he system and the other modules can process a slightly higher flow until a replacement can be
installed. Following t he same approach, t he rectifier can be designed to operat e each module individually.
Having individual DC power controllers offers some degree of flexibility in operation and additional monitoring
capabilities of the individual modules, and is cost-effective for small and medium sized systems (up to about
100 m3/ h).
The main requirement of the CE DI control system is to ensure that the DC power is shut off in the event of
insufficient water flow. This is necessary to prevent overheating and potentially permanent damage to the
CEDI modules. It is usually accomplished through flow switches on both t he product and concentrate streams
as well as a “run signal” from the RO system or CE DI feed pump.
8 RO/CEDI PROCES S CONSI DERATI ONS

There are also some issues relating to design of Pret reatment/RO/ CEDI processes for boiler feed that must be
considered in order to ensure long-term performance and reliability of the system. Examples include:
[a] whether to use single-pass or two-pass RO (usually dictated by raw wat er quality);
[b] optimum wat er recovery (us ually depends on hardness, but typically ranges from 90 to 95% );
[c] how to prevent a slug of poor quality RO permeate from contaminating the CE DI when the RO starts up
from a standby condition (either a pre-service flus h to drain or post-service flush with permeate);
[d] ensuring that the pretreatment system achieves complete removal of chlorine, whic h could oxidize the resin
in a CEDI module;
[e] whether or not to recycle the CE DI reject to the RO feed (can reduce the CE DI quality in the absenc e of a
CO2 removal step) and
[f] how to prevent buildup of the hydrogen gas generated by the CEDI module (a simple atmospherically
vented drain is usually sufficient).
These topics have been discussed in more det ail in a recent paper [7].
9 CONCLUSION
The CE DI process presently occupies a relatively small niche in the field of water treatment, that of polishing
RO permeate to produce ult rapure water. One possible area of development for the future would be to make
the process tolerant of a wider range of feed solution conditions, perhaps allowing relaxation of the feed
requirements and allowing for broader application of CE DI.
New developments in CE DI module construction have improved both physical integrity and module reliability
while simultaneously enabling process simplific ation such as elimination of concentrate recirculation and
elimination of salt injection into t he concentrate stream. However, reliable long-term operation of an RO/CE DI
system requires careful attention to process design, and in particular hardness and chlorine. With good
module and system design, it is possible to design deionized water systems based on RO/CE DI that will
consistently meet the makeup water quality requirements of high pressure boilers without the use of
hazardous chemicals and without creating regenerant waste.
10. REFEREN CES – FURTHER RE ADI NG

[1] DiMascio, F., Wood, J. and Fenton, J., “Continuous Electrodeionization – Production of High-P urity Water
without Regeneration Chemicals”, The Electrochemical Society Interface, Fall 1998.
475
[2] Ganzi, G. C., Egozy, Y., Giuffrida, A. J. and Jha, A., “High P urity Water by Electro-deionization”, Ult rapure
Water Journal, Vol. 4, No. 3, April, 1987.
[3] Henley, M., “Ion Exchange Markets, Part 1 – The Changing Role for Ion Exchange Water Treatment”,
Ultrapure Water, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 13-16 (July/August 2002).
[4] Gifford, J and Atnoor, D. “An Innovative Approac h to Continuous Electrodeionization Module and System
Design for Power Applications” International Water Conference, 2000.
[5] Liang L., “E volution in Design of CE DI Systems”, Ultrapure Water, Vol. 20, No. 8, pp. 13-17 (2003).
[6] Auerswald, D., “Regeneration Without Chemicals”, Ultrapure Water Journal, April 1994.
[7] Wood, J. and J. Gifford, “Process and System Design for Reliable Operation of RO/CE DI Systems”,
Proceedings of the International Water Conference, October 2004.
[8] Ho, C. and Wood, J., “Design, Construction and Operation of a 6,730 gpm RO/CE DI System for Con
Edison’s East River Repowering Project”, Proceedings of the International Water Conference, October 2006.
[9] Jonathan Wood, Jos eph Gifford, John A rba, Michael Shaw, “Production of ultrapure wat er by continuous
electrodeionization”, Desalination (2009), doi:10.1016/j.desal.2009.09.084
[10] Jonathan Wood, “Continuous electrodeionisation for power plants”, Filtration+Separation June 2008
[11] http://www.cediuniversity.com/
476
Major O&M issues in CHP
at NTPC Stations
I K Rajdeva GM (OS)
Basuraj Goswami DGM (OS)
NTPC / NOIDA
477
1.0 INTRODUCTION
n Coal handling Plant is the life line of Thermal

Power station
n Availability of CHP is vital for reliability of Power
Plant
n For reliability a systematic approach is required
n First and foremost requirement is proper design &
quality erection.
n Continual improvement in technical specification
is required based on O&M experiences.
478
Systematic Approach
n LMI to be made as practicable as possible
n Walkdown check list for Operator
n Counter signing by SCE
n Site visit schedule of higher officials
n Overhauling of major equipments of CHP
n Plan to be prepared by CHP
n Details scope of work to be finalised
n Quality plan to be finalised.
n Monitoring by MTP
479
FR property check of Belt
n Simplified Flame Retardation Test Method of Conveyor Belts

(For Use at Stations)
n (drived from ISO-340) ( not to be used for tests at works for MDCC)
n Test Piece of Belt
n A rectangular test piece of 200 mm x 25 mm is to be cut from
conveyor belt
n Test method
n Test piece is to be placed on gas burner (Bunsen burner) at an
inclination of 45 for 45 seconds and then removed from flame and
the combustion time ( duration of flame) of the test piece is to be
noted starting from removal from burner.
n Expected Results
n The duration of flame shall not be more than 15 seconds
480
FR property check of Belt
481
2.0 MAJOR O&M ISSUES
IN CHP’S AT NTPC
STATIONS
482
PROBLEMS
AND REMEDIAL SUGGESTIONS
Frequent Start Stop of Conveyor Belts
leading to
- Burning of HT Motors
- Cracks of rotor bars
è Use of Scoop type Fluid Coupling with HT
motors
èCurrent analysis of motors to detect rotor
bar cracks as preventive measure
483
(B) PRESENCE OF TRAMP METAL PIECES
Tramp metals cause
- lower mill availability
-generation loss
- damage of mill components
To remove tramp metals from coal we use
(i) Suspended Magnets, Inline/ Cross-belt
Magnetic Separators, Magnetic Pulleys etc. to
remove magnetic materials
(ii) Metal Detectors to remove non-magnetic
materials
484
……... METAL PIECES
REQUIREMENTS
• Non-magnetic tramp metal to get detected with
reliability
• All types of metals-manganese steel, hammer
pieces, tools, shovel teeth, bars to get detected
• Pieces buried under coal
• Magnetite not to cause false trips
• No interference from motors, cables,comm.
485
FEATURES REQUIRED
• Adjustable selectivity for optimum performance
on various metals
• Positive detection regardless of belt loading,
moisture in coal, lump size,without loss of
sensitivity to bar scrap
• No false trip even with magnetite
• Automatic static calibration
• Continuous automatic zeroing
486
Principle of Operation
• Conventional MD
• Continuous wave magnetic
field is generated by
generator coil
• This field gives output signal
to receiver coil
• Presence of conducting
material disturbs magnetic
field and a new output signal
is generated
• These secondary effects are
measured in the form of
– Phase shifts
– Inductance variations
487
• Conventional MD
.... Operation
• Continuous wave magnetic
field is generated by
generator coil
• This field gives output
signal to receiver coil
• Presence of conducting
material disturbs magnetic
field and a new output
signal is generated
• These secondary effects are
measured in the form of
– Phase shifts
– Inductance variations
488
....
• In the latest MD’s
• Pulsed magnetic field
Operation
is
generated
• Eddy currents in the
conducting material generate a
secondary field
• Effect of this secondary field is
measured when the primary
field is inoperative
• Secondary magnetic field
generated by the presence of a
conducting metal and ore can
be separated with the help of
its decay----better the
conductivity,longer the decay
time ( ores are poorer
conductors than metals)
489
ADDITIONAL FEATURES
• Coast Count
– Indicates the number of pieces of tramp metals
detected since last reset so as to alert the
operator of several pieces of metal pieces which
must be located and taken out before next start
490
ADDITIONAL FEATURES(contd)
• Total Count
– Indicates the running total of detected tramp
metals (Non-resetable)
– Total tramp metal pieces indicated by ‘total
count’ and actually picked by the picker can be
compared
491
PROBLEMS
A lot of time is wasted to detect and

reset operated/defective pull cord/belt
sway switch.
èEach pull cord/ belt sway switch should be
identified by a specific number on CRT in
the main control room whenever it
operates through PLC. (Addressability of
Pull Cord/ Belt Sway Switches)
492
PROBLEMS
Fast erosion of chute plates at impact
zones
èUse of 20 mm thick SAILHARD/ Tiscral
plates for chutes
èUse of 16 mm Hadfield (SAIL, Bhilai) steel
plates
èUse of Chromium Carbide wear-resistance
liners(steelbacked superlative wear resistant cladding )
493
Steelbacked superlative wear
resistant cladding
n Manufacturing of these plates by a
specialized fusion bonding process
offers significant advantages in terms of
lowest dilution levels, highest
concentration of carbides and
superlative resistance to abrasion
494
Wear Resistance Plates
n Size : 500 mm x 500 mm
n Thickness : (a) 8 mm + 5 mm Wear
Resistance Cladding
(b) 13 + 7 mm
n Hardness : 60 + 3 RC
n Chemical : C – 3.5-5.5 %
Composition Cr – 24 - 30 %
Mn : 0.7 – 3.5%,
Mo : 1.5%, Sl-2%
495
Wear Resistance Plates
n Abraision Loss : 0.1% Max as per
ASTM G65
n Vendors : L&T ( Castadour Diamond)
Ador Fontech ( ARCOFON-
2560)
Diffusion ( CORODOUR)
Duraweld ( DW-STD Alloy)
Others
496
Wagon Tippler Conveyor
n Issue
n Wagon Tippler conveyors feed coal on
existing conveyors bringing coal from track
hoppers
n Proposed Action for Existing Stations
n Wagon Tippler conveyors to have separate
crusher house and separate merger point so that
it does not hamper coal evacuation from track
hopper
n Proposed Action for Future Stations
n Conveyor Capacity after merger to be such that
feeding from both Track Hopper and Wagon
Tipplers can be done simultaneously
497
PROBLEMS
Dust Generation in transfer points,
crusher house
èDust Extraction System for crusher House

èFog Type Dust Suppression System (Use of
Air & Water) for Transfer Points
- Reliable pressure regulating station
- Minimum wetting of coal
498
PROBLEMS
Eccentric Loading on conveyors causing

belt sway, edge damage
Use of Hexagonal Chute just above
conveyor skirt board :
499
PROBLEMS
Difficulty in cleaning of coal lying on seal

plate.
Use of 5 seal plate
500
Conveyor Structural Distress
n There is bulging, bending of trestle
structural members
n Additional Trestles between existing
trestles to be provided
501
Fire Detection & Protection System
– Are we prepared to meet any eventuality
By –
I K Rajdeva GM (OS)
Basuraj Goswami DGM (OS)
A Presentation by CC - OS
502
Major Fire Risk Area in a Power Station
Coal Handling Plant

Cable gallery
Fuel Oil Station
Hydrogen Generation Plant
Transformer
Turbine Oil system
Boiler Burner Front
Control Rooms
Generator Hydrogen Cooling system
503
Fire Detection & Protection System presently
provided in new NTPC stations
504
Fire Detection & Protection System presently provided in new
NTPC stations
Coal Handling Plant
Sub Area Detection system Protection system
a Coal Conveyors a) LHSC a) Hydrants /
b) IRD monitors
c) Quartzoid bulb b) Deluge valve
(QB) detector operated
automatic MVW spray
system
b Transfer points & QB detector a) Hydrants
Crusher houses b) Deluge valve
operated
automatic MVW spray
system
c CHP Control rooms, Ionisation type
MCC and Switchgear (ISD),
rooms photoelectric type
(PSD) smoke
detectors
505
NTPC stations
Coal Handling Plant
1. LHSC- In case of fire (at 79 deg C) it will be shorted.

Will send command for particular zone DV operation
thru’ solenoid valve. It will also send command to trip
the conveyor.
2. IRD – for sensing moving fire. Will send command to
trip both the A & B stream conveyor. It can sense fire
even if smothering coal (fire) is covered with normal
coal.
3. QB detector – in case of fire (at 79 deg C) bulb will
burst and detection line water will be drained. So DV
will get operated.
506
NTPC stations
Cable Gallery & Transformer

a Cable gallery a) LHSC Deluge valve operated
(main plant, ESP, b) Smoke Detector automatic MVW spray
Switch yard) (ISD, PSD, multi system
sensor type)
b Transformer (above 10 QB detector Deluge Valve operated

MVA) Automatic HVW
Spray system
507
NTPC stations
Turbine Oil system, BBF, DG set Fuel Tank

a MOT / COPU / Oil Canal QB detectors Deluge valve operated
/ TDBFP Oil Tank / SOS automatic HVW spray
system
b DG set fuel tank - Do - - Do -
c Boiler Burner Front - Do - - Do -

* BBF spray should
cover fuel oil rack
also.
508
NTPC stations
Fuel Oil Station

a Fuel Oil Pressurising Smoke detector Deluge valve operated
pump & Unloading (ISD & PSD), automatic MVW spray
pump QB detectors system
b Fuel Oil tank Heat detector, QB a) Automatic Foam
detector spray system
b) DV operated MVW
spray for tank out
side cooling
c) Foam spray hydrant
& monitor
d) Dyke protection
* The total system is
in AUTO. It gets
command from
Heat Detector (ROR
type)
509
NTPC stations
UCB & CER, UPS, Inverter rooms,
a UCB, CER, UPS room ISD, PSD type Automatic Inert gas
etc. smoke detector (‘INERGEN’ or
‘ARGONITE’)
extinguishing system
Hydrogen generation Plant
a H2 plant ISD, PSD type Fire hydrant

smoke detector&
Multi sensor. H2
leakage detector
510
NTPC stations
All Office, Misc Switchgear room

a Office ISD type smoke QB operated sprinkler
detector
b Miscellaneous ISD type smoke
Switchgear/MCC & detector
Control rooms
All location of the

plants are
covered by
extensive
Hydrant Network
511
Fire Detection & Protection System provided in old NTPC stations
Coal Handling Plant

Sub Area Detection & Problem with the
Protection system system
a Coal Conveyors a) LHSC b) IRD lance gets dirty
b) IRD with out air c) Sprinkler operates
purging only in the zone where
c) Quartzoid bulb bulb burst, ineffective
(QB) sprinkler in fire extinguishing
with AV valve
b Transfer points & No detection, only No AUTO system

Crusher houses hydrant out side
TPs
512
Cable Gallery

protection system system
Cable gallery a) LHSC a) LHSC difficult to
(main plant, Switch maintain as clamping
yard) system not there.
b) Smoke Detector b) TES bulb became
(ISD, PSD) obsolete, difficult to
c) Thermo Electric get. Costly (Rs
Sprinkler (TES – 4000.00 each). Testing
detonator type) virtually not possible
operated by AV as many bulbs get
valve burst. During water
spray water may go to
6.6 KV switch gear
room.
513
Fuel Oil Station

a Fuel Oil Pressurising Smoke detector No automatic water
pump & Unloading (ISD & PSD),No spray system
pump water spray
system
b Fuel Oil tank Tank out side System is not AUTO.
spray (with In case of fire
manual operated Manual intervention
valve) required.
Tank inside foam

spray system
(with manual
operated valve)
514
NTPC stations
UCB & CER, UPS, Inverter rooms,

a UCB, CER, UPS room ISD, PSD type Halon to be phased
etc. smoke detector. out by 1.1.2010.
Halon spray System is kept in
system manual mode
515
New Initiatives in Fire Detection & Protection System
(to mitigate fire risk)
Sub Area Detection & protection system to Remarks

be provided
a Stacker 1. LHSC along conveyor belts & Already typical

Reclaimer boom Conv on SR to generate drawing, tech
alarm and operate DV specs, BOQ sent to
2. All belt, electrical system, oil the stations.
system to be covered by DV
operated MVW system.
3. Smoke detectors inside cabin
& switchgear room
4. The inlet of DV valve will be
connected by quick coupling
with fire hydrant network by
flexible SS hose.
5. Annunciation at CHP control
room either thru’ spare core
or by RF.
516
(to mitigate fire risk) contd.
Sub Area Detection & protection system to Remarks

be provided
b Conveyor 1. Fire hydrant to be provided Hydrant to be

gallery inside conveyor gallery ( tapped from
which are at height of more multiple riser if
than 15 meter). Hydrant at required to prevent
both side, at 90 mtr interval pressure drop.
at each side, but in criss From 80 NB line 1
cross way, so that effective hydrant. From 100
distance between two hydrant NB line maxm 2
is not more than 25 mtr. hydrant. From 150
2. In horizontal ground conveyor NB line maxm 5
if hydrant line is not running hydrant.
just out side the gallery, then
to be provided.
517
(to mitigate fire risk) contd.
Sub Area Detection & protection system Remarks

to be provided
c Fuel Oil • Foam system to get

Station annunciation from heat
detector installed inside
tank in cross zone fashion.
d Panel & • To be made reliable.

repeater
panel
e Transformer • DV station to be situated as

far as possible from fire
risk area. (At least 12 mtr)
F Conveyor • To be procured FR grade as To be tested at site

belt per relevant standard before installation as
per norms suggested
by CC OS
518
General Observation of FPS of NTPC station
1. Hydrant at conveyor gallery not available. Hydrant to be provided in

Conv gallery at 45 mtr interval in both side
2. Hydro pneumatic system at Fire pump house is not in service and
generally 02 fire pumps are always in service. Nos of pump operation
to be reduced gradually by preventing misuse of fire water
3. HVW at turbine oil system is in Manual mode, i.e in valve close
condition
4. HVW at transformers are not tested On-line, but during shut down /
opportunity only. But simulation check done regularly i.e by keeping
outlet valve of DV closed condition.
5. No AUTO sensing of Fuel oil tank fire, foam system is kept in Manual
mode.
519
General Observation of FPS of NTPC station contd.
6. Older stations are provided with TES type sprinkler in cable gallery,
This TES nozzle has become obsolete, difficult to get spares. This
system are kept Manual mode. No testings by actual flooding, are
generally done.
7. In older stations, generally Fire panels are not very reliable. To be
renovated.
8. Repeater panel at CISF stations are not healthy.
9. In UCBs where Halon system are provided to be replaced with inert

gas, as Halon to be phased out by 1.1.2010.
10.In UCBs where Inert gas system are provided, generally not kept in
Auto.
11.For details of observation station wise please go to the linked file.
520
Issues of Cooling Tower
OS- BoP Group
Introduction
• Cooling tower is the most important equipment for closed cycle water
recirculation system.
• The efficiency of cooling tower has direct effect on condenser vacuum and in
turn, the heat rate of the station.
• 1oC rise in cold water temperature in a 200MW unit corresponds to 5mm vacuum
loss which corresponds to Rs 45 lakhs of loss per annum in terms of direct fuel
cost.
• Hence the cooling tower performance monitoring and its proper operation and
maintenance is a need of the hour.
Presently there are 102 cooling towers in operation in NTPC.

Induced Draught Cooling Towers
• Cross flow type 29

• Counter flow splash bar fill type 20
• Counter flow film fill type 44
Natural Draught Cooling Towe rs
• Natural draught type. 09

(Splash type 5 and Film type 4)
1. Film Fill Clogging
Problems
• Film fill clogged by mud/silt/algae

• Causing water distribution problem and improper cooling
• Due to clogged fills weight, its support structure failure.
Action taken to solve problems
• Quarterly/six monthly basis the fills are cleaned by water jet from top and bottom.
• Weight gain of fills is taken to monitor closely during PM on random basis and
manual cleaning is planned if weight of fill is on higher side. This weight is
decided by site on CT performance basis. Manual cleaning is planned yearly/once
in two year as per site condition.
• Water quality maintained and chemical dosing also done in CW water.
• Side stream 3% of CW water and make up water filtration plant proposed.
2. Recirculation of vapor near fan hub area
521
Bottom of fan is having negative pressure and if hub area is not sealed then about 10-15%
vapor may recalculate and actual air flow through fills reduce and affect CT performance.
Causes for CT Performance Deterioration
a) Overflow of cold water basin.
b) Unequal water flow in different cells.
c) Improper quality of water.
d) Rain/any other water entering into OAC. through holes etc causing higher turbidity
e) Civil structure cracks and reinforced steel corrosion; health study of concrete
structure and repair taken up.
3. CT civil structure failure

a) Civil structure cracks and reinforced steel open to atmosphere and corrosion;
b) Health study of concrete structure by hiring consultant and repair taken up. Korba,
Faridabad, Kawas Dadri done. Simhadri in process.
4. Nozzle chocking/falling
Problems
• Due to chocking/falling of nozzles, the water distribution gets disturbed and
proper cooling of water is not there. Some times due to the falling of nozzle the
water falls heavily over fills and damage it.
Solution
• Regular inspection and cleaning of nozzles done (quarterly)
Causes for CT Performance Deterioration

5. Higher blade tip clearance.
6. Fan door sealing not proper, other opening in suction of the fan
7. Drift eliminators damage
8. Cold water basin overflow
9. CT fan availability
10. Lot of trees/plants/bushes growth near cooling tower
11. Overflow of cold water basin.
12. Unequal water flow in different cells.
13. Improper quality of water.
14. Rain/any other water entering into OAC. through holes etc causing higher
turbidity
15. Civil structure cracks and reinforced steel corrosion; health study of concrete
structure and repair taken up.
Optimizing Cooling Towe r Performance.
• Cleaning of cold water basin during overhauls.
• Quarterly cleaning of nozzles.
• Visual inspection of pipes, nozzles, fills, etc., for proper water distribution.
• Checking of fan pitch angle, fan blade tip clearance, fan seal disc cover (at hub).
• Annual cleaning of fills with water jets. And cleaning it manually by removing
from tower when chocking is more.
• Cleaning of civil structure annually and removal of algae from DE, Fills.
• Fan door and any other air ingress point to be sealed.
522
• Regular condition monitoring of CT fans.
• Continuous chlorine dosing to be done.
• Sludge disposal pump to be run once in a day minimum for 15 minutes.
• Monthly checking of effectiveness of tower for comparison purpose and once
checking of performance during mansion as per OGN.
Experience with respect to maint. of Towe rs
Counter flow towers
1. Visual inspection of nozzles, HWD pipes fills, is not possible in running
condition.
2. Problem identify very late when situation deteriorates.
3. For any maint. on nozzles, pipe; maint. personal had to walk on film fill or
crowl on pipe in case of splash bar fills which is unsafe and also damages
Drift Eliminators because of number of times removing and placing.
Cross flow Towers
Cross flow IDCT is better maintained with sustainable performance than counter flow
as
• No Hot water distribution pipes
• DE are not damaged
• Nozzles are easily seen in running condition
• Fills are not damaged due to maint personnel working on it.
• Maint. Cost is very low.
Suggestion based on experience

• Extra support to be given to avoid sagging of DE.
• There should be clear space between DE and the hot water channel walkway to
see the condition of ACB pipe, nozzles and fill in running condition in counter
flow tower.
• Also for the maint. some short of walkway provision to be made in counter flow
towers.
• Chemical cleaning/ side stream filtration, to be given along with on line water
washing scheme for Film type fills.
• NDCT with splash bar fill is the best option as it requires less maint.
• Cross flow IDCT is better option than counter flow as
• No Hot water distribution pipes
• DE are not damaged
• Nozzles are easily seen in running condition
• Fills are not damaged due to maint personnel working on it.
• Maint. Cost is very low.
523
Issues of Ash Handling Systems
- OS- BoP Group
High Concentration Slurry Disposal
( HCSD) System
•Design concentration for ash slurry pumping is 60% by weight.

•Range of concentration - 55% to 70%
•Ash pipe line velocity - 1.8 M/Sec. (max.)
•HCSD pump operating range - 10% to 100% of
rated flow.
• Shut-down Restart for pumping operation –
Minimum 12 hrs.
• The High Concentration ash slurry disposal pump shall be positive displacement type.
• The high concentration slurry shall be disposed in disposal area such that no significant free
water is released from the slurry.
REFRACTORY APPLICATION TECHNIQUE
THE MAJOR PARAMETERS WHICH AFFECT THE PERFORMANCE:
PERCENTAGE OF WATER
MIXING
VIBRATION
PANEL SIZE
EXPANSION AND CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
CASTABLE APPLICATION
• Storing
• Correct batching and mixing of materials
• Anchoring and Welding
• Form Work.
• Expansion and Construction Joints
• Placement & Compaction
• Wet Curing
• Heat Maturing
To get the maximum performance each of above points is equally important.
STORING
All castables are generally hydraulic setting. Therefore proper precaution is required to avoid
moisture contacts from air.
• Keep dry in storage.
• Store in Building which is water proof.
• All door and windows should be kept shut.
• It should be stored in wooden pallets, above plastic sheet.
• Castables should be stacked away from the walls.
• Top and sides of castable should be covered with plastic sheets.
• Stacking should be as per batch no. /time of manufacturing.
• Castable should be used in the same order in which they are delivered. (FIFO basis)
524
CORRECT BATCHING & MIXING
When we have to start mixing?
When application area is fully ready?
• Anchor Welding, Testing, Coating is over
• Shuttering, Centering is over
• Sufficient quantity of Castable should be there near mixer.
• Sufficient quantity of conditioned Potable water should be there near mixer.
• Sufficient manpower should be there at respective position.
• Mechanical shifting equipment should be in order.
• Vibrator/Compressor should be tested before mixing.
• A whole bag or its multiples should be used for each batch.
• Batch size should be same to avoid confusion.
• Use only high intensity Pan Mixer.
• Dry mixing is must to avoid segregation.
For Conventional Castable - 1-2 minutes.
For Low Cement Castable - 2-3 minutes.
(Depends upon the size of batch)
• Potable conditioned water added as per recommendation.
• Mixing as per the recommendation of supplier.
ANCHORING
A) Types of anchors
B) Cover and spacing
C) Coating
D) Welding
E) Checking of Welding
Selection of Anchor based on temperature:
Temperature Range (At anchor tip) Type of Anchor

< 300 oC MS , CS
< 800 o C SS 304
< 1000 oC SS 310
> 1000 oC Ceramic Anchor
Always provide expansion allowance for the anchor.

Spacing, orientation depends on the design.
Type such as rod, flat again depends on the design.
Different kind of Anchor for Castable Lining:
1. Metallic Anchor - MS, CS, SS, Inconel
Types – Rigid and Flexible
525
ANCHORING
COATING
• To provide the space to for expansion.
• To avoid the cracks due to Anchors.
Plastic Caps ® At the tip ® Take care of longitudinal expansion.
2mm to 3mm thick
10mm to 20 mm long.
COATING MATERIAL
1. Bitumen Paint ® 2 coat (1 mm to 1.5 mm)
2. PVC Insulation tapes ® 2 layers.
Bee-wax ® 1 mm to 1.5 mm.
SHUTTERING:
Major Controlling factor for designing a shuttering:
1) Strong enough to with stand the vibration and material pressure.

2) Size should be optimum, so that entire material can be
Compacted homogenously
3) Roof shuttering should be hanging rather supported
4) Shuttering must be coated with mould oil or grease (Non absorbing)
FORM - WORK
• Shuttering from work should be rigid.

• Shuttering from work should be water tight.
• Designed for Pressures induced by wet mix.
• Proper support, bracing is required.
526
• Before placing the castable “Releasing Agent” (mould oil/grease) should be applied on
inner surface.
This will facilitate smooth castable surface. Also easy removal of shuttering.
Shuttering Material
• M. S. Black sheet --> 1.5 mm with bracing and stiffeners.
• Flexi glass (For very smooth surface and high tech. products)
INSTALLATION OF LOW CEMENT CASTABLES
• Use of pan mixer is must for mixing.

• Use of recommended water is very important as even 1% excess water can reduce the
strength substantially
EXPANSION AND CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
Thermal Expansion of Dense Castable in the range of 4 to 6 millionths per 0C.
Expansion joints provide space for refractory expansion after heating up. 3mm to 5mm by -
Plywood / Cardboard / hard board / Ceramic Paper
Size of expansion joints depends upon:-
• Thickness of castable.
• Type of castable.
• Refractory design/ Furnace parameters.
• Types of Products.
(Consult with the expert for Expansion Joint/Material.)
RECOMMENDATIONS OF WORKSHOP ON ASH HANDLING
SNO SUB MAJOR ISSUES RESPONSI

AREA DISCUSSED RECOMMENDATI BILITY
ONS
1 Seal -Instances of leakage of water - Care is to be taken Stations
Trough from seal trough have been to inspect seal trough
observed in number of stations, thoroughly during
particularly in old stations. unit overhaul.
- Inspection of seal trough is - If required, during
difficult. capital overhaul,
- Unattended leakage may lead to refractory may be
unit outage. broken in the seal
trough portion for
thorough inspection
of seal trough.
2 Bottom - Two nos view glasses are -Four nos view PE-MH
Ash normally provided in each front glasses are proposed
Hopper and rear side of bottom ash to be provided in
hopper. front as well as rear
side.
3 Bottom - There have been instances of -PE has already taken PE
Ash repeated failures of main support action to specify
Hopper column of Bottom ash hopper in stronger support
Rihand. Talcher Kaniha also had columns of bottom Stations
527
experienced this problem. ash hoppers.
-Sites to avoid
excessive impact
loading
4 Refractor - Different stations are using - Feedback of OS

y in refractory of different makes withperformance of PE
Bottom varying level of refractory different types of
Ash performance. refractory to be taken
Hopper. - Refractory application from stations so as to
procedure also varies from stationstandardise
to station. specifications of
refractory.
- Refractory
application procedure
to be also
standardised.
5 Dry Ash With gradual deterioration in the Engg to review PE-MH
Extractio coal quality, fly ash evacuation is capacity
n System becoming a chronic problem in augmentation of
most of the stations. Vacuum pumps, IAC
and TAC for
effective ash
evacuation.
6 Dry Ash Bag filter specifications, in use, at Bag filters Stations
Extractio different stations need to be specification to be
n System reviewed to facilitate reviewed at station
procurement of desired quality of end, based on inputs
filter bags. from the workshop.
7 Dry Ash Provision of Strainer in Fly ash Engg has PE
Extractio line to collector tank. incorporated it in new Stations
n System projects.
Engg to provide
strainer specification
to older stations for
incorporation.
8 ESP Fly ash evacuation from APH, Separate ash PE-MH
ECO and ESP hoppers becomes evacuation system for
difficult if the evacuation system ECO, APH and ESP
is common to all. hoppers is proposed
for effective ash
evacuation.
9 Ash Pipe - Pipe lines are normally welded - To avoid this Stations
lines outside plant boundary in most of problem, expansion
the stations to avoid theft type couplings may
problem of couplings. But during be provided in ash
peak winter and summer, lot of pipe lines at every
weld joint failure occurs in the 1000 meter.
pipe lines.
- Ramagundam
528
station has tried it,
and the results are
satisfactory.
10 Misc Kahalgaon Stg II: Site is of

opinion that they are facing
problem in following areas.
- Ash sluice trenches in ESP area - Man hole at suitable Station
are fully covered. There is no locations to be PE
manhole/ no approach provided provided in
to carry out maintenance work in consultation with PE.
these trenches.
- Engg to take note to
avoid such problems
in future projects. Station
- There is heavy gland leakage in
all the Clinker Grinders even
though design seal water pressure - Site to send a detail
is available at site. This results in report to OS / Engg.
frequent failure of bearings.
529
“Corrosion & its control on RCC Structures at Coastal power plants”
Ashwini K. Sinha
AGM (NETRA)
ABSTRACT
Reinforcement steel in Concrete structures is protected from corrosive effects of the atmosphere
by the passivation provided by the alkaline pH of the concrete mixture. If the concrete layer surrounding
the steel is impervious and the moisture & oxygen is not allowed to reach the steel surface, than steel
will remain protected for indefinite period. However; due to the fact that there are imperfections in the
concrete either because of construction quality or due to joints in different layers of the structure or due
to carbonation, the corrosive ions such as chloride can reach the steel surface making it susceptible to
severe corrosion. The result of such corrosion can be catastrophic failure of the structure as the corrosion
products are more voluminous than the steel itself and the build-up of these products induces stresses
that cause the concrete to spall & delaminate. Instances are known where the buildings have collapsed
due to corrosion of reinforcing steel. Corrosion protection measures need to be adopted to prevent such
damages to the RCC structures. Common corrosion protection measures adopted for RCC structures
include use of more corrosion resistant steel, epoxy coating of steel, using galvanized steel, use of
stainless steel, application of corrosion inhibitors, application of cathodic protection systems, etc.
However; most efficient method for corrosion control of reinforcement steel is cathodic protection as it is
the direct reversal of corrosion reaction.
The present paper intends to discuss the mechanism of deterioration of concrete; general
methodology of repair and rehabilitation of damaged concrete structures; brief on Corrosion control &
Corrosion prevention methods for RCC structures; and principles of cathodic protection and its
application to RCC structures as a means of rehabilitation of damaged RCC structures and prevention of
Corrosion induced deterioration in new RCC structures.
Keywords: RCC structures; galvanization; epoxy coatings; cathodic protection; anodes; cathodes;
rectifiers; corrosion induced deterioration; corrosion inhibitors; concrete resistivity; half-cell potential;
corrosion rate measurement; condition assessment; repair & rehabilitation of RCC structures
530
Introduction:
We generally think of concrete as a modern building material, yet it is one of the oldest and
most durable building materials. Although the Romans experimented with bronze reinforcement,
reinforced concrete as we know it today dates from the mid 19th century following the introduction of
Portland cement concrete in 1854. Steel has the advantage of having the tensile strength that concrete
lacks, and is highly compatible in its chemical and physical characteristics. The matching of thermal
expansion coefficients is critical to the versatility of reinforced concrete.
Concrete normally provides reinforcing steel with excellent corrosion protection. The high-
alkaline environment in concrete creates a tightly adhering film that passivates the steel and protects it
from corrosion. Because of concrete’s inherent protective attributes, corrosion of reinforcing steel does
not occur in the majority of concrete elements or structures. Corrosion of steel, however, can occur if
the concrete does not resist the ingress of corrosion-causing substances, the structure was not properly
designed for the service environment, or the environment is not as anticipated or changes during the
service life of the structure.
Concrete structures located in aggressive environments where high temperatures and high
chloride levels exist in both natural soils and waters are subject to premature deterioration from
corrosion of the reinforcement. The corrosion of metals, especially reinforcing steel, in concrete has
received increasing attention in recent years because of its widespread occurrence in certain types of
structures and the high cost of repairing the structures. The corrosion of steel reinforcement was first
observed in marine structures and chemical manufacturing plants. Recently, numerous reports of its
occurrence in bridge decks, parking structures, and other structures exposed to chlorides have made the
problem particularly prominent.
Traditional methods of corrosion protection, such as concrete admixtures and passive barrier
systems, may not be sufficient to provide the level of corrosion control needed for the intended design
life. As a solution to this problem the use of cathodic protection (or cathodic prevention as it is called) at
the time of construction is proposed. Although cathodic protection has been used as a rehabilitation
method on existing salt-contaminated concrete structures for over 25 years, its application to new
reinforced concrete structures is relatively new.
Deterioration of Concrete:
Actual structural failure, or even structural cracking is only rarely encountered but it is
important to differentiate between cracking from structural and other causes. Deterioration of concrete
occurs due to one or more of the following mechanisms:
1. Structural Failure:
Actual structural failures are comparatively rare, however; due to poor construction or
higher than designed loading, cracks can occur in the structures.
531
2. Corrosion of Steel:
Steel reinforcement is normally chemically protected from corrosion by the alkaline

nature of the concrete. If this alkalinity is lost through carbonation or if chlorides are
present which can break down this immunity, then corrosion can occur. Obviously,
when cover is low, the onset of corrosion will be sooner.
3. Alkali Silica Reaction:
Alkali silica reaction can occur in concretes made with aggregates containing reactive
silica, provided there is a sufficient supply of alkali (usually provided by the cement) and
a supply of moisture. The reaction product is a hygroscopic gel which takes up-water
and swells. This may create internal stresses sufficient to crack the concrete.
4. Shrinkable Aggregates:
Some, mostly igneous, aggregates can contain inclusions of weathered material in the
form of clay minerals. These minerals, in common with the clays encountered in the
ground, swell in the presence of moisture and shrink as they dry out. They can cause
excessive drying shrinkage of the concrete and can cause a random crack pattern not
unlike that encountered with ASR
5. Chemical Attack:
Concrete buried in soils or groundwater containing high levels of sulfate salts,

particularly in the form of sodium, potassium or magnesium salts, may be subjected to
sulfate attack under damp conditions. An expansive reaction occurs between the
sulfates and the C3A phase to form calcium sulfoaluminate (ettringite) with consequent
disruption to the matrix. Past experience has shown that true sulfate attack is rare in
concrete, only occurring with very low cement content concretes, with less than about
300 kg/m3 of cement. As a guide, levels of sulfate above about 4% of cement (expressed
as SO3) may indicate the possibility of sulfate attack, provided sufficient moisture is
present. Sulfate attack requires prolonged exposure to damp conditions.
6. Poor Quality Construction:
During construction lack of attention to proper quality control can produce concrete
which may be inferior in both durability and strength to that assumed by the designer.
Particular factors in this respect are compaction, curing conditions, low cement content,
incorrect aggregate grading, incorrect water cement ratio and inadequate cover to
reinforcement.
532
Repair and Rehabilitation methods for damaged RCC structures:
Patch Repair:
By far the most common repair technique is the application of concrete patches to damaged
or deteriorated concrete. Furthermore, when other remediation techniques are being
applied in order to limit the extent of on-going corrosion mechanisms or to prevent their re-
occurrence, these are supplemented by patch repair. Patch repairs are also used to reinstate
the spalled or delaminated areas of concrete.
Electrochemical Process:
Conventional patch repair is, and will always remain the primary method of repair of
reinforced concrete structures suffering from corrosion damage to the reinforcement.
Electrochemical techniques provide a useful set of methods for preventing or limiting
further damage to structures affected by reinforcement corrosion.
§ Cathodic Protection (CP): In cathodic protection, the corroding anodic areas of steel
are made cathodic by the supply of electrons from an anode applied either to the concrete
surface or embedded. There are two ways of applying cathodic protection to structures:
Galvanic and Impressed Current CP
§ Electrochemical Chloride Acceleration (ECE) – is also known as desalination or

chloride extraction (CE). The fundamental principle involved in ECE is similar to that of CP.
The only major differences are the period and level of current application. CP is essentially a
permanent installation involving an application of current in the region of 5-20 mA/m2 of
steel whilst ECE is a temporary treatment where a much higher current density in the range
of 0.5-2.0 A/m2 of steel is applied over a period of weeks. The chloride ions migrate to the
concrete surface where they are removed.
§ Electrochemical Re-alkalization is used for carbonated reinforced concrete structures

and entails the re-establishment of alkalinity around the reinforcement and in the cover
zone. Alkali ions are electrically driven toward the steel which, with the production of
hydroxyl ions at the steel, repassivate the steel and reduce corrosion activity to a negligible
level. The electrolyte is highly alkaline and drawn into the carbonated cover concrete by
electro-osmosis where it acts as a buffer zone. This process is applied as a single
treatment taking a few days for each zone treated
Corrosion Induced Damages to RCC Structures:
· Understanding the Different Types of Corrosion that Affect Concrete
When mild steel is used as reinforcing in concrete, a protective oxide layer is naturally
formed on the surface of the steel due to the alkalinity of the concrete. As long as this film is
maintained, the reinforcement will indefinitely remain in a very passive state.
Once corrosion is initiated, it is only a matter of time before the expansive pressures
from steel oxidation causes concrete cracking, spalling and delaminations. If the on-going
533
corrosion activity is not addressed, section loss of the reinforcing will occur and significant
structure repair or replacement may eventually be required.
t0 = the time for the environment to penetrate into the concrete to a level where corrosion
starts
t1 = the time for the corrosion rate to increase to significant levels
t2 = the time for cracking to occur, and a subsequent further increase in corrosion rate
t3 = the time for significant structural distress to be caused
t0 will depend on quality of concrete and corrosive environment present
Corrosion Progress
Chloride Contamination -
In most cases, the protective oxide film on the reinforcing steel is destroyed by the
presence of elevated levels of chloride ions. The chloride threshold to initiate corrosion is
generally considered to be around 1.0 to 1.4 lbs of water soluble Cl- per cubic yard of concrete
(at the level of the steel). This chloride threshold will vary depending upon the pH of the
concrete. For example, concrete that has experienced a loss of alkalinity will require fewer
chlorides to initiate corrosion. Chloride-induced corrosion can be commonly found in
structures exposed to de-icing salts, a marine environment or certain industrial processes. On
some structures, sufficient quantities of chlorides to cause corrosion were introduced in the
original construction by the use of chloride-containing admixtures or contaminated aggregates.
534
American Concrete Institute recommends the following limits for chloride in new constructions:
Patch Accelerated Corrosion -
Commonly referred to as "ring anode corrosion" or "halo effect", patch accelerated

corrosion is a phenomenon specific to concrete restoration projects. When repairs are
completed on corrosion-damaged structures, abrupt changes in the concrete surrounding the
reinforcing steel are created. Typical concrete repair procedures call for removal of the concrete
around the full circumference of the reinforcing steel within the repair area, cleaning of
corrosion by-products from the steel, and refilling the cavity with new chloride-free, high pH
concrete. This procedure leaves the reinforcing steel embedded in adjacent environments with
abruptly different corrosion potentials. This difference in corrosion potential (voltage) is the
driving force for new corrosion sites to form in the surrounding contaminated concrete. The
evidence of this activity is the presence of new concrete spalling adjacent to previously
completed patch repairs.
Carbonation -
The passive oxide film can also be destroyed by the loss of alkalinity in the concrete
matrix surrounding the reinforcing steel. The reduction in alkalinity is generally caused by
carbonation, a reaction of atmospheric carbon dioxide with calcium hydroxide (in the cement
paste) in the presence of water. The result is a reversion of the calcium hydroxide to calcium
535
carbonate (limestone) which has insufficient alkalinity to support the passive oxide layer. The
amount of time for the carbonated zone to reach the level of the reinforcing is a function of the
amount of concrete cover, concrete porosity, humidity levels, and the level of exposure to
carbon dioxide gas. Carbonation-induced corrosion is a particular threat to older building
structures.
Mechanism of Corrosion in RCC structures:
Corrosion of steel reinforcement occurs by an electrochemical process which involves exchanges

of electrons similar to that which occurs in a battery. The important part of the mechanism is the
separation of negatively charged areas of metal or 'anodes' where corrosion occurs and positively
charged areas or 'cathodes' where a harmless charge balancing reaction occurs (Figure 1). At the anode
the iron dissolves and then reacts to form the solid corrosion product, rust. The rust is formed at the
metal/oxide interface, forcing previously formed oxide away from the steel and compressing the
concrete, causing it to spall.
536
If corrosion of steel in concrete is suspected, a deterioration survey must be carried out to
identify the cause, mechanism and extent of corrosion. An inadequate investigation can lead to higher
costs and inadequate repairs. There are certain tests which are specific to the corrosion assessment of
steel in concrete, relying on the electrochemical nature of the corrosion process. These are half-cell
potential measurement, resistivity measurement and corrosion rate measurement.
The electrode potential of steel in concrete is an indicator of corrosion activity; the value reveals
whether the steel is in a thermodynamically active or passive state.
The half-cell shown is that usually used as a reference electrode, i.e. the saturated
copper/copper sulphate electrode (CSE). The following values of potential of reinforcement are
generally accepted as revealing the active and passive conditions
CSE potential: volts Condition

0.20 Passive
0.20 to 0.35 Active or passive
0.35 Active
Corrosion of RCC structures of Natural Draft Cooling Towers:
Natural-draft hyperbolic cooling towers are extremely susceptible to corrosion-induced

deterioration. Exposure conditions, and the resulting deterioration, vary depending on a host of factors.
By understanding the deterioration mechanisms and the effective rehabilitation strategies, however, the
life and value of natural-draft hyperbolic cooling towers can be maximized. Furthermore, due to the
progressive nature of corrosion deterioration, the consequences and costs associated with delaying
repairs can be significant. A variety of state-of-the-art concrete repair technologies, augmented with
537
high-performance construction materials and protection systems, are available to implement cost-
effective repair programs. These repair programs can extend service life and protect the value of the
high initial investment associated with the construction of natural-draft cooling towers.
Natural-draft hyperbolic cooling towers host a perfect environment for the corrosion of
embedded steel, and this deterioration affects several elements in the structure. Because products
formed when steel corrodes occupy more space than the parent material, they exert significant tensile
stresses on the concrete, causing unrestrained portions of the concrete mass to crack. Cracking allows
the further ingress of elements (such as chlorides and water) that fuel the corrosion process. As
corrosion continues, delamination-a separation within the concrete that usually originates at the level of
the reinforcement-occurs. Furthermore, spalling can occur along the deterioration curve.
Another mechanism that initiates corrosion-induced deterioration is carbonation. Carbonation is

the reaction of carbon dioxide from the air with calcium hydroxide in concrete, which forms calcium
carbonate. Because calcium carbonate has a lower pH (more acidic) than the parent material, it
effectively "depassifies" the alkaline environment of the concrete. The typical alkaline environment of
concrete causes the steel to react, forming a passive film on its surface, which inhibits further corrosion.
The generally accepted pH value of 8.51 has been determined as a depassification threshold, below
which the concrete is an "active participant" in the corrosion process. The process conditions within
operating cooling towers create an environment, characterized by a combination of moist conditions
and high temperatures, which promotes carbonation.
Natural-draft hyperbolic shells are typically constructed of reinforced, cast-in-place concrete.

Corrosion-induced deterioration of the concrete shell can occur both on the interior and exterior wall
faces. Deterioration-in the form of cracking, delamination, and/or spalling-is typically prevalent at the
throat of the shell (location of minimum radius). Extensive deterioration of the cooling tower could lead
538
to a condition of diminished structural integrity, and delaminated concrete could pose a serious risk of
falling concrete debris on operators and personnel and/or cause a release of elements anchored to the
concrete.
Process conditions within the interior of hyperbolic shells are characterized by a high
temperature and relatively humid environment, while conditions on the exterior of the shell are
dictated by atmospheric weather conditions. Typically, the temperature and relative humidity measured
inside the shell are higher than outside. As a result, water migrates across the shell cross section. The
driving forces for water diffusion between the inside to the outside of the shell are the temperature and
humidity gradients between the interior and exterior.
As water migrates from the inside of the concrete shell to the outside, it transports mineral
products, which are deposited on the exterior of the shell in the form of leachates and efflorescence.
Concrete faults, such as cracks or construction joints in jump-form construction, facilitate water
penetration through the shell.
Flue vapors exiting the cooling tower are another potential source of moisture. The vapors from
neighboring cooling towers driven by wind action may even cascade onto the exterior top elevations of
the shell. These vapors provide moisture for the corrosion of the embedded reinforcement at high
exterior elevations of cooling tower shells.
Circumferential supporting elements for the shell typically consist of cast-in-place pedestals on
the cooling tower basin, which support cast-in-place or precast diagonal columns. Many cooling tower
designs also incorporate a circumferential beam at the bottom of the shell that transfers shell loads to
the diagonal columns. Deterioration of circumferential supporting elements often originates at corner
locations.
Circumferential supporting elements can be classified according to their environmental

exposure conditions. Elements such as pedestals found within the cooling tower basin are, typically,
permanently submerged. As such, these elements may have some corrosion-induced damage, but it is
typically minor because steel corrodes at a very low rate due to the low availability of oxygen in
underwater conditions. Columns and circumferential beams have the most aggressive exposure
conditions because they are subjected to the splashing and evaporation zones. These conditions provide
both a high concentration of chlorides and moisture as well as plenty of oxygen to support corrosion.
Significant deterioration is often identified at the elevated regions near the shell, such as the
circumferential beam and the top of the columns. This is likely a result of the high velocity draft
generated by the cooling tower, which could promote oxygen and moisture replenishment to fuel
corrosion.
539
Typical Corrosion induced damages to RCC Structures
Corrosion control measures for RCC structures:
1. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel—Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars have been widely used in

aggressive environments since about 1973 and have generally met with success in delaying
corrosion due to the ingress of chlorides. ASTM A 775 and AASHTO standard specifications were
developed that outlined coating application and testing.
2. Galvanized steel—Galvanized steel has been used in concrete for the last 50 years, and is
particularly appropriate for protecting concrete subjected to carbonation because zinc remains
passivated to much lower levels of pH than does black steel. Unfortunately, zinc dissolves in a
high pH solution with the evolution of hydrogen (H2) as the cathodic reaction. When zinc-coated
(galvanized) steel is used in concrete, a porous layer of concrete can form around the reinforcing
bar if steps are not taken to prevent it. The performance of galvanized bars significantly
decreases if there is carbonation in the concrete surrounding these bars.
3. Stainless steel—Stainless steel is under investigation as a reinforcing material for structures in
particularly aggressive environments. While ASTM A 304 stainless steel can tolerate higher
540
amounts of chlorides, it is necessary to use the more expensive ASTM A 316L grade to gain
significantly improved properties, particularly in bar mats of welded reinforcing steel
4. Cement and pozzolans—From the viewpoint of corrosion of the reinforcing steel, it is the
composition and availability of the pore solution, rather than the concrete itself, that are the
controlling factors. Therefore, it is those components of the concrete that determine the pH of
the pore solution, the total porosity, and the pore-size distribution that are of importance for
the corrosion process. In general, mineral admixtures such as fly ash, slag, and silica fume
reduce and refine the porosity. Concretes containing these minerals exhibit considerably
enhanced resistance to penetration of chlorides from the environment. If too much pozzolan is
used, however, all of the Ca(OH)2 may be used in the pozzolanic reaction, effectively destroying
the pH buffer and allowing the pH to drop to levels at which the reinforcing steel is no longer
passivated. The binding capacity of a cement for chloride ions has been considered to be directly
related to the C3A content of the cement. This is because the chloride ions can react to form
insoluble chloroaluminates. The chloride ions, however, cannot be totally removed from
solution by chemical binding. An equilibrium is always established between the bound and the
free chloride ions, so that even with high C3A contents, there will always be some free chloride
ions in solution.
5. Water-cementitious materials ratio—The porosity and the rate of penetration of deleterious
species are directly related to the water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm). For high-
performance concretes, the ratio is generally less than 0.40 and can be as low as 0.30 with the
use of suitable water-reducing admixtures. In general, a reduced w/cm results in improved
corrosion resistance.
6. Aggregate—Unless it is porous, contaminated by chlorides, or both, the aggregate generally has
little influence on the corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Free moisture on aggregate will
contribute to the water content of a concrete mixture and effectively increase the w/cm if it is
not accounted for by adjusting the batch water accordingly.
7. Curing conditions —The longer concrete is allowed to cure before being exposed to aggressive
media, the better it resists penetration by chlorides or CO2. This is particularly important for
blended cements, especially those containing fly ash, in which the pozzolanic reaction is much
slower than the portland cement hydration reactions. At an early age, fly ash concrete usually
exhibits lower resistance to penetration of chlorides than an ordinary portland cement concrete,
whereas at greater maturity, the fly ash concrete may have superior properties.
8. Corrosion inhibitors—A corrosion inhibitor for metal in concrete is a substance that reduces the
corrosion of the metal without reducing the concentration of the corrosive agent. This is a
paraphrase from the ISO definition (ISO 8044-89) of a corrosion inhibitor and is used to
distinguish between a corrosion inhibitor and other additions to concrete that improve
corrosion resistance by reducing chloride ingress into concrete. Corrosion inhibitors are not a
substitute for sound concrete. They can work either as anodic or cathodic inhibitors, or both, or
as oxygen scavengers.
9. Cathodic protection— Cathodic protection of steel in concrete is a technique that has been
demonstrated to besuccessful in appropriate applications in providing cost effective long term
corrosion control for steel in concrete. Cathodic protection (CP) is the only known means
of mitigating the corrosion of reinforcing steel, which is caused by the presence of the
chloride ion in existing structures. It is a technique that requires specific design calculations
and definition of installation procedures in order to be successfully implemented.
Although cathodic protection has been used to rehabilitate existing salt-contaminated concrete
structures for over 25 years, its application to new reinforced concrete structures is relatively
541
new. The cathodic current density necessary to maintain a passive layer on the reinforcing steel
before the reinforced concrete is contaminated with chlorides; however, it is relatively low, and
the chloride ion tends to migrate towards the anode. Cathodic protection can be used by itself
or in conjunction with other methods of corrosion control.
Principles of cathodic protection:
Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it
work as a cathode of an electrochemical cell. This is achieved by placing in contact with the metal to be
protected another more easily corroded metal to act as the anode of the electrochemical cell. Cathodic
protection systems are most commonly used to protect steel structures.
Corrosion is an electro-chemical process that involves the passage of electrical currents on a micro or
macro scale. The change from the metallic to the combined form occurs by an “anodic” reaction:
M › M+ + e-
(metal) (soluble salt) (electron)
A common example is:
Fe › Fe ++ + 2e-
This reaction produces free electrons, which pass within the metal to another site on the metal surface
(the cathode), where it is consumed by the cathodic reaction. In acid solutions the cathodic reaction is:
2H+ + 2e- › H2
(hydrogen ions (gas) in solution)
In neutral solutions the cathodic reaction involves the consumption of oxygen dissolved in the solution:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- › 4OH-

(alkali)
Corrosion thus occurs at the anode but not at the cathode (unless the metal of the cathode is attacked
by alkali).
542
Figure - Corrosion cell / Bimetallic corrosion
The anode and cathode in a corrosion process may be on two different metals connected
together forming a bimetallic couple, or, as with rusting of steel, they may be close together on the
same metal surface.
CP of steel in concrete is quite simply a means of fighting fire with fire, or in this case, electricity
with electricity. The corrosion process generates electric currents. CP supplies a source of external
current to counteract the corrosion current. Hence, corrosion can be eliminated.
There are two types of Cathodic Protection (CP) systems – impressed current and galvanic.
An impressed current CP system for concrete structures may require the following basic
components:
· DC power supply (rectifier).

· Inert anode material, such as catalyzed titanium anode mesh.
· Wiring and conduit.
· Instrumentation, such as embedded silver/silver-chloride reference electrodes.
A rectifier is used to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current. A rectifier works on the
same principle as an AC adapter for a computer or a battery charger. In an impressed current CP system,
the rectifier provides the power (i.e. low voltage direct current) and controls the amount of power to
each zone. The anode is one of the most critical components for a cathodic protection system. It is used
to distribute protective current to the reinforcing steel and provides locations for anodic reactions to
take place in lieu of the reinforcing steel.
543
Zone - a defined part of a cathodic protection system. Anode systems may be divided into zones
to supply current to a fully continuous reinforcement matrix. Alternatively a single anode zone may
supply current to separate, electrically isolated, zones within the reinforcement system. Finally zones
may comprise an individual anode zone for each reinforcement zone. As the current provision to each of
the zones in each of these alternatives can be separately controlled and measured all are generically
called as “cathodic protection zones” and specifically as “anode zones” or “cathode zones”. Normally
considering the severity of a Zone in the structure, the CP is designed and anode placement/current
distribution is effected.
A sacrificial or galvanic anode system for reinforced concrete uses a more reactive metal
(anode) such as zinc or aluminum-zinc-indium (Al-Zn-In), to create a current flow. Sacrificial anode
systems are based on the principle of dissimilar metal corrosion and the relative position of different
metals in the galvanic series. The direct current is generated by the potential difference between the
anode and reinforcing steel when connected. The sacrificial anode will corrode during the process and is
consumed. Current will flow from the anode, through the concrete, to the corroding reinforcing steel.
Galvanic anodes may be installed as cast anodes in soil or thermally sprayed onto atmospherically
exposed concrete to form a sacrificial coating.
544
Ribon mesh anode Titanium mesh anode application
Relationship between concrete resistivity and corrosion rate

Resistivity, kΏ -cm Corrosion rate
> 20 Low
10 to 20 Low to moderate
5 to 10 High
<5 Very high
Typical Half Cell Potential mapping
545
Typical Corrosion rates profiling
The following guidelines are given in a nonmandatory appendix of ASTM C 876 for interpreting
corrosion-potential data of uncoated reinforcing steel in concrete.
· If potentials over an area are more positive than –0.20 V CSE, there is a greater than 90%
probability that no reinforcing steel corrosion is occurring in that area at the time of
measurement;
· If potentials over an area are in the range of –0.20 to –0.35 V CSE, corrosion activity of the
reinforcing steel in that area is uncertain; and
· If potentials over an area are more negative than –0.35 V CSE, there is a greater than 90%
probability that reinforcing steel corrosion is occurring in that area at the time of measurement.
(Note: These guidelines should only be used for uncoated conventional reinforcing steel embedded in
concrete. Data interpretation guidelines have not been developed for epoxy coated or galvanized
reinforcement and prestressing steel).
When evaluating a structure as a candidate for cathodic protection, several parameters should
be considered. These may include:
· Remaining service life should be > 10 years.

· Delaminations and spalls should be < 50% of structure area.
· Chloride content should be > 0.026% by weight of concrete (1.0 lbs./yd3).
· Half-cell potentials should be > -200 mV, indicating a breakdown of the passivating film.
· The candidate structure should be structurally sound.
· The majority of reinforcing steel bars should be electrically continuous.
· AC power should be available.
The process of cathodic protection for reinforced concrete structures surprisingly takes little
power. Data has shown that typical CP operating current densities range between 0.2 and 2.0 mA/m2
546
for cathodic prevention of new reinforced concrete structures, as compared with 2 to 20 mA/m2 for CP
of existing salt contaminated structures. This will result in power consumption ranging from 1-3 watts
per 1,000 m2 of concrete for new construction, and 3-15 watts per 1,000 m2 for existing structures.
The levels of chloride required to initiate corrosion are extremely low. There have been many
recommendations, both codes and publications, for maximum chloride concentrations. The American
Concrete Institute (ACI) Publication 222R-01 “Corrosion of Metals in Concrete”, recommends the
following chloride limits in concrete for new construction, expressed as a percent by weight of cement
(acid-soluble test method):
· Pre-stressed concrete 0.08 %

· Reinforced concrete in wet conditions 0.10 %
· Reinforced concrete in dry conditions 0.20 %
With CP, chloride ions will slowly migrate away from the reinforcing steel and toward the anode.
Furthermore, the production of hydroxide ions at the steel surface will cause the concrete to revert back
to an alkaline state. These factors when taken together will quickly arrest the corrosion process when
current is applied, and allow the passivating film to reform on the surface of the reinforcing steel. It is
important to realize that with cathodic protection corroded reinforcing steel cannot be restored to its
original native state, but corrosion of steel in concrete can be effectively stopped through the
application of cathodic protection.
Conclusions:
From the above following can be concluded:
1. In reinforcing concrete the steel is protected from corrosive effects of the surrounding
environment by the passive layer formed due to alkaline atmosphere of
cement/aggregates
2. The steel reinforcing bars are subjected to corrosive effects due to ingress of corrosive
ions such as chloride in presence of moisture and oxygen or due to carbonation
3. Methods such as use of coated/galvanized reinforcement bars or stainless steel bars or

polymer based bars; use of admixtures or corrosion inhibitors; use of modified concrete;
application of cathodic protection; etc are employed to control corrosion of RCC
structures
4. Cathodic protection (CP) is the only known means of mitigating the corrosion of
reinforcing steel, which is caused by the presence of the chloride ion in existing
structures.
5. Normal Repair & Rehabilitation procedures for RCC structures are effective only if they
are supplemented by application of cathodic protection
547
6. Application of cathodic protection in new constructions can prevent onset of corrosion
of steel bars at much cheaper cost compared to application of cathodic protection to old
structures
7. Cathodic protection of old structures requires assessment of condition of the structures

through tests such as chloride penetration; concrete resistivity; half cell potential
mapping; corrosion rate mapping; rebound hammer test; ultrasonic pulse velocity tests;
etc
8. Repair & rehabilitation of damaged structures should be carried out along with
application of cathodic protection system
Acknowledgements:
The Author is grateful to many of the colleagues within and outside NTPC NETRA for providing the
necessary input for the preparation of this paper a few of these are Mr. Jaldeep Singh, Mr.
O.P.rangwani, Ms. Kiran, etc. Author is grateful to Shri Chandan Roy, Director (Operations); Shri R.K.Jain;
Director (Technical); Shri Sharad Anand, ED (NETRA) and Shri A.K.Mohindru, GM (NETRA) for guiding and
encouraging in conducting the studies. Finally author would like to thank the Management of NTPC for
granting permission to publish this paper.
References:
1. “ Protection of Metals in Concrete Against Corrosion”, ACI 222R-01, Published by

American Concrete Institute
2. “Standard Practice - Inspection Methods for Corrosion Evaluation of Conventionally

Reinforced Concrete Structures”, SP 308 – 2008, NACE International, USA
3. “Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete: Advances in Remedial Treatments by Cathodic
Protection”, C.L.Page, Aston University, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Birmingham, UK
4. “Standard Test Method - Testing of Embeddable Impressed Current Anodes for Use in
Cathodic Protection of Atmospherically Exposed Steel-Reinforced Concrete”, TM 0294
– 2007, NACE International, USA
5. “Long-Term Effectiveness of Cathodic Protection Systems on Highway Structures”,
Publication No. FHWA-RD-01-096, Federal Highway Authority of US, USA
6. “Electrochemical Realkalization of Steel-Reinforced Concrete—A State-of-the-Art
Report”, NACE International, USA
7. “Remediating corrosion in hyperbolic towers”, Kostas Demadis, Power, July/Aug. 2004
8. “Cathodic protection of steel in concrete”, DS/EN 12696, DANSK Standard
9. “Three myths about Corrosion of Steel in Concrete”, D.A.Hausmann, Materials
Performance, Aug. 2007, NACE International, USA
10. “Cathodic Protection of RCC Structures in Netherlands; Experience and
developments”, Rob. B Polder, Heron Vol. 43, No. 1, 1998
548
11. “Understanding Corrosion and Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete
Structures”, Internal Communication from Corrpro Cos.
12. “Effects of cathodic prevention on the chloride threshold for steel corrosion in
concrete”, L.Bertolini, etal, Electrochimica Acta, 54, 2000.
549
INNOVATIVE APPROACH IN CHP FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEM
Author:
1. D.K.Saras wat, Sr. Supdt (O&M/C&I)

2. Ms Monika Devi , Engineer (O&M/C&I)
3. Mr Vikas Vikram , Engineer (CHP)
Fire detection and control is very vital for power plant operation. An uncontrolled fire can cause havoc and
enormous man-mach ine loss. In power plant coal handling plant is always prone to fire hazards as it is
dealing with conveyors and coal which are highly flammable.
Here we will try to share initiative we have taken to improve Vindhyachal Fire detection system in CHP
area. We will share many other new ideas which are yet to be accepted by management. These may be very
useful in future.
Vindhyachal Plant has come in three stages, one is Russian and other two are BHEL supplied. It was
studied that all systems are not similar in all stages. Through our efforts, we have tried to make similar
system of fire detection & ext inguishing in all stages. We will be d iscussing, how we are maintaining all
three different system in Vindhyachal all together.
Various changes in installation of LHS cable will be covered in this paper. New fire detection system is
provided in Stacker & Reclaimer wh ich will be discussed here.
In this paper, monitoring system for fire in coal yard will be proposed. This will be done through remote
mounted IRD cameras with zoo m focus and pan tilt, monitoring console for operator with annunciation
system.
All the issues discussed here will be in the sequence, existing system followed by limitation in the system
and will be concluded by providing the solutions
1.1 EXISTING FIRE PROTECTION S YSTEM IN VINDHYACHAL
Fire protection and detection system in Vindhyachal consists of a microprocessor based intelligent system
having sensing and control devices. The system receives signal from various field devices like analog
addressable detectors (smoke, heat, and multisensor), manual call points, linear heat sensing cable etc. The
whole CHP area is div ided into various loops. Each loop is further d ivided into various zones. Each zone
comprises of detectors, LHS cable, solenoid valves, deluge valves etc.Fire in each zone is sensed by a
sensing device and an alarm is generated in CHP Control room that that area is on fire. Simu ltaneously
solenoid valve of that particular zone is energized poppeting the corresponding deluge valve. As a result
water is sprayed through nozzles and fire is ext inguished. This can be better understood with the help of
block diagram shown in figure1.
Now water for fire extinguishing comes from fire water pump house. There are three hydrant pumps out of
which two are motorized and one is diesel energized. Similarly there are two spray pumps, one is motor
driven and one is diesel driven. Hydrants and spray headers are maintained at a pressure of 10 kg/cm2 with
the help of compressors.
A part fro m above system, special arrangements are made to detect fire on material wh ich is in mot ion or
transit to prevent the spread of fire fro m one area to another. Moving fire situation require special technique
to ensure reliab le detection of overheated material. Hence for detection of fire on coal conveyors special
550
instrument called infra red detector is used. This system comprises of three basic components namely a
sensor unit, a control unit and an air supply unit. Air supply unit comprises of blower and hose pipe to
maintain a positive pressure at sensor optical lens aperture to prevent settling of dust on lens. This air
purging is very essential as conveyors have very dusty environment. The sensor unit is located above the
conveyors by means of adjustable mounting brackets and is aligned in such a manner that coal passes
through sensors field of view. By means of optical filtering and electronic analysis the sensor is made blind
to visible light fro m sun or local lu minaries and detects infra red rays fro m relat ively low temperature
material moving through the field o f view. The wavelength of infrared emissions present in sunlight is
outside the spectral response of detector and hence it is blind to either direct or indirect sunlight. Thus
spurious alarms are also prevented. A local control unit is connected to sensor which provides contact for
alarm, trip and fault conditions. There are total 22 nos of IRD installed on different conveyors in both st-2
and st-3 C
SENSING DEVICE SOLENOID

(LHS CABLE) FIRE PANEL VA LVE
SOV GETS
ENERGISED &
HEADER PR.
DECREASES
SPRA Y SYTEM SPRA Y WATER DELUGE

ENERGISES NOZZLES VA LVE
FIGURE. 1 BLOCK DIA GRAM REPRESENTATION OF SPRA Y SYSTEM
1.2. LIMITATION IN EXIS TING FIRE S YSTEM
There were some ano malies in existing fire system, they are listed as follows
1) STACKER AND RECLAIMER coal received fro m mines is stored in the coal yard and when it is
required in boiler it is reclaimed fro m yard and transported to bunker by means of different sets of
conveyors. In coal yard smoldering of coal is observed. Stacker and reclaimer is the starting point of coal
transmission. Hence fire detection is very essential here. In the existing system there was no system of fire
detection in Stacker and reclaimer
2) TRACK HOPPER Rake of coal fro m mines is emptied in track hopper. In the existing system there
was no means of fire detection in ST-1 Track Hopper. In ST-2 & ST-3 track hopper system has been
envisaged but it was not operational due to poor condition of LHS cab le.
3) B UNKER FLOOR Bunker floor is also a weak area in concern with fire. Fro m there fire may
propagate to mill or main plant. Hence fire detection and control at bunker floor is very necessary. There
was no system of fire detection in st-1 bunker floor. St-2 & St-3 bunker floor have spray system but LHS
cable was in bad shape at these location due to movement of tripper.
551
1.3 INNOVATIONS DONE TO OVERCOME AB OVE LIMITATIONS
After brainstorming on above issues, certain innovative ideas have emerged. These have been implemented
to streamline the existing fire system.
1) STACKER AND RECLAIMER Many methods were suggested for implementing fire detection
system on S&R but most of them were either very costly or cannot be integrated with the existing fire
detection system. Finally LHS cable was laid on both the conveyors of S&R. These LHS cables were
supported by mechanical supports welded by our mechanical counterparts as shown in fig.2. These cables
were connected to a spare digital input module of the PLC wh ich was used to operate stacker. Now when
fire is generated LHS cable gets short and an alarm pops up in CHP control room wo rkstation that
“STACKER ON FIRE”. Similar arrangements were made on the Stacker & Reclaimer of St-1 & St-2
FIGURE. 2
2) TRACK HOPPER St-2 & St-3 track hoppers have got spray system but the condition of LHS cable in
these areas was in very bad shape. Modification was done in the laying arrangement of LHS cable. MS
angles were welded along the periphery of the conveyors and LHS cable was laid through these angles.
Angles provided a shielding to the LHS cable to prevent its damage by house keeping personnel. Also
similar arrangement was done in St-1 Track hopper and fire alarm was provided in CHP control roo m
3) B UNKER FLOOR There was no system of fire detection in st-1 bunker floor so LHS cable was laid to
provide fire alarm but since bunker is very sensitive areas in concern with fire hence a spray system was
also needed for fire extinguishing. But a problem has arisen in g iving auto spray on bunker floor because in
if false spray operates then water will enter mills and whole transportation of coal will co me to a standstill.
So we suggest here a locally operated spray system for St-1 bunker floor. Bunker floor may be divided into
different zones. Now each zone should have its corresponding deluge valve. A manual valve should be
provided after the deluge valve for spray system. In case of any fire at bunker floor the operator should
analyze the situation and in case of actual fire he should operate the spray valve manually to ext inguish the
fire.
1.4 PROB LEMS FACED DURING MAINTENANCE AND THEIR PRAPOS ED SOLUTION
· Most difficu lt task in maintaining the existing fire protection system is maintain ing the
healthiness of Linear heat sensing cable. Most of the times these cables get damaged unknowingly
during housekeeping or other activities. We have modified the laying arrangement to safeguard the
cable but still it’s a difficult task
552
· Also in St-3 LHS cable is hanged on conveyors through metal chains which are prone to theft.
Many times these chains are stolen by local laborers and LHS cable falls on conveyor and gets
broken. We suggest here to hang these cables through rigid angles (MS) having hole in there
centre
· Also the solenoid used in spray system of conveyors is causing problem. It has got very fine holes
and raw water clogs its orifice and hence it requires frequent cleaning. We are proposing to
replace these solenoids with st-2 solenoids which are trouble free.
2.0Coal stack inci pient fire
2.1 Existing system:
Vindhyachal coal stock yard is very big and smoldering in coal is very common and natural phenomena.
This is causing loss of calorific value of coal. Local operators are having water available nearby coal yard.
Water is sprayed manually , decision is pertaining with local operator.
2.2Problem:
Smoldering of coal in yard is very pro minent in summer. Cu rrently by seeing visual fire, action for
quenching of fire can be taken. Yard area is so big and we have limitation of man power this is causing
very difficult to mon itors visual fu mes coming out fro m stock yard. Many times, it has been seen that
surrounding temp is 27 deg can but in seen bed, temp is 70 deg cent, This is causing reduction in calorific
value of coal.
All industries and utilit ies using coal have to maintain a stock of coal. The coal piles may have incipient
fires. It is standard practice to spray water continuously on any such area where smoke is seen. Smoldering
of coal generates heat. Coal losses on this account can thus be minimized. The figure -3 shows one such
location in one of the plants. The temperature at the hottest spot is about 75 C compared to surrounding
coal at 27 C indicating smoldering inside the coal heap. Water spray is to be initiated at the spot much
before smoke/fire could be seen.
Figure-3: infra red i mage of coal yard, actual visual photo of coal yard
2.3Proposed system:
Performance optimization for lowest heat rates and lowest unit cost of generation is the key objective of all
progressive utilities of the world . Loss in calorific value of coal is tried to minimize or eliminate.
Identifying and min imizing these can positively influence heat rate and efficiency.
IR Thermography is a non-intrusive method of gathering and analyzing diagnostic informat ion concerning
the thermal pattern of a piece of equipment. All objects radiate energy in the infrared spectrum. Infrared
(IR) detectors can "sense" infrared radiant energy and produce electrical signals proportional to the surface
temperature of target object. Presently, hand held equipment called "Thermographic Cameras or Imagers"
553
are available which use optics to gather and focus IR energy into these detectors. These cameras are used to
make non - contact temperature measurement of mu ltiple points on a target simultaneously. This data is
displayed in the camera in form of a picture. These pictures commonly known as "Thermograms or
Thermograph" can be analyzed in field (real t ime) through the camera view finder, or stored electronically
in a floppy or magnetic card for computerized analysis in laboratory. IR Thermography can detect the
temperature of object surfaces fro m significant distances, can be useful where conventional temperature
measurements are impractical and can help monitor temperatures of equipment that are in motion, remote,
inaccessible or
in hazardous environment.
We propose to install IR camera installat ion with zoo m/focus and pan/tilt.
Infrared Thermography is usable as diagnostics technique in ‘coal yard ‘, as heat can be detected through
IR Thermography camera as a temperature differential long before the temperature is high enough to
generate smoke. This system is to be installed with coal bed monitoring software (CBMS). Since these are
IR camera, it can see in day and night both. Location of camera is shown in Figure-4.
Feature of software:
· Fully automatic system for large area’s monitoring.
· Fire protection and early detection.
· Detects alarm area position.
· Alarm sound signaling.
Figure-4: Various Camera Locations
By knowing fire at exact position in stock yard through this software based intelligent system, attached
with audio and visual alarm. Operator can take action to quench fire. It can be done by spraying of water
through manual/ automat ic sprinkler system.
3.0 Mulsifier System of stage I:
3.1 Existing Mulsifier System:
The original mulsifier system was of Russian make and only provision for fire fighting was by means of
Quartz Bulbs. In case of fire Quartz Bulb breaks and water gets sprinkled fro m bro ken bulb point only.
This can be better understood with the help of block diagram shown in figure5.
3.2.Problems with Existing System:
This kind of spray system was insufficient to stop the fire effectively fro m spreading into other vulnerable
areas as only localized spraying was done.
554
There were problems fro m design point of view as the system provided by Russians had no provision for
spraying in a larger zone.
Also there was unavailability of required materials for modification.
Quartz Bulbs
Main Line
Fig. 5: EXIS TING SCHEME for CHP St-I
3.3 SUGGES TIONS/ RECOMMENDATIONS:

The following reco mmendations are suggested:
Old Mu lsifier System of CHP St-I needs to be upgraded by latest Mulsifier System with Quart z Bu lbs in
Impulse Line and Sp ray No zzles in Water Spray Line like CHP St-II and St-III. Mulsifier operations can be
done through LHSC operation and Quart z Bulb operation. This can be better understood with the help of
block diagram shown in figure6.
555
Spray Line Spray Nozzles
Quartz Bulbs
LHSC
FIRE
PS
PROTEC TION
PANEL
DV
Solenoid Valve
(Linked with LHSC
& QB)
I impulse Line
Main Line
Fig. 6: S UGGES TED MODIFIED SCHEME for CHP St-I
556
4.0GOOD PRACTIS ES
· We maintain the fire system by daily cleaning and checking around sixty detectors
· We perform quarterly jo int checking of fire system with operation, CISF and safety
· We also have routine checking of auto changeover of fire water pu mps
5.0 Conclusion
This paper is based on our experience in power plant. Imp lementation of fire detection system in all Stacker
reclaimer is a new init iation with in system constraints. Similar system has been implemented in other
project also. Extension of LHS Cable in bunker floor is done to make, Similarity in stage-I II & III
system as safety concern. Automatic Water sprinkler system is not suggested here in coal bunker in v iew
all of plant operational safety. IR thermography in new concept and fire in coal yard is very burning topic
in NTPC. Our efforts are to present a system, wh ich may be very use full and can prove its break even cost
in short span. Finally at the end of paper we have suggested new design for Stage I. Sprin kler system with
deluge valve based on new concept which has already existing in 500 MW units. Implementation of this
will have some capital cost but we can give a safe environment to stage I CHP. So finally, our attempt is to
provide a fire safe environment in Vindhyachal and sharing f our idea’s and experience among other power
professional. In this way, our paper will express ways of improvement in fire fighting system in
Vindhyachal. All the imp lemented ideas have been covered. We have floated many new ideas’s open for
discussion through this paper, which may be very useful in power p lant safety.
557
Dry Bottom Ash Handling System
Author; Dr.Rafael Moreno, Sales Director, Clyde Bergemann DRYCON GmbH, e-mail; rmoreno@cbw.de
Co-author; Mr.Hongmin Ge, Director Engineering, Clyde Bergemann Energy & Environmental Technology (Beijing) Co., Ltd. e-mail;
hongmin.g@cbbeijing.com
Co-author; Mr. B haskar Biswas, D.G.Manager - MHD Business, Clyde Bergemann India P vt. Ltd, C-7, Phase-II,
Noida, Distt. Gautam Budhnagar, UP - 201305 India Phone +91 120 4073 151, Fax +91 120 4073 103,
Mobile +91 99 5879 2894, e-mail; bbiswas@clydebergemann.in
Preface
With the increase of demand for electricity, power plants are coming up. Coal fired power station occupies the
largest share in India.
Coal fired by Indian Power Station usually has high ash content of the order of 40-45%. Accordingly the ash
handling plants are of much larger size. Disposal of this large volume of ash becomes a concern.
Conventional Bottom Ash Systems

India power stations have a mix of different type of wet bottom as h system;
- Water impounded hopper with crusher & jet pump to slurry sump then by cent rifugal slurry pumps to ash
pond.
- Water impounded hopper with crusher & jet pump to dewatering bin, settling tank, surge tank. Ash
disposal by trucks & ash water re-used. Alternatively the humidified bottom ash is disposed by belt
conveyor and spread in ash dump.
- Submerged scraper conveyor with crusher, sluicing in trench to slurry sump then by cent rifugal slurry
pumps to ash pond.
- Submerged scraper convey or with crusher, by belt conveyor to bin / silo & disposal by trucks.
Most power stations in India have ash ponds for disposal of the large quantity of ash. The ash ponds are
sometimes located at quite a distance leading t o requirement of second stage slurry pumping station. In slurry
pumping, water is the carrying media for ash and accordingly large volume water has also to be pumped. There is
usually a recovery ash water system which pumps part of the ash-water back to the plant for re-use. S ubstantial
auxiliary power is associated apart from the initial investment and maint enance costs.
Plants on the sea coast sometimes use sea water. The ash handing plant under this situation uses corrosion
protection material like stainless steel, basalt lining, etc.
Dry Bottom Ash Handling System; Is a comparatively new technology which can address many of the above
concern. It uses atmospheric air for cooling the bottom ash without use of water. It is usually a mechanical
conveyor in a sealed box and allows the atmospheric air to flow in the counter flow direction of hot bottom ash;
resulting in heat exchange. The hot air flows to the furnace & cooled ash is discharged out of the conveyor.
The Technology; The Dry Bottom Ash Convey or is mounted fully sealed underneath the combustion chamber.
The negative pressure inside the boiler sucks air in a cont rolled manner. The air ent ry points are us ually along
both sides and mainly at the discharge end of the bottom ash conveyor / extractor system. The air moves in
counter flow direction along the surface of the ash, which rests on the conveyor belt. This activates a re-burning
process of the glowing ash, which reduces the unburned carbon level and frees up additional thermal energy. The
air is heated up before it enters the combustion chamber and adds additional thermal energy to the steam
generating process inside the boiler. Total combustion air required for the dry cooling system is within the boiler
manufacturer’s permissible quantity and can be c onsidered as a constant value in boiler design. This ensures,
that the combustion process and the exhaust gas composition are not affected.
558
Arrangement
Underneath the combustion chamber a transition chute, bottom ash hopper, will be installed, supported from the
ground floor by means of a steel structure. The transition c hute or hopper will be lined with special refractory and
insulation at the inside t o withstand the radiation from the combustion chamber of the boiler. Heat resistant fabric
compens ator is usually installed bet ween the boiler outlet and t he B ottom Hopper, to compensate the movement
between cold and hot condition of the boiler. The compensator is fabricated from elastic metal, resistant to high
temperatures. To avoid damages due to high temperatures by the radiant heat from the combustion chamber, a
special protecting skirt with lining can be provided at the inner side of the compensat or. The compensator will be
delivered and mounted in one-piece only, to assure tightness and the required flexibility. Alternatively a water
seal, seal trough, system as used as in SSCs systems is available.
Gates cum large clinker breaker / jaw crusher shall be provided below the bottom ash hopper for isolation of the
Dry Ash Conveyor as well as breaking of large clinker falling from furnace. This also allows storage of ash in the
bottom ash hopper & maint enance of downstream equipment.
The Dry Ash Convey or can be put on a rail system to slide it to the side once the boiler is out of operation, which
gives free access to the combustion chamber of the boiler for maintenance and repair purpose.
If some work has to be carried out downstream of t he Dry B ottom Ash Conveyor and the Conveyor has to be
stopped, the system allows storing the normal bottom ash rat e several hours resting on the belt without shutting
down the boiler.
The heart of the Dry Bottom Ash Conveyor system is a Steel Plate Conveyor Belt pulled by means of two round
link chains and frequency controlled drive station. The belt velocity is variable from 0, 01 to 0,06 m/s (step less). In
order to ac hieve a long lifetime of the mac hine parts by minimizing wear and tear, an automatic torque-depending
adjusting device assures the optimal band-velocity based on the accumulating ash amount on the c onveyor belt.
An independent hydraulic tensioning station, which is provided with limit switches and a scale for in-service
monitoring of tension adjustment, maintains the tension of each chain. In addition sensors for remote control of
tension and temperature can be added to the system.
559
The steel plate has an integrated
fine ash recirculation system. Fine
ash particles, which fall through the
belt, down to the bottom of the Dry
Bottom Ash Conveyor, will be
scraped along the deflection wall,
back onto the top of the belt. This
happens by means of special
designed scrapers, mounted t o the
steel plate belt. The deflection wall
is connected with the tensioning
station, whic h ensures the defined
gap bet ween the deflection wall
and the belt. This self cleaning
design saves additional devices
like a second mechanical cleaning
conveyor belt and reduces
maintenance and operating costs.
Adjustable cooling air inlets are located along the casing and the top outlet of the Dry Bottom Ash Conveyor. Most
of the air enters the sealed Dry Bottom Ash Conveyor system at the top, to ensure that the air moves right from
the beginning along the hot ash. The air entering at the bottom of the sealed casing, adds fresh air to the heated
air entered at the top and supports the cooling and re-burning process.
Below the upper level of the steel plate belt, impact tables are located to support the belt in the event that
abnormal big ash pieces hit the conveyor belt. Only in the event of a deflection of the upper part of the steel plate
belt, it will get for [ms] in contact with those impact tables. E ven when ash is stored, the system is designed in this
way to be never in cont act with the impact tables. That ensures that there is no friction and consequently no wear.
The Dry Bottom Ash Conveyor system has long term lubricated and heat resistance roller bearings, which allow a
very smooth and frictionless operation. That reduc es the torque and power requirements for the drive unit and
reduces the maintenance requirements relative to a gliding arrangement. The supporting rollers can be easily
changed from the outside of the conveyor during operation, without stopping the system.
Remote
The housing c an be provided with
Remote
monitoring
monitoring
DRYCON
temperature measuring equipment for
monitoring t he exact temperature in
defined areas to safeguard
Thermo-elements for Regulation of
Electrical
monitoring of monitoring of temperature cooling air maintenance work.
tensioning way
In t he unlikely event of the
appearance of ash pieces, which
block the conveying system, the Dry
Bottom Ash Conveyor will
automatically drive back and forward
for several customer defined times to
come back to an unblock condition. If
this is not achieved, the convey or will
Regulation of Hydraulic Speed control and be stopped aut omatically and an
cooling air overload protection standstill monitor alarm will indicate that manual
intervention is required. Maintenance
doors are provided for inspection or for manual crushing from outside of the convey or housing. The outlet of the
Dry Bottom Ash Conveyor can be equipped with a customised grate, which could retain pieces of bottom ash,
which are to big for the down stream process.
560
In case of more detailed
temperature information is
required Dry Bottom Ash
Convey or can be equipped with
a high resolution Infra Red
sensor array which can monitor
the temperature distribution of
the ash on the belt.
A frequency controlled drive unit automatically regulates the drive station, so that the velocity of the Dry Bottom
Ash Convey or is always on the minimum. This guarantees little wear by optimal cooling and burning out of the
unburned carbon of the ash. In the event large amounts of bottom ash have t o be transported, e.g. after storing,
the drive will automatically change the velocity to higher speed. When the ash quantity becomes normal, the drive
will reduce the velocity to a minimum again.
Key Advantage s
1) No Water Requirement: No water for ash cooling and more important no water treatment at all is
necessary, which eliminates investment and reduces operational & maintenance cost and provides
additional space inside and outside the power station.
2) Increase of E fficiency: By the additional introduction of hot air, more thermal energy is made available for
the steam generation process which also means less coal consumption.
3) Enhanced quality of bottom ash: The unburned carbon of the bottom ash will be reduced.
4) Lower Maint enance Costs: The ash is carried on pans which is moved by chain and moves on rollers.
The chain, rollers, etc does not come in contact with ash.
Ash Di sposal; Various methods are being adopt ed for disposal of Dry Bottom Ash at the power stations.
Disposal by Truck; Dry bottom ash is collected in silos. The silo has dry and or conditioned un-loading facility to
road trucks / tankers. The bottom as h is used as land fill, aggregat es for road embankment / commercial building
pads, etc.
Belt Conveyor to Ash Dump; Dry bottom ash is collected in silos. The silo has dry and or conditioned un-loading
facility. Belt conveyor or pipe conveyor can be used to transport the bottom ash to ash dump area and is spread.
Recirculation of the Dry Bottom Ash; Depending on the quantity of ash (mainly in cas es of small amounts), to re-
circulate the bottom ash back to an appropriate location of the coal injection process and sent it through the
milling and burning process again can be favourable conc erning return of invest. By doing so, finally the bottom
ash will be transformed int o Fly Ash. The recirculation could be done by means of a simple belt conveyor or
pneumatic transport system.
Mixing the Bottom Ash with the Fly Ash; Through a crus hing and milling process, via a pneumatic conveying
system the bottom ash can be added to the fly ash and sold to the e.g. Cement industry. Via a roller crusher as a
primary crushing process a grain size of <80 mm will be achieved and if required, a hammer mill as a second
crushing stage will reduce the majority of the grains to a size of < 5 mm.
561
Detail of a Dry Bottom Ash Handling Project; Daihai, China
Daihai is located in Inner Mongolia, China. The power station has 4 x 600MW. Unit # 1 & 2 is with Scraper
Convey or System and unit # 3 & 4 are with Clyde Bergemann DRY CON. The power plant is fired with bituminous
coal. The boiler supplier is M/s Haerbin for unit # 3 & 4. The dry bottom ash collected at this power station is
disposed by trucks & is used as land fill.
Description; Below the combustion chamber a Transition Chute (bottom ash hopper), consisting of hopper outlet
is installed and supported from foundation with structural support. The hopper is lined with refractory and
insulation inside to with-stand the radiation from the combustion chamber of the boiler.
Dry Bottom Ash Conveyor is located beneath the outlet of the aforesaid bottom ash hopper. The convey or is
supported from the RCC floor of the power station. Maint enance doors are provided for inspection or
maintenance along t he lengt h of the conveyor. Walk way is also provided in the inclined section as well as at the
outlet area for ease in maintenance.
The Dry Bottom Ash Conveyor discharges to bifurcating chute; feeding to silo # 1 or to a steel transfer conveyor
which feeds to silo # 2. The silos are of steel construction. The silo has level switch, pressure relief valve and a
vent filter. At the outlet of each silo is a pneumatic isolation valve, rotary feeder & an ash c onditioner for loading
onto open road trucks for as h disposal.
Project name : Daihai Phase II Bottom Ash Handling System

Client Name : Daihai Power Generation Company Ltd
Number of units : 2
Size of Boiler (MW) : 600 MW
Capacity : Operating 22 TP H & Designed 60 TPH
Storage capacity : 4 hours (B.A.Hopper)
Type of coal : Hard Coal/Bituminous coal
Date of Commissioning : June 2007 Unit # 3 & September 2007 Unit # 4
measured air
temperature
Transition shute
Measured air temperature
in DRYCON
562
HIGH EFFICIENCY MIST COOLING SYSTEM
FOR PROCESS INDUSTIRES & POWER PLANTS
AUTHORS
R.L.Birla (Consultant – PEERS)
Makarand A. Chitale, (Director MREPL)
M.P.Nene (G.M.MREPL)
ABSTRACT
The challenge being faced by power plant is to keep constant cold water temperature from
cooling tower to maintain efficiency of power plant at desired level. In monsoon and summer
when humidity is high cooling tower fails to achieve desired cold water temperat ure which
results in lower efficiency of power plant, in turn resulting in loss of valuable power or higher
consumption of fuel. Now it is time’s need to find new solution to get desired cold water
temperature throughout year for TG condenser.
The ultimate Mi st creation technology is the best alternative to conventional cooling towers.
0
This advanced mist creation system can achieve an approach of 1 to 2 C to WBT as against
0
5 to 6 C approach for conventional cooling tower. Hence guaranteed cold wat er temperature
0
of around 30 C could be obtained throughout the year in our tropical climate. Also the
spraying head is equivalent to the height of cooling towers thus requiring same pumping
power. As mist creation system does not require fans for cooling it saves huge amount of
power. Also, as there are no moving parts involved in Mist creation system
the maintenance cost is negligible and system runs trouble free.
This article will review basic type of cooling systems utilized in power plants and other
industries. It will also ex plain why new advanced mist creation system is superior than
conventional cooling towers.
INTRODUCTION
In the steam cycle of a power plant, low-pressure water condensed in the steam condenser is
pumped to high pressure before it enters the boiler or Heat Rec overy Steam Generator
(HRSG) where s uperheated steam is produced. The superheated steam is sent t o the steam
turbine where the steam expands to low pressure providing the energy to drive a generator.
This low-pressure steam has to be condensed in a condenser in order to complete the steam
cycle.
Similarly in Process / Chemical Plants, product vapour generated in the process is condensed
in a Heat exchanger and is recovered back.
The condensation of steam / Vapour requires a cooling medium. In early days this was
achieved by using water from a river, a pond or seawater. The cold water is pumped through
a heat exchanger and the warm water is discharged back to the water source. This is called
ONCE THROUGH cooling system.
A once t hrough system is an open loop system. The necessity to reduce t he huge amount of
water gave birth to the idea of closed loop system. Thus the W ET COOLI NG system came
into effect.
563
In a wet cooling system, water is circulated to condense the steam in the same type of heat
exchanger that is used in t he once through cooling. The warm water, instead of being
returned to the water source, is cooled in a cooling tower using air as the cooling medium.
Only the water carried away due to evaporation, drift and blow-down needs to be replenished
by make-up wat er. Thus requirement of water quantity is vastly reduced.
WET COOLING SYSTEMS

1. Wet Cooling Tower System
Circ ul ation W ater Cy c le in Co oling Tow er Plan A
We will first consider the Wet Cooling Tower System. The wet cooling tower system is
based on the principle of evaporation. The heated wat er c oming out of t he s urface
condenser is cooled as it flows through a cooling tower, where air is forc ed through
the tower by either mec hanical or natural draft.Now a days, mostly, all wet cooling
towers are mechanical draft cooling towers, where the air flow is accomplished by
fans.
In case of a P ower Plant, the steam turbine is not directly connected to the cooling
system, so this is in fact an indirect cooling system. The steam from the steam turbine
is condensed at the outside of the surface condenser tubes, using cold wat er coming
from the cooling tower. Part of the cooling water is evaporated in the cooling tower,
and a continuous source of fresh water (makeup water) is required to operat e a wet
cooling t ower. Mak eup requirements for a cooling t ower consists of the summation of
evaporation loss, drift loss and blow-down.
564
The P rinciple cooling device used in an Induc ed / forced draft cooling tower are Fans
which run at the top of Cooling Tower (CT). Air enters through side louvers and
escapes from the top. Water enters at the top and trickles down while getting cooled
by air draft.
A correctly designed induced draft CT can give an approach of 4 to 6°C to wet bulb
temperature with a temp. drop of 10°C. E ven a very highly efficient CT can not give
an approach less than 4°C to WB T. Moreover, if ambient temperature or humidity
levels rise, efficiency of CT reduces.
Let’s consider thi s through an example :

In a power plant having 6 MW condensing turbine, about 25 TP H steam is condensed
in condenser. Cooling towers are designed for a T of 8°C considering a wet bulb
temperature of 28°C, and design Cold Water (C.W.) temperature of 32°C, with
approach of 4°C. Total circulation water quantity is about 2000 M³/ Hr.
In peak summer or monsoon, when humidity levels reaches 90% + with ambient
temperature of 40°C +, CT approach goes up from 4°C to 8°C. Thus Cold Water
temperature increases from design 32°C to 35°C +.
This increase in temperature directly increases consumption of steam or reduc es

power output. Hence all power plants normally operate with low efficiency or higher
steam consumption in summer and monsoon.
Similarly if we consider case of a Petrochemical / Refinery plant, in peak summer

when WB T reaches around 29/30°C, CT gives an approach of 5 t o 6°C. Thus due to
this rise in Cold Water temperature, these industries always experience loss in
production by at least 5 to 7%. These losses do not occur in winter months. This
means that the plant will operat e at a reduced efficiency for almost 6 to 8 months in a
year.
Also due to use of Fans, CT consumes a lot of power. It is observed that the
efficiency of CT reduces over a period of time due to wear and tear of moving parts,
Fills, Fins etc. which invites heavy maintenance.
Henc e there is an urgent demand from the industry for a water-cooling system, which
will operate with high efficiency even in adverse climatic conditions and maintain cold
water temperature in closed vicinity to WBT.
565
2. MIST COOLING SYSTEM
MREPL has come out with a solution by designing MIS T COOLING SYSTEM which
is a high efficiency system, which ensures an approach of 1°C to prevailing wet bulb
temperature with a Temp. drop of 12 to 15°C even in adverse climatic conditions.
Circ ul ation W ater Cy c le in MCS Plan B
In tropical conditions, worst wet bulb temperature even at coastal applications is maximum
30.5°C. Hence MCS will always maintain Cold Water of around 31°C+ 1°C throughout the
year. No other cooling system can operate with such efficiency. and it makes cooling
tower/spray pond systems obsolete.
Salient Features of Mi st Cooling System (MCS)

MCS has an unmatched features. Briefly they are as follows:
1. COLD WATER TEMP ERATURE :

Mi st Co ol i n g S y st e m will ensure an approach of 0 to 1ºC to WBT with a
temperature drop of 12°C to 15°C.
2. ENERGY S AVINGS : (Please refer diagrams A & B)

Due t o such high temperature drop obtained, water quantity required at the process
side is much less. MCS requires water pressure equivalent t o the height of cooling
tower as shown in the diagram. Hence considerable amount of energy is saved on
circulation water pumping. Also, MCS does not require any fans for cooling. Thus, a
huge amount of energy is saved on circulation and cooling.
566
3. PROCESS BENEFITS :
Due t o lower cold water temperature obtained from MCS, higher vacuum can be
maintained at the exhaust side of the TG thus ensuring higher pressure drop across
the system which in turn results in more energy output or reduced steam input.
4. MAINTENANCE :
MCS has no moving parts. Also the mat erial used in the Mist Cooling System is
special grade Saran Polymer, a highly non-corrosive material having a life of more
than 10-15 years. This makes MCS absolutely maintenance free. As against this,
cooling towers require a heavy maint enance in form of replacement of louvers, fan
blades, clamps etc. every year.
5. CHOKELESS DESIGN : MCS operates with a choke less design. Size of smallest
opening in MCS is more t han one inch (25 MM). Hence chances of particles choking
the system are minimum.
6. SHALLOW POND CONSTRUCTION:

MCS pond is shallow with only a depth of 1 Mtr. Hence it is easy to be cleaned. Also
MCS pond can be designed with 2 or 3 compartments for further maintenance
flexibility.
7. WATER QUALITY :
MCS ensures efficient atomization and the consequent absorption & retention of air
by water particles thus causing aeration of water, showing better BOD & COD values.
8. SYSTEM FLEXIBILITY (CAP ACITY TURN DOW N RATIO):

MCS is offered with individual line isolation valve. MCS is the only system, which
gives such high flexibility in operation.
9. HYDRO- BALANCE VALV E :

System is provided with inbuilt hy dro-balanc e system to release the excess pressure
which may develop on the system at times. This also helps in taking care of likely
sub-cooling in winter.
10. CHEMI CAL TREATMENT :

Chemical dosing requirements make up water requirement and blow down are similar
to cooling tower. Multipoint chlorination is suggested t o control of algae formation
which gives excellent result.
11. DRIFT & EV APORATI ON LOSS ES :
567
Drift losses are 0.1% for normal c onditions and 0.25% for Windy conditions. These
can be further reduced to 0.05% by adopting our closed pond system.
E vaporation loss will depend on the temperature drop obt ained from the system.
12. SLUDGE FORMATION :
Fans used in the regular cooling towers requires large volume of air for cooling of
water and it tends to wash the dust in the surrounding air which gets deposited in the
tower basin. In the vicinity of a power plant or cement plant the average dust levels
are already very high which would get washed in the c ooling towers. This dust gets
deposited on the louvers / drift eliminators causing reduced flow passage for the air
flow, excessive loads leading to the failures and more cleaning of the basins to
maintain reduced wear (& better performance) of the CW pump internals. Load on the
side stream filtration has also been found increased.
13. PAY BACK PERIOD :
The Pay Back period of the MCS will be less than ONE year only.
Compari son of MCS & Cooling Tower System s

Description Cooling Tower (CT) MCS
0 0
Approach to WBT 4 to 6 C 0 to 1 C
0 0
Temperat ure Drop 6 to 8 C 12 to 15 C
Circulation Water Quantity 1.5 Times MCS 65% of CT
Power Consumption Requires Fans which NIL
consumes Power (no fans are required)
Equipments & Civil costs 125% of MCS 75% of CT
Maintenance Cost High Very Low
Water Loss Same as in MCS Same as in CT
MCS MATCHES THE DESIGN AS PER NEED:

MCS can be put to use in Open Pond or Closed Pond designs to suit the need. Open pond
ensures an approach of 1°C to WB T while clos ed pond ens ures an approac h of 2.5°C to
WBT. Space requirement of closed pond is only 65 to 70% of open pond.
Open Pond: Closed pond
568
Considering the need for high efficiency system required by the various industries, MCS
surely meets the demand at a very affordable price with much better cooling efficiency. The
system is already in operation for plants up to 30MW capacity in India & MCS would be very
glad to demonstrate the MCS performance for any plant in NTP C or any other client at lower
cost. The system has been well rec eived outside India in the projects undertaken in last two
years.
p.t.o – case study
CAS E STUDY FOR INSTALLATION OF MCS AT

M/S.BAJARANG POWER & ISPAT LTD (BPIL), RAIPUR C.G
M/s Bajarang Power & Ispat Ltd (BP IL) is a steel plant located at Raipur in Chhattisgarh. They
have steel Plant and a co-generation power plant of capacity 12MW operating since year
2004.
In the power plant, BPIL was facing problems with existing cooling tower. During peak
summer and monsoon when humidity and temperature is high (Mid April to Mid September),
it was observed by BP IL that cooling water temperature was going beyond 35°C against
required 32°C for TG condenser. This increase in temperature directly resulted in low vacuum
at condenser. As result of this BPIL power plant was operating with low efficiency during
summer and monsoon. Also huge amount of power was also getting consumed on fans. Due
to frequent gear box, fan blade failure plant experienced forced shut down many times.
Due to above, unit was in very much trouble. They were not able to run to the rated capacity
and average power output from the plant was dropped down.
In the year 2008 factory decided to upgrade /change the existing system enabling them to get
out of the problem.
Till then, MCS tec hnology was well known in Raipur as it was successfully running at around
8 to 10 plants. After observing performance of MCS in these plants, BPIL decided to install
MCS for their plant.
MCS was designed, manufactured, installed and commissioned by MREPL at BPIL in the
year 2008.
Mist Cooling System [MCS] :
A constant cold water temperature of 30°C ± 1°C was maintained through out the
season with an approach of around 2°C & temperat ure drop of as high as 10°C to 12°C.
569
Also, as MCS does not require any Fans, CT fans were totally eliminat ed, thus saving
additional power of about 100Kw/Hr. Same circulation water pumps were used for MCS
keeping power same.
Benefits Obtained are highlighted below :
(1) Rise in vacuum t o desired level due to lower cold water temperature obtained from
MCS. Thus plant could operate at its rated capacity of 12 MW + throughout the year.
(2) The power consumed on fan is totally eliminated.
(3) Very low maintenance as compared to cooling towers, as MCS has no moving parts
and is manufactured out of special mat erial, which is totally non-corrosive.
(4) PAY BACK PERIOD OF LESS THA N ONE YEAR WAS ACHIEVED
STATUS :
MCS is operational at BPIL now for about 2 years and the res ults obtained are excellent. Mist
Cooling System is maintaining a constant cold water temperature of 30°C at a WBT of 28 to
29°C.
Henc e BPIL could run their plant at desired capacity in summer and monsoon months. Also
they saved power which was consumed by cooling tower fan
MCS PAY BACK PERIOD CAME DOWN TO LESS THAN 1 YEAR.
570
TILTING OF COAL TRAY TABLE IN TRACK HOPPER AT
SINGRAULI TPS – ANALYSIS & RECTIFICATION.
By- Sh. H. KUNDU, DGM (PE-Civil)
Sh. S.KHAN, SR.D.E.(PE-Civil)
Problem - Coal t ray table along with c olumns, below t he hopper, got tilted toward one side by about
225 mm, between two expansion joints. Edge of coal tray table was damaged and got
lifted by about 175 mm. Most of the remaining columns were also having cracks,
especially at bottom of column where reinforcement rods were exposed at many places.
Base of c olumns are also damaged and gap between construction joints got increased.
Spalling of concrete was visible at the joint between base raft and columns. Due to tilt of
coal tray table, paddle feeder, operating at that time, got entrapped between coal tray
table & hopper.
Column tilted towards one side about 225 mm
Column are getting damaged
571
Analysi s – Track Hopper is a 27 years old structure subjected to loading every time coal is unloaded
and horizont al dragging force caused by paddle wheel (running at 1200 MTPH) during
evacuation. Moreover, this Track hopper is having stagnant wat er at the base of the
column (as drains are passing at both sides of the column). About 2 years back around
40 rakes of big sized coal with stones were received from E CL and the same was
unloaded in the absence of grizzly at the top of track hopper. All these factors might have
caused cracks in the columns and spalling of concrete at the joint between column, raft
and stagnant wat er may have caus ed corrosion of reinforcement rods. Horizontal thrust
by paddle wheel during evac uation is suspected to have resulted in tilting of coal table.
Further, paddle feeder unknowingly moved forcefully even after the tilting of the table top,
which worsened the c ondition and further lifted the table and blocking the movement of
paddle feeder. Also, it was observed that only one paddle feeder was running at
evacuation rate upto 1100-1200 MTP H against rat ed capacity of 600MTPH (Conv
capacity is 1200 MTPH).
572
573
Other Precautions –
1) Grizzly should be provided on the track hopper immediately.

2) Fire header and service sprinkler water pipe must be shifted from Central walkway and routed
below cable tray of flexible cables along conveyor 1A/1B respectively.
3) Output capacity of the paddle feeder must be restricted to the designed capacity of 600 MTP H.
4) The feasibility of shifting drains from central walk way to side keeping a cross floor slope of 1:50
and longitudinal drain slope of 1: 400 to be studied.
574
High Concentration Slurry Disposal of Fly Ash in
Thermal Power Plants
Sunil Chandel* S. N. Singh# V. Seshadri#
*
Research Scholar, # Professor
Department of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi
suniliitd2003@gmail.com, sidhnathsingh@hotmail.com, vs@am.iitd.ac.in
ABSTRACT:
Present study reports the pressure drop, rheological and pu mp performance characteristics of fly ash
slurry at high concentrations (above Cw ³ 50% by weight) in thermal power plants. Pressure drops
have been measured at various flow velocities in a pilot plant test loop at various concentrations, with
and without additive. Such measurements have been made fo r various solid concentrations in the range
50-70% by weight. Rheological studies are also carried out for fly ash slurry with and without additive.
A mixture of Sodiu m Carbonate and Henko detergent (5:1) of concentration 0.2% by weight has been
used as the additive to achieve drag reduction. Performance characteristics of two different types of
pumps namely centrifugal and progressive cavity screw pump operating with high concentration fly
ash slurries have also been measured. Results obtained from pressure drop and rheological
characteristics show that there is reduction in the value o f pressure drop and rheological parameters
like yield stress and Bingham v iscosity when additive is added to the high concentration slurry. The
dependence of relative pressure drop on flow velocity at various concentrations has also been
analyzed. Further, Specific Energy Consumption for the transportation of fly ash slurry has been
calculated at fixed velocities. The performance of a centrifugal pu mp deteriorates with increasing
slurry concentration whereas the opposite trend is observed in the case of progressive cavity pump.
KEY WORDS: High Concentration, Fly ash, Pressure Drop, Pump Performance, Ash
Disposal
1. INTRODUCTION
In India, thermal power constitutes more than 70% of the electric power generation and
millions of tonnes of coal are burnt in these thermal power p lants. Large quantities of coal ash (fly ash
and bottom ash) are thereby produced and the current level of production is around 120 million tonnes
per year. Out of this, appro ximately 20% is bottom ash and the rest 80% is fly ash. The fly ash
produced is a very fine powder where as bottom ash is coarse. About a decade ago, disposal of power
generation waste which is primarily coal ash was one of the major problems of thermal power p lants
especially for solid-fuel power plants. But now a days it is possible to utilize the coal ash for road
embankments, cement, bricks etc. Effo rts are being made to utilize all the ash being produced in power
plants and it is estimated that in our country about 35% of the production of ash is being utilized at
present. The remain ing 65% still needs to be transported and stored safely for subsequent
consumption. At present, these materials are being transported by slurry pipelines at low concentration
(10-20% by weight) or mediu m concentration (30-40% by weight). This leads to very high power
consumption, excessive erosion wear due to higher transportation velocity and the existence of highly
skewed concentration profile making the system very uneconomical. Studies carried out during the
past two decades with other materials have shown that at higher concentrations (Cw > 50%, by weight)
slurry behaves as non-Newtonian fluid with rheological equation showing Bingham behaviour [1]. For
the case of slurry flow at very high concentration, the flow regime beco mes homogeneous and the
flu id becomes highly non-Newtonian. Hence, it is possible to operate the pipeline at velocit ies in the
laminar flo w regime. High concentration slurry transportation (50-70% by weight) reduces the
skewness in concentration profile. Reduction in skewness of concentration profile and velocity is
expected to reduce the erosion wear of pipeline and hence increase the lifespan of the pipeline [2].
Besides these technical advantages, Seshadri et al. [3] have elaborated that transporting fly ash at
higher concentrations is expected to lead to the following additional advantages,
(i) Very low water consumption.
(ii) Saving of precious land as compared to the present method of disposal of fly ash.
(iii) The specific energy consumption would be much lo wer.
(iv) Elimination of ash retaining dykes in the ash pond area.
(v) Elimination of risk of contamination of surface and underground water sources due to fly ash.
575
(vi) The slurry could be self-settling and self-limiting so that ash will deposit and dry by itself to
form a hard surface in the ash pond.
(vii) Fly ash may retain its basic features for utilization.
(viii) More co mpact ash handling systems in the thermal power plants.
Reported studies [4-5] have shown that fly ash transportation at high concentration is feasible.
However, these studies can not be applied directly to Indian coal ash, since the properties are quite
different. The ash produced in India usually has higher specific gravity as Indian coal has much h igher
content of non-combustible matter. Fu rther, the chemical/ mechanical propert ies and particle size
distribution of Indian coal ash fro m different sources vary widely. Therefore in order to optimize the
hydraulic design procedure for transporting fly ash at higher concentration, it is essential to carry out
studies that include bench scale tests, rheological tests and pilot plant loop studies to generate the
required data. Earlier studies have also revealed that addition of some agents changes the rheological
behavior of the slurry drastically [6-8] and hence saves energy. Pump is the heart of any hydraulic
transportation system as it determines both the efficiency and reliability of the system. Today a wide
range of slurry pumps are available and most co mmonly used pumps are broadly classified into two
main categories namely positive displacement and centrifugal type. Both types of pumps differ
considerably in construction as compared to the conventional pumps when they are designed for solid-
liquid mixtures. Researchers over the years [9-11] have observed that the performance of centrifugal
slurry pump as well as progressive cavity screw pu mp is dependent on various parameters like part icle
size, solid concentration and specific grav ity of solids etc. Thus, for proper design and selection of a
slurry pump, extensive data is required for accurate estimation of the deviation in the pump
performance due to slurry flow at h igh concentrations.
Review of literature on the dense phase ash slurry disposal system reveals that the basic and
the fundamental studies on the subject covering all aspects of ash slurry flow are limited. The pilot
plant loop studies offer the most reliab le design conclusions for fly ash slurry p ipelines especially
applied for high concentration solid transportation. In Indian thermal power plants, the production of
fly ash is much h igher and there is a need to conduct systematic slurry transport experiments is a pilot
plant test loop at higher concentrations. Thus, the objective of the present study is to conduct a
systematic study of coal ash slurry transportation in a pilot plant test loop at higher concentrations. The
effect of additive on the rheology of coal ash slurry has also been studied. Mixtu re of Sodiu m
Carbonate and Henko detergent in ratio of 5:1 is used as the additive and the concentration of the
additive is kept at 0.2% by weight, of the total suspension. Further, Specific Energy Consumption for
the transportation of coal ash slurry has been calculated at fixed velocit ies. Further, perfo rmance
characteristics of two different types of slurry pu mps have been investigated with fly ash slurries at
high concentration.
2. PROPERTIES OF COAL AS H US ED
Fresh fly ash sample fro m the hoppers of Electo-Static Precipitator of a thermal power plant
is used for the present study. Specific gravity is an important design parameter as it decides the settling
characteristics of the slurry. The specific gravity of the solid is determined using Standard Pyknometer
Method and is found to be 1.992. The maximu m size in the fly ash sample is 300 m m and 85% by
weight is below 75 microns. The weighted mean size (d wm) and the d 50 of the fly ash particles are 40
and 25 mm respectively which show that the fly ash particles are largely in the category of fine
particles. The static settled concentration is also a very important parameter as it decides the highest
limit of solid concentration which can be achieved by gravitational settling. The maximu m static
settled concentration of the fly ash slurry is 58% by weight. The measured values of pH at various
concentrations lie in the range of 7.15 to 7.12 which indicate that the suspensions to be non-reactive at
all concentrations.
A Weissenberg Rheogoniometer (Model: R 18 by M/s. Sang mo Control Ltd. U. K.) with
concentric cylinder platens has been used for obtaining the rheological characteristics of the fly ash
slurries at various concentrations. The experimental data of shear stress (t) and shear rate ( g ), in the
range of 20 to 120 sec-1 , for fly ash slurries having concentration in the range of 50 to 70% (by weight)
are analy zed for identify ing the rheological model. The variation of the shear stress with shear rate for
all concentrations showed that all the data points have a linear dependence of the type
t = ty + hp g (2.1)
The straight-line equation is fitted for each set of data using the method of least squares. It
was observed that the values of ty are non-zero for all sets of data. This implies that fly ash slurry over
576
the range investigated, shows a non-Newtonian behaviour and is more representative of a Bingham
Plastic fluid where ty is the yield stress and hp the Bingham plastic viscosity. The rheological
properties of fly ash slurries with and without additive at d ifferent concentrations are tabulated in
Table 1 and 2. It is also observed that mixture of Sodiu m Carbonate and Henko detergent (5:1) at 0.2%
concentration used as additive substantially reduces both viscosity and yield stress of fly ash slurry
significantly. The effect is more pronounced at higher concentrations. Relative Bingham v iscosity (η r)
of the slurry is obtained by dividing the Bingham viscosity (hp ) by the viscosity of the water (η w ) at
test temperature i.e.
hr = h p hw (2.2)
3. RES ULTS AND DIS CUSSION
3.1 Pressure Drop Characteristics
In the pilot p lant test loop, measurement of pressure drop, across a straight length of 7.5 m for
a 42 mm NB pipeline, at various flow velocit ies was made with water and subsequently for fly ash
slurries with solid concentration in the range of 50 – 70% (by weight). At each concentration the
pressure drop in mWc for 100 m p ipeline is calcu lated fro m the measurements over the range of
velocities. It is known that the pressure drop for slurries is always higher compared to water and the
pressure drop increases with increasing velocity. The additional pressure drop is generally represented
as relative pressure drop. Thus, the relative pressure drop represents the additional head required to
transport the slurry as compared to water. It is calculated as the ratio of pressure drop in the slurry to
the pressure drop in water at the same velocity over the same length. Fig. 1 shows the relative pressure
drop in a pipe o f 42 mm d iameter for each concentration as a function of velocity. At any given
concentration, the relat ive pressure drop decreases with increase in velocity. It is also seen that relative
pressure drop is always higher for the lowest velocity. Hence, it is seen that the increase in relat ive
pressure drop is much higher in the lower velocity range compared to high velocity region for any
solid concentration. It is also seen that relative pressure drop increases with increase in solid
concentration at any given flo w velocity. Large increase in relative p ressure drop with increase in
concentration at low velocities can be attributed to the higher values of rheological parameters
particularly yield stress.
3.2 Effect of Additi ve on Pressure Drop for Fly Ash Slurry
It has already been shown in Table 2 that additive of soap solution to the fly ash slurry
changes the rheological properties considerably. This should substantially affect the pressure drop in
the pipeline. It is seen that effect of additive is more pronounced at higher concentrations. In order to
demonstrate this effect, Fig. 2 shows the comparison between pressure drop for fly ash slurry at an
efflu x concentration of Cw = 65% in straight horizontal p ipeline without the additive and with the
additive mixed. At Cw = 65%, the reduction in pressure drop for fly ash slurry with additive is around
26% as co mpared to fly ash slurry. The experimental data for all solid concentrations tested shows that
addition of small quantity of additive to fly ash slurry results in a substantial decrease in the pressure
drop and the quantitatively the average decrease is around 30%. This results in a net saving of
approximately one third of the total energy consumption.
3.3 Effect of Soli d Concentration on S pecific Energy Consumptio n
Based on the data collected in the present study, it is possible to compute Specific Energy
Consumption for transporting fly ash at higher concentrations. Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) is
defined as the energy required to transport one tonne of ash over a distance of one kilo metre. Typical
results for a 42 mm p ipe at two different velocities namely 1 m/s and 2 m/s are shown in Fig. 3. It is
observed that at any given velocity SEC reduces upto 65% solid concentration for fly ash slurries and
increases drastically with further increase in solid concentration. Th is can be attributed to steep
increase in the rheological properties of fly ash slurries at higher concentrations. It is seen that the
additive reduces SEC at any given concentration. At the highest concentration, the reduction in SEC
due to the additive is more pronounced.
3.4 Performance Characteristics of Slurry Pumps
The performance of a centrifugal slurry pump is evaluated at the rated speed of 1450 rp m
with clear water and fly ash slurries for various concentrations namely 60.4%, 65.2%, 67.8% and 70%
(by weight) in a 50 mm NB test loop. The performance of a progressive cavity screw pump is
evaluated at the rated speed of 125 rp m with clear water and solid liquid mixture of fly ash in a 42 mm
NB test loop. Experiments were conducted with fly ash slurries at four concentrations namely 49.8%,
60.3%, 65.2% and 69.8% (by weight). The performance of the pumps are analyzed in terms of head
577
ratio (HR) which is defined as the ratio of head developed with the slurry to the head developed with
water both being measured at a given discharge. Similarly efficiency ratio (ER) are also calculated and
analyzed.
3.4.1 Performance Characteristics of Centrifugal Slurry Pump
Figs. 4 (a and b) show the variation of head ratio and efficiency ratio with discharge rate for
centrifugal slurry pump. It is seen that the head ratio at any given concentration remains nearly
constant and the maximu m deviat ion is only around 5%. Hence it can be assumed that these ratios are
reasonably independent of flow rate. Similar results have been reported by Gandhi [10]. The variation
in the average head ratio values is fro m 0.90 at 60.4% solid concentration to 0.82 at 70.0% solid
concentration. The efficiency ratio decreased with increase in discharge at a g iven solid concentration.
For fly ash slurry, the efficiency ratio varies fro m 0.93 to 0.82 for 60.4% solid concentration over the
range of flow rate investigated. This trend is more pronounced at higher concentrations and for 70%
solid concentration, the efficiency rat io dropped by nearly 26% when discharge rate increased fro m 10
m3 /hr to 45 m3 /hr. Further, the pump efficiency ratio decreases as the discharge rate increases for a
give solid concentration.
Variations for head and efficiency ratios of the centrifugal slurry pu mp with solid
concentration for fly ash slurries at BEP are shown in Fig. 4 (c). It is seen that both head ratio and
efficiency ratio decrease with increase in concentration of solid in the range of concentration used.
Gandhi [10] have also observed this phenomenon for similar pu mp. This fall could be attributed to the
rheological behavior of the slurry. For fly ash slurry, the viscosity is higher at higher concentrations
and hence, frict ional losses are higher. Co mparison of the two ratios namely head ratio and efficiency
ratio show that the values of head ratio are always higher than the efficiency ratio at any given
operating condition.
3.4.2 Performance Characteristics of Progressive Cavity Screw Pump
Figs. 5 (a and b) show the variation of head ratio and efficiency ratio with discharge rate for
progressive cavity screw pu mp at different solid concentrations. The head ratio increases with increase
in flow rate at any given concentration. For fly ash slurry, the variation in the head ratio values is fro m
1.32 to 1.68 at 50% solid concentration when discharge rate increased fro m 10 to 14 m3 /hr. This effect
is mo re pronounced at higher concentrations and the head ratio varies from 1.89 to 2.87 at 70% solid
concentration for similar range in d ischarge rate. Pu mp efficiency ratio increases with increases in
discharge rate for a given solid concentration.
Variation fo r head and efficiency ratios with solid concentration for fly ash slurries at rated
flow rate (12.5 m3 /hr) are shown in Fig 5 (c). It is seen that both head and efficiency rat io increase with
increase in solid concentration in the range of concentrations tested. This rise could be attributed to the
rheological behavior of the slurry as well as principle of construction of the screw pump. Co mparison
of the two rat ios namely head ratio and efficiency rat io show that at any g iven operating condition the
values of head ratio are always higher than the efficiency ratio for this pump also.
It is seen that the performance curves for screw pu mps are totally d ifferent fro m those of
centrifugal pu mps. This can be explained by the fact that the screw pump has a small clearance
between the screws and between the screws and casing. These clearances allow a small amount of
leakage fro m the pump outlet cav ity to the pump inlet cavity and this leakage is known as slip [12].
Thus, slip is the loss of capacity from the higher pressure area through the internal clearance and is a
function of fluid viscosity, pump outlet pressure and fluid characteristics. The slip in progressive
cavity pump is inversely proportional to liquid viscosity which means that as liquid v iscosity increases,
the slip decreases. Thus the performance of the progressive cavity screw pump imp roves with liquids
of higher viscosity. Also, the higher viscosity liquids fill the clearances of the screw pump causing
higher volu metric efficiency. This effect of solid concentration on screw pump perfo rmance is exact ly
opposite to that of centrifugal slurry pumps.
4. CONCLUS IONS
The following are the major conclusions that can be drawn fro m the present study:
(i) Fly ash can be transported in a pipeline at higher concentrations. The present study indicates that it
is possible to achieve concentrations upto 70% by weight with suitable changes in the existing
design methodology. However, fro m the point of SEC, maximu m value of concentration is about
65% by weight.
(ii) Pressure drop increases with increase in solid concentration of fly ash slurry and the relative
pressure drop at any given concentration decreases with velocity.
(iii) The addition of soap solution as additive to the fly ash slurries reduces the rheological parameters
578
and can result in substantial saving in the energy consumption.
(iv) In centrifugal pump, the head ratio remains constant and efficiency ratio decreases with increase
in discharge for a given solid concentration. In the case of progressive cavity screw pump, the
head ratio and efficiency ratio increase with increase in flo w rate at g iven solid concentration.
(v) For centrifugal slurry pu mp, head ratio and efficiency ratio decrease with increase in
concentration at BEP whereas for screw pu mp, head ratio and efficiency rat io increase with
increase in concentration at design flow rate.
NOMENCLATURE
Cw : Solid concentration, (% by weight)
D: Pipe Diameter, (mm)
d wm: Weighted mean diameter, (mm)
d 50 : Median particle d iameter, (mm)
τy : Yield stress, (Pa)
η p: Bingham v iscosity, (Pa-s)
η w: Water viscosity, (Pa-s)
η r: Relative slurry v iscosity
SEC: Specific Energy Consumption
m
ER: Efficiency Ratio, ( h p h pw )
m
HR: Head Rat io, ( H p H pw )
REFERENCES
1. Bunn, T. F., Chambers, A. J., “Characteristics of Fly Ash Slurries”, Conference 5, Cost Effect ive
Balk Materials Handling, Mech. 91. IE Australia, Sydney, pp. 50-59, (1991).
2. Elliot, D. E., “Hydraulic Transport of Coal Ash at High Concentration”, Proc. Hydrotransport 1,
BHRA Fluid Engineering, Cranfield, Bedford, England, Paper G2, pp. 25-26, (1970).
3. Seshadri, V., Singh, S. N., Agarwal, V. K., Datta, M. and Ku mar, V., “Alternate Coal Ash Disposal
Systems for Thermal Power Plants”, Pro ject Report submitted by Depart ment o f Applied
Mechanics, IIT Delhi to Central Pollution Board Delhi, (2001).
4. Verkerk, C.G., “The Transport of Fly Ash and Bottom Ash in a Slurry Form”, Mech. Engg. Trans.
Vo l. M E 123, No. 3, pp. 122-128, (1987).
5. Singh, B., “Continuous Mixing and Pu mping of High Density Fly Ash Water Slurries: Laboratory
and Pilot Plant Studies”, 7th Conference of Electrical Power Supply Industry, Brisbane, pp. 1-13,
(1989).
6. Horsely, R. R., “Visco meters and Pipe loop Test on Gold Slime Slurry at very High Concentration
(by weight), with and without Additives”, Proc. Hydrotransport 8, BHRA Fluid Engineering,
Cranfield, Bedford, Eng land, pp. 367-381, (1982).
7. Heywood, N. I., “A Review of Techniques of Reducing Energy Consumption in Slurry Pipelines”,
Proc. Hydrotransport 10, BHRA Flu id Engineering, Cranfield, Bedford, England, paper K3, pp.
319-331, (1986).
8. Seshadri, V., Singh, S. N., Jain K. K. and Verma A. K., “Effect of additive on head loss in the high
concentration slurry disposal of fly ash” Journal of Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 89, pp. 3-
10, (2008).
9. Gahlot, V. K., Seshadri, V. and Malhotra, R. C., “Effect of Density, Size Distribution and
Concentration of So lids on the Characteristics of Centrifugal Pu mps”, J. o f Flu id Engineering, Tran
of ASM E, 3, Vo l. 114, pp. 386-389, (1992).
10. Gandhi, B. K., Singh, S. N. and Seshadri, V., “Performance Characteristics of Centrifugal Slurry
Pumps”, ASM E: Journal of Flu ids Engineering, Vo l. 123, pp. 271-280, (2001).
11. Frei, B. and Huber, H., “Characteristics of Different Pump Types Operating with Ice Slurry”, Int.
J. Refrigerat ion, Vo l. 28, pp. 92-97, (2005).
12. McAllister, E. W., “Pipeline Rules of Thu mb”, 6th Edit ion, Gu lf Pro fessional Publishing, (2005).
579
Table 1 Rheological Properties of Fl y Ash Slurry
% Cw Yield Slurry Viscosity Water Viscosity Relative slurry
Temp.
(by Stress η p (× 10-3 ) η w (× 10-3 ) Viscosity Remarks
(0 C)
weight) τy (Pa) (Pa-s) (Pa-s) ηr
0 25 -- -- 0.891 1.0 Newtonian
50 25 0.044 3.73 0.891 4.18 non-Newtonian
60 25 0.360 14.50 0.891 16.27 non-Newtonian
65 25 1.36 53.40 0.891 60.00 non-Newtonian
68 25 1.712 172.10 0.891 193.15 non-Newtonian
70 25 1.945 245.30 0.891 275.30 non-Newtonian
Table 2 Rheological Properties of Fl y Ash Slurry wi th Additi ve

% Cw Yield Slurry Viscosity Water Viscosity Relative slurry
Temp.
(by Stress η p (× 10-3 ) η w (× 10-3 ) Viscosity Remarks
(0 C)
weight) τy (Pa) (Pa-s) (Pa-s) ηr
0 25 -- -- 0.891 1.0 Newtonian
50 25 0.035 1.92 0.891 2.16 non-Newtonian
60 25 0.10 7.75 0.891 8.70 non-Newtonian
65 25 0.99 35.90 0.891 40.30 non-Newtonian
68 25 1.04 110.0 0.891 123.50 non-Newtonian
70 25 1.20 150.20 0.891 168.60 non-Newtonian
80
20
Pressure Drop (mWc/100 m Length of Pipe)
Cw = 50.5%
70
18 Cw = 60.3%
Cw = 65.4% Cw = 65% FA
16 Cw = 68.1%
60 Cw = 65% FA with Additive
Cw = 70.3%
Relative Pressure Drop
14
50
12
40
10
8 30
6
20
4
10
2
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Flow Velocity (m/s) Flow Velocity (m/s)
Fig. 1 Variation of Relative Pressure Drop with Flow Fig. 2 Comparison of Pressure Drop for Fly Ash
Velocity for Fly Ash Slurry at Different Concentrations Slurry with and without Additive at Various
(D = 42 mm) Flow Velocities (C w = 65%)
Vel = 1 m/s without additive

Vel = 1 m/s with additive
Vel = 2 m/s without additive
1.5 Vel = 2 m/s with additive
SEC (KWH/Tonne-Km)
0.5
0
40 50 60 70
Solid Concentration, % by weight
Fig. 3 Variation of S pecific Energy Consumption with S olid Concentration (by weight)
580
Fly Ash with Additive
1
Cw = 60.4%
1 1 Cw = 65.2%
0.9
Cw = 67.8%
Cw = 70.0%
Head Ratio
0.8 0.9
0.9 Cw = 60.3%
Cw = 65.2%
0.7 Cw = 67.9%
Cw = 70.2%
0.8
Efficiency Ratio
Head Ratio
0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50
3
Discharge Rate, m /hr
0.8 0.7
FA+BA FA+BA with Additive
1 1
0.9 0.9
Cw = 60.4% 0.6
Cw = 65.2%
0.7 Cw = 67.8%
Head Ratio
Head Ratio
0.8 0.8 Cw = 70.0%
0.5
Cw = 60.2% Cw = 60.5%
Cw = 65.3% Cw= 65.0%
0.7 Cw = 68.0% Cw = 67.8%
0.7
Cw = 70.1% Cw = 70.2%
0.6 0.4
0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 10 20 30 40 50 0.6
Discharge Rate, m3/hr Discharge Rate, m /hr
0 3 10 20
Discharge Rate, m3/hr
30 40 50
Discharge Rate, m3/hr
Fly Ash with Additive
(a) Variation of HR with Discharge Rate 1 (b) Variation of ER with Discharge Rate
1 0.9
Head/Efficiency Ratio
0.8
0.9 0.7
Head Ratio
Efficiency Ratio
0.6
0.8 0.5
50 55 60 65 70
Solid Concentration (% by weight)
FA+BA FA+BA with Additive

1 1
0.7
0.9 0.9
Head Ratio
Efficiency Ratio
0.8 0.8
0.6
0.7 0.7
Head Ratio
Head Ratio
Efficiency Ratio
Efficiency Ratio
0.6 0.6
0.5
0.5
50 55 60 0.5
65 70
50 55 60 65 70 50 55 60 65 70
Solid Concentration (% by weight) Solid Concentration (% by weight)
Solid Concentration (% by weight)
(c) Variation of HR and ER with Concentration at Rated Flow Rate

Fig. 4 Variation of HR and ER for Fly Ash Slurry (Centrifugal Slurry Pump)
3 Cw = 49.8%
3 Cw = 49.8% Cw = 60.3%
Cw = 60.3% Cw = 65.2%
Cw = 65.2% Cw = 69.8%
Cw = 69.8%
2.5
2.5
Efficiency Ratio
Head Ratio, HR
2
2
1.5
1.5
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Discharge Rate, m3/hr
3
Discharge Rate, m /hr
(a) Variation of HR with Discharge Rate (b) Variation of ER with Discharge Rate
3
Head Ratio
2.5
Efficeincy Ratio
1.5
0.5
0
40 50 60 70
Solid Concentration, % by weight
(c) Variation of HR and ER with Concentration at Rated Flow Rate

Fig. 5 Variation of HR and ER for Fly Ash Slurry (Progressive Cavity S crew Pump)
581
Increase of boiler efficiency by selective on-load boiler cleaning –
An innovative approach using direct measurements and dynamic software algorithms
C. Mueller*, M. Frach*, B. Mußmann*, M. Schumacher*, S. Gupta**

*Clyde Bergemann GmbH, Wesel/Germany
**Clyde Bergemann India Pvt. Ltd., Uttar Pradesh/India
Abstract
Slagging and fouling of heating and reaction surfaces limits the steam generator efficiency.
Characteristics and behaviour of deposits are subject to numerous influencing factors, such as
fuel and process parameters, which make it necessary to link boiler cleaning and boiler
process data and derive demand-driven cleaning criteria. This integration of process know-
how enables boiler cleaning technology to increase steam generator availability and
efficiency.
Introduction
Ash-related operational challenges caused by slagging and fouling are currently the main
reason for reduced boiler efficiency and unscheduled shutdowns. As deposit formation is
influenced by numerous and continuously varying process parameters, these parameters need
to be considered during boiler cleaning to avoid inappropriate cleaning actions. To utilise
boiler cleaning to guarantee steady boiler operation, it needs to be controlled by the following
aspects:
· WHERE exactly is cleaning required?
· HOW intensive does the cleaning need to be?
· WHEN is the best point in time to execute cleaning?
The use of these aspects guarantees that boiler cleaning is executed demand-driven and no
longer subject to manual or time-triggered control. Accomplished with plant specific process
data, boiler cleaning can be flexibly adjusted to fuel and boiler specific conditions.
This kind of intelligent boiler cleaning has been applied to a coal- fired 350 MW tower-type
boiler. This reference shows how an existing boiler cleaning system can be upgraded to a
demand-driven operation by means of direct measurements combined with dynamic software
algorithms.
582
Ash deposit formation
During combustion, organic- and inorganic constituents of the coal are exposed to high
temperatures. While the organic components are chemically converted during the combustion
process the inorganic constituents, the ash forming matter, are released into the process. Here
they cause ash deposition, namely slagging in the furnace and fouling in the convective zone.
Deposit formation is subject to numerous, continuously varying factors, such as the chemical
composition of the fuel and the quantity and distribution of ash forming matter in the fuel.
Furthermore, process parameters such as varying loads create load-dependent deposit
characteristics and also different mill combinations effect slagging and fouling. Slagging on
furnace walls strongly depends on the local flue gas temperature and related heat fluxes.
Deposit formation at heating and reaction surfaces are also influenced by the actual flue gas
temperature but even more by the flow characteristics of the ash particles. Due to this
diversity of influencing factors and their interdependence, it is very unlikely that one global,
once fixed and forever valid cleaning strategy is able to meet the described challenges. An
intelligent, demand-driven boiler cleaning concept is needed, which is based on process
know-how complemented by software and diagnostic systems.
State of boiler diagnostic and its limitations towards boiler cleaning applications
There are several computer-based online systems available to monitor single plant
components or even complete processes, facilitating process analysis and optimisation [1].
They all collect data, calculate efficiencies and allow determining other performance
parameters. Such performance parameters enable to limit the large number of available
process parameters to a manageable quantity of values allowing an efficient operation of the
process.
All currently available boiler diagnostic systems are only of limited use for boiler cleaning.
One reason is that the calculation routines applied in such systems determine the overall heat
absorption in the furnace but do not allow a selective analysis of the furnace with regard to
the local heat transfer and degree of ash deposition or the best point in time for local furnace
cleaning. In addition, due to missing real-time behaviour of such systems, the time delay
between deposit accumulation and detection is up to two hours. Consequently, cleaning is
carried out too late possibly resulting in severe deposits which are difficult to clean. The same
situation is valid for the superheater and economiser zone. The overall fouling situation can
be calculated but in most cases the calculations are not done in real- time due to a slow
583
iterative calculation of the conductance of the heat exchanger surfaces. Furthermore, at many
plants with boiler diagnostic systems, boiler cleaning is time-triggered. The diagnostic system
acts as a timer only and the cleaning operations are preset based on “typical” operating
conditions. There are also plants, where boiler cleaning in the convective pass is triggered by
cleanliness factors. However, since there is no information available about where exactly the
deposit is located, all sootblowers of the concerned heating surface have to be activated. Due
to heterogeneous deposit distribution in the superheater region, such a global sootblower
activation may lead to an over cleaning of less deposited areas, resulting in unnecessary
steam consumption and increased risk of erosion. Areas with severe deposits instead stay
insufficiently cleaned promoting continuous fouling and lowering the steam generator
efficiency.
This global calculation method of the deposit situation is not suited to adjust cleaning
parameters flexibly to fuel and process specific requirements. In addition, there is no direct
assessment of the cleaning success possible, since local variations of heat transfer within a
heating exchanger are not detectable.
Boiler diagnostics based on direct local measure ments and dynamic software algorithms
The above mentioned disadvantages with regard to real-time monitoring of process behaviour
and local deposit growth as well as the possibility to react on fuel and process specific
changes, require the combined use of novel dynamic software algorithms and directly
measured process characteristics in the steam generator. The consideration of plant specific
process data enables the boiler cleaning system to perform cleaning actions in a way that
efficiency and availability of the steam generator is sustained or even increased.
The selective detection and evaluation of slagging in the furnace has been published earlier
[2,3] and is not part of this paper.
Several measurement techniques have been tested before for detecting heterogeneously
distributed deposits within the superheater region. However, first the sensor-based weight
measurement by means of multi-dimensional strain gauges proved to be a suitable method.
The sensors are placed at the hanger rods in the boiler penthouse, whereas the specific
location depends on the boiler design and the position of the cleaning devices.
Deposit build-up on heat exchanger elements leads to a weight increase which is measured by
the sensors as an electric signal. Fig. 1 shows a typical development of superheater weight
and thereby deposit weight and the influence of cleaning actions on the weight. Target of this
measurement is to determine local deposit accumulation via weight differences.
584
Fig. 1: Signal response of weight measurement at a superheater.
Heat exchanger bundles are usually mounted at a multitude of sub-carriers fixed to the boiler
framework via hanger rods (Fig. 2). Vertically and horizontally mounted heat exchanger
bundles require different processing of the measured weight signal. Since vertical heat
exchanger bundles have individual hanger rods, the results of the direct measurements can be
applied directly to locally identify the deposits. Together with plant specific process data, this
information will be used to define best in class cleaning parameters in terms of timing,
cleaning intensity and local selection of required cleaning devices.
585
Fig. 2: Suspension of heat exchanger bundles with mounted weight sensors.
In tower-type boilers, all heat exchanger bundles are suspended at the same hanger rods. The
direct measurements give information about weight differences across all heat exchanger
bundles over the height of the convective zone. To get to know where exactly within this
zone the relevant deposits are located, in addition a thermodynamic model (TDM) is applied
based on a boiler model presenting the given boiler design and characteristics. The TDM uses
process data of the water-/steam-cycle and of the flue gas stream and its accuracy strongly
depends on the quality of these data. While processing the data the TDM assesses important
process characteristics such as the Cleanliness Factor (CF). The Cleanliness Factor is the ratio
of the conductance of a heat exchanger at a given point in time and at clean conditions and it
is used to initiate demand-driven boiler cleaning. Combining the results of the weight
measurement and the thermodynamic calculation, two independent information about the
deposit situation are available. An intelligent combination of both information together with
plant specific process data makes it possible to locally determine the deposit within a heat
exchanger zone. Furthermore, it allows a selective evaluation of a non-uniform deposit
distribution over the heat exchanger cross-section. Hence, the convective zone is divided into
several defined zones and the deposit situation can be determined for each of these. This
provides the base to clean each of these zones demand-driven with optimal cleaning
parameters depending on the current fouling situation.
586
Fig. 3: Split of the superheater area in zones for selective deposit analysis.
Fig. 3 shows schematically the split of the superheater area in different zones. This
segmentation does also allow operating cleaning devices selectively, meaning only devices
located near the detected deposits are activated. Since the continuous direct measurement
feeds back the cleaning results immediately, cleaning parameters can be automatically
adjusted. The combination of demand-driven cleaning operation and dynamic parameter
adjustment makes it possible to reduce the number of cleaning cycles while improving
cleaning results and increasing steam generator efficiency.
Reference case and results

The described sensor-based optimisation system has been applied to a 350 MW hard coal-
fired power plant La Robla and is in operation since more than one year. The plant is located
in the municipality La Robla in the Spanish province of León. The tower-type boiler is
equipped with an arch fired system of 24 burners, has 6 coal mills and produces 1,150 tons of
steam at 180 bar and 537 ° C. The coal burnt comes from a local mine.
Coal analysis
Table 1: Coal analysis
The existing boiler cleaning system comprises 84 steam-operated wall blowers in the furnace
and 42 long retractable sootblowers in the superheater and economiser area. While improving
the boiler diagnostics with a sensor-based optimisation system this existing boiler cleaning
system remained unchanged. Uncontrollable deposits and erosion of heat exchanger surfaces
did very often lead to emergency shutdowns and high maintenance costs. The applied boiler
diagnostic system did not determine the deposit situation in such a way that it could have
been used for improved control of the boiler cleaning system and cleaning has been carried
out time-triggered.
587
In the beginning of the project the prime goal was defined to optimise the existing boiler
cleaning equipment to improve steam generator efficiency and availability. The secondary
goal was to reduce costs for boiler cleaning.
To get the core problem of unpredictable deposit formation in the furnace and the convective
pass under control, the boiler was equipped with different diagnostic tools. A total of 20 heat
flux sensors was placed in the membrane wall of the furnace to detect critical deposit
formation before it can put the boiler performance at risk. In the superheater and economiser
area, 16 weight measuring sensors have been placed at the hanger rods on the boiler roof.
Fig. 4 shows the positioning of the weight sensors over the cross-section. The rectangular
cross-section of the boiler is split in half. Each sensor detects in its zone smallest changes in
weight.
An evaluation unit uses special algorithms to define the current slagging condition and
characteristics out of the signals measured by the heat flux sensors. Combining such signals
with relevant process data a software module generates the optimal cleaning strategy for the
furnace.
Fig. 4: Positioning of the weight sensors over the cross-section.
Since the horizontal heat exchanger bundles are suspended at the same hanger rods, the
results of the direct weight measurements are complemented by a thermodynamic simulation
of the process allowing determining local decrease of heat transfer due to deposit formation.
588
An evaluation unit receives the weight data and the calculated deposit conditions and defines
based on these the current cleanliness state of each zone. This information combined with
process data allows defining the optimal cleaning strategy in terms of timing and cleaning
intensity. Fig. 5 shows a typical signal response of the weight sensors No. 5 and 9 as well as
the calculated Cleanliness Factors (CF) of different heatexchanger surfaces. During 15:21 to
15:50, the cleaning effect of the sootblowers effecting superheater 2 (SH2) can be observed.
The weight development of senor No. 5 indicates the need for cleaning in its zone. The
thermodynamic calculation does also display a deposit accumulation at superheater 2
(CF_SH2). The cleaning action leads to a weight decrease by approx. 100 kg, which is
followed by a rising CF-value at superheater 2 (SH2). Following this action the signals
characterising reheater 2 (RH2) indicate a need for cleaning. Here as well one can see a
weight reduction by 100 kg in the vicinity of sensors No. 5 and 9 and a significant rise of the
CF-value of RH2 from approx. 78% to 91%.
Fig. 5: Typical signal response of weight development, Cleanliness Factors and boiler
cleaning actions
Conclusions
By operating the boiler cleaning system in a demand-driven mode, the average heat transfer
in the furnace increased by 10%. Another achievement of this optimised control of the boiler
589
cleaning is the stable BOT at full- load over a period of 2 month compared to a phase with
manually operated boiler cleaning.
The new optimisation system does also provide a number of additional information to the
operators for further optimisation of the boiler cleaning process. With the change from a
time-triggered to a demand-driven control, the number of cleaning actions reduced by 35%
with corresponding steam savings and reduced tube erosion.
References
[1] Couch, G.: Understanding slagging and fouling during pf combustion, IEA Coal
Research, London, Report 72, 1994
[2] Leithner, R., Harnisch, K.: Bewertungskriterien für Diagnosessysteme, VDI Berichte, Nr.
1641, 2001
[3] Tippkötter, T., Wessel, B., Bartels, F., Simon, S.: Performance Increase of Steam
Generators by Intelligent Sootblowing in the Furnace, published during Power Gen Europe
2003, 2003
590
IMPROVEMENT IN TURBINE HEAT RATE IN VSTPS STAGE I
UNITS (6X 210 MW) THROUGH DMAIC APPROACH (A QCI –
DL SHAH NATIONAL AWARD WINNING CASE STUDY FOR
ECONOMICS THROUGH QUALITY IN 2008-09.
By: V Thangapandian, GM(O&M), V A Sharma, DGM(TMD), S Mathew,

DGM(BE), S Banerjee, DGM(Operation), A Sengupta, Sr. Supdt. (TMD), Alok
Singh, Sr. Supdt. (TMD)
PROLOGUE:
NTPC Vindhyachal, the largest power stati on of Indi a, has carved a niche for itself in Indian power
sector through implementation of six sig ma init iatives and has made rap id strides in power plant
performance and efficiency improvement. In its journey of excellence, NTPC Vindhyachal bagged the
prestigious QCI – DL Shah Memo rial A ward for Economics through Quality, three years in a row.
In Vindhyachal, culture of continual performance improvement is top driven. Every engineer is part of
a Performance Improvement Project team. The projects are completed using quality tools &
methodology like Six Sig ma, Bench marking, Lean, 7 QC tools etc. Training on Quality Initiatives is
embedded in the Employee Develop ment programme. Vindhyachal is the only station of NTPC having
ASQ certified Black Belts. ASQ certified Black Belts hand hold the improvement teams in use of
appropriate quality tools from project identification to completion phase. The project selection criterion
& quality tools used are appended as under.
NTPC Vindhyachal launched a number of in itiat ive for making continual improvement and innovations
as an integral part of its quality culture. Performance Improvement Projects (PIPs) are key elements of
‘Agenda for Excellence’.
Vindhyachal Super Thermal Po wer Station of NTPC is committed to implement high impact PIPs
based on DMAIC (define, measure, analyze, improve & control) way for resource optimization, speed
& sustainability. Processes are improved, as needed using innovation in order to fully satisfy and
generate increasing value for customer and other stakeholders.
A brief of a high impact imp rovement project case study on Quality init iative success stories completed
in 2008 leading to financial gains in real terms is given below. The case study won the prestigious QCI
– DL Shah National award for economics through quality in 2008-09.
GENESIS OF T HE IMPROVEMENT PROJECT
In the changing scenario in the power sector and ever increasing stringent environmental, safety,
591
availability based tariff and other stiff regulatory norms, our power plants need to operate efficiently
and with high reliab ility.
In the days during the years 2005-2006 the Vindhyachal stage-I (6 X 210 MW) units were not
capable of delivering 105 % capability whenever grid conditions demanded. The efficiency of the
power generation too needed to be boosted up. The reasons of performance gap were analyzed
through this project fro m mu ltip le sources This project involved use of quality tools like Fish bone,
FMEA, pareto & IM R chart amongst many. Now our units are demonstrating the 105% capability
(i.e. 221 MW) even in the adverse season i.e. summer and monsoon with high efficiency as a result of
this project.
There are certain intangible benefits also e.g. Imp rovement in Condenser vacuum due to less quantity
of steam dumping into the condenser for same load and improvement in furnace oxygen due to less
amount of coal combustion for the same load. The key project deliverables were improvement in
processes and arresting process deviation. Throughout the project key resource persons & process
experts of O&M areas were involved right fro m the define phase.
Business Improvement:
1. Direct saving of more than Rs 14.72 cro res by improvement in turbine heat rate.
2. Conservation of irreplaceable natural resources
3. Less environmental pollution
4. Better appreciat ion of processes
MET HODOLOGY
Performance improvement project on Improvement in Turbine Heat Rate in Stage I units (6X 210
MW) resorted to six sig ma DMAIC methodology. The Step wise project description is appended
below:
Step 1: DEFINE
In define step, project overview was planned &

important milestones were defined through
project progress report. CTQ (critical to quality)
drill down tree showing project linkage with
company objectives was drawn. The problem
statement with goal statement containing
estimated project benefits was met iculously
made. The whole process was mapped and
different heads of heat rate loss were identified &
kept tab on. SIPOC (Supplier, input, process,
output & customer) diagram was also drafted
highlighting key deliverables.
Heat rate losses from certain parameters like

Main steam temperature (being daily operation
dependent) and those related with equipment level
problems were kept out of preview.
Step 2 : MEAS URE
In measure step complete process drill down was done & main project CTQ (Crit ical to quality) was
segregated into smaller sub process level CTQs. In addition to process drill down, data collection plan
was prepared detailing data type, measurement type, operational defin ition & collection frequency.
592
MSA (Measurement system analysis) wasn't needed as data was taken digitally online & concerned
meters are calibrated periodically as per decided schedule.
P a r e t o C h a r t o f D e v ia t io n S o u r c e s o f G r o s s T u r b in e C y c le H e a t R a t e
6 0
1 0 0
5 0
8 0
4 0
Percent
6 0
Count
3 0
4 0
2 0
1 0 2 0
0 0
C 6
s
ss
r
e
ip
th
ne
n
tr
ki
ki
O
h
S
ac
ac
ug
ill
P
p
o
S
d
e
R
En
g
p
ce
ta
Ti
t
rs
a
af
rf
te
h
u
S
In
S
C o u n t 2 7 .5 4 1 4 .7 9 7 .7 8 6 .3 3 1 .3 1
P e r c e n t 4 7 .7 2 5 .6 1 3 .5 1 1 .0 2 .3
C u m % 4 7 .7 7 3 .3 8 6 .8 9 7 .7 1 0 0 .0
P r o c e s s C a p a b i l i t y o f G r o s s T u r b i n e C y c l e H e a t R a t e ( B e f o r e P r o je c t )
( u s in g 9 5 . 0 % c o n fid e n c e )
T arg et U SL
P ro c e s s D a ta W ith in
LS L * O v e r a ll
T a rg e t 2 0 2 1 .0 0000
U S L 2 1 6 0 .0 0000 P o t e n t ia l ( W it h i n ) C a p a b i lit y
S a m p le M e a n 2 1 9 5 .7 8947 C p *
S a m p le N 19 Lo w e r C L *
S t D e v ( W i th in ) 7 .1 9070 U pp er C L *
S t D e v ( O v e r a ll) 1 9 .2 8805 C P L *
C P U -1 . 6 6
C pk -1 . 6 6
Lo w e r C L *
U pp er C L *
C C pk 6 .4 4
O v e r a ll C a p a b i lit y
P p *
Lo w e r C L *
U pp e r C L *
P P L *
P P U -0 .6 2
20 4 0 20 70 2 10 0 2 13 0 21 60 2 19 0 22 20 P p k -0 .6 2
O bs e rv e d P e rfo rm a n c e E x p . W i t h i n P e r f o rm a n c e E x p . O v e ra l l P e r f o r m a n c e Lo w e r C L *
P P M < LS L * P P M < LS L * P P M < LS L * U pp e r C L *
P P M > U S L 9 4 7 3 6 8 .4 2 P P M > U S L 9 9 9 9 9 9 .6 8 P P M > U S L 9 6 8 2 3 9 .4 1 C pm 0 .2 6
P P M T o ta l 9 4 7 3 6 8 .4 2 P P M T o ta l 9 9 9 9 9 9 .6 8 P P M T o ta l 9 6 8 2 3 9 .4 1 Lo w e r C L 0 .2 4
Step 3 : ANALYS E
In analysis phase, current process capability was established & suspected sources of variation (SSVs)
in Unit heat rate as well as turbine heat rate were comprehended. Using detailed Pareto analysis along
with FM EA, SSVs were priorit ized. Thorough analysis for all chosen SSVs was carried out using
different quality tools including fishbone diagram and steam path audit (one of the few stations to have
in house capability). The thrust SSVs were also identified using solution priorit ization matrix.
593
In analysis phase, a thorough fishbone
diagram was prepared detailing
various systems & subsystems of all
chosen process output (i.e. turbine heat
rate). The major points of discussions
covered from t ip seal leakage to
surface roughness.
In analysis phase, thorough FMEA

(failure mode effect analysis) was
carried out various systems &
subsystems of all chosen process steps
(i.e. turbine heat rate) & SSVs with
highest RPN (Risk priority nu mbers)
were p icked up as key action areas.
Step 4: IMPROVE
In improve phase, detailed and

targeted actions were initiated on
all suspected sources of variation.
On turbine side, HP & IP
diaphragms tip seals were
replaced. HP, IP & LP rotors and
diaphragms were cleaned by grit
blasting. IPC nozzle segments
along with IP 13th stage blades
were replaced and all glands and
inter-stage seals got replaced
during the capital overhaul of
concerned units. Using FMEA
(Failure mode effect analysis)
table, key act ion areas where
identified & attended to. In Lo w
pressure turbine, LP rotor satellite
strips of last stage were replaced.
During project execution, LP
casing (top & bottom) stiffener
found cracked at the liner seating
area in U#3, wh ich was
subsequently fixed.
In course of this project in six

units, many spare parts have
been developed indigenously,
namely liner of HP control
valve no. 2, peak seals of HP
and IP turbines, gland and
inter-stage seals of LP
turbine etc. New maintenance
processes were taken up, like
in-situ peak seal machining,
diaphragm / nozzle vane
repair, machin ing of st ud
h eat ing chamb er, s lo w
sp eed balan cin g o f all
t u rb in e ro to rs etc. Ceramic
p ad insulat ion o f HP and IP
turb ine has been don e in one un it .
The results obtained through this landmark project were fabulous, resulting in mu lti-million INR saving
to the company directly & indirectly saving thousand of tonnes of coal & CO2 emission indirect ly.
594
Step 5 : CONTROL
In control phase, previously made process improvements are sustained through system's approach.
Control plan was drafted apart from the response plan to contain process variations. Current window of
opportunity along with future control plan were also prepared. All concerned stakeholders were
informed & plans were translated into system. Use of IMR chart (control chart) was explained along
with improvement obtained through this Performance imp rovement process to different stakeholders.
Process Capability of Gross Turbine Cycle Heat Rate (After Project)

(using 95.0% confidence)
Target USL
P rocess Data Within

LS L * Overall
Target 2021.00000
USL 2160.00000 P otential (Within) C apability
S ample M ean 2119.96087 Cp *
S ample N 23 Low er C L *
S tDev (Within) 11.58930 U pper C L *
S tDev (O v erall) 21.38624 C PL *
C PU 1.15
C pk 1.15
Low er C L 0.79
U pper C L 1.52
C C pk 4.00
O v erall C apability
Pp *
Low er C L *
U pper C L *
PPL *
PPU 0.62
2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 2120 2140 2160 P pk 0.62
O bserv ed P erformance Exp. Within P erformance Exp. O v erall P erformance Low er C L 0.39
P P M < LS L * P P M < LS L * P P M < LS L * U pper C L 0.85
P P M > U S L 0.00 P P M > U S L 275.31 P P M > U S L 30590.06 C pm 0.45
P P M Total 0.00 P P M Total 275.31 P P M Total 30590.06 Low er C L 0.41
595
FINANCIAL GAINS
Improvement Units Unit#1 Unit#2 Unit#3 Unit#4 Unit#5 Unit#6

Areas
Heat Rate Gain Kcal/ Kwh 34.5* 47 56.3 23.9 51.1 33.6
Coal Saving per MT 44 61 73 31 66 43
day
Coal Saving per MT 16219 22096 26468 11236 24023 15796
annum
Monetary Crore Rs. 2.06 2.81 3.36 1.43 3.05 2.01
Gains per
annum
Reduction in MT 22301 30382 36393 15449 33032 21720
CO2 Emission
MONETARY B ENEFITS CONSIDERING FUEL SAVING
* (34.5 Kcal X (5.04X 106 Kwh) X 0.92)/3635 = 44 MT per day

Average rate of coal = INR 1270 / MT
Average CV of coal = 3635 Kcal/MT
Plant Load Factor = 92%
Unit generation = 5.04 Million Kwh per day
TOTAL SAVING FOR 6 x 210 MW unit where project executi on has been completed
= INR 14.72 crore
CONCLUS ION
DMAIC approach of imp rovement is a step by step methodical way of identify ing process variations,
finding out the root causes of deviation, and finally devising improvement actions for min imizing the
variations and imp lementing the action plan. In control stage the learning fro m DMAIC actions are
suitably presented, commun icated documented and shared with all intended users in user-friendly way.
DMAIC approach along with others quality tools can be applied to any process with intention of
improving its performance. This performance imp rovement project has resulted in multi-million INR
saving to NTPC.
596
TURBINE INLET AIR COOLING - A POWERFUL MEANS TO
ENHANCE PERFORMANCE OF POWER PLANTS
Rony Johnson,
Dy.Supdt., Operation Dept, RGCCPP, NTPC-Kayamkulam, Kerala, India
(phone: 09446004425; e-mail: ronnyjohnson@ ntpc.co.in).
Susheel Chand,
Engineer, Operation Dept, RGCCPP, NTPC-Kayamkulam, Kerala, India
(phone: 09446408084; e-mail:susheelchand@ ntpc.co.in).
Abstract
Over the past several years, revolutionary and wide-spread changes have occurred globally within
the power generation industry. Deregulation, linked with declining reserve margins, imposition of
stringent environmental regulations and climatic temperature extremes have resulted in new
economic plant operation considerations for both the operators of existing power plants and for the
developers of new power plants. The output and efficiency of a Combined Cycle Power Plant
(CCPP) decrease with an increase in the ambient temperature. Combustion gas turbines are
constant volume engines whose power output is proportional to the combustion air mass flow. Thus
there is a strong influence of the ambient temperature on gas turbine and the combined cycle
performance. Especially in tropical climatic conditions with extreme variations such as we have in
India, it becomes mandatory to implement various power augmentation and efficiency improvement
techniques to meet these challenges.
This paper envisages a detailed analysis of the various Turbine Inlet Cooling (TIC) technologies for
a typical combined cycle power plant. A 350 MW unit operated by the Rajiv Gandhi Combined
Cycle Power Plant of National Thermal Power Corporation (RGCCP-NTPC), India was selected
for the case study and analysis..
Key Words: Combined Cycle Power Plants, Turbine Inlet Air Cooling, Simulation, Thermal
Analysis, Economic Anal ysis.
INTRODUCTION
The marketplace for electric power has become highly dynamic and competitive in nature in
the backdrop of deregulation of power generation, declining fuel reserve margins,
environmental regulations, climatic temperature extremes and the introduction of Availability
Based Tariff (ABT). In such an environment, having the flexibility to augment gas turbine
power output during periods when there is high tariff rates is of paramount importance to the
profitability of the utilities. Efficient, clean and less expensive to implement than most other
alternatives, combined cycle power plants offer a blend of operational attributes that makes it
the best choice for power production. The output and efficiency of a CCPP decrease with an
increase in the ambient temperature. Combustion gas turbines are constant volume engines
whose power output is proportional to the combustion air mass flow. Thus there is a strong
influence of the ambient temperature on gas turbine and combined cycle performance. It is
estimated that, for a gas turbine, the produced power output drops from approximately 0.54%
to 0.90% for every 1°C of ambient air temperature rise [1]. Also there is a corresponding loss
in efficiency. Figure 1 shows the percentage variation in power output and heat rate with
respect to the change in ambient temperature.
597
Percent Design
Figure 1.
Effect of ambient temperature on power output and heat rate [2]
In this paper a computational model of the Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT)
plant was developed and applied to a typical 350 MW Combined Cycle Power
Plant(CCPP), operational in Kerala, India. With the help of this model, the effect of
the influence of ambient temperature on the performance of combined cycle gas
turbine plant was analyzed. Thermal, environmental and economical analyses were
carried out for the various turbine inlet air cooling methods for selecting the best
possible option for possible implementation in the plant.
The performance deterioration of gas turbines in terms of power output and efficiency at
high ambient temperatures, coinciding with time periods of high electricity demand,
implies that the integration of an intake air- cooling system could be an important
consideration to boost the performance of the plant. Commonly used techniques are the
evaporative and refrigeration techniques and its adaptations. Other innovative techniques
like swirl flash, indirect evaporation etc are also in the developmental stages. Most of the
literature available in the field focuses on the two techniques, evaporative and refrigerate
cooling and its adaptations. A comprehensive analysis of the different configurations of
combined cycle power plants with varying net power output (8 MW-380MW) in the
presence of evaporative and overspray fogging technology was presented by R.K Bhargava
et al [2]. It was found that an increase of 0.7-0.8% power boost for every 10 C cooling of
air at compressor inlet could be achieved with the fogging technology. Furthermore, more
power output gain is possible with the overspray fogging. A state-of-the-art review of the
analytical, experimental and practical aspects including climatic and psychrometric aspects
of evaporative and overspray fogging technology was presented in full depth in three parts
by R.K Bhargava et al [3, 4, and 5]. Cyrus B Meher-Homji and Thomas R Mee III [6, 7],
describes the use of high pressure inlet fogging to augment gas turbine power. A
comparison has been made with the traditional evaporative coolers. Some practical aspects
and O&M issues are also covered in the second part. E.Kakaras et al [8] investigated the
evaporative and refrigerate cooling techniques in addition to an innovative approach of
evaporative cooling of pre-compressed air. Here the economics from the integration of
different cooling systems were calculated and compared, taking into account the time-
varying climatic conditions. The conclusion was that the highest incremental electricity
598
generation is realized by the absorption air cooling. In terms of the economic performance
of the investment, the evaporative cooler has the lowest total cost of incremental electricity
generation and the lowest payback period. Detailed description of the successful design,
installation, commissioning and operation of a large scale fogging system at a 655 MW
combined cycle power plant in India was given by Hemant Gajjar et al [9]. This paper also
discusses how the under frequency grid operation and the corresponding power drop is
tackled by implementing the cooling system. S.Boonnasa et al [10, 11], investigated the
details of an absorption chiller for a 336 MW power plant. An increase of 10.6% in GT
output and 6.4% for the CC was achieved by the absorption chiller with a pay back period
of 3.81 years. The latest concept of inlet air cooling by Swirl flash technology utilizing the
hot pressurized water, has proven its efficacy in many installations [12] and is gaining
more acceptances among the plant operators. Power output enhancement up to 10-25% and
NOx reduction up to 25-40% was possible [13] by adopting this latest concept.
TURBINE INLET AIR COOLING METHODS
Most of the available inlet air cooling technologies today are classified either under
evaporative or refrigerate cooling systems. These are briefly explained in the following
sections.
Evaporative Cooling- Media Based
Evaporative cooling is based on the evaporation of water in the intake air of the gas turbine.
As water evaporates, the latent heat of evaporation is absorbed from the surrounding air. As a
result, the air is cooled during the process. In the limiting case, the air leaves the cooler at a
saturated state. The evaporative cooling process is, essentially, identical to the adiabatic
saturation process, since the heat transfer between the air stream and the surroundings is
usually negligible. M.Chaker et al and R K Bhargava et al [2,14] provide a thorough analysis
of this method with climatic and weather modeling. Traditional evaporative coolers that use
media for evaporation of the water have been widely used in the gas turbine industry over the
years, especially in hot arid areas. In this type of cooler, water is distributed over media
blocks which are made of fibrous corrugated material positioned at the gas turbine intake.
The air flow through the blocks evaporates the water. The effectiveness of these coolers is
defined as the ratio of the temperature difference between inlet and exit of the cooler and the
temperature difference if the air left the cooler at a saturated state, as given in equation (1).
Its values typically range from 80–85%.
T 1DB - T 2 DB
Cooler effectiveness = (1)
T 1DB - T 2WB
Where: T1DB = Entering Air Dry Bulb Temperature

T2DB = Leaving Air Dry Bulb Temperature
T2WB = Leaving Air Wet Bulb Temperature
This means that the wet bulb temperature can never be attained. In addition, the increased
pressure loss caused by the media blocks reduces the power output gain. Water quality
599
requirements, however, can be less stringent than those required for direct fog-cooling
systems.
Evaporative Cooling – Fogging System
It is a method of cooling where demineralized water is converted into a fog by means of

high-pressure nozzles operating at 70–200 bar. This fog then provides cooling when it
evaporates in the air inlet duct of the gas turbine. This technique, in contrast to the
traditional evaporative coolers, allows effectiveness close to 100% to be attained.
.
Refrigeration Cooling – Mechanical Chiller
Mechanical Chillers, also known as vapor compression chillers, are the most common
chillers used for TIC. These chillers are similar to those commonly used in heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems for cooling air in large commercial
buildings. A mechanical chiller can cool the turbine inlet air to any temperature down to
5°C. Even though the chiller could cool the inlet to temperatures even lower than 5°C, the
lower temperatures are generally not desirable to avoid the potential of forming ice crystals
in the bell mouth of the compressor. Therefore, the turbine inlet air is not recommended to
be cooled below 5°C. A mechanical chiller could be driven by an electric motor, natural gas
engine, or steam turbine. Most of this power requirement is for operating the compressor
(0.6 to 0.65 kW/TR). Mechanical chillers do produce net power enhancement for the power
plant by TIC. Electric motor-driven chillers represent the least capital cost option for TIC
systems using chillers.
Refrigeration Cooling – Absorption Chiller
Absorption Chillers are different from the mechanical chillers in that these chillers do not
need a mechanical compressor for compressing the refrigerant and that the refrigerant they
use is either water or ammonia, instead of a hydrocarbon fluid used in mechanical chillers.
The primary source of energy for absorption chillers can be thermal, instead of electrical.
The source of thermal energy for absorption chillers could be hot water, steam, or a fuel,
such as natural gas. These chillers require very little electrical energy to operate only a few
pumps. Absorption chillers could be single-effect or double-effect chillers. The double-
effect chillers are more energy efficient but require higher temperature heat and more
capital cost. Absorption chillers could incorporate a mixture of lithium bromide and water,
or ammonia and water. Absorption chillers that use lithium bromide-water mixture are
significantly more commonly used than the ammonia water mixture chillers. A single-
effect absorption chiller (lithium bromide and water mixture) system will have a COP of
0.7 – 0.8 and a double effect unit, COP of 1.2-1.3, also depending on the quality of heat
source. These absorption chillers are generally used to cool the turbine inlet air to about
10°C. Absorption chillers using ammonia-water mixture can cool the inlet air to 5°C, just
as the mechanical chillers.
MODELING AND VALIDATION OF THE CCGT PLANT
Modeling of CCGT plant is useful to predict the inlet air cooling effects. The prediction of
a combined cycle power plant is complicated because of coupling between two different
600
types of power producing cycles and the need to identify the optimal distribution of power
production between them. Hence it is necessary to develop a computer simulation
technique which would enable evolution of various possible design options and also permit
prediction of off-design performance of the system. Here a typical 350 MW dual pressure
combined cycle power plant at RGCCPP, NTPC, Kayamkulam, Kerala, India, is selected
for modeling. Modeling of the CCGT plant consists of four parts as follows,
1) Modeling of physical properties of the working fluids, here air, combustion

gases and steam,
2) Gas turbine and inlet air conditioner modeling i.e. gas cycle modeling,
3) Heat Recovery steam generator HRSG and
4) Steam turbine modeling i.e. steam cycle modeling.
The simulation program code was developed in Visual Basic and validated to discover that
the maximum deviation obtained is less than 3% only.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Thermal Analysis
The parametric study was conducted with base case ambient conditions of 28°C and
humidity of 60%. In order to understand comprehensively the effect of various cooling
methods, a sensitivity study by varying the ambient temperature and relative humidity was
conducted on the RGCCPP-NTPC, CCGT plant model. Program modules for different
cooling methods were run at different ambient temperatures values (18, 23, 28, 33 & 38
degree Celsius) to assess the performance of the CCGT plant at various operating
conditions. Variations with the base case condition (28o C, 60% RH) are compared for all
the methods. For the analysis site average RH is taken as 80%, approach for evaporative
cooler as 1.5 degree C, COP of vapor absorption and vapor compression as 1.3 and 4
respectively, and compressor inlet air is assumed to be cooled to 15 degree C.
601
% OUTPUT CHANGE FROM RATED CONDITION LOAD (Ambient RH taken as 80%)
% OUTPUT CHANGE 3
2
without cooling
evapourative cooling with 1.5 degree approach
1
refrigeration compression to 15 degree COP 4
refrigeration absorbtion 15 deg COP 1.3
0
15 20 25 30 35 40
-1
-2
-3
-4
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
Figure 2. Output change from base case for various TIC methods
% EFFICIENCY CHANGE FROM RATED CONDITION LOAD (Ambient RH taken as 80%)
1.5
0.5
0
15 20 25 30 35 40
% EFFICIENCY CHANGE
-0.5
without cooling
-1
evapourative cooling with 1.5 degree approach
refrigeration compression to 15 degree COP 4
-1.5 refrigeration absorbtion 15 deg COP 1.3
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
Figure 3. Efficiency change from base case for various TIC methods
The results are summarized in tables and charts and presented as a change expressed in
percent, with respect to the corresponding values at base case, 28°C and 60% RH, without
602
cooling. Figures 2 and 3 describe completely the variations covering the four cases
studied. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the results in tabular form.
Table 1. Percentage output change (gain/loss) on implementing various TIC

methods (ambient RH taken as 80%)
EVAPOURATIVE REFRIGERATE
AMBIENT COOLING COOLING
WITHOUT
TEMPERATURE Approach of 1.5
COOLING
degree
V.C V.A
BEST (18o C) 3.75 4.32 4.85 4.93
RATED(28 oC) 0 0.95 3.11 4.02

WORST(38 oC) -2.56 -1.94 0.37 2.45
Table 2. Percentage efficiency change (gain/loss) on implementing various TIC

methods (ambient RH taken as 80%)
EVAPOURATIVE REFRIGERATE
AMBIENT COOLING COOLING
WITHOUT
TEMPERATURE Approach of 1.5
COOLING
degree
V.C V.A
BEST (18o C) 0.83 0.91 0.87 0.95
RATED(28 oC) 0 0.10 -0.82 0.05

WORST(38 oC) -1.57 -1.40 -3.46 -1.45
Economical Analysis
The analysis reveals the cost effectiveness of various turbine inlet air cooling methods as
adapted to the plant under study. Evaporative cooling systems provide returns with
minimum investments required but output obtained is minimal. The vapor compression
refrigeration system is not at all suitable for the plant under study at the present conditions
due to plant efficiency reduction. It is evident that vapour absorption gives highest output
improvement without loss in efficiency. Details of the economical analysis for vapour
absorption system are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Cost break-up for 2 stage VAM system for NTPC RGCCPP- Kayamkulam.
SL Cost component Value
603
(Rs Million)
1 Absorption chiller(3 X 1500) TR for 1 GT 60
2 Cooling coils and duct modifications 60 approx
3 Cooling water & chilled water pumps 20 approx
4 Installation costs 15 approx
5 Total installed cost (per GT) 155
6 Total Installed cost (2GTs) 310
7 Gain from power enhancement at 100% fixed cost recovery for 124.33
additional capacity (@ 84 paise/kWh)
8 Running cost/year (10% of total installed cost) 31
9 Net gain/ year (124.33 – 31 ) 93.33
10 Payback period (310/93.33) 3 years &
3 months
Though the total expenses are very high for the implementation of vapor absorption
refrigeration cooling, the expenses can be recovered within a span of 3 years and 3 months.
The profit gain from the installation is also very attractive to the tune of Rs.9.3 crore per
annum.
CONCLUSIONS
As far as possible, the existing power plants must implement the latest TIC techniques to
tackle the degradation effects at high ambient temperatures and make it more customer
friendly. Based on the comprehensive analysis, the study recommends the implementation
of vapor absorption type refrigerate cooling system for the plant with a return of Rs. 9.3
crore per annum and a pay back period of 3 year and 3 months.
ABBREVIATIONS
CCPP Co mbined Cycle Power Plant
CT Co mbustion Turbine
GT Gas Turbine
MW Mega Watt
NOx Nitrogen Oxides
RH Relative Hu mid ity
604
TIC Turbine Inlet Cooling
COP Coefficient Of Performance
VC Vapor Co mpression
VA Vapor Absorption
O&M Operation and Maintenance
References
1. Mustapha Chaker, Cyrus B Meher-Homji, Thomas Mee III “ Inlet Fogging of Gas T urbine Engines- Part I: Fog Droplet
Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer and Practical Considerations”, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and
Power, Vol.126, July 2004, 545-558.
2. Bhargava R, Meher Homji C B, “ Parametric Analysis of Existing Gas T urbines with Inlet Evaporative and Overspray
Fogging”, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol.127, January 2005, 145-158
3. Bhargava R K, et al, “ Gas T urbine Fogging T echnology: A State-of-the-Art Review- Part I: Inlet Evaporative Fogging-
Analytical and Experimental Aspects”, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol.129, April
2007, 443-453
4. Bhargava R K, et al, “ Gas T urbine Fogging T echnology: A State-of-the-Art Review- Part II: Overspray Fogging-
Analytical and Experimental Aspects” ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol.129, April
2007, 454-460
5. Bhargava R K, et al, “ Gas T urbine Fogging T echnology: A State-of-the-Art Review- Part III: “Practical Considerations
and Operational Experience” ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol.129, April 2007, 461-472
6. Cyrus B Meher-Homji, Thomas R Mee III, “Inlet Fogging of Gas T urbine Engines, Part A : Theory, Psychrometrics
and Fog Generation”, ASME Turbo Expo 2000, Munich , May 8-11, 2000, ASME paper No. 2000-GT -307.
7. Cyrus B Meher-Homji, Thomas R Mee III, “ Inlet Fogging of Gas T urbine Engines, Part B : Practical Considerations,
Control and O&M Aspects”, ASME Turbo Expo 2000, , May 8-11, 2000, ASME paper No. 2000-GT-308.
8. Kakaras E, et al, “ Inlet Air Cooling Methods for Gas T urbine Based Power Plants”, ASME Journal of Engineering for
Gas Turbines and Power, Vol.128, April 2006, 312-317.
9. Hemant Gajjar et al, “ Inlet Fogging for a 655 MW Combined cycle Power Plant Design, Implementation and
Operating Experience”, ASME Turbo Expo 2003, Atlanta, USA, June 16-19, 2003, ASME paper No. 2003-GT -38757
10. Boonnasa S, Namprakai P and Muangnapoh T, “ Performance Improvement of the Combined Cycle Power Plant by
Intake Air Cooling Using an Absorption Chiller”, Journal of ENERGY, Vol 31, 2006, 2036-2046
11. Boonnasa S and Namprakai P, “ Sensitivity Analysis for the Capacity Improvement of a Combined Cycle Power Plant
(100-600MW)”, Journal of Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol.28, 2008, 1865-1874.
12. Stork Thermeq, “ SwirlFlash Gas T urbine Power Augmentation and NOx Reduction” http://www.stork-thermeq
.nl/downloads/swirlflash_folder_2007-lr.pdf
13. Van Liere J. et al, “ Retrofit of Gas T urbines by SwirlFlash Over-spray”, http://www.max-boost.co.uk/max-
boost/resources/docs/SwirlFlash_WI.pdf
14. Chaker M, et al, “ Inlet Fogging of Gas T urbine Engines-Climatic Analysis of Gas T urbine Evaporative Cooling
Potential of international Locations” ASME Turbo Expo 2002, Amsterdam( 2002-GT -30559).
605
OPTIMISATION OF COAL FIRED POWER PLANT USING NEURAL NETWORK
BY:
ASIHIS DEV, HO D (C&I), NT P C Ltd ., Ko rb a
SOUMITRA GHOSH, S up dt .(C&I), NT P C Ltd ., Ko rb a
ABSTRACT
Neural netw or ks ( N Ns) are a class of alg orith m s tha t sim ulate the o peratio n of bi ologi cal neur ons. T he N N learns the
relationsh ips be tw een o peratin g co ndi tions, em issions, a nd perf orm ance param eters b y processi ng the test da ta. T he
N N de velops a com plex n onli near fun ctio n tha t m aps the syste m inp uts to the correspo ndi ng o utp uts. T his f unc tio n is
passed on to a m athem a tical m ini m izatio n algorithm that fin ds op tim um o perati ng con diti ons. N Ns are com posed of a
large num ber of hig hl y interc on necte d processin g elem en ts that w ork i n parallel to solve a spe cific pro blem . T h ese
netw or ks, w ith their ex tensi ve ability to deri ve m eanin g from com pli cated or im precise data , can be used to ex tract
patter ns and de tect trends that are too com plex to be de tecte d by ei ther h um ans or o ther com pu ter tech niq ues. N Ns
are trainable sys tem s that can “learn ” to sol ve co m ple x pro blem s a nd generalize the a cquire d know le dge to s olve
unforesee n problem s. A trained N N can be tho ug ht of as an expert in the categor y of inform a tio n it has been give n to
analyze. N Ns are considered b y som e to be best sui ted as advis ors, i.e., advan ced sys tem s tha t m ake
recom m enda tio ns based on various types of da ta inp ut. T hese recom m e nda tions, w hic h w ill chan ge as pow er plant
operatio ns cha nge, sug gest w ays i n w hich plan t eq uip m ent or tech nolo gies can be op tim ized. In rece nt years the
efforts to red uce nitro gen o xi de ( NO x) em issi ons from p ow er stati ons have resulte d i n opera tional m od ificati ons
inclu ding the fittin g of low – N Ox b urners. T hese m odi ficati ons are expe nsive an d generall y ha ve an ad verse effect
upon pla nt perform an ce, resul ting in a n in crease in un burn t carb on. T o reduce these ad verse effec ts, o n- line
optim izers ha ve bee n devel oped as an en hance m ent to the pow er sta tio n’s dig ital con trol s ystem ( DC S ). T h ese
optim izers can w ork o n differen t m ulti variable, co m ple x m odules of p ow er generatin g process like com bustion co ntrol,
S oot Bl ow ing sys tem e tc. Dif ferent Pow er ge nerati ng s tatio ns ha ve i m plem e nte d N N tec hni ques for perf orm a nce
optim iza tion for com b ustio n co ntrol & soo t blow in g sys tem . T he NN paradigm s hift has give n sign ifican t im pro vem ent
of efficie nc y of pow er ge neratio n i n respec t of both pro duc ti vity & e nviro nm en tal respo nsibili ty .
INTRODUCTION
In the scenario of today’s world, power companies are required to operate their generation assets more efficiently
and cost-effectively, w hile at the same time,information-based economies are creating an increasing demand for
energy.Because of this rapidly changing, often unpredictable environment, power
generation facilities are looking for ways to do what once seemed impossible – comply with tighter air quality
regulations while operating profitable, reliable, more productive plants.
Among the most complex environmental challenges facing coal-fired power generators is the reduction of nitrogen
oxide (NOx) emissions. NOx is a by-product of combustion – the hotter the flame temperature used in the combustion
process, the more NOx the process produces. NOx emissions are also prevalent in industrial areas and regions of
heavy automobile activity or traffic congestion. When combined with volatile organic compounds in hot stagnant
weather, NOx emissions can lead to smog, or ground-level ozone pollution, which can cause respiratory problems in
humans, particularly children and older people. When seeking NOx emissions cuts to avoid continual smog pr oblems,
regulators often look to coal-fired power plants for reductions.
Traditionally, reducing NOx levels in a power plant, or from any industrial boiler application, is expensive. Equipment
like low NOx burners, flue gas recirculation and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) can be costly. Fuel switching,
blending or remediation can increase operating costs, and take the fuel handling equipment far off the design
parameters. Additionally, NOx reduction equipment installation can extend scheduled outages beyond typical time
frames.
Reducing the flame temperature in the boiler can also reduce NOx formed during combustion (prompt or ther mal
NOx), but this method is often costly as well. In most cases, reduced flame temperature means sacrificing boiler
efficiency. Lower flame temperatures often result in higher loss on ignition (LOI) or higher levels of carbon in ash,
causing plants to generate less electricity from the same amount of fuel. According to the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI), even expensive low NOx burners can have unacceptable increases in unburned carbon. In today’s
competitive power marketplace, high LOI means increased fuel costs .
606
A TECHNOLOGICA L A ND COST EFFECTIVE OPTION
A number of years ago, engineers and scientists began wor king with neural networks, a type of artificial computer
intelligence based on the process of how the human brain “learns.” By applying the principals of learning to the
complex, automated processes that produce electricity, a neural networ k system can “learn” or model the process.
These models can be inverted to come up with strategies that can be used to refine controls, improving a process until
it runs at the most efficient and cost-effective rate possible for the equipment. Operating experience over a wide
range can expose the neural networ k to patterns that appear when NOx is the lowest. These patterns then can be
categorized into a model of plant operations that reflect a desirable goal. These models can then be analyzed for the
components that contribute to the desirable goals, sometimes referred to as sensitivity analysis. This newly gained
knowledge then can be applied to build or design a prediction model that can estimate the NOx levels. The modeled
data then can be used to predict settings that would result in operating at the lowest NOx levels.
NEURA L NETWORK FUNDA MENTA LS
An artificial neural networ k is a system based on the operation of biological neural netw orks, in other words, is an
emulation of biological neural system. Why would be necessary the implementation of artificial neural networ ks?
Although computing these days is truly advanced, there are cer tain tasks that a program made for a common
microprocessor is unable to perform; even so a software implementation of a neural network can be made with their
advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:
· A neural networ k can perform tasks that a linear program can not.
· When an element of the neural network fails, it can continue without any problem by their parallel nature.
· A neural networ k learns and does not need to be reprogrammed.
· It can be implemented in any application.
· It can be implemented without any problem.
Disadvantages:
· The neural networ k needs training to operate.

· The architecture of a neural network is different fr om the architecture of microprocessors therefore needs to
be emulated.
· Requires high processing time for large neural networks.
Neural Networ k Wor king:
607
An input is presented to the neural networ k and a corresponding desired or target response set at the output (w hen
this is the case the training is called supervised ). An error is composed from the difference between the desired
response and the system output. T his error information is fed back to the system and adj usts the system parameters
in a systematic fashion (the learning r ule). The process is repeated until the performance is acceptable. It is clear fr om
this description that the performance hinges heavily on the data. If one does not have data that cover a significant
portion of the operating conditions or if they are noisy, then neural network technology is probably not the right
solution. On the other hand, if there is plenty of data and the problem is poorly understood to derive an approximate
model, then neural networ k technology is a good choice. This operating procedure should be contrasted with the
traditional engineering design, made of exhaustive subsystem specifications and intercommunication protocols.
In ar tificial neural networks, the designer chooses the networ k topology, the performance function, the learning r ule,
and the criterion to stop the training phase, but the system automatically adjusts the parameters. So, it is difficult to
bring a priori information into the design, and w hen the system does not work properly it is also hard to incrementally
refine the solution. But ANN-based solutions are extremely efficient in terms of development time and resources, and
in many difficult problems artificial neural networks provide perfor mance that is difficult to match with other
technologies. Denker 10 years ago said that "artificial neural networ ks are the second best way to implement a
solution" motivated by the simplicity of their design and because of their universality, only shadowed by the traditional
design obtained by studying the physics of the problem. At present, artificial neural networks are emerging as the
technology of choice for many applications, such as pattern recognition, prediction, system identification, and contr ol.
The Biological Model:
Artificial neural networks emerged after the introduction of simplified neurons by McCulloch and Pitts in 1943
(McCulloch & Pitts, 1943). These neurons were presented as models of biological neurons and as conceptual
components for circuits that could perform computational tasks. The basic model of the neuron is founded upon the
functionality of a biological neuron. "Neurons are the basic signaling units of the nervous system" and "each neuron is
a discrete cell whose several processes arise from its cell body".
The Mat hemat ical Model:
When creating a functional model of the biological neuron, there are three basic components of importance. First, the
synapses of the neuron are modeled as weights. The strength of the connection between an input and a neuron is
noted by the value of the weight. Negative weight values reflect inhibitory connections, w hile positive values designate
excitatory connections. The next two components model the actual activity within the neuron cell. An adder sums up
all the inputs modified by their respective weights. This activity is referred to as linear combination. Finally, an
activation function controls the amplitude of the output of the neuron. An acceptable range of output is usually
between 0 and 1, or -1 and 1.
Mathematically, this pr ocess is described in the figure
608
A framework for distributed representation :
An artifcial neural networ k consists of a pool of simple processing units which communicate by sending signals to each
other over a large number of weighted connections. A set of major aspects of a parallel distributed model can be
distinguished :
· a set of processing units ('neurons,' 'cells');

· a state of activation yk for ever y unit, w hich equivalent to the output of the unit;
· connections between the units. Generally each connection is defined by a weight wjk which determines the
effect w hich the signal of unit j has on unit k;
· a propagation rule, w hich determines the effective input sk of a unit from its external inputs;
· an activation function Fk, w hich determines the new level of activation based on the efective input sk(t) and
the current activation yk(t) (i.e., the update);
· an external input (aka bias, offset) øk for each unit;
· a method for information gathering (the lear ning rule);
· an environment within which the system must operate, providing input signals and|if necessary|error signals.
Each unit perfor ms a relatively simple job: receive input from neighbours or external sources and use this to compute
an output signal w hich is propagated to other units. Apart from this processing, a second task is the adjustment of the
weights. T he system is inherently parallel in the sense that many units can carry out their computations at the same
time. Within neural systems it is useful to distinguish three types of units: input units (indicated by an index i) w hich
receive data from outside the neural networ k, output units (indicated by an index o) w hich send data out of the neural
networ k, and hidden units (indicated by an index h) w hose input and output signals remain within the neural network.
During operation, units can be updated either synchronously or asynchronously. With synchr onous updating, all units
update their activation simultaneously; with asynchronous updating, each unit has a (usually fixed) probability of
updating its activation at a time t, and usually only one unit will be able to do this at a time. In some cases the latter
model has some advantages.
PLA NT OPTIMISA TION APPLICA TION
609
Combustion optimisation :
Optimization software tools that employ this advanced computer technology feed plant set points, biases and other
operating parameters directly into a power plant’s main control computer or distributed control system (DCS). In the
case of NOx emissions, software tools optimize the combustion process using conventional fuel to-air relationships,
secondar y air registers, and over-fire air ports to affect the fuel to-
air ratio at each burner location. An optimizer working in closed-loop fashion stabilizes emission levels and provides
constant process adj ustments to pr ovide more consistent and lower NOx levels. Optimizers can check and adjust
numerous parameters affecting NOx production ever y few seconds, enabling the operator to oversee and troubleshoot
all other operating processes in a generation facility.
Power generators can reasonably expect to see NOx production fall between 15 and 35 percent with the use of
optimization software products. While optimization alone may not be enough to bring some plants into compliance,
these software tools provide a low-cost way to achieve a reliable reduction based on which future compliance needs
can be evaluated.
Case Study Wisconsin Electric, USA:
In response to evolving ground-level ozone standards in the United States, Wisconsin Electric Power Company began a
proactive, comprehensive strategy to prepare for new regulations and reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions at its
Valley Generating Station in Milwaukee.
A coal-fired 300-megawatt combined power plant, Valley ser ves as a steam heat source for the city of Milwaukee in
addition to producing electricity. A cycling plant, Valley is rarely baseloaded and normally is on automatic dispatch.
Wisconsin Electric began its efforts with low NOx bur ners, but, due to its dual provider role in the city, was concerned
about compromising reliability when the time came to take
the next step in reducing NOx.
Valley achieved a critical balance with help from optimization software that, by finetuning the plants automation
controls, allowed Wisconsin Electric to get additional NOx reduction on Valley’s number four boiler without losing
efficiency.
Real-time data collected at one-second inter vals and averaged over two 24-hour periods (with similar load profiles)
showed NOx emissions from Valley’s number four boiler decreased 15 percent by using an optimizer. Additionally, the
system reduced Valley’s excess oxygen by 18 percent further limiting the formation of NOx.
Valley Station followed up its success with boiler #4 by installing optimization software on its other three boilers at the
plant in 2001. Wisconsin Electric is achieving additional NOx reductions, increasing the life of expensive pollution
abatement equipment and may at some point have NOx credits to trade with others
in theWisconsin area looking for environmental compliance.
Case Study Ostroleka Power Plant,Poland:
The Ostrolêka Power Plant in Ostrolêka, Poland, installed flue gas desulfurization equipment, low NOx bur ners and
electrostatic precipitators to meet Poland’s increasingly stringent air quality standards. But the owners of the Ostrolêka
plant wanted to see even lower emissions, particularly of NOx.
The facility consists of three 200-megawatt units, fueled by pulverized coal and is located about 100 miles nor th of
Warsaw. It provides electricity for both the city of Ostrolêka and the Polish national power grid.
Using Neural Network optimization, the Ostrolêka Plant has seen consistently positive results, decreasing NOx
emission levels by 15 to 25 percent while reducing LOI.
The system has pr ovided a small but measurable increase in boiler efficiency; stabilized overall boiler performance;
improved response to load changes; improved steam temperature control; and, reduced carbon monoxide (CO) levels
in flue gas.
This plant was one of the first European power generation facilities to embrace advanced software programs for on-
line real time optimization of the process. T he plant has used two generations of the software as the technology
improved over the implementation schedule of the three units. They are embracing the concept of using the latest
advances in modeling and optimization for sustained operational benefits.
610
Soot blowing opt imisation:
NN-ISB (Neural Networ k – Intelligent Sootblower) contr ol system, alongwith advanced instrumentation is applied at
key locations to provide real-time data to the NNISB, which interprets the data through optimization softw are
developed to send appropriate signals to existing sootblower controls. Signals are sent only to the sootblowers in the
specific section(s) of the boiler requiring cleaning. The NNISB operates in a closed loop mode; i.e., the on-line system
responds to real-time data and adjusts controls without need of manual activation by the plant operator. Adjustments
are made to optimization software as results are obtained.
The NN-IS B optimization system is programmed to activate sootblowers only when and where needed. The need is
determined by signals indicating that heat transfer from combustion products to the heat-absorbing surfaces in the
boiler is being impacted to the point where NOx emissions and heat loss could rise to unacceptable levels. Activation
also is influenced by opacity readings. Spikes in opacity readings indicate that the system is being overloaded, w hich
calls for earlier or sequential activation of sootblowers.
NN-ISB technology offers a low-cost approach to enhancing the efficiency and reducing NOx and PM emissions at coal-
fired plants by optimizing control of heat transfer impeded by surface fouling in coal-fired boilers by ash and slag.
CASE Study Tampa Electr ic Big Bend Unit #2 (445 MW):
In August 2004, acceptance testing of the NN-IS B

system in the automatic mode was completed. In late
December 2004, testing of the system was completed,
ending the “benefits demonstration” phase of the
project.
When the closed loop NN-ISB was compared to the

2002 baseline year, improvements of 20 Btu/kWhr at
high load points to as much as 420 Btu/kWhr at low
load were obser ved.
NOx reductions recorded by the NN-ISB ranged from

no measurable difference to 8.5 percent NOx
reduction, compared to baseline conditions using a
variety of coal and unit operating conditions.
Opacity measurements during the same period of NOx

data acquisition indicated no measurable difference,
while examination of the opacity trends during open
loop and closed loop indicated an improvement
ranging from 1 percent to 1.5 percent during soot
blowing activities.
611
CASE Study Southern Company’s Plant Hammond in Geor gia, USA on a 500 MW coal-fired unit :
The IS BS work within the Unit Optimisation Project was funded entirely by EPRI. T he ISBS provided advice on w hen to
blow any of four groups of sootblowers. The main cost of the sootblowing is related to the frequency with which it is
used. This model was well received by the operators at Plant and showed that the plant could be operated with only
50% of the sootblowing that was normally used. Use of the sootblowing model will thus improve the performance of
the unit.
CONCL USION
As the combustion process occurs with the software tool monitoring and adjusting it, the optimizer allows the plant to
achieve the best possible NOx levels, consistently and reliably. Generators should not consider optimization softw are
to be a complete cure for NOx emissions, but rather part of an overall NOx reduction plan which includes all necessary
and appropriate reduction equipment, be it low NOx burners or selective catalytic reduction. Properly selected
optimization software will provide plants with a first line of NOx reductions, as well as a consistent emission r ate,
which increases the life span of equipment and balances the scales between plant efficiency and emission production.
The major conclusion from NN-ISB control system is that it is a sound idea with significant potential. The Big Bend
project successfully demonstrated a neural networ k, closed-loop operation on a full-scale boiler without causing unit
upsets or violating any constraints—and it also achieved operator acceptance. The NN-ISB appears to provide
generating companies with an integrated solution that will assist in optimal economic and environmental real-time,
online operation of a unit.
The continuing development of neural netw ork software to control overall power plant operation, or selected aspects
of it, has shown substantial progress in optimizing power plant performance. T hese software packages allow operators
to more easily stay within their emission limits w hile improving power plant efficiency and lowering the cost of power
production.
REFERENCES
[1] Jeffery J. Williams Emerson Process Management Power & Water Solutions 200 Beta Drive
Pittsburgh, PA. 15238
[2] NET L John Rockey (412) 386-4711 john.rockey@netl.doe.gov
612
[3] D M T urner and I Mayes E.ON UK (formerly Powergen UK)
Power Technology Centre Ratcliffe-on-Soar Nottingham NG11 0EE
[4] John L. Grasser, Director
Office of Communication FE-5/Forrestal BuildingU.S. Depar tment of Energy1000 Independence Ave., SWWashington,
DC 20585
613
PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN POWER PLANT
AUXILIARIES
Author: S Karthikeyan, Counsellor- Energy

D Ravinder Reddy, Counsellor - Energy
Confederation of Indian Industry,
CII - Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre,
Survey No 64, Kothaguda Post, Near HITEC city,
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh - 500 084
Tel: +91 (40) 23112971 – 73;
E-Mail: s.karthikeyan@cii.in & d.ravinderreddy@cii.in
Web site: www.cii.in / www.greenb usinesscentre.com
A brief biodata of the authors are enclosed for kind reference.
1. 0 ABSTRACT
The total installed capacity of the thermal power plants in India is 99628.48 MW as on 30
November 2009 (as per the information available in CEA website - http://www.cea.nic.in/ ). The
average auxiliary power consumption in India during 2007-08 is around 8.17%.
In some of the power plants the auxiliary power consumption is as high as 9.5%. In the best
performing thermal power plants the auxiliary power consumption is as low as about 7.7%. This
clearly indicates significant potential available in terms of optimizing the auxiliary power
consumption.
The reduction in auxiliary power consumption can be achieved by the following measures:
1. Simple fine tuning measures such as optimizing t he operating parameters. These do not
require any investment
2. Fine tuning the equipment such as impeller trimming in a pump to match with actual
requirement. These require marginal investment
3. utilization of latest retrofit technologies such as utilization of variable frequency drives
which require investment
This article dwells on the performance improvement opportunities available in power plant
auxiliaries. Also describes case studies implemented in power plant auxiliaries such as fans and
pumps for reducing the auxiliary power consumption.
2.0 INTRODUCTION
This paper describes some of t he case studies that are implemented in best performing Indian
thermal power plants and achieved significant benefits in auxiliary power consumption reduction.
These projects have been identified based on the det ailed energy audits conducted by CII-Godrej
GBC in those power plants and implemented.
Some of the measures which are discussed in detail are as below.
1. Application of Variable frequency drives for Power plant Auxiliaries – installation of variable
frequency drive for a condensate extraction pump in a 250 MW thermal power plant
2. Optimization of Boiler Feed Pump in a 210 MW thermal power generating unit
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3.0 APPLICATION OF VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES FOR POW ER PLANT AUXILI ARI ES –
INSTALLATION OF A V ARI ABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE FOR A CONDENSATE EXTRACTION
PUMP IN A 250 MW THERMAL POW ER PLANT
Motor-driven systems are often designed with safety margins to handle peak loads and extreme
conditions. These excess margins lead to energy inefficiency in systems and increased power
consumption. The ability to adjust motor speed enables closer matching of motor output to load
and results in significant reduction in energy consumption.
A variable frequency drive varies the speed of the motor by changing the frequency and voltage
of the motor keeping the v/ f ratio constant. Variable speed drives are used (a) To vary the
capacity of the motor driven equipment to match with the c ontinuously changing load
requirements (b) To minimize t he losses due to excess margin built in the equipment and (c) For
accurate and continuous process control
Typically, all the auxiliary equipments in power plants, such as pumps and fans, are designed
with excess margins to ensure reliability of the plant and to meet requirements during extreme
operating conditions. These excess margins lead to inefficiency and increased auxiliary power
consumption during the normal operating conditions of the plant. With the help of the variable
frequency drives, the operating speed of the auxiliary equipment can be optimized to reduce
power consumption and to match actual requirements.
A 250 MW thermal Indian power plant has installed variable frequency drive for centrifugal
equipments, such as the condensate extraction pump (CEP) and seal air fans. This has resulted
in significant energy savings. The det ails of the project are given below.
Previous Status
A condensate extraction pump of the following specifications is in operation in a 250-MW thermal

power plant.
Ø Capacity - 770 m /hr
Ø Head - 205 m
Ø Motor rating - 650 kW
Ø No of stages - 5
615
The operating parameters of the CEP at full load operating conditions are given below.
Parameters Values
Discharge Pressure 21.3 kg/cm

Deaerator Pressure 6.9 kg/cm
Flow 640 TP H
Motor speed 1450 rpm (50 Hz)
Power Consumed 590 kWh
The control valve is only about 60% open during normal operating condition. This valve throttling
leads to pressure loss across the valve and hence energy loss. The pressure loss across the
control valve is estimated as 7.5 kg/cm2 based on pressure measurements taken before and
after the control valve.
Performance improvement project
The operating conditions and the actual design conditions for CEP in this plant were clearly
indicating that there is an excellent potential to minimize the pressure drop across the control
valve and reduc e energy consumption. This can be achieved by optimizing the number of stages
of the pump or installing a VFD for the pump with feedback control.
In addition to energy savings and better process cont rol, installation of VFDs has t he following
benefits compared to the stage reduction.
1. Maintenance costs can be lower, because lower operating speeds result in longer life
for bearings and motors
2. Eliminating the throttling valves and dampers also does away with maintaining these
devic es and all associated controls
3. A soft starter for the mot or is no longer required
4. Cont rolled ramp-up speed in a liquid system can eliminat e water hammer problems
5. The ability of a VFD to limit torque to a user s elected level can protect driven
equipment that cannot tolerate excessive torque
In view of the above-listed additional benefits, the plant installed a HT VFD for the CEP, even
though it costs much more than stage removal.
The details of the operating condition of the CEP after installing the VFD are given below.
CEP Parameters With HT VFD drive
Discharge Pressure 17.5 kg/cm

Deaerator Pressure 6.9 kg/cm
Flow (TP H) 640
Motor speed 1250 rpm (42 Hz)
Cont rol valve CD14 position 95%
Power Consumed 440 kWh
Benefits of the project
Electrical Energy Saving - 1.26 Million Units

Annual Savings - Rs 4.52 Million/ year
Saving of Coal - 671 Tons/ year
Reduction of CO2 Emissions - 2460 Tons/ year
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Financial Analysi s: The annual savings achieved is Rs 4.52 million (US D 0. 09 million). The
investment made for installation of VFD is Rs 6.00 million (USD 0. 12 million). The simple pay back
period is 16 months.
Replication potential: In a typical 250-MW thermal power plant, the auxiliary power consumption
for the CEP is around 0.27% of the t otal plant output. The savings that can be achieved by
installing an HT VFD varies from about 15-20%. This project has high replication potential in
majority of the captive and utility thermal power plants in India. Considering t he present installed
capacity of the c oal based thermal power plants in India, the replication potential of this
performance improvement project is estimated to be as high as 30 MW.
Similar energy saving potential exists in majority of fans and pumps in power plants.
4.0 OPTIMIZATION OF BOILER FEED PUMP IN A 210 MW THERMAL POW ER GENERATING

UNIT
Boiler feed wat er pump is a major energy consumer in a power generating unit. The Boiler feed
water is circulated in a closed loop by a feed pump, driven either by an electrical motor or by a
steam turbine.
The feed pump takes the water from the deaerat or and boosts the pressure to as high as 180
kg/cm2 in a typical 210 MW thermal power plant boiler. These pumps require a certain minimum
amount of flow to avoid overheating and cavitation problems. In order to protect the pump when
the boiler feed water flow requirement is less than the minimum permissible flow through the feed
pump. A recirculation system is provided to return a portion of the high pressure feedwater flow
back to the deaerator.
Schematic of a feedwater pumping system of typical 210 MW thermal power generating unit is
shown below. The schematic diagram also indicates the location of Boiler feed pump recirculation
valve.
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Operation of a Recirculation valve: Ideally, the recirculation system would vary the recirculation
flow in response to the pump's requirements. This indicates the need for a modulating control
valve, which normally would be closed, but opens automatically on turbine trip.
Excessive leakage cuts into the efficiency of the plant both t hrough direct energy loss, and
because the boiler cannot be fed the full rated flow. In the extreme case, a shut down of an entire
power plant may be necessitated because of a single leaking valve. Henc e, there is an imminent
need for Boiler Feed water Pump Recirculation Valve that will
1. Break down water pressure from about 180kg/cm2 to deaerat or pressure and
simultaneously neutralize the effects of trim erosion due to flashing, cavitation and
mechanic al vibration & noise
2. Remain leak tight for long periods of time and
3. Modulate aut omatically and vary the recirculation water flow
This case study dwells on performance improvement in a boiler feed water system of a 210 MW
power generating unit. The power generating unit has three mot or driven boiler feed pumps, out
of which only two pumps are in continuous operation.
The design specifications for a feed pump are given below:
Flow (TP H) 476

Head (bar) 183
Motor rating (kW) 4000
No of stages 6
The plant has online flow meter at the suction of the boiler feed pump and also at the inlet of the
boiler drum. These flow meters are periodic ally calibrated. The feed water flows were measured
using the online flow meters. During the study it was ensured that both the reheat er attemperation
flow and main steam attemperation flow kept at almost zero level.
The total feed water suction flow from both the pumps (TPH) 815
The total feed water flow to the drum (TPH) 700
The power consumption of both the boiler feed pumps is measured as 6387 kW.
It was observed that the difference bet ween the feedwat er suction flow to the pump and
feedwater flow into the drum is very significant and consistently to the tune of about
115 TP H (approximately 14% ).
This clearly indicates that there is a significant recirculation through the recirculation valve. This
was ensured by carrying out a thermographic study. Thermographic images of the recirculation
valves are given below.
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Performance improvement project: The plant team has replaced the existing automatic
recirculation with multi stage pressure reduction drag valves. The conventional recirculation valve
reduces the pressure from Boiler feed pump discharge to Deaerator in one or two stages. This
leads to significant erosion in the valve seating and frequent failure of the valves.
The multistage pressure reduction drag reduces the same pressure by about 13 stages (can be
upto 40 stages for higher pressure-difference in super critical boiler applications ). This minimizes
the erosion and hence higher reliability of the recirculation valves. A typical multi-path, multi-stage
drag disk shown below features a series of tight right-angle turns, each of which reduces the fluid
velocity.
The advantages of drag valves over conventional recirculation valves are as follows:
1. No efficiency losses from valve leakages
2. Pressure is reduc ed in stages to limit t rim exit velocity, preventing damaging effects of
Cavitation
3. Eliminates Erosion Damage by controlling fluid velocities and providing tight shut-off
The replacement of the conventional recirculation valve with a multi stage pressure reduction
valve has resulted in about 5% reduction in power consumption which accounts for about
320 kW.
Annual Savings achieved

Electrical Energy 2.55 Million Units
Annual Savings 5.10 Million Rupees
Financial Analysis: The annual savings achieved is Rs 51.00 Lakhs. The investment made for
installation of multistage pressure reduction drag-valves is Rs 30.00 Lakhs. The simple pay back
period is 7 months. Considering the typical operating conditions in majority of the captive and
utility thermal power plants in India, this project has high replication potential.
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5.0 CONCLUSION
The detailed energy audits conducted by CII-Godrej GBC in various thermal power plants indicate
enormous potential for performance improvement in power plant auxiliaries and reduction in
auxiliary power consumption.
The potential is mainly due to the significant deviation of t he operating conditions from t he design
conditions and excess margins built in the equipment during the design. This potential can be
tapped by carrying out periodic performance improvement studies and taking appropriate
remedial measures.
Simple fine tuning measures can help in achieving the marginal benefits whereas the latest
retrofit technologies can help in achieving the maximum benefits with attractive payback periods.
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ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK FOR CONDENSER PERFORMANCE
PREDICTION IN VSTPS
S. Mathew S. Banerjee Mohit Yadav R. Majarikar

D.G.M. (FT & BE) DGM (Operation) Sr. Engineer (Operation) Sr. Engineer (C&I)
NTPC Ltd, Vindhyachal NTPC Ltd, Vindhyachal NTPC Ltd, Vindhyachal NTPC Ltd,
Vindhyachal
ABSTRACT
In thermal power stations, condenser system is one of the systems where major chunk of useful energy, in excess of
45%, goes unutilized. This particular phenomenon makes it ideal system for performance imp rovement project. One
of the main constraints that we face in day to day operation is lack of prediction capability for the condenser
performance under given set of conditions.
In the present paper an attempt has been made to model the condenser performance using artificial neural network.
The ANN model thus made p redicts the condenser performance values quite close to the real field values. The
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) for condenser performance was trained with the previous data and was later
validated. This model also highlights that understanding of the underlying physical characteristics of the component
to be modeled by ANN is a mandatory prerequisite for getting reasonable results. Today we find numerous
application of artificial neural network in industry from predict ion to control including optimization. The best thing
about ANN is their universal capability to be function approximators. The real beauty of the system modeling using
ANN is its mult ifaceted modeling capacity including but not limited to capacity to handle mult iple inputs to model
and predict multiple outputs along with capability to relearning with additional or new data points. Another
advantage using the ANN is faster calculation with pred iction results typically available in much lesser time as
compared to the convention approach. There happens to be many limitat ions with conventional techniques for
modeling condensers, ANN approach is indeed promising if sufficient data are available for the complete domain of
condenser operation.
INTRODUCTION TO STEAM POWER PLANT CONDENS ER
The Rankine cycle is the standard for steam power p lants that are built around the world. The basic Ran kine cycle
consists of four main co mponents:
· Steam Generator
· Turbine
· Steam Condenser
· Pump
The actual Rankine cycle used in modern power plants has many more co mponents, but the above four components
are co mmon to all power p lants. In this cycle, water is heated in the steam generator to produce high temperature
and pressure steam. This steam is then expanded in a turbine to produce electricity fro m a generator that is
connected to the turbine. The steam fro m the turbine is then condensed back into water in the condenser. The pump
then returns the water to the steam generator.
Thus, the main purposes of the condenser are to condense the exhaust steam fro m the turbine for reuse in the cycle
and to maximize turbine efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum. As the operating pressure of the condenser is
lowered (vacuum is increased), the enthalpy drop of the expanding steam in the turbine will also increase. This will
increase the amount of available work fro m the turbine (electrical output). By lowering the condenser operating
pressure, the follo wing will occur:
· Increased turbine output
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· Increased plant efficiency
· Reduced steam flow (for a given plant output)
It is therefore very advantageous to operate the condenser at the lowest possible pressure (highest vacuum). To
optimize thermal power plant operation, optimizing condenser performance is one of the most challenging &
reward ing area. Typically, 10 to15 mm Hg imp rovement in Condenser Vacuum leads to 20-30 kcal/ kWh (appro x.
1%) improvement in Heat Rate for a 210 MW unit. This leads to an estimated coal saving worth of Rs 1 to2 crores
per year for a rail fed station.
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK: B ACK GROUND
Neural networks are a wide class of flexib le nonlinear regression and discriminant models, data reduction models,
and nonlinear dynamical systems. They consist of an often large nu mber o f “neurons,” i.e. simple linear or nonlinear
computing elements, interconnected in often complex ways and often organized into layers.
Artificial neural networks are used in three main ways:
· as models of bio logical nervous systems and “intelligence”

· as real-time adaptive signal processors or controllers imp lemented in hardware for applicat ions like robots
· as data analytic methods (3)
A neural network is a set of nonlinear equations that predict output variables (Y's) fro m input variables (X's) in a
flexib le way using layers of linear regressions and S-shaped functions. In the current discussion, we will see the
implementation using one hidden layer, and is specified as follows.
An S-shaped activation function used to scale continuous arguments is the familiar logistic function
which scales values to have mean 0 and standard deviation 1. (No minal values are coded as in linear models).
Each Hj, the unobserved hidden nodes, are defined as
Hj = SH
where
NX is the number of X variab les

S H(x) is the logistic function
and
Xi are the inputs, usually scaled to be in the interval [0, 1].
The outputs are then calculated as
where
NH is the number of h idden nodes.
S Y(x) is the identity function.
The values are also scaled to be in the interval [0, 1].

The X (input) and Y (output) values are software data columns.
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The coefficients a, b, c, and d are to be
estimated.(1)
MET HODOLOGY
In the condenser performance predictor all data

sets including DT, TTD, Depression, CW I/ L,
CW O/L, Load etc are used to predict
condenser vacuum. These data values were
statistically co mpared & the most important one
explaining the majority of variation in
condenser vacuum (>80%) were selected for
the ANN modeling purpose.
66.67% data set was used for training the model

which was subsequently validated and was
found to be in close conformance with actual
field data. The R square value worked out using
the said ANN model was more than 90%. The
said methodology was implemented with JMP
software fro m SAS.
The data prediction was as much as 0.5% close

to the actual value.
ANN modeling has given new insight about the

relative importance of the different parameters.
Condenser performance prediction ANN model
is also very useful for WHAT-IF analysis.
Figure: 1
C
AS E S TUDY 1: UNIT#6 VSTPS STAGE I
In this case, the number of hidden nodes was Figure: 2

specified to be 3 and other parameters as
enlisted in figure 2. This ANN model has one layer of
hidden nodes with LPT exhaust hood temp, Circulating
Water (CW) inlet temp and Circulat ing Water (CW) outlet
temp as input & condenser vacuum as the response.
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As it can be seen from the associated figures that in case of unit 6 of VSTPS, ANN model predicts the condenser
vacuum within +/- 0.4% accuracy wh ich is quite robust. The corresponding graph between actual condenser vacuum
values and predicted condenser vacuum figures is as appended below.
PREDICTION PROFILER
The prediction profiler can be used for WHAT-IF analysis. We can vary one or co mbination of input parameters and
see the ultimate effect on the condenser vacuum. One of the potential uses of prediction profiler during winter time
is to aid in decision making process whether to keep one/two cooling tower fans out of service or not as during
winter CW inlet temp happens to be on the lower side.
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C
AS E S TUDY 2: UNIT#5 VSTPS STAGE I
In this case, the number of hidden nodes was specified to be 3. This ANN model has one layer of
hidden nodes with LPT exhaust hood temp, Circulat ing Water (CW) inlet temp and Circu lating Water
(CW) outlet temp as input & condenser vacuum as the response. As it can be seen from the associated
figures that in case of unit 5 of VSTPS, ANN model pred icts the condenser vacuum within +/- 0.5%
accuracy which is quite robust.
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CONCLUS ION
Through this paper, an attempt has been made by the authors to highlight the importance of deploying artificial
neural network (A NN) models for prediction of performance of thermal power plant components with condenser
performance prediction as a case study. ANNs are particularly useful for the power generation process due to their
ability to model some of the most complex processes having multip le degree of interaction between variables.
In the presented case study, the ANN model predicts condenser vacuum within 0.5% accuracy which happens to
be self explanatory about the sturdiness of ANN model in pred iction of co mplex engineering systems.
The use of neural network is on rise in modeling & forecasting comp lex engineering, financial & service systems.
The use of statistical software packages like M initab and JMP can prove to be a major advantage if embedded into
data servers for data min ing purpose.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors wish to thank NTPC VSTPS management for their support during this project. Sincere thank is extended to
software companies JMP (SAS Institute Inc.) & M initab Inc. for extending help in form of fu ll functional trials.
REFERENCES
1. JMP Release 8 Statistics & Graphics Guide

2. www.heatexchange.org; Tech Sheet #113
3. Warren S. Sarle, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA; Neural Networks and Statistical Models, Proceedings
of the Nineteenth Annual SAS Users Group International Conference, April, 1994
626
EXTRACTION STEAM FLOW OPTIMIZATION AND THEREBY CYCLE
EFFICIENCY ENHANCEMENT
Somnath Bhattacharya
Dy. Superintendent, Operation, NTPC Kahalgaon
P.O.-Kahalgaon S.T.P.P., Bhagalpur-813214, Bihar
Synopsis:
A Mathematical model has been developed that would predict stage-by-stage performance of a steam turbine at
different load conditions ranging from 50% -105% of rated capacity. Monte-Carlo Universal optimization
technique has been used for optimizing extraction steam flow thereby improving turbine power output and cycle
efficiency. While optimizing, “minimum alteration to the existing cycle” approach has been adopted. The results are
encouraging, with 4 0 tolerance to the economizer inlet temperature at rated condition, 5.1 MW gain in turbine
power output and 0.1% gain in cycle efficiency have been achieved, while with 10 tolerance to the economizer inlet
temperature at rated condition, 2.52 MW gain in turbine power output and 0.15% gain in cycle efficiency have been
achieved.
Both of these works are done for a 500 MW (Farakka Stage II) and a 210 MW (Dadri Coal) Turbine cycles.
1. VARIATION OF EXTRACTION STEAM FLOW WITH LOAD IN EXIS TING S YS TEM

It has been seen that the steam flow rate through a turbine is not exactly in proportion with load. As the
load is reduced, the mass flow ratio mfr (steam flow rate at a particular load / rated steam flow rate) tends to
increase gradually than load index LI (actual load / rated load) and this rising trend is increasingly evident in later
sections of a turbine. The variation of mass flow ratio (mfr) with load index (LI) at different turbine sections of a
500 MW B HEL manufactured KWU Turb ine is shown in Table 1 Similar t rend is also observed for 210 MW KWU
Turbine also.
Table 1. Variation of mass flo w rat io (mfr) with load index (LI) at d ifferent turbine sections of a 500 MW B HEL
manufactured KWU Tu rbine
LI = 1.0 LI = 0.8 LI = 0.6

mfr mfr mfr
HP Turbine 1.0 0.8 0.6064
IP Stage 1 – 8 (before Extraction 5) 1.0 0.8067 0.6176
IP Stage 9 – 14 (after Extraction 5) 1.0 0.8088 0.6213
LP Stage 1 – 2 (before Ext raction 3) 1.0 0.81228 0.6243
LP Stage 3 (before Ext raction 2) 1.0 0.81349 0.6264
LP Stage 4 – 5 (before Ext raction 1) 1.0 0.8178 0.63336
LP Stage 6 (after Extraction 1) 1.0 0.8231 0.6427
Now, the variation of extraction flo w rate with load has the reverse trend, though this tendency is not
gradually increasing form H.P. to L.P. heaters. This is shown in Tables 2 and 3. The flow of leak steam does not
vary much with load variation. So at part load Specific Steam Consumption (SSC) increases.
627
Table 2. Variation of mass flow ratio (mfr) with load index (LI) at different ext raction lines of a 500 MW B HEL
Rated Flow LI = 1.0 LI = 0.8 LI = 0.6
(kg/s) mfr Mfr mfr
Extraction 6 41.34 1.0 0.7348 0.5022
Extraction 5 26.81 1.0 0.7787 0.569
Extraction 4 (BFP) 19.12 1.0 0.8091 0.6543
Extraction 4 (Heater) 22.09 1.0 0.7585 0.5374
Extraction 3 12.47 1.0 0.7729 0.5731
Extraction 2 22.62 1.0 0.7649 0.5397
Extraction 1 10.13 1.0 0.6753 0.383
Table 3. Variation of mass flow ratio (mfr) with load index (LI) at different ext raction lines of a 210 MW B HEL
Rated Flow LI = 1.0 LI = 0.8 LI = 0.6
(kg/s) mfr Mfr mfr
Extraction 6 17.68 1.0 0.7348 0.5022
Extraction 5 9.98 1.0 0.7787 0.569
Extraction 4 9.99 1.0 0.7585 0.5374
Extraction 3 7.55 1.0 0.7729 0.5731
Extraction 2 4.72 1.0 0.7649 0.5397
Extraction 1 5.34 1.0 0.6753 0.383
2. NEED FOR OPTIMIZATION OF EXTRACTION STEAM FLOW : EXERGETIC POINT OF

VIEW
Fro m Tables 2 and 3 it is clear that major share of extraction flow is provided by the first two high energy
extraction points (for 500 MW system excluding extraction flow to BFP, it is 50.31 % and for 210 MW system it is
50.05 %). Fro m exergy point of view, it is always recommended that, among work transfer and heating, work
transfer should always get more p riority fro m a high exergetic system. That is the reason precisely, why no
extraction is there fro m HP turbine. Here the objective is to get as much work as possible fro m very high energy and
exergy steam. The lower exergy steam with moderately high temperature can be used for regeneration purpose.
The system may be designed in such a way that, some less steam is extracted fro m the high exergy
extraction points and the same can be compensated by drawing mo re steam fro m lo wer exergy extraction points so
that, total regeneration effect remains intact and thereby saving some exergetic potential fro m heating (lower grade
energy) for producing work (higher grade energy). The effect of better utilizat ion of total exergetic potential of
steam can be man ifested in the form of gain in turb ine work output (improved SSC) and improvement in cycle
efficiency and lower cycle heat rate.
This has lead to optimization of extract ion flo w rates of all the regenerative extract ion points to get better
cycle efficiency and heat rate.
3. OP T I M IZ A T IO N P R O C ED UR ES : M O N T E C A R L O T EC HN IQ U ES
“Monte Carlo method consists in formulating a game of chance or a stochastic process which produces a
random variable whose expected value is the solution of a certain problem” (W. F. Bauer 1958). A Monte Carlo
628
method uses the random nu mbers and probability statistics to solve the problems. It is a highly efficient nu merical
method capable of solving the most comp lex applicat ions.
The most interesting feature in Monte Carlo technique is physical process can be simulated directly, there is
no need to write down the differential equation that describes the attributes of the system. The only criterion is that
the physical (or mathemat ical) system be described by probability density functions. Once the probability density
functions are known, the Monte Carlo simu lation can proceed by random samp ling fro m the partial differential
equation.
Generating random numbers is one of the most subtle and interesting problems in co mputer science,
because seemingly reasonable solutions can have disastrous consequences. An efficient random number will give
true solution for the given problem. In this work chosen pseudo random number generators have been used for true
random nu mber generation.
3 .1 T he O bje cti ve Fu nc ti o n
The C y cle Efficie nc y has been chosen as the ob ject ive fun ction . The targ et is to ach ieve ma ximu m
cycle efficiency .
3 .2 T he C o ns tr ai nts
While opt imizing, one important criterion has been adopted , that is, to keep the total regenerat ive
effect as intact as possible. Fo r th is ‘min imu m d isturbance to the cy cle’ app roach , very s mall dev iat ion in the
final feed water (at the out let of HP Heater 6) temperatu re and enth alpy fro m their exist ing values are allo wed.
So the t wo constraints app lied h ere are
(i) | (T fw, HPH #6( o / l ) ) simulation - (T fw, HPH #6( o / l ) ) existing | £ 10 C (1)
(ii) | ( h fw ,HPH #6(o /l )) simulation ( h-fw ,HPH #6(o /l )) existing | £ 5 kJ/kg (2)
The starting point of a regenerative heating is usually Gland steam condenser (GSC). Fro m heat balance
diagrams (HBD) of both 210 MW and 500 MW cycle show that the condensate temperature after GSC is almost
constant at different loads. So in the optimization scheme this temperature has been assigned a constant value based
on respective HBDs.
3 .3 T he V ari a bles
.
Ext raction steam flo w rates fo r s ix regenerat ive h eaters ( m ex ) are d irect ly taken as the six variab les.
i
Actually these ext ract ion flo w rates are non -d imension alized by d ivid ing them with feed water flo w rate
. . .
(m fw
) at the particu lar load cond ition at wh ich opt imizat ion is carried out as y i
= m ex i m fw (3).
.
Six rando m nu mbers are g enerated at a t ime fo r these s ix ext ract ion flo w rates ( m ex ) with in specified ranges i
for each extract ion. These ranges are selected as follows:

For 210 MW systems: ± 20% of the actual ext raction flow rate of the particular ext raction point at any
load is allowed. This range is for all six ext raction points.
For 500 MW systems: For three LP ext ractions (ext ractions 1, 2 & 3), ± 20% of the actual extraction
flow rate of the particular extract ion point at any load is allowed. For two HP extractions and for Deaerator, ± 10%
of the actual extraction flow rate of the part icular extract ion point at any load is allo wed.
4. STEP B Y STEP CALCULATIONS TO ACHIEV E OBJ ECTIVE FUNCTION

4.1 Step by step Energy balance Calcul ations
(A) The known data:
The off-design performance analysis of the turbine is done before doing this optimizat ion. So all
the off- design performance parameters are available for use in optimization calculat ion. The
parameters those are main ly required fro m the off- design performance analysis for this optimization
calculations are listed below.
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(i) Pressure at all ext raction points at heater end (downstream pressure, pi = pdown ,i ).
(ii) Specific enthalpies at all ext raction points at heater end h i (these are assumed to be equal to
the stage enthalpy fro m which ext raction steam is taken).
(iii) Fro m these pressures and specific enthalpies at heater end for all the extraction points,
temperatures T i are calculated.
(B) The assumed data:
(i) Fro m HBDs of both 210 MW and 500 MW systems at different loads, it is observed that the
condensate temperature after GSC is more or less maintained constant at different loads. So
this temperature has been taken as a constant for any load.
(ii) Likewise, enthalpy rises across BFP and CEP are mo re or less maintained constant at different
loads. So this enthalpy rises have been taken as a constant for any load.
(iii) Feed water pressure drop across both HP heaters are equal and so is true for condensate
pressure drop across all LP heaters.
Variation of pressure drop across each heater with load can be ascertained as follows.
Dp hph = Dp hph,rated ´ LI 2.0 (4) and D p lph = D p lph,rated ´ LI 2.0

(5)
(C) Checking of final Feed water parameters by Constraints:

With each set of random numbers generated for all six regenerative heaters, the energy balance
calculations for the regenerative heaters are performed. Once the final feed water temperature ( Tf6 )
and specific enthalpy ( h f6 ) are obtained, they have to be verified with the Constraint functions as in
Equations (1) and (2). If constraints are satisfied, further calculations are to be done to obtain the
objective function. Otherwise, another set of random numbers generated for all six regenerative heaters
and the same procedures are to be followed.
(D) Calcul ati ons for Turbi ne Power Output:

The turbine can be assumed to be composed of a number of smaller sections based on the
available fixed pressure and temperature points viz. M S line, CRH line, HRH line, LP turbine exhaust
and all the extraction points. These can be described as HP, IP1, IP2, LP1, LP2, LP3 and LP4. The
specific enthalpy drops in these sections are already available fro m the Off-design simulations. These
are denoted as Dh hp , Dh ip1 , Dh ip2 , Dh lp1 , Dh lp2 , Dh lp3 and Dh lp4 respectively. The power
output of each turbine section is calculated as follows:
Power = hp m . hph D
hp
(6)
Power = (m -m
ip1 hp -y .m
gs,hpo 6 )fw h ip1 D (7)
Power = {m -m
ip2 hp -(y +y
gs,hpo 6 )m
5 }fw h ip2 D (8)
Power = {m -m
lp1 hp -m
gs,hpo -m
gs,ipo -(y +y
ex4p 6 +y
5 )m
4 }fw h lp1 D (9)
Power = {m -m
lp2 hp -m
gs,hpo -m
gs,ipo -(y +y
ex4p 6 +y
5 +y
4 )m
3 }fw h lp2 D (10)
Power = {m -m
lp3 hp -m
gs,hpo -m
gs,ipo -(y +y
ex4p 6 +y
5 +y
4 +y
3 )m
2 }fw h lp3 D (11)
Power = {m hp-m
lp4 gs,hpo -m gs,ipo -m ex4p -(y +y
6 +y
5 +y
4 +y
3 +y
2 )m
1 } h
fw lp4 D (12)
where, m hp = Steam flo w rate through HP turb ine,
m gs,hpo = Gland steam flo w rate through HP turbine exhaust glands,
m gs,ipo = Gland steam flo w rate through IP turb ine exhaust glands.
Total turbine output power is given by,
Power turb = Power hp + Power ip1 + Power ip2 + Power lp1 + Power
lp2 + Power
lp3 + Power
lp4
(13)
630
(E) Calcul ati ons for Pumping Power:
Pu mping power consumption for BFP and CEP are given by:
= m fwh /bfpD bfp h
Power bfp (14)
Power =cep(1-y -y 4-y 5)m6 hfw / cep cep D h (15)
Power = Power
pump +Power
bfp cep
(16)
where hbfp and h cep are efficiencies of BFP and CEP respectively.
(F) Calcul ati ons for Heat additi on i n the B oiler:
Heat addition in the boiler is given by:
Q s = m fw(h ms-h f6)+(m hp-m -y .m
gs,hpo 6 fw)(h rhs-h crhs) (17)
where, Q s = Total heat addition in the boiler,
h ms = Specific enthalpy of main steam,
h f6 = Specific enthalpy of final feed water,
h rhs = Specific enthalpy of reheat steam and
h crhs = Specific enthalpy of cold reheat steam.
(G) Calcul ati ons for Cycle Efficiency and Heat Rate:
Cycle efficiency and Heat rate calcu lations are derived as:
h cycle = (Power -turb
Power )/Q
pump s
(18)
Qs (19)
HR =
cycle 3600 ´
Power .turb hgen
Thus the Objecti ve Function has been reached.
5. FL O W C HA R T S HO W IN G EX T R A C T IO N S T EA M FL O W O P T I M IZ A T IO N S C H E M E
631
6. R ES U L T S O F EX T R A C T IO N FL O W O P T I M IZ A T IO N
100 While s imu lating the ext ract ion flo w

90
optimizat ion prog ram, the first three
80
best optimu m results have b een
actual
considered at each load. Wh ile
m_ex (kg/s)
70 opt 1
60 opt 2
plott ing them ag ainst load index fo r a
50
opt 3 part icu lar extract ion to examine ho w
40
exactly the extract ion flo w of an
ext ract ion po int varies with load, no
30
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 clear t rend was observed. One such
LI (%) trend is given h ere fo r ext ract ion 4 in
Figure 1 Actual and the first three optimized extraction flo w Figure 1.
variation with load for Extraction 4 for 500 MW system.
To cater this problem, the curve fitt ing
technique has been adopted and the
best fitted curve from all these points
has been taken as the trend curve for
the extraction flo w variation with load
for this extraction point.
Figure 2 shows the curve of
best fit for the extract ion 4 flow
variation with load for 500 MW
systems. The same methodology has
been adopted for all other extract ion
points of both 210 MW and 500 MW
systems.
Figure 2 The best fitted curve though the best three optimized
extraction flows at different loads for Extraction 4 of 500 MW system
6 .1 Res ults o f 2 1 0 M W S ys te m
Table 4. At 100 % Load Extraction flo w Optimization Results
Mass Flow Rate (T/h) Actual Cycle Best Second Third Best fit Curve
Optimum Optimum Optimum
Extraction 1 19.325 23.144 23.012 21.163 22.44
Extraction 2 16.527 19.776 18.745 18.61 19.044
Extraction 3 27.903 32.406 31.085 31.936 31.81
Extraction 4 32.364 35.953 37.713 38.132 37.266
Extraction 5 35.84 41.023 41.567 40.531 41.041
Extraction 6 63.09 53.182 52.772 54.663 53.54
0 246.78 247.77 247.07 248.618 247.82
Final FW Tempt T f6 ( C)
Final FW Enthalpy h f6 (kJ/kg) 1081.1 1085.4 1084.33 1085.92 1085.22
Generator Power (MWe) 210.161 210.816 210.676 210.216 210.57

Cycle Efficiency 0.40602 0.41555 0.41506 0.41455 0.41505
Heat Rate (kJ/kWh) 8772.1 8571.8 8581.655 8591.82 8581.72
632
Table 5. At 80 % Load Ext raction flow Optimization Results
Extraction 1 14.238 16.954 15.64 16.343 13.05
Extraction 2 13.452 15.257 14.943 13.408 14.536
Extraction 3 21.433 23.88 24.686 22.515 23.693
Extraction 4 24.275 28.288 28.665 29.126 28.693
Extraction 5 27.679 32.1 31.144 33.214 32.153
Extraction 6 46.808 39.153 38.711 40.897 39.59
Final FW Tempt Tf6 (0C) 235.611 237.623 237.152 237.49 234.89
Final FW Enthalpy hf6 (kJ/kg) 1037.93 1046.79 1037.51 1049.37 1027.83

Heat Rate (kJ/kWh) 8827.157 8683.71 8702.7 8706.79 8760.9
6.2 Res ults o f 5 0 0 M W S ys te m
Table 6. At 100 % Load Ext raction flow Optimizat ion Results
Extraction 1 35.87 42.66 41.474 43.006 42.38
Extraction 2 80.59 92.461 96.286 91.18 93.31
Extraction 3 44.39 43.546 48.66 52.39 48.2
Extraction 4 (Deaerator) 79.39 84.72 78.057 71.7 78.16
Extraction 5 96.37 93.893 87.44 89.7 90.345
Extraction 6 148.02 135.545 140.46 145.522 140.51

Heat Rate (kJ/kWh) 8288.43 8257.88 8260.75 8265.86 8261.52
633
Table 7. At 80 % Load Ext raction flow Optimizat ion Results
Extraction 1 26.107 29.98 28.425 29.88 29.43
Extraction 2 62.545 74.2 70.94 70.51 71.885
Extraction 3 34.61 40.71 37.96 35.577 38.083
Extraction 4 (Deaerator) 60.546 57.972 64.426 62.75 61.717
Extraction 5 74.92 68.415 69.32 69.14 68.96
Extraction 6 109.106 98.637 99.37 101.58 99.86

Heat Rate (kJ/kWh) 8533.6 8465.33 8473.19 8479.96 8472.86
The overall impressions from all these results is that the extraction flo ws of high pressure (higher exergy)
extraction points have been reduced whereas, the extraction flows of lo w pressure (lower exergy) ext raction points
have been increased resulting in better utilizat ion of exergy into work. Th is was the objective proposed at the
beginning of this chapter. Thus the desired objective has been fulfilled satisfactorily.
Acknowledgement
The author expresses his deepest sense of gratitude to Dr P.M.V. Subbarao, Associate Professor,
Depart ment of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Delhi, for his wholehearted guidance and constant encouragement. He
is also particularly thankful to Mr. A.K.Sehgal, Sr. Manager (OS, Turbine Group, NTPC) and Mr. M.K.Samuel
Kutty, AGM (Cenpeep, NTPC) for their support with valuable data, drawings and suggestions throughout the work.
Nomenclatures & Abbrevi ations

BFP Boiler feed pu mp HR Heat Rate
CEP Condensate extract ion pump HRH Hot reheat
CRH Cold reheat LPH Low pressure heater
FW Feed water mfr Mass flow ratio
Dh Enthalpy drop in stage MS Main steam
h Specific enthalpy Q Heat added/subtracted
HBD Heat balance diagram η Efficiency
HPH High pressure heater LI Load index
References
[1] Kostyuk A. and Frolov V., 1985, Steam and Gas Turbines. Mir Publishers, Moscow.
[2] Spitzer, D.W., 1997, Flo w Measurement, Instrument Society of A merica.
[3] Bhattacharya,S., 2007, “Prediction of Off-design Performance of Steam Turbines and Extraction Steam
flow Opt imization”, M.Tech. pro ject report, Mechanical Engineering Dept., IIT Delhi.
634
MONSOON MANAGEMENT PLANS FOR ENHANCING ENERGY
EFFICIENCY AND PLANT LOAD FACTORS OF COAL FIRED
THERMAL POWER
M.Siddhartha Bhatt, S.Seetharamu & N.Rajkumar
Ce nt ral P ow e r Re se arc h In st it ute , Bang alo re -5 6 00 80
Abstract: Capacity and performance drops in coal fired thermal power plants is a serious problem
during the rainy season. Almost all the parameters affecting the performance of the T PS is affected
by rains especially plant load factor (PLF), specific oil consumption (SOC), auxiliar y power (AP),
station load. There are two types of effect: effect of heavy incessant rains for a period of 1-3 days
which result in capacity dips and continuous decrease in parameters over the 2-3 months monsoon
season. In this paper the effect of monsoons is quantified in terms of deviation in the operating
parameters by a study of over 10 stations. Typically for a 1 GW station for short duration (1-3 days)
peak load dips of the order of 25-35 %, SOC increase to 25-30 ml/kWh and AP increase by 2-3 % of
gross generation are experienced during heavy rainy periods. For the monsoon season the dips in
monthly PLF can be 20-35 %, SOC can be 6-12 ml/kWh, auxiliar y power increase is 1.5-3.0 % of
gross generation and forced outage % can increase to 4-5 times of the non-monsoon values.
The stations need to gear up to the demands of the rainy season through several preventive and
control measures. A monsoon management plan needs to be in place for handling O & M in this
period.
1. INTRODUCTION
The south-west and north-east monsoons are an annual event in India. The operations of the coal
fired thermal power stations (TPS) are the most affected during this rainy seasons because of
difficulties in handling, conveying and combusting wet coal. Earlier practice was that when the hydro
power was available in full strength during this period, ther mal sets used to be taken for annual
overhauls (AOH) or capital overhauls (COH). But the present scenario with the hydel-thermal mix
tilting towards thermal does not permit this situation and the ther mal sets need to be operated during
the monsoon season.
The effect of rainy weather on the TPS performance can be divided into two:
· Effect of heavy rain for 1-3 days period wherein the station experiences dips in capacity and
necessitates the use of fuel oil for sustaining the boilers.
· Effect of rains over the monsoon season of 2-3 months duration during which period all plant
parameters like PLF, AVF, SOC, AP are affected and deviate seriously from their annual
average values.
The likelihood of units tripping on mill choke up, load hunting due to insufficient flow from bunkers,
raw coal feeder jam, etc., are quite bright during these periods. Also the time for restoration of the
units are high (forced outage periods are higher than the station average) and the time for hot, warm
and cold star ts (from light up to 80 % load) are also high.
The rainy season is a major limiting factor to the plant loadability. The basic reasons for load
limitation are the movement of sticky coal which contains clayey mineral matter. Due to blocking of
coal flow through the systems, capacity reduction results. When the surface moisture of coal exceeds
6 % it becomes sticky in addition to the stickiness created by the clay content of the mineral matter.
On one hand, there is severe capacity restriction in the tipplers, conveyors, cr ushers, bunkers and
mills. The effective flow able coal through bunkers gets restricted to only 20 % of the bunker volume
in its centre.
On the other hand to sustain the load, higher quantity of moist coal has to be fired into the bunkers.
These two opposing trends lead to9 drop in station load with other resultant effects.
635
2. RESULTS A ND DISCUSSIONS
The decrease in monsoon PLF for a given year is calculated as:
PLFdec = PLFmonsoon/PLF max
The increase in SOC is given by:
SOCinc = SOCmonsoon/SOC annual
The increase in forced outage (%) is given by:

FOinc = FOmonsoon/FOannual
Extreme variation of monthly average PLF & SOC is shown in Figure 1 & 2 for stations of over 1
GW. Such values are normally rare but the severity is less pronounced for normal situations.
Normally the PLF drops to around 68-70 % of the peak capacity and SOC increases to 6-12 ml/kWh.
Auxiliar y power increase is 1.5-3.0 % of gross generation and forced outage % increases to 4-5
times of the non-monsoon year round values.
SOC vs Months
30
25
SOC (ml/kWh)
20
2006
15 2007
2008
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Months
Figure 1: An extreme increase in SOC in a station of around 1 GW.
PLF vs Month (Station)
100
90
80
70 2005-06
PLF(%)
2006-07
60
2007-08
50 2008-09
40
30
20
Nov
Jun
Jan
Jul
Apr
Mar
Aug
Sep
Feb
Oct
May
Dec
Month
Figure 2:An extreme dip in PLF in a station of around 1 GW.
636
Figure :PLF (% ) vs AP (% )
y = -0.0584x + 13.878
2
R = 0.7527
12
11
10
AP (%)
8
7
6
40 60 80 100
PLF (% )
Figure 3: Typical increase in Auxiliary power with decrease in PLF.
The sensitivity of auxiliar y power to plant loading is given in Table 1.
Table 1: regression constants of No load auxiliar y power (A0) and sensitivity of decrease in auxiliary
power (%) per unit PLF increase (A1).
Auxiliary power (%) V s. PLF (%)

Stations A0 A1
1 13.29 -0.0479
2 12.30 -0.0366
3 12.60 -0.0644
4 13.88 -0.0584
5 13.88 -0.0584
6 13.34 -0.0558
7 15.86 -0.1091
The decrease in parameters averaged over the monsoon period are as per Table 2.
Table 2: Decrease in monthly parameters over monsoon season.
Max Min Average

Parameter (%) (%) (%)
PLFdec 88.63 47.86 68.20
SOCinc 6.38 1.29 2.64
FOinc 6.79 1.29 4.45
3. MONSOON MA NA GEMENT SOLUTIONS

Monsoon management can be divided into two sections:
· Fuel strategies
· & M strategies
3.1 Fuel Strategies

The coals used in TPS can be classified as:
Ø Coals from sandy background of w hich coals are sometimes prone to clinkering.
Ø Coals from clayey background (typically of black cotton soil) from WCL w hich are prone to
choke up during the rainy seasons.
Ø Coals with high sulphur which cause sulphur fumes from mill reject gate discharge.
637
The station needs to gear up to the demands of the rainy season through several measures such as
the following:
· Stocking of sufficient coals of sandy background which do not have serious sticky properties
as compared to coals of clayey background.
· Use of washed coals of sandy background.
· Blending of raw coal with washed coals or impor ted coals.
· Optimal filling of bunker levels. Even though the bunker level may be full only 30 % of the
bunker capacity can be utilized due to bonding of coal at the peripher y and flow is only
through rat hole in the centre. When there is a choke up the procedure is usually to remove
the choke by poking through the bottom opening . If the level of coal is over 30-40 % a
through hole cannot be established to remove the choke up. Hence the bunker level must be
filled continuously to the optimal level of 30 % to 50 % depending on the coal wetness and
risk of choke up. Full filling of the bunker must be resor ted to only when there is no risk of
choke up.
Washed coals: The cost per unit heat energy (Rs. /Gal) indicates that washed coal is cost
economical as compared to raw coal. Indigenous raw coals cost is around Rs. 400/Gcal w hile for
washed coal it s around Rs. 380/Gcal in spite of reduced quantity and washing charges. The benefits
of washed coal include reduced erosion, improved heat rate and reduced operating costs. It is
however to be noted that washeries will reduce only extraneous mineral matter emitted from the
open cast mining process/bull dozers. Washeries cannot reduce ash inherent and integral with the
coal.
Washed coals to some extent give relief during rainy seasons because of ease of handling and better
quality.
High GCV (6000 kcal/ kg) imported coals: These are not cost competitive as compared to
indigenous coals. They cost Rs. 1100/Gcal as compared to raw coal of Rs. 400/Gcal. In the monsoon
season increase in LDO and FO is seen and these cost Rs. 4800/Gcal (LDO) and Rs.
3400/Gcal(FO).Considering this fact, the use of imported coals can be economical during the
monsoon season.
Blending of high quality coal with indigenous raw coal is resorted to improve the loadability and
combustion characteristics.
TPS strategy and procedure and knowledge gaps in blending of coal is as follows:
Washed coals: Tier blending of coal is not being practiced for washed coals. Generally the principle
of first in-first out movement of coal is followed. Washed coal is generally fed to more efficient Units.
Washed coal is generally not stacked. In normal non-rainy weather, mixing of washed coal with raw
coal has not been found to be providing any benefit. Hence the station is not practicing any blending
or mixing of coals. When furnace temperature increases over 1250 °C, clinkering results. Therefore,
the blending of washed coal with raw coal is not being followed at many TPS. However, in the rainy
seasons the presence of moisture does not lead to clinkering tendency. Laborator y Studies on
technical feasibility of blending of coals need to be undertaken for understanding which coals blend
and which are suitable and not suitable for blending. The studies to include mixture properties such
as grind ability, combustion characteristics, rate of combustion, particle size distribution. The studies
should include quantification of non-linearity of blending of two coals- two raw coals or raw coal with
washed high GCV coal.
High GCV imported coals: The following points need to be noted in connection with blending of
imported coals:
· The objectives of blending must be well defined before any blending exercise.
· The physical act of blending must be thorough to ensure a uniform mixture.
638
· When blending coals care must be taken to ensure that the two are compatible through
evaluation of the heat release, slagging and fouling characteristics. Potential problems due to
blending can be avoided if pilot studies are conducted before actually using the blends.
· Blending does not give benefits of reduced metal loss due to erosion and wear as the bulk of
the material is still the low high ash grade coal.
· Use of impor ted coal can be resor ted to only in the event of coal shortages in normal times
and in the event of heavy rains to boost the boiler fur nace temperature.
· Imported coal is not a substitute to fuel oil in normal use but during rainy season this is a
good for stabilization for boiler furnace conditions.
· For rainy weather tier blending is ideal as conveyor belt blending or coal yard blending can
result in loss of the high value imported coal with the stick raw coal.
Studies on methodology of commercial blending are also required for blending raw coal with imported
coals. Blending must result in uniformity in both physical and heat release pr operties. These studies
can be got done through Laboratories with experience in both coals as well as power station practice.
Coal dust pelletizat ion technology: Many coal handling plants are experiencing dust problems
due to presence of high level of fines in receipt coal which can be as high as 25-40 %. This problem
needs to be tackled by going in for coal dust pelletization at the washer y level or at the cr usher level.
The fine coal dust needs to be confined and pelletized to achieve better material handling and avoid
dust problem at the plant as a step towards ‘zero’ coal leak policy. Presently use of flat conveyors are
suited for handling lumped coal and not fines.
3.2 O & M strategies
The station needs to gear up to the rainy season through O & M measures such as the following:
· Rainwater management of the coal yar d and other areas.
· Ins tallati on of a fiberglass dom e o f 1 lakh ton ne capaci ty in the coal yard for storage of 3
days s uppl y of c oal to m ee t the im m ediate exi genc ies of pow er generati on. S im ilar dom es are
in vo gue i n Korea, Japan etc., w here the w eather con diti ons o f rain a nd sn ow necessi tate
use of su ch d om es. T he i nves tm e nt i n the dom e w oul d be jus tified i n view of the sa vin g of
L DO, furnace oil a nd loss of g enerati on.
· Installation of rain guards for conveyor areas without these.
· Covering of coal with tarpaulins.
· Choke up diverters w here there is elevation difference. The coal is diverted in trucks or cross
conveyors below the main conveyors and dumped for shor t duration when it is too wet.
· Innovative handling of choke ups through air blasters, wipers, diver ters, chutes, etc.
Management of coal during rainy seasons is given in Table 3. Normally the planning processes for
the monsoon must start almost 4 months in advance.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions are as follows:
i. Monsoons are causing dips in the station load to the extent of 25-35 % during the
monsoon months. The forced outage rates can be 4-5 times higher than the normal times
and the times for hot, warm and cold starts can be much higher than the average year
round values. The specific oil consumption and auxiliar y power which respond to PLF will
show increasing trends to 6-12 ml/kWh and 1.5-3.0 % of the gross generation
respectively.
ii. Mitigating the monsoon dips need proactive steps both on the fuel side as well as on the
O & M side. On the fuel side use of washed coal, tier blending with imported coal can
help in improving furnace temperature profiles and steam rate. On the O & M side rain
water management, covers, use of devices like air blasters, wipers, diverters, chutes,
etc., would be needed. Planning processes must commence at least four months in
advance.
639
References:
[1] Best Practices guide for MSPGCL ther mal Power Plants, Submitted to MERC, Central
Power Research Institute, Bangalore-560080 (October 2009)
Table 3: Monsoon management of coal.
Sl. Particular
No.
01 Sourcing and storage plan of coals
Avoiding coals with high levels of fines
Preferring coals with sandy background to coals with clayey background.
Maintaining minimum 3 days supply of reasonably dry coal in a rain
protection dome.
Stacking is done as many as 5 places. This may be reduced to one/two stack
yard to avoid multiple handling.
Coal compar tments of different colleries, raw and washed must be isolated
as the type of coal compatibility is required to be established.
02 Management of coal yar d
Rain guards for conveyors
Tarpaulins to cover wagons
Providing slopes for drainage of water
Rain water channeling
Compacting by special compactors instead of bull dozers.
Storage pile design improvement through compacting. Pyramidal shapes with
drains on either side lead to low water absorption. Further the piles must not
have surface depressions or pits.
Used oil may be sprayed on coaly yar d instead of reselling. Alter natively it can
be blended with fuel oil.
Dome for storage of coal
03 Management of conveyors
Increased conveyor angles
Multi bladed cleaners
Reduction in belt speeds
Skirt board seals, baffle plates and centering plates at loading points
Self cleaning screening system
Well designed wash dow n drainage system
Management of carry over retur n
Conveyor belt sealing between chute and pan of vibratory feeder to prevent
spillage
Change over to pipe conveyors in selected steep areas w here the conveyor
belts are almost circular in cross section to carry fines
04 Management of mills
Increased coal air mixture temperature to around 85 °C
Capital maintenance of all milling systems to be carried out before onset of
monsoon.
05 Management of chutes and bunkers
Deflector plates of Stainless steel (SS 304) to chutes
Vibratory feeders/thumpers/rappers in place of static feeders
Air blasters
Chute modification to increase angle
Widening of passages
Water jet cleaning
06 Management of boilers
Use of additives typically ALTRET CMCTM /Ramsorb 200TM at 0.7 kg/t of coal
CFD analysis and experimental verification of temperature profiles in furnace
Servicing of cold air dampers before the onset of monsoon.
640
Boiler tightness check during an outage before the onset of monsoon.
Direct feeding of dr y stored coal
641
ONLINE MONITORING AND ABNORMALITY DETECTION IN
LOW FREQUENCY INJECTION BASED GENERATOR
ROTOR EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION SCHEME
CHANDRASIS GHOSH DASTIDAR SUNIL CHANDRA DAS

Sr. Supdt. (O&M/EM) Sr. Supdt. (O&M/EM)
NTPC LIMITED, FARAKKA NTPC LIMITED, FARAKKA
SUBIR KARMAKAR BHASWATI MUKHERJEE

Sr. Engr. (O&M/EM) Sr. Engr. (O&M/EM)
NTPC LIMITED, FARAKKA NTPC LIMITED, FARAKKA
ABSTRACT:
The field circuit of an alternator is normally unearthed. So, single earth fault has no immediate effect
on the system. However, it causes increased stress on field circuit insulation. It may lead to a second
earth fault, the effect of which is disastrous. So, identification of the very first instance of rotor earth
fault is necessary. Modern protection philosophy uses Low Frequency Voltage Injection principle for
Generator Rotor Earth-fault Protection. Since the protection scheme normally does not have any back
up, online monitoring of the protection scheme including any abnormality detection of the entire circuit
itself is of utmost importance. Without the rotor earth fault protection in service, any earth fault in
rotor circuit will remain undetected till it ends up in a catastrophic rotor failure. So, alarming the very
first instance of rotor earth fault protection non-functionality is equally important as detecting the first
instance of rotor earth fault. The common method for testing such a protection scheme by using a
potentiometer merely checks healthiness of the relay alone. A case study is dealt with in the present
paper, where it is revealed that the prevailing checks on rotor and on the rotor earth fault protection
relay may sometimes fail to pinpoint the problem that occurs due to discontinuity in the measurement
loop. However, waveform recording of the earth leakage voltage gives a clear indication of the entire
wiring circuit healthiness, which many of the conventional Low Frequency Injection based rotor earth
fault relays do not take care of. In this paper, an easily practicable method is presented for online
monitoring of the rotor earth fault-sensing loop and for detecting a discontinuity in the circuit. The
method is based on peak value detection of earth leakage current along with waveform recording of
earth leakage voltage for continuous and effective monitoring of the Generator Rotor Earth-fault
Protection Circuit.
642
1. INTRODUCTION:
The generator field circuit is normally kept isolated fro m earth. A single earth fau lt in the field circuit is
therefore not of immed iate danger. However, a second fault can cause serious damage. It results in
short circuit in the field winding leading to severe magnetic imbalance and mechanical fo rces; thereby
causing damage to the rotor, shaft, bearings, seal ring and generator foundation. This damage may
often go beyond repair. The cost of a 500MW unit rotor is in tens of crores, the generation loss due to
rotor damage also costs a comparable amount. Therefore, signaling and alarm of the first earth fault is
very much necessary. Since, the rotor earth fault relay normally does not have a back up, its healthiness
monitoring is very important. If the relay is out of service, the generator field circu it runs completely
unprotected. An earth fault may develop there wh ich runs undetected; which may lead to comp lete
rotor damage depending on severity of the fault. So, continuous monitoring of the entire protection
scheme and raising an alarm in case of fault sensing loop discontinuity is of critical necessity. Many of
the conventional Low Frequency Injection based relays do not have a supervision facility to monitor
the healthiness of the entire fault-sensing loop. For those cases, an effective method of online
monitoring is presented in this paper.
2. METHODS OF EARTH FAULT DETECTION IN ALTERNATOR:
A. Bridge Balance Method:
The protection scheme is connected to the positive and negative poles of the excitation supply and to
earth of the rotor shaft via condensers. The winding capacitance of the rotor to ground (shaft), coupling
condensers, calibration capacitance and two nos. of high value resistors form an RC bridge. The bridge
is balanced provided the insulating properties of the machine are correct. The bridge is fed from the
generator voltage transformer. The leakage resistance of an earth fault on the rotor winding shunts its
ground capacitance and disturbs the bridge balance. The resulting differential voltage is detected by the
relay.
The output voltage of the bridge should be less than 100mV.
B. Low Frequency (1 to 3Hz) Injection Method:
Modern rotor earth fault protection relay operates on the principle of low frequency injection into the
field circuit v ia coupling resistors. The basic protection scheme is shown in Fig.-1.
Corresponding current waveforms during normal condition and that during earth fault are shown in
Fig.-2.
During normal condition, the rotor circuit behaves like a parallel resistive-capacitive (RC) circuit. The
earth leakage current wave is basically a steep pulse followed by almost zero steady state value during
each half cycle of voltage, due to rotor circuit earth capacitor charging. During earth fault condition,
the rotor ground capacitor is shunted by the fault condition IR value of rotor; current wavefo rm is
drastically changed where the steady state resistive component of current is present throughout each
half cycle. Poorer the IR value of rotor circu it more is the steady state current magnitude. At zero IR
value, the current waveform exact ly resemb les the injected voltage waveform.
Based on the corresponding current or resistance value, the relay operates.
Typical Measurement Fo rmula: RE =[{(UH /UM)-1} X RM ]- (RV/2)
where RM: Measurement shunt value, RV : coupling resistance value
643
Fig.-1 Schematic Diagram o f Low frequency Injection type
Rotor earth-fau lt Relay
Fig.-2 Typical waveform Injected Voltage (UH) and Measured Voltage (UM) of Low frequency
Injection type Rotor earth-fau lt Relay
3. EVOLUTION FROM BRIDGE B ALANCE PRINCIPLE TO LOW FREQUENCY

INJ ECTION PRINCIPLE:
The bridge balance type rotor earth fault relay has a number of inherent drawbacks. In the past, it had
led to a no. of unit t rippings due to relay mal operation. Hence, retro fitting of bridge balance type
relays with lo w frequency injection type relays started in phased manner. The low frequency injection
based relay operates on much more reliab le working princip le; it has better sensitivity, and ability to
avoid disturbing influence of rotor earth capacitance;- the features specially suitable for large
generators
4. ROTOR EARTH FAULT RELAYS US ED AT FS TPS:
Rotor earth fault relay incorporates two stages of protection in a single relay, v iz. alarm and trip.
200MW Un it:
Alarm setting: 5K Oh m
Trip setting: 2K Oh m
500MW Un it:
Alarm setting: 80K Oh m
Trip setting: 5K Oh m
644
In 3X200MW units with Static Excitat ion system at FSTPS, ABB make IWX161A (based on bridge
balance princip le) relays were originally used. However, these relays in U#1 & #2 have been retrofitted
with Siemens make nu merical relay 7UM 62 (based on Low frequency injection princip le). U# 3 rotor
earth fault relay will be retrofitted during Un it overhauling.
In 2X500MW (Brushless Excitation System) Un its Siemens make static relay 7RUM22 (based on Low
frequency injection principle) is used for rotor earth-fault protection.
5. METHOD OF TES TING OF LOW FREQUENCY INJ ECTION BAS ED ROTOR EARTH
FAULT RELAY:
During unit overhauling, the relay operation is checked. A potentiometer of suitable value is connected
between the voltage injection terminal and earth and gradually its resistance value is reduced. It is thus
checked whether the alarm appears at and generator trip occurs at the respective set values.
6. FIELD EXPERIENCE WITH ROTOR EARTH FAULT RELAY IN UNIT#5 (500MW):
A. B ackground:
The rotor earth fault relay in U# 5 is Siemens make static relay 7RUM 22 (based on Low frequency
injection princip le). A low frequency (1.8 Hz) +50V alternating voltage is fed to the neutral point of the
Main Exciter (M E) rotor winding through voltage Injection Slip ring (mounted on generator shaft
between Pilot Exciter and Main Exciter) via two nos. of brushes. An earthing slip ring with two nos. of
earthing brushes is mounted beside the voltage slip ring to comp lete the rotor earth leakage current
circuit. The earth leakage current through the ground capacitance and insulating resistance of the filed
circuit causes a voltage drop across a measuring resistance of low value. The voltage drop is
proportional to the conductance of the rotor circuit.
B. Inci dent:
In U#5, rotor earth fault alarm was appearing intermittently with:
Unit load: above 450 MW
Generator voltage: 21KV
Waveform as shown in Fig.-3 captured with a 400KS/sec 4-channel Hio ki Memory Hicorder during
the alarm period, demonstrates Non-uniform capacitor charging:
CH1: Injected voltage (UH) waveform
CH2: Measured (return) voltage (UM) waveform
UH waveform
Non-uniform capacitor
charging wave (UM)
Fig.-3 Waveform of Rotor Earth-fault Signal with Intermittent Alarm Appearing
All the four carbon brushes (02 nos. of voltage injection brushes and 02 nos. of earthing brushes) were
checked one by one sequentially. No abnormality was found. Rotor earth fau lt relay wires between
exciter end TB and Generator Relay Panel (GRP) panel were tested for IR value. Values were found
normal.
645
C. Problem Identification:
i. Relay connections were inspected at GRP end and at generator exciter end TB. A ll wires
found in properly connected condition.
ii. Rotor earth fault relay checking was carried out with 50K potentiometer fro m exciter end
TB. The relay was found generating trip co mmand satisfactorily at set trip value of 5K.
iii. However relay wires (four numbers) were disconnected both at exciter end and GRP end.
IR value of the wires were measured, values were found satisfactory.
iv. Exciter end TB to carbon brush wire IR value were checked and found satisfactory.
v. Again relay operation was checked fro m slip ring end by earthing the Main Exciter side
slip ring; relay performance was found satisfactory.
vi. Since relay was operating fine fro m Exciter end TB as well as fro m slip ring end, hence
relay operation as well as wire connectivity problem was ruled out.
vii. Four numbers of carbon brushes connectivity with respective slip ring was checked and
found all right.
viii. Rotor IR value was measured from slip ring and IR value was found to be more than 160
Mohms. No abnormality was detected so far.
ix. On the basis of the above exercises, it seems that the rotor circuit, the rotor earth fault
relay performance, the wiring between the relay and the rotor circuit, the brush gear
arrangement are all right. So, as per the prevailing practice of rotor earth fault relay circuit
checking, root cause of the problem could not be identified. Hence, one-step further
exercise was done with the help of the Hioki recorder as given in the next point.
x. The injected voltage waveform and the return voltage waveform (as shown in Fig.-4) of
the rotor earth fault relay were captured with the Hioki recorder. It was found that though
injected voltage (CH1) is reaching the voltage slip ring but the return waveform (CH2) is
having abnormality (capacitor charg ing waveform absent), which is suggesting that most
likely the injected voltage is not at all reaching up to rotor. Disconnection was suspected
at the neutral point of the Main Exciter (M E) as shown in Fig.-5.
UM waveform with turbine

on barring gear.
As if no capacitor exists.
Fig.-4 Waveform of Rotor Earh-fault Signal after Un it tripping on Rotor Earth Fau lt Relay
Operation
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Pilot Exciter
Brushes
Field of Main Exciter
Automatic Main Exciter Rotor
Vo ltage Regulator (Armature)
Rotating Rectifier
Disconnection 3-phase output of ME

suspected
Current carrying Bolt

Generator Rotor Winding
Generator Stator Winding
Fig.-5 Suspected Point of Disconnection in the Rotor Circu it
xi. Decision was taken to completely dis mantle the brush assembly and slip ring cover as
well as the diode wheel cover for rotor IR value measurement and for diode inspection
and also to inspect the connection between voltage slip ring to main exciter rotor.
D. Defect Rectification:
Activities in Detail:
Day-1: 05-10-09
Exciter top cover removed. Barring gear stopped & hand barring started. ME top cover removed.
Connecting lead of rotor E/F monitoring circu it at ME neutral point found disconnected as shown in
Fig.-6a and 6b.
This implies that the generator field circuit had actually got disconnected from the inject ion voltage
circuit and was thus running unprotected.
Slip-ring holders dismantled. Slip-ring guard removed. Rotating diode-wheel top cover removed.
Diodes & fuses physically checked and found in order. Rotor IR value found >200M Oh ms fro m
Exciter CC bolt ends as well as at ME neutral point with 500V Megger. All exposed rotating parts of
Exciter physically checked and found in order. Diode-wheel top cover boxed up. BHEL was requested
to confirm possibility of in-situ repairing job which they confirmed in affirmat ive.
Day-2: 06-10-09
In presence of BHEL experts defective connecting lead with conduit-fixture mounting was removed
(Fig.-7). H2 was purged out from generator casing. Requisite tools & materials for in-situ repairing
were drawn fro m store. (Glass-tape, Araldyte compound, tongued lock washers 8mm & 12mm,
Lockt ite for bolt-thread, blow-lamp, soldering wire & flu x, Teflon coated mult i-strand connector wire,
copper-lug for end termination at slip-ring end, adhesive cotton tape for temporary protecting cover on
exposed ME armature cooling ducts).
647
Disconnection
found
Fig.-6a Disconnection found between voltage lead & M E Neutral Point
Disconnection
repaired
Fig.-6b Disconnection found between voltage lead and

ME Neutral Point
648
Defective
connecting lead
Conduit fixture
mounting
Fig.-7 Defective connecting lead with conduit-fixture mounting
Day-3: 07-10-09
Proper fixing of connecting lead through external conduit-fixture & hardening of both ends of the
conduit-fixture with Araldyte done, 12hrs’ curing time allowed. Special arrangement for in-situ
soldering at ME neutral point fabricated in wo rkshop. All b rush holders checked and found in order.
Day-4: 08-10-09
Adhesive cotton tape for temporary protecting cover on exposed ME armature-cooling ducts was
applied to prevent ingress of solder mo lts. The conduit-fixture was fixed on ME shaft. Slip-ring end of
the connecting lead was terminated and ME end of the connecting lead soldered with special fabricated
arrangement. M E stator was tested, IR with 500V megger was found 50M Ohms and stator winding
resistance 625 milli Oh ms. The healthiness of E/F monitoring ckt. was checked from GRP end and was
found in order. Glass tape with Araldyte adhesive was applied adjacent to slip ring for proper bandage
on connecting lead at slip-ring end (5 turns) and 12hrs curing time was allowed. PM G stator was tested,
IR with 500V megger was found to be 10M Oh m and winding resistance 5.6 milli Oh ms balance for all
3 phases.
Day-5: 09-10-09
Rigidity of repaired connecting lead was physically confirmed. All brush holders were fixed at position
and new brushes were provided. Brush holder circuit leads were connected to JB and healthiness of E/F
monitoring circuit was confirmed fro m GRP end, with rotor at stand still and barring gear. Exciter
covers were boxed up. TG finally was put on barring gear at 19-30Hrs.
E. Waveforms after Defect Rectification:

After the defect rectificat ion, return voltage waveforms were captured in Hioki recorder, wh ich are as
shown in Fig.-8a and 8b. The wavefo rms obtained represent healthy capacitor charging as is expected
fro m the low frequency injection based rotor earth fault relay under normal condit ion of the rotor.
There are two nos. of slip rings between Main Exciter and Pilot Exciter, side by side mounted on the
shaft but insulated from each other. Low Frequency Vo ltage fro m the relay is injected via two nos. of
brushes to one slip ring (voltage slip ring), which is insulated from the shaft. The other slip ring is kept
earthed.
Zero resistance earth-fault was simulated by grounding the voltage slip ring. The wavefo rms obtained
are shown in Fig.- 8c.
Fig.-8a, 8b and 8c ensure healthiness of not only the relay or rotor, but also healthiness of the entire
rotor earth fault-sensing loop including the brush contact healthiness.
649
UM waveform
(Charg ing of healthy RC Circuit)
Fig.-8a Waveforms with Turb ine at Zero speed
UM waveform (Charg ing of healthy

RC Circuit )
Fig.-8b Waveforms when Turb ine on Barring Gear
650
Zero Insulation resistance
value simu lated
Fig.-8c Earth fault simulated with Turbine on Barring Gear
F. Recommendations for Online Monitoring & Abnormality Detection:

The low frequency injected voltage causes a current to flow through the rotor ground capacitance and
its insulation resistance via earthed shaft. The return voltage (UM) is measured across a low value
resistor due to flow of earth leakage current through it. Thus, the return voltage waveform gives a true
picture of the earth leakage current. Fig.-8a shows that the normal condition of the rotor earth-fault
protection loop is characterized by a distinct peak of return voltage (UM) waveform fo llo wed by near-
zero steady state value in each half cycle. Th is is due to alternating charging of rotor ground capacitor
by the low frequency alternating injected voltage. However, Fig.-4 indicates that the return voltage has
nearly a flat waveform without any peak in case of a discontinuity in the loop; since rotor ground
capacitor charging is absent in this situation. Practically there is no significant return voltage in this
case as the earth leakage current flow path is broken.
Based on the experiences gathered from the above case, the following steps are recommended for
online monitoring, healthiness checking and alarming the desk engineers on occurrence of any
abnormality in rotor earth fau lt circuit:
i) A return voltage peak value detector to be used for the detection of rotor earth fault circuit
discontinuity.
ii) The set value of the voltage detector to be set below the voltage level expected under normal
conditions.
iii) An alarm to be hooked up to the detector and alarm to be raised whenever return voltage peak
goes below the set value.
iv) A high-end recorder may be deployed to continuously record the return voltage waveform for
obtaining the true picture of rotor insulation healthiness and the rotor earth fault circuit
continuity. The rotor earth fault protection has no back up at all. Imag ine a situation where the
protection gets non functional and this abnormality remains undetected which is the case in our
present schematic. Under th is situation if rotor earth fau lt actually occurs, the damage to the
rotor will be catastrophic since the only protection to take care of this fault has already got non
functional. The installation of the recorder is vital for detection of the non-functionality so that
necessary corrective action can be taken.
651
7. CONCLUS IONS:
The waveform recording of the injected voltage (UH ) and return voltage (UM) in low frequency
injection based rotor earth fault relay gave a true insight into the root cause of the problem in the
present case that the prevailing practice of rotor earth fau lt relay checking is unable to address.
In case, the rotor earth fault-sensing loop is open circuited and if there is no detection of this
abnormality, the machine runs with rotor field circuit unprotected. This is because the protection
scheme is deactivated due to open circuit in the fault-sensing loop and there is normally no back up to
the protection. In the mean time, any actual earth fault on rotor circuit developed goes completely
undetected and will in turn cause irreparable damage to rotor.
The discontinuity in the fault sensing loop can occur due to multiple reasons; viz. insufficient spring
load on the brushes; loose contact between brush and slip ring due to brush wear out; loose connection
of voltage lead or earthing lead at the TB, either at ME end or at GRP end; a cut or break in the leads;
improper earthing of the earthing slip ring or a discontinuity in the ME rotor neutral point that
happened in the present case.
The return voltage peak value detection with its waveform record ing proves to be a powerful tool for
online monitoring of the entire circuit of low frequency injection based rotor earth fault relay. It can
detect open circuit due to any of the above-mentioned abnormalities. It is thus a practicable and an
effective online tool that can safely ensure that the rotor earth fault relay is actually in service and
continuously monitors the rotor insulation healthiness.
The modern numerical relays, e.g. Siemens make model 7UM62 that has been retrofitted in Unit #1
and #2 at our station itself incorporates such a circuit discontinuity detection feature and continuously
displays the rotor insulation resistance value.
So, for the protection schemes where such feature is not in-built in the relay such as those in our
500MW units, the online monitoring method as presented in this paper, may be easily adopted.
Alternatively, the old version relays, which have these drawbacks, may be retrofitted by the modern
numerical relays.
8. REFERENC ES:
[1] B HEL, O&M Manual on 500 MW Brushless Automatic Vol tage Regulator Manual, Section-X.
[2] SIEMENS, KWU Turbo-Generators Manual, Volume-1
[3] SIEMENS, SIPROTEC 4 7 UM62 Application Notes
652
FIELD EXPERIENCE IN MCSA FOR DETECTION OF ROTOR BAR FAILURES IN
SQUIRREL- CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR
SUNIL CHANDRA DAS TAPAN ROY SUBIR KARMAKAR
Sr Supdt EM/O &M Dy Supdt MTP/ CMG/O &M Sr Enginee r EM/O &M
FARAKKA, NTPC Ltd FARAKKA, NTPC Ltd FARAKKA, NTPC Ltd
ABSTRACT:
Induction moto rs are widely used in industry to drive various ma chines, such as pumps, fans, comp resso rs,
conveyors, etc. Th e statistical da ta of failu res a mong utility size moto rs indica ted that a t least 10% of th e induction
motor failu res were roto r related. Typical ro tor p roblems include d efective castings in die-cast roto r, high resistance
joints due to poor welding or brazing, end ring fractu res resulting fro m high thermal and mechanical stresses and
rubbing between roto r and stato r caused by large air-gap eccentricity. Mo tor Cu rrent Signature Analysis (MCSA)
can be used to monito r & diagnose such rotor problems. In this paper detail of MCSA method for detection of motor
rotor ba r failures and field experien ce data are presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
Induction motors play an important role in the safe and efficient operation of industrial p lants. Induction motor
failure can cause expensive damage and production down time. In many applications such failures of induction
motor can shut down an entire industrial process.
Bro ken rotor bars or end rings can be caused by the following:
• Direct-on-line starting duty cycles for which the rotor cage winding was not designed to withstand causes high
thermal and mechanical stresses.
• Pu lsating mechanical loads such as reciprocating compressors or coal crushers (etc.) can subject the rotor cage to
high mechanical stresses.
• Imperfect ions in the manufacturing process of the rotor cage
Induction motor broken rotor bars can be a serious problem with certain induction motors due to arduous duty
cycles. Broken rotor bars do not initially cause an induction motor to fail but there can be serious secondary effects.
The fault mechanism can result in broken parts of the bar hitting the end winding or stator core of a high voltage
motor at a h igh velocity. Th is can cause serious mechanical damage to the insulation and a consequential winding
failure may follow, resulting in a costly repair and lost production.
It is, therefore, essential for process plants to formulate a strategy for effective heath monitoring and diagnosis of
such faults of induction motors. MCSA is such a tool. In NTPC / Farakka has successfully imp lemented MCSA and
this paper presents our experience in this field.
653
2. MOTOR CURRENT SIGNATURE ANALYS IS
The Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA) is a diagnostic technique that is used to analyze motors. This
technology enables the testing of operating equipment to identify rotor bar and high resistance joint problems. As a
preventive maintenance tool, MCSA can be used to perform a one-time test or periodic testing to track and trend
motor performance. In MCSA a trace of motor current is obtained by using a clamp-on current probe either from
one of the main phase leads to the motor or from the secondary side of a motor CT. A Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
with sufficiently high resolution is performed on the time-do main data to obtain a frequency spectrum. Once the
frequency spectrum is obtained and stored, established rules can be used to “look” for frequency contents of interest
and fault can be diagnosed.
In the three-phase induction motor under perfectly balanced conditions (healthy motor) only a forward rotating
magnetic field is produced, which rotates at synchronous speed, n 1= f1 / p, where f1 is the supply frequency and p
the pole –pairs of the stator windings. For a healthy motor, the current is sinusoidal with a 50 Hz frequency and the
corresponding FFT spectrum with have a line at 50Hz frequency.
ROTOR BAR ANALYSIS

· Synchronous frequency is equal to twice the line frequency divided by the number of poles, i.e.,
f sync = 2 f line / P,
· Slip frequency is difference between the synchronous frequency and the motor running frequency , i,e.,
f slip= f sync – f shaft.

· Slip rat io is defined as S= f slip / f sync
· The Rotor fau lt sidebands frequency (1-2S) f line is lower sideband and (1+2S) f line is upper
sideband around line frequency are major concerns for rotor bar p roblems.
· With broken rotor bars in the motor there is an additional, backward rotating magnetic field produced,
which is rotating at the slip speed Sidebands= (1-2S)f line with respect to the rotor. The stationary stator
winding now sees a rotating field of frequency Sidebands =(1-2S) f line. Th is means that a rotating
magnetic field at that frequency cuts the stator windings and induces a current at that frequency (sideband
frequency). This in fact means that sidebands is a twice slip frequency component spaced 2Sf line down
fro m f line. Thus speed and torque oscillations occur at 2S f line, and this induces an upper sideband at
2S f line above f line.
Classical twice slip frequency sidebands therefore occur at 1 ± 2S f line around the supply frequency f line
Sideband Frequency = (1±2S) f line
654
While the lo wer sideband is specifically due to broken bar, the upper sideband is due to consequent speed oscillation
Figure 1.
Figure 1 Typical motor current signature for broken rotor bar.
3. FIELD EXPERIENC ES ON MCSA
In NTPC Farakka we have detected rotor bar failures in many induction motors. Out of them, we p resent a few
selected case studies.
i) Case Study - I: Compressor motor (IAC-2 ST-1):-
Details of Motor:
MAKE : KIRLOSKAR ELECTRIC CO. LTD.
KW : 175, RPM : 1479, VOLTS : 415, AMPS : 313, DUTY: S-1, 50 Hz,
This compressor motor did not exhib it any abnormality in the routine vibration survey (Figure 2). The
displayed current was also normal & free fro m hunting. However, a motor current signature survey
indicated problems because distinct & significant pole-pass frequency peaks were present. The motor was
dismantled based on MCSA result Figure 3, Motor current signature shows sidebands. for inspection
and it was found that total 20 nos rotor bars (12 nos bar in one side and 08 nos bar in other side of the rotor
) had cracked. Had this problem been not detected in time, this could have caused catastrophic failure of
the motor. The figure shows the current spectrum after repair & the imp rovement is clearly visib le.
655
IAC-2 ST-1 - MOTOR NDE - Horizontal - Vel Spec 60000 CPM
09/09/08 10:53:19 AM
11
Power (mm/s 0-pk)
O/All 7.376 mm/s 0-pk
6 Vibration Velocity Peak: 1425 CPM,
5
Ampl. : 6.429 mm/sec.
4
mm/s 0-pk
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000

CPM
09/09/08 10:53:19 AM O/All 7.376 mm/s 0-pk 1485 RPM
Figure 2 Route vibration spectrum does not show sidebands.
IAC-2 - R-Phase - Horizontal - A Spec 12000 CPM "CURRENT"

03/09/08 06:22:26 PM
Cursor A: 2953.125 CPM 83.082 adB SI
O/All 83.809 adB SI (1um/s/s)
80
70 Peak at - 2953 CPM

Side Band Peak at - 2906 CPM
60
Ampl.- 83adB
Ampl.- 41adB ( 1 – 2S) f line
adB SI
50 Side Band Peak at - 3000 CPM
Ampl.- 43adB( 1 + 2S) f line

40
30
2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000 3,200 3,400 3,600 3,800 4,000
CPM
03/09/08 06:22:26 PM O/All 83.809 a dB SI (1um/s/s)
Figure 3, Motor current signature show s sidebands.
656
Figure 4: MCSA of healthy motor after replacement.
Multiple rotor
bars cracked
Figure 5: Photo of dism antled rotor of IAC-02 Motor.
657
Rotor bar
cracked
Figure 6: Photo of dism antled rotor of IAC-02 Motor.
Rotor bar
cracked
Figure 7: Photo of dism antled rotor of IAC-02.
658
Multiple rotor
bars cracked
Figure 8: Photo of dism antled rotor of IAC-02 motor.
ii) Case Study – II: Conveyor Motor (26A) of CHP:
KW :300 , RPM : 1481, VOLTS : 6.6 KV, AMPS :40 , DUTY: S-1, 50 Hz,
As per current signature analysis severe looseness was suspected in rotor system and it was reco mmended
to check the rotor bar for any looseness/ crack at the earliest. On the basis of MCSA, motor was dismant led
and more than 15 nos bar in one side and 08 nos bar in other side of the rotor were found cracked. By
timely detection of fault, stator damage was avoided. .
iii) Case Study – III : BASP- 2A Motor of Stage-II
Details of Motor:
KW :275 , RPM : 1481, VOLTS : 6.6 KV, AMPS :28.7 , DUTY: S-1, 50 Hz,
During routine vibration survey, although the overall v ibration was found within limits, some abnormal
noise could be heard. So a MCSA test was performed. This clearly indicated presence of significant pole
pass frequency sidebands & motor bar crack p roblem was suspected. Based on the results the motor was
dismantled for inspection and total 7 rotor bar s were found in cracked condition. Had this problem been
not detected in time, this could have caused a rotor- stator rub resulting into a catastrophic failure.
659
BASP-2A - r-phase - Horizontal - A Spec 12000 CPM "CURRENT"
16/11/09 06:09:29 PM
Cursor A: 2895 CPM 59.568 adB SI
90
O/All 89.031 adB SI (1um/s/s)
Peak At 2962 CPM

80
Ampl. 87 adB
70
60 Peak At 2924 CPM Sideband Peak At 3076 CPM

adB SI
(1- 2S)f line (1+2S)f line

50
Ampl. 59 adB Ampl. 62 adB
40
30
20
2,000 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000 3,200 3,400 3,600 3,800
CPM
16/11/09 06:09:29 PM O/All 89.031 adB SI (1um/s/s)
Figure 9: MCSA shows sidebands of BASP-2A with
CONCLUSIONS
The MCSA technique is a very powerful condition monitoring tool for accurately diagnosing and
detecting motor rotor bar problems. This can be made more effective if correlated with high
resolution vibration data. NTPC Farakka has been effectively using this technique and detected
many failures in initial stage. It has been estimated that the money invested has been paid back in
less than a year.
660
REFERENCES
[1] Ming Xu and Tom Alford “Motor Current Analysis and Its Applications in Induction Motor Fault
diagnosis “, ENTEK IRD International Corporation, 1998
[2] Neelam Mehala and Ratna Dahiya “Motor Current Signature Analysis and its Applications in Induction Motor
Fault Diagnosis “, International Journal of Systems Applications, Engineering & Development , Vol-2, 2007.
[3] SZABO Lorand , DOBAI Jeno Barna and BIRO Karoly Agoston, “ Rotor Fault Detection in Squirrel- Cage Induction
Motors by Current Signature Analysis”, IEEE –TTTC – International Conference on Automation, Quality and Testing,
Robotics, May 13-15, 2004.
[4] Aditya Korde “ Online Condition Monitoring of Motors using Electrical Signature Analysis”, Diagnostic
technologies India Pvt. Ltd.
[5] Mohamed El Hachemi Benbouzid “ Review of Induction motors signature Analysis as a Medium for Faults
Detection”, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 47, No. 5, October 2000.
661
Surge Arrester Condition monitoring: Evaluation of Effectiveness of Resistive
Leakage Measure ment method.
Santanu Kumar Mishra

D.G.M DT: 14/12/2009
Abstract:
Surge arresters constitute the most effective protection mean for Electrical equipment and
substations. Failures of arresters have catastrophic consequences for Substation
equipments and generating stations. There are number of cases of Partial Grid Collapse
triggered by failure of surge arresters. In some other cases secondary damage to Precious
capital equipment like Generator Transformers has been reported. In this paper
methodology for assessing the surge arrester condition using statistical tools is discussed.
Resistive leakage data of Arrester population comprising 400 Kv and 220 kv and 3
different manufacturer over period of 5 year is analyzed and their correlation with
respect to other conventional measurement is discussed. The result validated with internal
inspection of arrester is discussed. The paper is useful in establishing benchmark values
for condition assessment of surge arresters in Indian conditions.
Introduction:
Traditional method of assessing surge arrester condition using the surge counter green
zone and red zone has been proved ineffective. IEC 60099 part-4 stipulates that “surge
counter des not provide specific condition of Health Of arrester”. In recent years resistive
leakage current measurement with or with out third harmonic component has gained
popularity. Infrared red thermo vision scanning and Insulation measurement IR/C-Tan
delta are used as complementing technology. The method has been quite effective
preventing unwanted failure of Arresters. At present in NTPC the threshold resistive
leakage current for replacement of Surge Arrester has been kept at 500 micro Amp. The
500 micro amp value is mostly based on experience of Power Grid and ABB publication.
This paper analyses the validity of 500 micro amp threshold value as well as applicability
of the benchmark to Generating station.
In an organization like NTPC where arrester asset base comprises of various voltage class
like 400 kv, 220 kv , 765 kv and all manufacturer like WSI, ELPRO, OBLUM the
assumptions that all arresters are same is tested in this paper through statistical analysis.
Study :
The hypotheses tested are
1. Mean value of resistive leakage current of both 400 kv and 220 kv surge arrester
population are same.
2. Mean value of resistive leakage current of arresters of all manufacture “WSI, ELPRO,
OBLUM” are same.
3. There is linear increase in resistive leakage current with age.
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Technical construct of Arrester Design clearly indicate that .For resistive leakage current
is a function of Voltage Class, Actual Voltage, Ambient temperature, Design of the Zno
Element ( Hence Manufacture). As manufacturer does not specify any life of arrester it is
not assumed as a variable. As the reading itself is actual and temperature compensated
the variables are excluded from study.
Data:
Population: 400 kv (39 no), 220 kv ( 45 no)
Data period: 2004 to 2009
Manufacturer wise break up of population: 30 no WSI, 9 no OBLUM, 45 no ELPRO
Total number of data point after cleaning of data of outlier 1300
Tools used ANOVA, Multivariate Linear Regression,Control Chart,

Testing of Hypothesis1:
Mean values of leakage current of all Class of arrester are same.
ANOVA analysis result is reproduced below
One-way ANOVA: 400 kv, 220 kv
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 1 765890 765890 101.69 0.000
Error 801 6033004 7532
Total 802 6798894
S = 86.79 R-Sq = 11.26% R-Sq(adj) = 11.15%

Conclusion: As the F value is significant, the null hypothesis is rejected at 0.01%
confidence level. In other words there is 0% probability that the populations are same.
Hence statistically for resistive leakage current 400 kv and 220 kv class of arresters are
different. They should be treated as different population.
Testing of Hypothesis 2
Mean value of resistive leakage current of arresters of all manufacture “WSI, ELPRO,
OBLUM” are same.
One-way ANOVA: ELPRO, WSI, OBLUM
Source DF SS MS F P
Factor 2 558363 279181 35.79 0.000
Error 800 6240531 7801
Total 802 6798894
S = 88.32 R-Sq = 8.21% R-Sq(adj) = 7.98%
Here again the F value is significant. Hence Null hypothesis is rejected at 0.0.01% level.
In other word probability that all three population namely ELPRO, WSI, OBLUM are
same is 0%. Hence again they should be treated as different population for analysis.
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Null hypothesis 3
It will test the validity of infinite life of arrester. The assumption that Resistive leakage
current which is a indicator of aging of arrester is linear function of age of arrester. To
test the hypothesis through Multivariate Linear Regression 4 dummy variable were
introduced to represent 4 year i.e 05,06,07,08
Testing Hypothesis for aging:

For the Data period 2004 to 2009 if there is aging of Surge arrester, there will be
significant rise in coefficients of successive year.
The regression equation is

leak i 440 = 159 y05 400 + 144 y06 400 + 187 y07 400 + 124 y08 400 + 129 y09
400
Predictor Coef SE Coef T P

Noconstant
y05 400 158.58 16.19 9.79 0.000
y06 400 143.780 9.620 14.95 0.000
y07 400 186.73 11.29 16.53 0.000
y08 400 124.14 10.02 12.39 0.000
y09 400 129.00 14.48 8.91 0.000
S = 97.1564
All the coefficient are significant as shown by T value. The model has very degree of
validity as obvious from s value.
From the above result it is clear that coefficient of year 8 and 9 are significantly smaller
compared to coefficient of 07. Hence it can not be concluded that there is any linear
increasing trend in resistive leakage current due to aging. There can be other dominant
variations in the year to year data.
Fixing of Threshold value for Arrester

The 500 micro amp value is derived from stipulation of IEC60099, ABB paper and
Power Grid Practices. The relevance to NTPC Population tested statistically using the 3
sigma control chart.
Control Chart for 400 KV Arresters

As per the figure (1 ) , the mean
Xbar Chart of leak i 4 40
value of 400 kv arresters is 147 600
Micro amp and Upper control limit 1
1
500
is 345 micro amp. Assuming 1
400 1 1 1
normal variation it is safe to fix a 1
Sample Mean
1 1 1
1 1
UCL=345.3
1 1
upper control limit of 350. Any 300
arresters exceeding 350 micro amp 200 _

_
X =147.2
should be categorized as risky and 100
investigated. Other complementing 0

LCL=-50.9
1 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162

Sample
T ests performed w ith unequal sam ple sizes
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technology like IRValue and IRT analysis should be used for assessing it’s fitness for
use.
Xbar Chart of leak

Control Chart for 220 KV 1
500
Arresters 1
400 1
As per the Fig (2 ) the mean value 1
Sample Mean
1
300
is 84 Micro Amp and Upper 1 1
1 1
Control Limit is 217 micro amp. 200

UCL=217.2
Case analysis also reveals that _

_
100
Arresters with less than 500 Micro X=84.9
Amp were found contaminated 0

LCL=-47.3
with water. Again if middle stack
1 23 46 69 92 115 138 161 184 207
is contaminated there is less Sample
likelihood that it will be reflected

in resistive leakage current. Hence all arresters showing >200 micro amp should be
investigated using other technology as explained for 400 kv arresters.
Case Analysis:
During the Data period following are the observation which compliment the analysis
1. There were 6 Arresters which were replaced for leakage current >500 Micro Amp. In
all the six arresters water contamination were found in either bottom or top
2. In 3number 220 kv arresters Insulation resistance value were found low for
individual stacks although there was no significant increase in resistive leakage
current. In all the arresters water contamination was observed. All the 3 cases involve
middle stacks.
a. Inference: Since middle stack is less stressed(IEC60099-(4))due to stress
distribution in LA, insulation degradation in middle stack has not (fig-
5)significantly influenced resistive leakage current.
3. In one case there was increasing trend in resistive leakage current but absolute value
was less than 500 micro amps(fig-4). IR value of Bottom stack was found low .On
inspection water contamination was found in bottom stack
Fig –4 (Sharp rise between April 09 to Aug-09) although leakage current was less than
500 micro amp on inspection LA LEAKAGE CURRENT GT -1 R phase
IR value was found very
Low. On internal Inspection 400
350
Water Contamination was
300
found. 250
MICRO A
200
150
100
50
0
May-09
Aug-08
Nov-08
Mar-09
Apr-09
Aug-09
Jun-08
Jul-08
Sep-08
Oct-08
Dec-08
Jan-09
Feb-09
Jun-09
Jul-09
TIME
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Fig-5: Exponential rise
of leakage current. Once LA LEAKAGE CURRENT ST -1 R phase gas Plant
the rising trend started
there was no 10000
stabilization. On
inspection water 1000
contamination was
MICRO A
observed. 100
10
Jun-08
Jul-08
Oct-08
Nov-08
Dec-08
Jan-09
Feb-09
Mar-09
May-09
Jun-09
Jul-09
Sep-08
Aug-08
Apr-09
Aug-09
TIME
Fig-6
Out of the 4 cases only Trend of leak current
one sample was
showing rising trend 10000
leak current in micro amp
and found contaminated

with water. In other one
1000 Series1
of the 3 other sample
Series2
there was no trend. Still
middle stack was found 100 Series3
contaminated with Series4
water. 10 Series5
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
time
Conclusion:
1. Resistive leakage current measurement is effective identifying weak arresters.
Effective use can eliminate in-situ failure of arresters to a great extent.
2. Sudden rise in resistive leakage current indicate water contamination.
3. There is possibility of water contamination even if there is no sign of increase in
resistive leakage current. Hence arresters should be periodically tested for IR value
off line.
4. All arresters population are not same for resistive leakage current. Threshold value or
alarm limit of resistive leakage current depend upon voltage class and Make of
arresters. A single threshold value of 500 micro amp will not fit all arresters.
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5. There is no normal aging of arresters. Hence time based replacement criteria is not
relevant.
6. Most of the failures are due to water ingress into stacks hence there is risk of sudden
death. This can be eliminated by proper timing of measurement.
7. For arresters close to Power Transformers where failure tolerance is zero thresholds
limit should be fixed based on analysis of the population. A 3 sigma upper value of
200 micro amp for Indian Make is more appropriate.
Reference:
1. Surge Arrester and Testing,2004, retrieved 10th October 2009, www.doble.com.
2. Zinc Oxide surge Arrester application Guide for Station protection , retrieved 12th
October 2009, www.abblibrary.com
3. Metal Oxide surge Arrester protection of Distribution System,2004, retrieved
01/11/2009, www.hubble.com
4. Surge Arrester , retrieved on 10th October 2009 , www.toshiba.com
5. IEC60099 part-4
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NUMERICAL RELAYS FOR PROTECTION RELIABILITY
IMPROVEMENT OF POWER PLANT
S.K Singh Vikas Gupta

Dy. Supdt.(EMD) Sr. Asst. Engr.(EMD)
NTPC- Vindhyachal NTPC- Vindhyachal
sksingh06@ntpc.co.in vikasgupta@ntpc.co.in
ABSTRACT
The country’s electricity demand is increasing at rate higher than the rate of new installat ions
putting immense pressure on the existing power plants to deliver higher load factors. Top quality operation
& maintenance is of ut most necessity to deliver such performance consistently. The quality of maintenance
activity depends on the quality of workmanship and the accuracy of equipment behavior.
In NTPC Vindhyachal Stage-1(6X210 MW), all the HT&LT drives / Transformer / Bus protection
systems are based on the electromechanical USSR make relays, which have been serving for more than 20
years. It has been observed that some t ime protection system performance (e.g. non-operation, false
operation etc.) are not up to desired level. The reason for such behavior includes princip le of relays itself
(Electro Mechanical), aging etc which can be overco me by modern nu merical relays.
Traditionally, electro mechanical and static protection relays offered single-function, single
characteristics, whereas modern numeric protection offers mu lti-function and multip le characteristics.
Some protections also offer adaptable characteristics, which dynamically change the protection
characteristic under different system conditions by monitoring the input parameters.
The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays (electro mechanical and static) are
fewer than those of the numerical technique, which can d iffer in many aspects like the type of protection
algorith m used, sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software discipline, etc. First generation
numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static relay p rotection characteristic, whereas modern
numeric protection devices are capable of providing complete protection with added functions like control
and monitoring.
This paper discusses the advantages in terms of protection, reliability, and trouble shooting and
fault in formation offered by Nu merical protection devices.
It’s high time for renovation and modernization of protection and control scheme of Vindhyachal
stage –I units to improve the reliab ility of all concerned equipments.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The first protection devices based on microprocessors were emp loyed in 1985. The widespread acceptance
of numerical technology by the customer and the experiences of the user helped in developing the second
generation numerical relays in 1990. The microprocessor technology is being widely used in almost all
aspects of daily life. Po wer systems engineering has also been making use of this technology for mo re than
twenty years. In particular, relaying technology has changed dramatically since the advent of
microprocessors.
Modern power system protection devices are built with integrated functions. Multi-functions like
protection, control, monitoring and measuring are availab le today in numeric power system protection
devices. Also, the communication capability of these devices facilitates remote control, mon itoring and
data transfer.
Traditionally, electro mechanical and static protection relays offered single-function, single characteristics,
whereas modern nu meric protection offers mu lti-function and mult iple characteristics. So me protections
also offer adaptable characteristics, which dynamically change the protection characteristic under different
system conditions by monitoring the input parameters.
The measuring princip les and techniques of conventional relays (electro mechanical and static) are fewer
than those of the numerical technique, wh ich can differ in many aspects like the type of protection
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algorith m used, sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software d iscipline, etc.
First generation numerical relays were main ly designed to meet the static relay protection characteristic,
whereas modern nu meric protection devices are capable of providing co mplete protection with added
functions like control and monitoring. Nu merical p rotection devices offer several advantages in terms of
protection, reliability, and trouble shooting and fault in formation. Nu merical protection devices are
available for generation, transmission and distribution systems. The use of this technology in relays has
made them physically smaller and easier to set. These advances have made it possible to develop more
accurate, faster and less expensive protection systems.
2.0 Numerical Relay Characteristics
2.1 General Characteristics
Nu merical relays are highly co mpact devices, characterized with fast operation, high sensitivity, self
monitoring, and low maintenance. Protection functions are the same in the nature as protection function of
electro mechanical relays, however, in nu merical relays several protection functions are grouped in the same
relay case with addition of control functions replacing several electro magnetic relays and control devices
by means of only one relay. So me control functions are co mbined along protection functions, such as
measuring, synchronizing, fault record ing, while other control functions, such as control ON, control OFF,
interlocking, etc. are grouped either in a bay controller unit or along protection functions in a relay. On
Figure I three different options for nu merical relay architecture are shown. In option a. all feeder protection
and control functions are combined in the same numerical device. In option b, two numerical relays are
applied, one containing main I protection and the other containing main and backup protection together
with a bay controller. In option c. main I p rotection, main 2 p rotection and backup protections are separated
into three numerical relays, while a bay controller exists as a separate device.
Figure 1: Applicati on of Numerical rel ays
Accommodating different functions in the same case enables significant saving in space, and in au xiliary
cabling. With numerical relays there are no mo re requirements for spacious control and relay roo ms,
numerous cables in and between cubicles, which reduces the installation time. Co mbining several functions
enables manufacturers to produce one uniform design of a protection for d ifferent applications comparing
with a wide range of electro mechanical relays particularly designed for generator, transmission, distribution
or industrial protection.
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2.2 Structure of Numerical relay
A numerical relay consists of the following main subsystems:

Ø Microprocessor
Ø Analog input system
Ø Dig ital output system
Ø Power supply
Nu merical relays, block d iagram in figure 2, operate on samp led signals and adopt digital co mputations.
Sampling is the process of converting analog input signals, such as current and voltage, into digital input
signals. These analog input signals, in case of electromechanical and static relays, are directly fed into the
electro magnetic winding or electronic circuits. In o rder to protect the relay fro m large transients of the
input signals a surge filter is used.
Figure2 B LOCK DIAGRAM OF NUMERICAL RELAY

An anti-aliasing filter is used to avoid possible errors in reconstructing the input signal carried out after the
A/D Sample/ Hold section. Any signal having harmonic co mponents of order N± 1, 2N± 1, x N± 1, where N
is the number of samples per cycle, can exh ibit aliasing. Perfectly, an anti-aliasing filter has to cut off all
signal co mponents above the Nyquist rate of N/2. In practical, however, such a filter can not cut off all out
of band frequencies, so the anti-aliasing filter cut off frequency is set at about N/3.
The A/D converts the sample values that represent the analog input signals into the digital input signals.
However, the conversion is not instantaneous, and for this reason, the A/D system typically includes a
sample-and-hold circuit. The samp le-and hold circuit provides ideal samp ling and holds the sample values
for quantization by the A/D converter.
The microprocessor containing the relay algorith m is the controller of the numerical relay. The
microprocessor most often performs all control, co mputation, self-test, and commun ication functions. The
algorith m functions as a digital filter to ext ract the fundamental co mponent of the input signal, based on
which the relay operation is carried out.
The signal fro m the digital filter is compared with the pre-set threshold in the digital output system. The
relay operation is decided based on this comparison.
Relay algorith m is designed to remove as much as possible all of unwanted components from the input
signal such as harmonic, DC, etc. Two co mmon algorithms used are the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
and the Root Mean Square (RMS) algorith m.
2.3 Reliability of Numerical Relays

Regarding reliability manufacturers highlight the high level of reliability of nu merical protection because of
complete relay self-mon itoring, type-tested technology. Although additional supervision relays were used
for monitoring purposes with electro mechanical relays, this invariab ly necessitated additional external
wiring, adding to the complexity of the installation. It could therefore be argued that a numerical relay, by
managing and monitoring the complex circuit ry, does contribute to the reliab ility and dependability of the
670
protection. However, the reliability consists of reliability of all co mponents involved in the system, such as
monitoring, au xiliary supplies, etc. Different manufacturers state different failu re rates for nu merical relays,
fro m one in 75 years to one in 100 years. With one numerical relay comp rising different protection systems
(main 1, main 2 and backup protection), it may be impossible to provide two independent dc auxiliary
supplies to each main protection system because the relay may offer only one dc supply Connection. That
would reduce the reliability level for both protection systems.
2.4 Remote Data Exchange

Online remote data exchange between numerical relays and remotely located devices is the real beauty of
numerical technology. That offers wide options of relay settings applications or checks, data processing for
network operations and maintenance purposes, or downloading fault recording data for fault analysis. This
is a big advantage of numerical relays.
2.5 Service Life of Numerical Relays
A typical service life o f nu merical relays is between fifteen and t wenty years. For co mparison
Electro mechanical relays had a service life of fo rty years. Numerical relays are sophisticated devices with
printed circu it boards. In case of hard ware faults the relay has to be replaced, because of co mputer
Technology. For errors in software the requirement is to download a correct or new version of relay
Software into the relay hardware. When feeder protection has to be updated or mod ified, it is easier to
replace all protection, especially if the different manufacturer is emp loyed for protection modifications.
Somet imes the numerical protection is replaced a few years after the first installation. Rapid changes in
computer technology causes a shorter service life of current nu merical relays because of requirements for
relay replacements when other protection and control assets are being replaced. Once when the co mputer
technology stabilises the real service life of the nu merical relays will be available.
3. S ETTING OF NUMERICAL RELAYS
3.1 General
Nu merical relays have to be set correctly to achieve good protection of the protected element of power
network. Protection settings have to be calculated based on the network parameters and the characteristics
of the network element to be protected. Setting calculat ions contain circu it parameters, nu merical relay
functions, protection diagram, co mmon elements, and settings for each function. Functions of a numerical
relay can be configured in different ways. A function can be enabled or disabled. Different settings can be
applied to an enabled function. All settings for various functions are stored in a software file named relay
configuration file. It is important to apply a correct relay configuration file for a particu lar application of
the relay.
3.2 Relay Configuration File

For a particular relay application in power system it is necessary to provide a correct relay configuration
file. The configuration files of a 'simp le' backup current protection may consist of several A4 pages. For
more co mplicated protection the configuration file increases.. That complexity requires highly educated
personnel in charge of relay configuration
3.3 Change Configuration of Power Network
When changing the configuration of power netwo rk or any relevant network parameter, the relay
configuration file shall require mod ifications to be suitable for the new configuration. In that case a new
relay configuration file has to be downloaded to the relay. After that the relay has to be re-commissioned.
When a feeder differential nu merical relay is applied in a three-end circu it, a setting configuration file for
three-end circuit has to be downloaded into the relay. If the circuit configuration is changed into two-ended
one, a new setting configuration file is required for correct relay operations. If the alternative configuration
is known when protection is specified orig inally, it is recommended to require two relay configuration files:
one original and the other for the changed network configuration in the future. If the alternative
configuration was not known when the relay has been purchased, extra costs will be required for p roviding
new relay settings and producing a new configuration file.
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3.4 Numerical Relay Mal -operations
3.4.1 Mal-operati ons Caused by Settings
Regarding the settings and configuration files the following errors of nu merical relays may occur in
Practice:
Ø Wrong settings downloaded into the relay

Ø A required function is disabled
Ø Non-required function is enabled
Ø Access for configuration edit/change given to unauthorised person
Ø Access for configuration edit/change given to the manufacturer only.
3.4.2 Setting of Transformer Differential Protection
Magnetising inrush current containing second harmonic blocks the operation of differential protection.
Nu merical relays have facilities to set the level of the second harmonic current at which blocking occurs.
When the inrush current decreases and reaches the certain value, it can cause mal-operation of the
differential protection. This is because at these low levels the second harmonic could reduce below the
blocking setting, while the magnetising inrush current may still be above the differential setting, if set too
low.
3.4.3 Setting of Distance Protection
Distance protection for special cases such as short feeders connected to high source impedance network
points (generation points). Electro mechanical, and even the static relays were not able to operate below
about I volt. So me nu merical relays can be proved to perform well on the test bench for voltages much less
than 1 volt. This may falsely suggest their ability to work with high source impedances, bearing in mind the
harsh substation environments and pick ups on the voltage circuit. Although manufacturers of nu merical
distance relays do not highlight relay operation for small voltages, the problem of protecting those special
cases is still relevant for nu merical distance relays.
COMMISSION NUMERICAL RELA YS
4.1 General
Good management is required for testing and commissioning of numerical relays to avoid mal-operations
and unnecessary tripping in the network.
4.2 Commissioning
The commissioning of numerical relays consists of Factory Tests and Site Tests. In Factory Tests all
functions are tested to prove that the relay co mplies with the proposed application. The protection diagram,
relay configuration file, setting calculations, and the Site Test procedures have to be available prior to the
Factory Tests to enable familiarizat ion of people involved with the tests. After the tests it is expected that a
copy of the relay configuration file, downloaded into the relay, is filed with all factory test results in a
folder to be sent to site together with the relay. In Site Tests a reduced number of tests are carried out to
prove that the relay performance comp lies with the agreed solution. For that purpose it is important that the
configuration file, wh ich has successfully comp leted Factory Tests, is downloaded in the relay being tested.
A good practice recommends that Factory Tests are witnessed by the purchaser or his representative.
4.3 Changing Relay Configuration

When network conditions are changed the existing relay configuration file has to be replaced by means of a
new file containing new settings. After applying the new configuration file re-co mmissioning of the relay
has to be carried out to prove the reconfigured relay. Nu merical relays offer the flexib ility of catering for
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various power system configurations in the fo rm of setting groups. Network condition changes can then be
accommodated by selecting the appropriate setting groups. This demands strict management and
procedures.
4.4 Numerical Relay Mal -operations:
If the co mmissioning of numerical relays are not carried out properly various errors may occur in nu merical
relays causing them to mal-operate. So me examples are:
Ø Wrong relay configuration file downloaded in the relay

Ø Incorrect configuration of the Nu merical relay, with inadequate commissioning tests.
As an example of relay mal-operation is a high voltage feeder equipped with feeder protection, Delayed
Auto Reclosing (DAR) and Ferro-resonance quench features. The numerical relay had been configured to
detect and quench Ferro-resonance on a circu it, as well as perform DAR. The co mplexity of configuring
this arrangement in a nu merical relay meant the relay permitted DAR to occur wh ile the Ferro-resonance
earth switch was operated. Follo wing this event, the relay software was revised, and given a new number.
However, hu man error resulted in another software file to be downloaded onto the relay. Th is was done
while the circuit was alive and resulted in important feeders tripping. Correct software, uploaded in this
way, would not have resulted in the mal-operation. The solution was implementation of isolation facilit ies,
during uploading, regardless of the confidence in the software. Yet another examp le is related to the
configuration of current transformer star points in the relay. An existing site was being upgraded and new
protection fitted. The site engineer noticed a current transformer star point setting in a unit protection,
which to him appeared abnormal, modified it, and this lead to mal-operation when the circuit was put on
load. In the past, correcting for current transformer star points would have required complicated secondary
wiring changes, and would have discouraged such endeavors. After the end of service life nu merical relays
have to be decommissioned and dismantled. Nu merical relays as very co mpact and s mall devices require a
small quantity of raw material for their manufacturing, which make them environ mentally friendly.
Nu merical relays are also very handy for dismantling because of clip connections and rack system.
Regarding recycling and recovery after dismantling, a particu lar attention has to be paid to electronic
circuit boards, which require specific end-of-life processing. Other parts can be recovered or recycled, such
as recyclable thermoplastics, copper, etc. So me manufacturers produce brochures, where instructions
describes how to separate and sort numerical relay components after dismantling. When purchasing
numerical relays, requirements for relays decommissioning and disposal recycling/recovery should be
included either in the specification or in tendering process. Numerical relays are highly co mpact devices,
characterized with fast operation, high sensitivity, self mon itoring, and low maintenance.
Online remote data exchange between numerical relays and remotely located devices offers remote relay
settings applications, data processing for network operations and maintenance, or remotely analysing
recorded fault data. With nu merical protection, because of the numerous and complex settings to be
entered, it is important to have procedures, processes and standards in place, to ensure careful management
of the modern numerical relays. It has been found possible to standardise on a large nu mber of the settings
entered, leaving a few site specific settings to be determined. It is important that the settings are not entered
manually on site, but downloaded into the relay, after carefu l checking, and factory tests.
Nu merical relays are environ mentally friendly because of very small amount of raw material used for their
manufacturing, easy dismantling and the good component rate of recovery and recycling. Only p rinted
circuit boards have to be separated and processed separately.
5. DECOMMISSIONING:
After the end of service life nu merical relays have to be decommissioned and dismantled. Nu merical relays
as very compact and small devices require a small quantity of raw material for their manufacturing, wh ich
make them environmentally friendly. Nu merical relays are also very handy for d ismantling because of clip
connections and rack system. Regarding recycling and recovery after d ismantling, a particular attention has
to be paid to electronic circuit boards, which require specific end-of-life processing. Other parts can be
recovered or recycled, such as recyclable thermoplastics, copper, etc. So me manufacturers produce
673
brochures, where instructions describe how to separate and sort numerical relay components after
dismantling. When purchasing numerical relays, requirements for relays decommissioning and disposal
recycling/recovery should be included either in the specification or in tendering process.
6.0 Example to demonstrate change from present electromechanical relay protection in stage of
Vindhyachal to Numerical relay protection:
In NTPC Vindhyachal Stage-1(6X210 MW), all the HT&LT drives / Transformer / Bus protection systems
are based on the electromechanical USSR make relays. There is a different relay fo r closing command,
tripping co mmand, E/F, O/ L, current cut off, off position, on position and so and so forth. Further operation
of many relays has interlock with other relays and this interdependency on each other is the majo r reason of
mal-operation of one of them. Another reason of mal-operation is changes in characteristics of
electro mechanical relays due to aging. But with imp lementation of numerical relay, all these features would
be incorporated in single unit and problems associated with electro mechanical relays would be taken care
off. The present system and futuristic scheme is depicted in figure 3, 4 below.
Figure 3: Present scheme with EM relays Figure 4: Futuristic scheme with Numerical relay
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7.0 CONCLUS ION:
Nu merical relays are highly co mpact devices, characterized with fast operation, high sensitivity, self
monitoring, and low maintenance. Online remote data exchange between numerical relays and remotely
located devices offers remote relay settings applications, data processing for network operations and
maintenance, or remotely analysing recorded fault data. With nu merical protection, because of the
numerous and complex settings to be entered, it is important to have procedures, processes and standards in
place, to ensure careful management of the modern nu merical relays. It has been found possible to
standardise on a large number of the settings entered, leaving a few site specific settings to be determined.
It is important that the settings are not entered manually on site, but downloaded into the relay, after careful
checking, and factory tests. Numerical relays are environ mentally friendly because of very small amount of
raw material used for their manufacturing, easy dismantling and the good component rate of recovery and
recycling. Only printed circuit boards have to be separated and processed separately.
REFERENCES
Ø A Rahim, 2006: 'Configurat ion &Setting of Protection Relays or Nu meric Relays', lET
Conference, London
Ø Laurite, Barbetta, Theoleyere, Sourd, Viseu x, Tricot, 2003: 'Env iron mental Consideration in
Product Design: A Reality For French Manufacturers', CIRED
Ø M. P. Ransick, “Nu meric protective relay basics”, Proceedings of the 33rd IAS Annual Meeting
(The IEEE 1998 Industry Applications Conference), 1998. Vol. 3, 12-15 Oct 1998, pp(s): 2342 -
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Ø INTERNET: www.wikipedia.co m
Ø INTERNET: www.google.co m
675
Solutions for Flexibility in Design and Improved Reliability of HV
Substations
Nihar Raj Yogesh Shendre GR Patel
ABB Ltd (India)
1.0 Abstract substations which are very vital element of power

system.
Electrical substations form a vital link in power
system. This installation comprises of many electrical 3.0 Modular Substation Design
equipments. For delivery of quality power, continuous
revenue generation and to meet CERC accountability In the today’s changing market, the substation is
imposed on utilities; healthy state of power apparatus becoming more and more a key element to meet end
and their longer life are key parameters. With increase users requirements successfully and economically.
in customer requirement and constraints; electrical Many existing substations have outlived their
designers need flexibility in design considering lay out operational life and a one-to-one replacement of
requirement, time to execute the projects with a conventional AIS co mponents like circu it-breakers and
possibility of optimized costs, replace conventional disconnectors is not economically viable; completely
maintenance techniques and suggest preventive new substations have to meet tough requirements in
maintenance to avoid corrective maintenance and seek terms of occupied space, environment and availability.
higher reliability and maintainability. In this paper, Substations extensions require high flexib ility on
authors discuss the new designs which permit flexibility primary equipment, to cope with already existing
of substation design from the lay out and execution time control systems, lack of available space, limited down
considerations. Also the concepts of predictive time. Modularized substation design technique as
maintenance with help of substation products are shown in fig 1 and 2 is an ideal primary solution to
focused. Reliability has been quantified to illustrate the meet all the above scenarios and it is the result of a
improvement achieved. different thinking; idea for the performance of the
substation as a complete system. Modular design also
2.0 Introduction helps to achieve any type of switching configuration
with a very h igh reliability and in a very short time.
Conventional power system is co mprising of
generating, switching, transmission and distribution
substations and long distance transmission lines.
However with urbanizat ion; availability of natural
resources like land have reduced, power requirement
have increased. It is envisaged that by 2025 peak
demand of power would be around 4,50,000MW;
Installed generating capacity would be 6,00,000MW;
Interregional power transfer capacity wou ld be
1,50,000MW. All these figures are nearly 3 to 4 times
the requirement wh ich is envisaged by 2012. Utilities
may have to face many issues while handling such a
huge power. All these issues have several different
technological solutions which are already planned or
implemented by power engineers. In the following
sections, solutions which are adopted to reduce cost
impact, have increase reliability and have quality power
availability are discussed especially for the EHV
Fig 1: Modul arized Single Line Diagram
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PASS (Plug and Switch System) is the concept which is
adapted to facilitate modularized substation design
with any type of switching scheme. Modularized
concepts are available for all the switching
configurations. PASS can also be termed as
Performance And Space Saving solution. Maintenance
cost can be reduced by taking proper care at the design
stage. Following points should be kept in mind to
optimize cost.
· Planning of roads for easy mobilization
· Involvement of maintenance staff at the design
stage
· Providing clearances as per local regulat ions
Fig 3: Reduction in failure rate of GIS wi th AIS
· Revising engineering standards with revised
maintenance policy
Some of the advantages of using modularized
substation design concepts are listed below :
· Lower land requirement
· Easy installation
· Faster commissioning as all modules are factory
tested
· Lower civil works
· Lower losses as all major equip ments are
encapsulated in the single gas compart ment
· No clamps and connectors required within inter
equipment hence lower contact resistances and
minimu m thermal losses within equip ment
· Lesser maintenance compared to AIS solutions
· With modern poly mer insulators this technology
gives better seismic performance
Maintenance is carried out on switchgear to sustain the

availability of the equipment. The maintenance activity
Fig 2: GIS modularized technology for AIS extension should
· Replace specially stressed parts in time and
Isolators are the key element in deciding the clearances prevent failure
for AIS and thus deciding the land requirements.
· Determine the wear of parts and assess their
Isolators were typically provided for maintenance of
states
switching elements. It has been found that technology
· Ensure that parts are in good parts and can be
in CB’s has advanced and maintenance requirements
have reduced significantly. Whereas failu re and kept in place
maintenance rate for isolators have stayed almost
With MTS and GIS technologies which have
constant during last 50 years.
compactness replacing complete unit in time and
preventing failures can be used for maintenance or
The advantages of GIS and hybrid technology to bring
repairs and will reduce the maintenance time.
down the maintenance cost and increase the reliability
compared to conventional AIS substation is shown in
Few case studies have been taken to demonstrate the
fig 3.
advantages of the modular switchgear, its flexibility in
substation design and reduction of maintenance.
677
4.0 Case Studies
4.1Case Study -1 Gull Substation
Gu ll 132kV substation built up in Johannesburg saw a

large increase in the load, the substation layout
consisted of 2x incomer circuit, 2x t ransformer circuits
and a bus coupler. It was a single busbar arrangement.
It was seen that MTS solution with 132kV COM PASS
(COMPact Air insulated SubStation) units were used
and the all the functionalities were achieved for the
given configuration in the reduced space area.
Maintenance costs were reduced.
Fig 5: Mobile substation with AIS Surge Arrestor
4.3 Case Study – 3 Laufenburg substation

Existing 220kV substation, with double main and
transfer scheme. Equip ments old and technology
vintage. Customer (EGL) requirement to renew the
substation with latest technology and bring down the
maintenance cost by discontinuation of transfer bus and
thus removing all the transfer bus equipments.
Hybrid solution offered and increased the reliability by

enclosing all the switching elements in SF6 gas. This
also helped in reducing the substation footing and
increasing the reliability. With increase in reliability
transfer bus was not required and substation was made
to double bus scheme.
Fig 4: MTS technology for transformer and Line bays
4.2 Case Study -2 Mobile Substation

Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad, Costa Rica
required 220kV mob ile substation for emergency
situations and for temporary energy supply. 220/13.8kV
mobile substation with 30M VA transformer was
provided as a mobile GIS substation in two semi
trailers. It was an optimized mobile GIS solution. A
special power transformer was made fo r this purpose.
Customer got the benefit of having energy restoration in
less than 24 hours by putting these mobile substations
Fig 6: MTS solution for reducing maintenance
678
5.0 Maintenance must be very consistent with regard to mechanical
operating time.
It has been seen in the previous sections that by
adopting the modern technologies of MTS and GIS, not
only the advantage of space saving is achieved but also
maintenance can be reduced as these solutions have a
technological edge over conventional AIS solutions.
Maintenance of equipment is much dependent on
periodic or continuous measurement of one (or mo re)
characteristic parameter(s) applied permanently to
primary or secondary equipment. Condition monitoring
is measurement using devices installed on primary or
secondary equipment to measure, collect and evaluate
one or more characteristic parameters with the intention
of determin ing and reporting the status of the monitored
subject at a certain mo ment in t ime. There are t wo basic
sources of monitored data availab le in a substation:
a) data collected at substation level, i.e. data collected
by substation control (data fro m SCADA – loading
currents and voltages, outputs, temperature, etc. ) and
protection systems (data from fau lt recorders or from
advanced digital relays – records of transient
phenomena),
b) data collected at equipment level, i.e. data collected
by specialized equip ment monitors designed to collect
and evaluate conditions that are specific for a specific
equipment type (CB, DS, IT, etc.) o r even to a specific
equipment design.
We shall be discussing of few such equipments which

help in collecting data at the equipment level
· Controlled Switching for CB
· Modern surge counter for LA
· Other devices.
5.1 Controlled Switching

Fig 7: Control s witchi ng of circuit breakers
With an arbitrary switching of loads, high current and
voltage transients can be generated if the connection is 5.2 Online Monitoring of Circuit Breaker
made at an adverse point on the sinusoidal curve. These
transients are damaging to equipment on the high Systems are availab le which can constantly monitor and
voltage side and can affect control and auxiliary analyze the data available for high voltage circuit
circuits. By using special relays, switching can be breakers. The OLM (On Line Monitoring) unit is
controlled so that it occurs at a planned point on the triggered for data collection when the circuit breaker
sinusoidal curve and the transients can be reduced to an receives closing or opening signals, and when the
acceptable level. These controllers also have an operating mechanism’s motor receives start signals.
adaptive function that compensates variations in The measured parameters are stored for each operation,
operating times over a period of time. Controllers can including time, ambient temperature and temperature
offer solutions for all type of loads i.e. capacitor banks, inside the operating mechanism. Stored data can be
reactors, transformers and also for uncompensated accessed on PC with special software. Data analysis
lines. Along with controlled switching, certain versions and trend assessment can be done with the help of
of these controllers can even be complemented with special software The system can be comb ined with
equipment for status control of circuit breakers with the external systems such as SCADA.
same function as on line monitoring. These are
equipped with data memo ry where informat ion on Online monitoring unit typically monitors following
opening and closing times can be stored. When parameters:
controlled switching technique is used, circuit breakers • Operating times
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• Coil currents The sensor unit is connected at the earth terminal of the
• Contact motion (speed, motion and damp ing) arrester and is fully short-circu it proof. The sensor unit
• Motor current and time for spring tensioning register not only the number of discharges through the
• SF6 density arrester but also note their amplitude and time-stamp
Current in phase can also be measured, enabling each event. In addition, the total and resistive leakage
analysis of contact wear. currents are able to be measured. The informat ion is can
be fed by radio link fro m a safe distance to the
transceiver whenever called upon to do so. By using
suitable software, co mplete records can be stored for
analysis.
6.0 Conclusion
It has been observed with increase in the power demand
there is a need to have flexibility fro m design stage
itself. Design should not only take the electrical
clearances into consideration but should also consider
maintenance and easy extension aspects. A need to
have modern technology equipments integrated with
Fig 8: OLM System for circuit breaker MTS and GIS technology should be given emphasis
which can be a better input for deciding condition based
5.3 Leakage current monitors for Surge maintenance and avoid major failures and interruption.
Arrestor It has been established that MTS and GIS technology
have a better reliability compared to AIS hence are the
Surge arresters are maintenance-free and have a long solutions to reduce the maintenance costs. Customers
in-service life. Since they are sealed units, they cannot should aim in having intelligent switchgear solutions
be examined periodically (in contrast with other HV which helps them in having a correct information and
equipment) and live-line tests are difficult and take decision on planning correct maintenance
expensive. The general princip le is therefore to limit schedules.
maintenance to occasional cleaning of the housing and
to estimate their condition based on service years only. 7.0 References
Increasing interest for on-line monitoring of all
equipment, however, has resulted in development of [1] P Norberg, M Tapper, W Lord, A Engqvist, “The
some special equip ment even for arresters. Future Substation - Reflection About Design,” Report
23-105, Cigré Session, Paris, 1998.
[2] IEEE-1127-1998: IEEE Gu ide for the Design,

Construction, and Operation of Electric Po wer
Substations for Co mmunity Acceptance and
Environmental Co mpatibility
[3] CIGRE W G 13.07 Controlled Switching for HVA C

Circuit b reakers, Electra No. 183, April 1999; Electra
No. 185 August 1999
[4] IEC Standard 62271 – 205, Co mpact switchgear

assemblies for rated voltages above 52 kV.
Fig 9: Remote data collecti on from surge counter [5] A. Kladt et al, Evaluation tool for various
substations, VII SEPOPE, Brazil, SP-034, 2000
Advanced monitoring systems are available which can
be installed for direct mon itoring of surge arresters
[6] Carhalvo,A, et al, Functional specification as driver
while in-service and on-line. These systems comprise of
a sensor unit mounted on each arrester; a common for technical/ economical optimization of substation,
hand-held transceiver unit for remote reading and CIGRE 2000 session, WG23, Paris, 2000
software for down loading and analysis of the readings.
680
EXPERIENCE ON MAINTENANCE OF HYDROGEN PURITY INSIDE
TURBOGENERATORS
Dev Raj
International Service Manager
National Electric Coil USA
Retired General Manager BHEL
INTRODUCTION
In India, about 400 Nos. of Hydrogen Cooled Turbogenerators of various ratings varying from 30 MW to
540 MW are in operation. In these generators, hydrogen is used as cooling mediu m because of its light
weight and excellent thermal conductivity. To keep the gas sealed inside generator casing, various types of
shaft seal designs are used. For safe and efficient operation of generator, it is necessary to maintain high
level of hydrogen purity of the order of 98% inside generator casing. Generally, with normal daily make-up
(on account of leakage) the hydrogen purity inside the generator casing can be maintained at the desired
level. However, in practice, a number of power stations have reported deterioration of hydrogen purity
during operation of the machine requiring additional purging of hydrogen with fresh gas to maintain desired
level of the purity.
Author has analyzed and resolved a number of such problems fro m various power stations in India.
Following paper documents the findings of the authors in resolving such problems. Also described are
design features of various types of shaft seals and how they maintain the desired level of hydrogen purity
inside generator casing during operation.
HYDROGEN, AS A COOLING MEDIUM IN TURBOGENERATORS

With increase in rating of turbogenerator, the size and weight of generator become an important
consideration due to constraints imposed by transportation limitations. Further efficiency consideration is
also very important for high rating machines. To meet these requirements, hydrogen is being used as a
cooling mediu m in the large size turbogenerators, the windage losses in hydrogen are about 7% as compared
to that in air. Further, the thermal conductivity of hydrogen is 14 times higher than that of air.
To get the maximu m of above mentioned advantages of hydrogen gas, it is very important to maintain a high
level of purity inside the generator as with decrease in purity, losses will increase and cooling efficiency will
also go down1 . (Fig.-1). this assumes even more importance for large size generators with compressor type
of fan operating at high hydrogen pressure in generator casing. The additional cost of fuel due to increased
windage losses on account of low hydrogen purity could be quite substantial. (Fig. 1)
Normally, hydrogen gas of purity 99.9% is used for initial filling as well as regular make up in the generator
casing. During operation, the hydrogen purity comes down due to evolving of dissolved gasses and water
vapor from the seal oil which is drained towards hydrogen side of the shaft seal. Mixing of oil vapor with
hydrogen also affects the hydrogen purity.
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Fig. 1 Variation of windage l osses with respect to hydrogen purity
CAUSES OF DECREASE IN HYDROGEN PURITY INSIDE GENERATOR

CASING
Depending upon the type of shaft seal and seal oil system there can be varied reasons for decrease in
hydrogen purity inside generator casing.
A. Axi al Thrust Type Shaft Seal
In this type of shaft seal, the sealing is maintained by a pressurized oil film between seal liner and shaft
collar. The pressure of oil is kept more than the hydrogen pressure inside generator.
Most of the oil (mo re than 95%) is drained towards air side of the seal while a very s mall amount is collected
on the hydrogen side. Due to this, only a small amount of dissolved gasses and moisture in the seal oil will
682
get mixed up with the hydrogen inside the generator. However, if due to certain reason (defective seal
assembly etc.) the oil drained towards hydrogen side can increase and this may result into loss of hydrogen
purity in generator casing.
The low hydrogen purity problem has been reported only on a few sets. In some of the cases, the problem
was reported just after overhauling of the unit. In other cases, continuous deterioration of purity reported
after one or two years of operation. On analysis of the problems, fo llo wing main causes were identified.
i) High seal oil drain on hydrogen side.

ii) Higher mo isture content in the seal oil wh ich is taken fro m turb ine lube oil system.
iii) Excessive ingress of seal oil in stator casing.
The problem due to excessive oil drain on hydrogen side was resolved by correcting the assembly of shaft
seal. Another case, where the problem was analyzed to be mainly due to excessive moisture in seal oil, a
thorough investigation was carried out to know the source of the entry of the moisture in lube oil system. It
was found that the moisture was entering into the lube oil system fro m excessive leakage of sealing steam
fro m turbine sealing glands. As an immediate solution, continuous centrifuging of lube oil was
recommended. In the next available opportunity the turbine gland sealing assembly was rectified.
Investigation of yet another case of decrease in hydrogen purity revealed that the seal oil was leaking into
generator casing from labyrinth seals. After correct ing these deficiencies, the problem was resolved.
B. Single Flow Ring Type Shaft Seal
In this type of shaft seal, pressurized oil film is created on shaft journals between a seal ring and rotor shaft.
About 1/3rd of oil is drained towards hydrogen side and 2/3rd towards air side. As hydrogen side drain is quite
substantial it is very important to free the seal oil of moisture and dissolved gases before it enters the shaft
seals. This is achieved by vacuum treating the seal oil in a vacuum tank before it enters into shaft seal
system.
683
Some of the power stations having this type of shaft seal reported few cases of deterioration of hydrogen
purity during operation. Analysis of these cases revealed follo wing causes attributed to the problem:
a) Low vacuum in vacuum tank: Deterioration of hydrogen purity in the turbogenerators having ring
type shaft seal has been main ly due to low vacuum in the vacuum tank. After correction of vacuum to
the desired level (between 400-500 mm of Mercury) the problem was resolved.
b) In some o f the cases, the purity was deteriorated even with higher level of vacuum in the tank.
Investigation revealed that there was continuous sucking of atmospheric air into the seal oil system fro m
the flange joints on suction side of the seal oil pump which is under vacuum. As a temporary measure,
silicone sealing component was applied on the flanges while finally during the plant shut-down, flanges
were properly aligned and specified quality of gas cut was used.
c) In another case, there was continuous sucking of atmospheric air through the mechanical seals of
screw type seal oil pu mp. This was finally resolved by replacement of the pump seal.
d) In yet another case, there was passing of emergency oil (fro m turb ine governing oil system) into
the main seal oil system. This emergency oil is provided to take care of insurgency when all the seal oil
pumps fail. Proper checking of this area was recommended during plant maintenance shut-downs of the
unit.
e) Slight deterioration of purity has also been on account of excessive mixing of ring relief oil
(which is fro m turbine governing oil system in some of the older sets) into the main seal oil. A
permanent solution to this has been achieved by modifying the system in new units where the ring relief
oil is also on the main seal oil, wh ich is vacuum treated.
C. DOUBLE FLOW RING TYPE S HAFT S EAL
This type of shaft has provision of two independent oil circuits. The seal oil fro m two separate circuits i.e.
air side and hydrogen side seal oil circuits. Air side oil is fed to seal ring at a pressure slightly higher than the
hydrogen side pressure. The hydrogen side seal oil enters into the hydrogen side chamber of seal ring and
circulated in a closed loop thus, the oil is normally saturated with hydrogen and no air or water vapor enter
into this system fro m outside. However, to keep the system running, a s mall amount of oil fro m air side is
taken into hydrogen side circuit to compensate for any loss of oil. Because of independent circuits of
684
hydrogen and air side seal oil, there is very little loss of hydrogen through the seal oil. To maintain the
hydrogen side seal oil free of air and moisture, it is important that there should not be any pilferage of oil
fro m hydrogen side and also no excessive oil should enter into hydrogen side system fro m the air side
system. Problems reported on this type of seals were analyzed fo llo wing main causes have been identified:
a) Excessive loss of oil fro m hydrogen side seal system due to the passing of the relief valve of seal
oil pu mp and hence requiring excessive make-up fro m air side system.
b) Another source of loss of purity was found to be from the leakage of o il fro m o il in let ports in
the seal carrier ring. Th is leaking oil fell into the air side drain of the seal.
c) Passing of make-up float valve which normally comes into action when level in hydrogen side
seal oil tank falls below a certain point has also been attributed as a cause of decrease in hydrogen
purity.
d) As in the case of single flow ring type shaft seal, the possibility of suction of atmospheric air
fro m mechanical gland seal of hydrogen side seal oil pu mp can also cause low hydrogen purity. So far,
such a case has not been reported from anywhere.
3.2 TRIPLE FLOW RING TYPE S HAFT S EAL
To further reduce the loss of hydrogen through shaft seal and also to avoid any deterioration of hydrogen
purity inside the generator casing, some of the generator manufacturers are using Triple Flow Ring Type
Shaft Seal. In this shaft seal, additional vacuum treated seal oil is circu lated between hydrogen side seal oil
and air side seal oil. As the make-up to hydrogen side seal oil is free fro m air and moisture, there is remote
chance of ingress of any air or mo isture into generator casing and hence, hydrogen purity inside generator is
always maintained at a high level. However, this system is very complicated and has been used only in very
high rating machines by some of the manufacturers.
Seal Ring
Carrier
De aerated seal oil
Seal Ring
Air Side H2 Side Seal Oil

Seal Oil
Author does not have any experience on such type of shaft seals. However in this case also causes of
decrease in hydrogen purity will be some of those mentioned above in other type of shaft seals.
CONCLUS ION
Purity of hydrogen inside the generator casing for the hydrogen cooled generator is a very important
parameter and requires continuous monitoring. Any fall in the purity below the recommended level will
685
result in increase of windage loss / lesser cooling and therefore, should be attended immediately. Hydrogen
inside the generator gets contaminated due evolution dissolved air and mo isture in hydrogen side drain oil.
Depending upon the type of shaft sealing system, various causes of the problem have been identified. It is
recommended to thoroughly investigate this problem whenever it occurs in generator and find out the cause
responsible for the problem. It will save both money and environment.
References:
1. Website of M/S Environ mental One
686
Evolution of New Digital Excitation System
-With enhanced features & complete redundancy in PLC, Regulation & I/Os
A K Mukherjee, akmukherjee04@ntpceoc.co.in
Somes Bandyopadhyay, somes@ntpceoc.co.in
Abstract:
Over the years the Excitation equipments and its control systems in particular has
undergone sea changes from age old analog AVR to Microprocessor based DVR
due to revolutions in electronics. Inspite of that, inadequate redundancy in control
and in analog & digital input / outputs in Excitation equipment has been a major
cause of concern for utilities to generate reliable power. Even trouble shooting has
never been easy in Excitation system and caused huge loss of revenue. This paper
explains the various features of the new Digital Excitation System developed by
BHEL in association with NTPC and also includes discussions of how these tasks of
evolution are accomplished by amalgamating two proven technologies for control
and regulation function of DVR.
Introduction:
In today’s Electricity market, Generator availability and reliability are becoming more
and more critical. There is huge risk and penalty if the utilities cannot deliver what
they promised. Key words are DOWN TIME and TIME is MONEY. Excitation system
is the ultimate process in generating electricity and its reliability is of utmost
importance to the Generators. Hence complete redundancy in Excitation control
system and two completely independent Auto channels are the demand of the
utilities. Beside this, advanced features of trouble shooting, data logging / trending,
testing tools will not only minimize down time but the time required to commission
and will ultimately speed up the availability of the machine to become a revenue
producer.
BHEL – Electronics Division has been supplying microprocessor based Digital
Excitation Systems for Synchronous Generators, for more than a decade now. The
equipments are manufactured both for direct (Generator with slip rings) and indirect
(brush less Generator) excitation of generators. They are referred as Static
Excitation Equipment (SEE) in case of direct and Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
in case of indirect Excitation Systems. Any Excitation Equipment comprises of A)
Power circuits, B) Regulation circuits and C) Logic Control circuits. Their features are
as detailed below:
A. Power circuits:
These include the following:
· Excitation Power is derived from Generator terminals using Excitation
transformer, for matching the voltage level with the excitation requirement (for SEE).
In case of AVR Excitation power is normally derived from Permanent Magnet
Generator (PMG).
· Thyristor bridges for converting AC input to its DC value,
· Field breaker for isolation of exciter or generator field from thyristor bridges and
to discharge the stored energy in the field,
· Field flashing circuit to provide initial excitation when excitation power is derived
from generator terminals itself.
687
A1: Redundancy in power devices:

Redundancy is provided by incorporating multiple thyristor bridges in parallel so that
they share the required load current equally. Additional bridges are also provided to
meet with the required redundancy specifications of the customer.
B: Regulation Circuits:
The Regulation control loop normally comprises circuits to achieve the following
functions:
These circuits regulate the generator terminal voltage by controlling the firing angle
of the pulses to the thyristor bridges while the operating point of the machine, under
a given load condition, is held within its capability limits. If the operating point of the
machine tends to traverse beyond its capability limits, it is held within the capability
region by limiting action as provided by various limiters like:
· field current limiter ( maximum and minimum ),
· generator current limiter (inductive and capacitive),
· load angle limiter, and
· volt/hertz limiter
In addition to the above limiting functions, Power System Stabiliser (PSS) is provided
for ensuring dynamic stability of the machine.
B1: Redundancy in Regulation Circuits:

Redundancy is also provided in regulation (control) circuits. The redundant channels
- as they are called - can be either “Automatic” or “Manual”. The advantage of this
redundancy is that even in case of failure of an auto channel, the machine generates
power while regulation shifts to redundant channel.
The Auto channel permits optimum utilisation of full capability of the machine,
ensuring at the same time that the operation is within the limits of the capability curve
as it incorporates all the features of Regulation as listed in the aforesaid lines.
If the redundant channel is a manual one then it excludes features like automatic
regulation, limiting functions, and PSS. Excitation output is controlled by the operator
by setting a field current reference. However this mode of operation is also essential
during commissioning for i)first time energising of the machine, ii) conducting
generator Open circuit and Short circuit characteristic tests, and iii) testing and
setting of generator protection relays.
688
B2: Channel Redundancy Variants:

The following variants are in vogue:
1. One Auto and one Manual channel with automatic follow up and
unidirectional emergency changeover from Auto to Manual.
2. Dual Auto Channels with in built Manual having automatic follow up and bi-
directional emergency changeover.
2.1 In built Manual mode selection and operation from Local only (Manual
mode envisaged for conducting commissioning tests only)
2.2 In built Manual mode selection from Local only and provision for Raise
/ Lower from Local and Remote.
2.3 In built Manual mode selectable and operable from Local / Remote.
3. Dual Auto with dual independent Manual channel with automatic follow up
between each one of the channels and emergency changeover from i) any of
the Auto channels to standby Auto channel or Manual channel and ii) any of
the Manual channels to standby Manual channel.
C: Logical Control circuits:

The logical control circuits form the interface between Excitation Equipment and
operator.
The commands like Field breaker ON / OFF, Excitation ON / OFF, selection of any
Regulation channel, Raise / Lower commands to the reference value of any
Regulation channel etc. are issued from operator’s control panel which can be either
at local of panel or from Remote control room. The binary command issued, passes
through the Digital Input / Output Module, reaches the CPU module containing the
PLC ( Programmable Logic Controls) software provided for the purpose. The PLC
CPU module, after processing, provides the binary signals necessary for Regulation
circuits through Digital I/O module. Similarly binary signals like Max. Field current
limiter in operation, Load angle limiter in operation, Reference value in max. / min.
position etc are available from Regulation processor which are indicated in control
room or Local panel through the PLC processor circuits used. In this configuration as
shown in Fig-1, any abnormality in PLC, I/O or in any common circuit results in to
failure of total system. NTPC suffered immensely due to this short coming inspite of
having independent dual Auto channels. Moreover there is no way to capture
transient / spurious mal operation of input & output modules which make the trouble
shooting extremely difficult.
689
Field Input / Output module CCR
Logical
Control
Circuits
(PLC)
PMG
Regulation Regulation
Ch-1 Auto C/O Ch-2
Fig-1: Existing PLC (Inadequate Redundancy in Logical Control circuits)
C1: Redundancy in Logical Control circuits:

However in the above configuration, if the PLC CPU / power supply for the functional
group fails a tripping of the unit is initiated from Excitation Equipment.
In order to over come this deficiency, the processor and I/O modules which are used
currently for plant DCS (Distributed Control System) and suitable for provision of
redundancy in logical processing have been provided. This has resulted in complete
redundancy in every electronic circuit used. The processors used in DCS also
provide HMI operation, operation of equipment through a computer.
This new variant being developed & supplied by BHEL enhances the reliability of the
equipment in terms of its continuous uninterrupted power generation because
redundancy has been built in regulation channels as well as in PLC function
including I/O, communication network independent of each other.
D1: Independent PLC redundancy and Independent Regulation redundancy

Refer Fig.2. Normally PLC1 and Regulation Channel -1 will be in service. In case
Regulation Channel – 1 fails, operation shifts to Regulation channel-2 with PLC1
690
continuing in service. Now if PLC1 fails generation will continue with PLC2 while
Regulation is with channel-2 i.e., the redundancy in PLC and Regulation channels
are completely independent and any Regulation channel can work with any PLC
channel.
HMI
PLC-1 PLC-2
PROCESSOR WITH I/ O PROCESSOR
MODULES WITH I/ O MODULES
REGULATION REGULATION
CHANNEL-1 CHANNEL-2
Fig. 2: New PLC (based on DCS) – Regulation & PLC Redundancy Configuration
D2: Protective Channel Change over:

Priority of Regulation channel change over is from Auto-1 to Auto –2 and vice versa
when in auto mode.
In case Auto-2 fails, while Auto-1 is already faulty, operation automatically shifts to in
built Manual-2.
In case Auto-1 fails, while Auto-2 is already faulty, operation automatically shifts to in
built Manual-1.
Thus maximum utilisation of hardware is achieved even when failure occurs to
achieve better availability of equipment.
D3: Follow-up
Control voltage of the operating Regulation channel, which can be in Auto mode or
Manual mode, is set as reference for the standby Regulation channel. Depending on
the mode of standby channel which also can be Auto / Manual, the respective
reference value ( i.e. Generator Voltage reference in case standby channel is in Auto
mode and Field current reference in case standby channel is in Manual mode ) is
Raised / Lowered to achieve matching of control voltages Uc1 and Uc2.
691
D4: Enhanced Features:

HMI operation
· Controls (like Field Breaker ON/OFF, Channel selection, Raise Lower etc) and
display of status indications, alarms and analog signals like field voltage, field
current, balance voltage etc are implemented in HMI. An industrial computer is
provided for the purpose at local of panel. Refer Fig. 3 for typical picture of Excitation
system.
Trouble Shooting Tools:
· The pop-ups for commands / controls are provided with Permits for ON and OFF
which are very useful to know whether all conditions required for control operation
intended are satisfied. If not, signal which is blocking the operation is indicated in
red.
· First out provides the necessary help in knowing the first fault which has resulted in a
Channel fault / Field breaker trip.
· SOE (Sequence of Events) option available with 1ms time stamping and GPS
syncronized will help immensely in finding out root cause and analysis of events.
· GPS time synchronization facility.
· Remote access via LAN
· Communication Network redundancy
· Pictorial indication of status by closed / open contacts of breaker and colour
changing of power components dynamically.
· Trending of various Analog signals like Generator / Exciter Field Voltage(Uf),
Generator / Exciter Field Current(If), Control Voltage of Regulation channel-1(Uc1),
Control Voltage of Regulation Channel-2(Uc2) etc. pertaining to excitation is
available.
· Display of operating point (on real time basis) dynamically on Generator capability
curve is possible and implemented.
· Ease of logic & setting modification.
692
Fig. 3 -Typical view of Excitation Mimic on HMI
D5: Response time

The configuration has been optimised, for every signal which leads to a trip or
protective changeover, to achieve the response time in line with that of existing
hardware and meeting electrical system requirement (typical time is approx. 50mS).
D6: 100% Redundant Power Supply Scheme:
The power supply scheme has been built with redundancy and monitoring at every
stage as has been indicated in Fig-4a & b.
693
PMG/ STATION
PMG/ STATION
EXC.TR BATTERY
EXC.TR BATTERY
SUPPLY SUPPLY-1 SUPPLY SUPPLY
POWER SUPPLY POWER SUPPLY

INTERFACE-1 INTERFACE-2
PULSE PULSE
CH-1 PLC PLC FINAL FINAL PLC PLC CH-2
REG. SYSTEM SYSTEM STAGE STAGE FIELD FIELD REG.
SUPPLY POWER POWER POWER POWER POWER POWER SUPPLY
SUPPLY-1 SUPPLY-2 SUPPLY SUPPLY SUPPLY-1 SUPPLY-2
TY1 TY2
+15V 24V 24V/48V 24V/48V 24V 24V +15V
-15V -15V
24V +24V
5V +5V
Fig 4a.-POWER SUPPLY INTERFACE SCHEME
Fig 4b.-POWER SUPPLY for PLC
694
D7: Other Salient Features of the new scheme:

The following are the salient features of this variant:
· The scheme has been designed such that redundancy in Regulation channels is
independent of redundancy in PLC channels.
· Each Regulation channel is selectable for Auto / Manual mode of operation.
· Each PLC channel has its own independent, Binary Input / Output modules and
Analog Input module in addition to the DPU.
· Follow up circuit has been designed such that the stand by channel in whichever
mode (Auto mode or Manual mode) follows the active channel, in which ever mode it
is in operation.
· It is possible to build up and control excitation in Manual mode from any of the
Regulation channels either from local or from remote through PLC channel-1 or PLC
Channel-2.
Other improvements:
1. Adaptability to wide variation in PMG (Permanent Magnet Generator) voltage
from 220V to 280V has been achieved by providing multiple tap transformers.
2. Layout for Thyristor bridge AC / DC power connection has been refined, to
equalise cable impedance for equal bridge sharing, even during load sharing test,
when the output is kept shorted, even though each bridge is capable of carrying
200% current.
3. Metallic shielding between PLC & Regulation cubicle for preventing probable
interference associated with triggering pulse generation and amplification.
E: How accomplished
· Regulation system has been retained as it is.
· Earlier PLC and Input / output devices have been removed in totality and new
Control system with duplicated I/O system based on state of the art DCS has been
designed and added to the original regulation system.
· The new hybrid system has been tested for SWC (Surge Withstand Capability), EFT
(Electrical Fast Transient), Heat Run test, response time etc.
· Finally the first system of direct excitation has been successfully commissioned at
NTPC Unchahar Unit-2 on 22-11-09. Later on, indirect excitation system of same
design has been commissioned at NTPC Dadri, Unit-5 in Dec-09. So far no
abnormality / difficulty have been reported from sites.
695
Conclusion:
· Enhanced availability of the equipment, due to independent redundancy in PLC & I/O
circuits in addition to independent redundancy in Regulation channels and hence
reduction in loss of generation to utilities.
· Ease of trouble shooting, commissioning & testing will certainly reduce DOWN TIME
for the Generators.
Acknowledgement: BHEL-EDN, Team members of Excitation System Design

Group.
Reference: 1) BHEL Drg No. EN-DG-370-145-6495, 3 657 00 05134

2) ANSI/IEEE C.37.90a: 1974
3) IEC 61000-4-4:2004
4) BHEL manual for Excitation system--UNITROL-D system of ABB
2) Manual of Max-DNA based DCS from METSO Automation.
696
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN MOTOR TECHNOLOGY
ALLOW DIRECT DRIVE OF
LOW SPEED COOLING TOWER FANS
Baldor Electric India Pvt. Ltd., Pune, India

PRADDYUMNA KULKARNI - GM Servo & Motion
Email: PKulkarni@baldor.com; Mobile: +91 9766342484
PAPER NO: TP09-18/ ROBBIE MCEL VEEN, BILL MARTIN, RYAN SMITH/ Baldor Electric Company
697
Abstract - Improved reliability of cooling tower fan line” starts drawing high amps and placing unnecessary
dri ves is now possible due to new advancements in strain on the mechanical co mponents of the system [2].
motor technol ogy. This paper discusses the While providing some flexib ility in the tower control
development of l ow speed, permanent magnet logic, t wo speed motors are not optimal when it co mes
motors and how they can be used in direct-dri ve to maximizing energy savings during times of reduced
applications to eliminate the gearbox, NEMA motor, heat load.
dri veshaft, and disc couplings from cooling tower
The use of variable frequency drives (VFDs) has
designs. A case study is presented where a tower was
become much more co mmonplace in recent years. Data
refurbished using a direct-dri ve motor designed to
fro m a noted cooling tower manufacturer indicates that
fit the exact footprint and height of the existing
VFDs are being installed in the majority of all new
gearbox. Design consi derations, performance data, towers being constructed. Additionally, most towers
maintenance, and efficiency comparisons will be
being upgraded or refurbished are also being equipped
discussed. with VFDs. These drives have the advantage of a soft
mechanical start, no large starting current draw, and the
I. INTRODUCTION ability to run the fan at any desired speed from zero to
the maximu m design speed for the application [3]. The
The most common solution for driving the fan in energy savings realized by using a VFD are well
current cooling tower designs utilizes an induction recognized and documented, so no further discussion
motor, driveshaft, disc coupling, and gearbox will be introduced here [4]. Several factors that must be
arrangement, as shown in Figure 1. Few changes to this considered when applying a VFD are any crit ical
speeds of the mechanical system, the cooling ability of
design have been made in the last twenty years.
the induction motor at low speed, and the proper
lubrication of the gearbo x at slow speeds. For practical
purposes, the fan is generally not run at speeds below
30% of the no minal design speed.
Historically, the mechanical co mponents of the fan
drive system, specifically the right angle gearbox, have
been the largest maintenance issue for cooling tower
installations [5]. Gearbo x failures, o il leaks, oil
contamination, failed drive shafts, misaligned drive
shafts and excessive vibration are all significant
problems related to this type of fan drive system [6],
[7].
In this paper, recent developments in motor technology

are presented. It is demonstrated how these innovative
designs can be used to improve the reliability and
Figure 1: Typical Fan Drive Arrangement reduce maintenance associated with today’s cooling
tower installations. The design and installation of a 208
The motor used is normally a standard NEMA rpm, 50 horsepower PM motor for a ret rofit application
induction motor. Fo r reduced energy consumption, two is discussed in detail. The possibility of improved
speed motors have been applied for use when full fan efficiency and lower energy consumption with the
speed is not required due to decreased heat load. As the proposed solution is discussed.
horsepower required to drive the fan varies as the cube
of the fan speed, it is advantageous to reduce the fan II. IMPROVEMENTS IN
speed when possible. When the heat load decreases
MOTOR TECHNOLOGY
enough, the drive motor can be run at half speed. This
lowers the horsepower required to only 12.5% of the Increased efficiency and improved power density are
rated value [1]. However, when any air flow even being demanded in the motor industry. To achieve these
slightly above that provided by half speed operation is goals, along with lower noise and variable speed
required, a two speed motor must be run at rated operating capability, other technologies beyond simple
horsepower as there is no other speed available. Two induction motors should be considered. Permanent
speed motors do provide some energy savings, but still magnet (PM) motors have long been recognized as
must be cycled on and off to maintain the desired water providing higher efficiencies than comparable induction
temperature. This cycling involves many “across the motors. Ho wever, limitations in terms of motor
698
control, as well as magnet material performance and
cost, have severely restricted their use. Due to dramatic
improvements in magnetic and thermal properties of
PM materials over the past 20 years, synchronous PM
motors now represent viable alternatives. Figures 2 & 3
show typical efficiencies and power factors for various
motor types [8].
Energy Efficient Pre miu m Effi ci en cy® PM
98
97
96
%EF F I C I EN C Y
95
94 Figure 4 – Laminated Frame Construction

93
Another advantage of this construction is that the air
used to cool the motor is in direct contact with the
92
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 electrical steel. There is no thermal resistance path as
% LOAD
that which exists in a traditional cast iron frame with
contact to the stator lams. The heat transfer mechanism
in a cast iron frame motor is highly dependent upon the
Figure 2 - Typical Partial Load Efficiencie s of
stator to frame fit. Laminated frame construction
75 HP, TEFC, 1800 RPM Motors
eliminates this issue.
In recent years, industry drivers have forced the
development of an optimized, finned, laminated motor
design. To improve the cooling and increase power
density, fins have been added to the exterior of the
stator laminations. The addition of the optimized
cooling fins increases the surface area available for heat
dissipation. The result is improved heat transfer and a
power increase of 20-25% is typical for a given
lamination diameter and core length. Figure 5 shows
the increased surface area achieved by including these
cooling fins.
Figure 3 - Typical Partial Load Power Factors

of 75HP, TEFC, 1800 RPM Motors
Another innovation which merits discussion is the

laminated frame motor technology used in this design.
Laminated frame motors consist of a stack of
laminations permanently riveted under controlled Figure 5 – Finned vs. Non-finned lamination
pressure. The cast iron outer frame is eliminated,
It is this imp roved cooling method, along with the
allo wing more roo m fo r active (torque producing)
higher efficiency and power factor achieved with the
magnetic material. Figure 4 belo w is a representation
showing how the stator frame is constructed. PM technology that allows for increased power density
in these motor designs. Power density is the key for
being able to match the height restriction of the existing
699
gearbox. For co mparison, a paper study was performed
to determine the approximate sizes and weights of
various motor types for use in this application. The
results are shown in Table 1 below. The rating is 50
horsepower at 208 rp m. Each motor was designed for
the same temperature rise.
H ei ght Wi dth Wi dth Wt.

Motor Type (in.) (in.) (in.) (lbs.)
Cast Iron Frame
41 28 28 3950
Induction
Finned,
Laminated 28 22 22 2320
Frame Induction
Finned, Figure 6 – Original Installation
Laminated 22 22 22 1670
Frame PM
Table 1 – Motor Size Comparisons
III. CASE STUDY

The case study involves the retrofit of an existing
cooling tower constructed in 1986 at Clemson
University in South Carolina. The tower informat ion is
as follows:
Fan Diameter: 18’-0"
Flow 4,250 gallons per minute (GPM )

Rates: per cell - 8,500 GPM total
Motor Information: Frame – 326T Figure 7 – PM Motor Installed in Place

HP – 50/12.5 of Gearbox & Driveshaft
Speed – 1765/885 rp m
Prior to the installation, the current being drawn by the
Gearbox: Size – 155, Ratio – 8.5:1 two original induction motors was measured with the
fans running at full speed. An ammeter was used and
As shown in the above data, this tower is comprised of the current was measured to be forty seven (47) amps,
two identical cells. For this study, one cell was rms on both induction motors. As the induction motors
retrofitted with the new slow speed PM motor and VFD are identical, this is a good indication that both cells
while the other was left intact as originally constructed. were operating under the same load conditions. After
This allows for a direct comparison of the two fan drive the PM motor and VFD installation was complete, the
solutions. Figure 6 below shows Cell # 1 in the orig inal current was again re-checked and found to be only forty
configuration, while Figure 7 shows the PM motor one (41) amps for the PM motor. The induction motor
on the original, identical, tower was still drawing forty
installed in p lace of the gearbo x in Cell # 2.
seven (47) amps.
A power meter was used to measure the input power to

both solutions. The fans were running at the same
speed. Data was taken at both the input and output of
the drive to allo w fo r a d irect co mparison of the
induction motor / gearbo x co mb ination to the PM
motor. The results of the measurements are shown in
Table 2 below.
700
Vo lts, Amps, Input Power
Location mean rms kW Factor (%) PM Motor/Driv e Induction Motor (2-SPEED)/Gearbox
Input to 4 0. 0 0
Induction 477 46.7 31.5 81.7 38.1

3 5. 0 0
Input to 33.6
VFD, PM 477 44.5 28.5 77.6 3 0. 0 0
Input P o w e r (kW)
2 5. 0 0
Input to
PM 459 40.9 28.0 86.1 2 0. 0 0
1 5. 0 0
Table 2 – Power Consumption Compari son, 1 0. 0 0
Original blade pitch, manufacturer data 5.00

5.6
4.9
0.00
Fro m this data, it was determined that both cells were 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% 90.00% 100.00% 110.00%
Percent Speed
running at less than full load and that the load should be
increased on each cell. To this end, the pitch of the Figure 8 – Input Power vs. Speed, 12°
blades on each fan was increased to 12°. This change of blade pitch
pitch caused the fans to draw mo re air, thus increasing
the load on each motor. Further, the increased air flow As shown in Tables 2-4, the PM motor solution requires
improved the effectiveness of the overall tower less input power for each load point (blade pitch).
performance. Again, power measurements were made Figure 8 shows the total input power in kilo watts for
and a third party testing service was engaged to verify each solution over a range of operating speeds from 50-
the manufacturer’s results. The data is shown in Tables 100%. Again, the PM motor has an advantage over the
3 & 4 below. induction motor / gearbox solution. Using an average
price of $.08/kWh, the annual cost savings for various
Location Vo lts, Amps, Input kW applications and duty cycles are shown in Table 5. This
mean rms table does not account for the additional savings
Input to achieved by using a VFD and having the ability to run
477 54.8 38.1
Induction at speeds between 50% and 100% o f rated.
Input to
477 49.8 33.6 Annual Savings
VFD, PM
(%Hi gh S peed/ %Lo w S peed)
Table 3 – Power Consumption Compari son, 12° Application Daily
blade pitch, manufacturer data Use 100 / 0 75 / 25 50 / 50
Power Plant 24 hrs. $3154 $2488 $1 82 2
Location Vo lts, mean Amps, rms Input kW Hospital 18 hrs. $2365 $1866 $1 36 7
Input to University 12 hrs. $1577 $1244 $9 11
Induction 478 54.3 37.9
Input to Table 5 – Annual Energy Savings Ba sed
477 49.8 33.0 on Various Duty Cycle s
VFD, PM
Table 4 – Power Consumption Compari son, 12° IV. ELECTRICAL CONSIDERATIONS
blade pitch, testing service data [9]
PM Control Algorithm
For the final blade pitch, 4.5 kW less power
consumption was observed on the cell with the PM In addition to the PM motor design features already
detailed, another challenge of this application was that
motor installed. In order to document the savings
realized at various speeds on this application, input the PM motor had to be run sensorless. There was no
room to install a speed feedback device, such as an
power was recorded at intermediate speeds for the PM
encoder or resolver, and still meet the height restriction
motor cell. Figure 8 below shows the actual measured
of the existing gearbox. In this harsh environment, a
input power for the induction motor / gearbo x solution
feedback device would be a liability as far as reliability
and the PM motor solution at various speeds.
is concerned. Therefore, a sensorless PM control
scheme was developed to satisfy the requirements of
this application. Several things had to be considered
when forming this algorith m. One challenge was the
inertia of the fan. Th is was taken into account to
prevent the motor fro m falling out of synchronism
701
when starting and changing speeds. Figure 9 is a This trickle current also acts as an internal space heater
portion of a typical start from rest. Note the smooth by raising the winding temperature, preventing
acceleration and low starting current required. A typical condensation when the motor is not running.
480 volt induction motor started across the line would
draw 347 amps [10], co mpared to 12 amps for this PM Insulation System
design started on the VFD. Inside the fan stack is an extremely hu mid environ ment.
Therefore, the insulation system on the stator windings
Motor Voltage (Volts) Motor Speed (RPM) Motor Current (Amps) must be robust and highly moisture resistant. To this
90 60
end, an insulation system derived fro m a system
80 originally developed for use by the US Navy was
V o lt a g e (v o l ts ) / C u r re n t (a m p s )
50
70 emp loyed. This system utilizes an epoxy co mpound
m
p
r
applied via a vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI)
)
60 40
system. The VPI system is widely recognized as a
S
p
d
e
e
50
30
superior insulation system for harsh applications such
40
as this. This particular system has been successfully
30 20
emp loyed on “open” motors in tough applications such
20
10
as oil platforms operating in the North Sea.
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
0
30000
V. MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Ti m e ( m s )
Figure 9 – Motor Starting Performance Shaft Seal

Due to the harsh environment inherent with a cooling
Improved Process Control tower application, the motor’s drive end is protected by
As mentioned earlier, the addition of the VFD allows a metallic, non-contacting, non-wearing, permanent
the user to more accurately and efficiently control the compound labyrinth shaft seal that incorporates a vapor
process. Figure 10 shows how the motor speed is blocking ring prevent an ingress of moisture. This seal
changed automatically with control logic as the heat has been proven to exclude all types of bearing
demand on the system changes with time. contamination and meets the requirements of the IEEE-
841 motor specificat ion for severe duty applications.
Current Ambient Speed This type of seal has been successfully used in cooling
45 250.00 tower gearbo xes for many years [11].
40
(a m p s A m b ie n Ai
Maintenance
r
2 0 0. 0 0
35
A not he r c onsid e ratio n is o ve rall s yste m m aint en an c e.

T e m p e r a t u r e (° C )
30
1 5 0. 0 0
For motor / gearbo x co mb ination drives, the lubrication
( rp
/t
m)
25
20 interval is determined by the high speed gear set. The

1 0 0. 0 0
recommended lubrication interval for this type of gear
Sp
ee
d
C u r re n t )
15
10
is typically 2500 hours or six months, whichever comes
50.00
5 first. In addition, gear manufacturers reco mmend a
0 0.00
daily visual inspection for oil leaks, unusual noises, or
9:36 12:00 1 4: 2 4 16:48 19:12 21:36 0:00 2:24 vibrations. As these units are installed in areas wh ich
T Im e
are not readily accessible or frequented, this is an
unr e as on abl e e xp e ctatio n a nd b ur de n on m aint en an c e
Figure 10 – Motor Speed Variation with
personnel. When a gear is to be idle for more than a
Changing Heat Load week, it should be run periodically to keep the internal
co m p o ne nts lubri c ate d because they are highly
Braking and Condensation Control susceptible to attacks by rust and corrosion. When
The use of a VFD also provides the opportunity to offer being stored for an extended period, it is reco mmended
some additional features that across the line systems do that t h e g ea rb o xe s b e c o m plet ely filled with oil a n d
not. The drive may be configured to apply a trickle then drained to the proper level prior to resumed
current to the motor windings to act as a brake during operation. Because the high speed input has been
down time. Th is prevents the fan fro m free wheeling eliminat ed with the slo w s pe ed P M motor d esign, the
due to nominal winds or adjacent cooling tower lubrication cycle can now be extended up to two years.
turbulence. However, a mechanical locking mechanism The PM motor need not be inspected daily for o il leaks,
should be usin g during an y m ai nten a n ce p ro c ed ur es. as the motor contains no oil. As mentioned previously,
702
the VFD can provide a trickle current to heat the stator the biggest influence on the noise level of the tower
windings to a temperature slightly above ambient to itself.
prevent moisture fro m forming inside the motor.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Vibration
With the elimination of the high speed input to the Cooling tower fan drives have changed very little over
gearbox, the system dynamics fro m a vibration the past two decades. Failures of the gearbo x,
standpoint have been simp lified. There are no longer driveshaft, or disc couplings have been the biggest
any resonance issues with the driveshaft. The maximu m reliability issue facing tower manufacturers and end
rotational excitation is now limited to the rotational users. Increasing energy costs have placed a premiu m
speed of the fan. The number of bearings in the drive on power consumption for all motors and applications.
system has been reduced from six to two for a single
reduction gearbox and fro m eight to two for a double Many of the problems associated with cooling tower
reduction gearbox. This reduces the number of forcing maintenance and reliability are solved with the PM
frequencies present in the system. motor design. The relatively high speed (typically 1750
rpm) induction motor has been eliminated. The motor
Noise Level itself has not historically been a problem, but the
Many cooling towers are in locations where airborne associated resonances and potential vibration concerns
noise can be an issue, such as hospitals and universities. have been an issue. The driveshaft and associated disc
To this end, a third party testing company was engaged couplings have been removed, thus eliminating
to conduct comparative sound tests between the two problems associated with misalign ment, improper
cells. Data was taken at both high speed and low speed lubrication, natural frequencies, or delaminating of the
for both cells. The induction motor cell was designated driveshaft itself [12]. The right angle spiral-beveled
as Cell #1 while the PM motor cell was designated as gearbox has been removed. Difficult maintenance
Cell #2. Sound level measurements were taken on Cell associated with changing the oil, proper oil fill levels,
#1 while Cell #2 was turned off. There were twelve 30- contamination of the oil, oil leaks, and gearbox failures
second readings taken at high speed and twelve 30- is no longer a concern.
second readings taken at low speed around the
perimeter of the tower and the fan motor. As there was New motor technology now provides an alternative
no motor outside of the fan stack on Cell # 2, only n ine solution, the direct drive of cooling tower fans. PM
readings were taken on Cell #2 with Cell #1 turned off. motor technology combined with the finned, laminated
A single point measurement was taken where the old frame design now allows the construction of low speed,
induction motor was mounted on Cell #2 in order to compact motors for use in place of the existing gearbox.
have some reference to Cell #1. It was not possible to Data obtained to date indicates this solution will
turn off the water flow for either cell at any time so eliminate the problems associated with the right angle
there was a significant amount of background noise, but gearbox and drive shaft design. By eliminating the
as this condition was the same for both cells, it should gearbox, wh ich is a significant source of loss in the
not affect the comparative data [9]. Average A- system, imp roved system efficiencies can be realized.
weighted sound pressure results are shown in Table 6
for both high speed and low speed operation. VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A-weighted Average The authors of this paper extend their thanks to

Cell High Speed L o w Sp e e d Clemson University and Tower Engineering, Inc. for
Induction 82. 3 d B A 74.4 dBA their contributions and participation in the project.
PM 77. 7 d B A 69.0 dBA
VIII. REFERENCES
Table 6 – Sound Pressure Data
[1] Benjamin Cohen, “Variable Frequency Drives:
At high speed, the PM motor cell was 4.6 dBA lo wer
Operation and Application with Evaporative
than the induction motor cell. Fo r lo w speed operation,
Cooling Equip ment”, Cooling Technology
the PM motor cell was 5.4 dBA lower. Although there
Institute Paper No. TP07-22, 2007
may be some slight differences in the background noise
for each cell, these likely do not account for all of the [2] William F. Immell, “Variable Speed Fan Drives
noise level reduction realized with the PM motor for Cooling Towers”, Cooling Technology
solution. The removal o f the high speed induction
Institute Paper No. TP96-03. 1996
motor fro m the outside of the fan stack appears to have
703
[3] Rick Foree, “Coo ling Towers and VFDs”, Cooling
Technology Institute Paper No. TP01-07, 2001
[4] M.P. Cassidy and J.F. Stack, “Applying Adjustable

Speed AC Drives to Cooling Tower Fans,”
PPIC, 1988
[5] Jim Horne, “How to Address Your Cooling

System Woes,” PTOnline, 2008
[6] Dave Gallagher, “Condition Monitoring of

Cooling Tower Fans”, Reliab ility Direct
[7] Philadelphia Gear, “The Cooling Tower Gear

Drive Dilemma: Why Applying Co mmodity
Products to an Engineered Solution Can Cause
Premature Failure”
[8] Steve Evon, Robbie McElveen and Michael J.

Melfi, “Permanent Magnet Motors for Power
Density and Energy Savings in Industrial
Applications”, PPIC 2008
[9] Dustin Warrington, “Clean A ir Engineering

Report: Clemson East Ch iller Plant”, July 2008
[10] NEMA M G 1-2006, Motors and Generators
[11] Inpro/Seal Co mpany, “An Introduction to

Bearing Isolators”, March 2005
[12] Robert Poling, “Natural Frequency

Characteristics of Drive Shafts”, Cooling
Technology Institute Paper No. TP05-04, 2005
704
Incipient fault detection in Transformer by FRSL & SFRA assesment
Aradhana Ray, Omicron
Email: aradhana.ray@omicron.at
Abstract
Transformers subjected to system faults, overload conditions and accelerated ageing, might be
near end-of-life at an earlier stage. The fault-rate is expected to increase in networks and it will
be more than the rated short circuit capacity for the old units. To assess the life of a
transformer, knowledge of the mechanical , electrical , thermal condition is relevant. Since
existing methods for condition assessment is not able to detect all fault-types, there is need for
more sophisticated methods of condition assessment in order to keep the fault-rate as low as
possible and fast diagnosis of the fault in transformer. Sweep Frequency Response Analysis
(SFRA) , Frequency response of Stray losses (FRSL) is such a technique used to diagnose the
pre fault condition of the transformer and same is discussed in this paper in detail.
Keywords: - SFRA, Condition assessment, resonant frequency, capacitance, leakeage
reactance, FRSL .
1.0 Introduction
Condition and life assessment activity of power transformers has increased due to change in
maintenance-philosophy from time-based to condition-based maintenance in order to reduce
maintenance-costs, and at the same time extending lifetime of components more than the
designed lifetime in order to postpone investments [1]. Many power transformers in our system
will approach their originally designed lifetime and it becomes important to be able to
determine the remaining lifetime, and at the same time avoid catastrophic accidents and long
outages. The main aim of Condition and life assessment activity is to evaluate
· Defects or deficiencies due to weakness in design and failure in early stage of

transformer life .
· Problems originating from normal ageing processes of transformer and defects or
deficiencies that in time will represent incipient faults.
· Incipient fault developed due to stringent operating conditions exceeding transformer
normal rating like transformers subjected to overload conditions or overvoltage
condition causing the accelerated ageing may be near end-of-life at an earlier stage.
It usually takes some time before such problems develop into failures and the above mentioned
information is useful for Transformer Lifetime and asset management by enabling knowledge-
based decisions regarding refurbishment, rewind and scrap.
2.0 Latest Techniques for incipient fault Assessment of Transformer:

Transformer winding and core are involved in a large portion of the failures and it is assumed
that some dielectric failures are initiated by mechanical movements inside the winding and
core, which could have been avoided by assessing the mechanical condition of the winding and
core at an early stage [2]. The mechanical integrity of a transformer is affected by several
factors:
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· In the older transformer of the system significant winding shrinkage can occur due to
aging , leading to a reduction in clamping pressure upon insulation and supporting
structure. Ultimately short circuit withstand strength of the transformer is reduced and
at the same time fault level of the connected bus has increased to meet the increasing
power demand.
· Close- up phase to earth fault resulting from a lightning strike or short circuit faults
exerts excessive electromagnetic forces. Such short circuit faults are potentially very
destructive, if the clamping system is not capable of restraining the forces and results in
severe deformations leading to an electrical fault mostly turn to turn and tap changer
faults. Less severe deformations involve insulation rupture and partial discharges.
· Excessive mechanical acceleration during transport and dynamic forces in service, for
instance vibration or seismic forces.
It is expected that a transformer will experience and survive a number of short circuits during
its service life, but sooner or later one such event will cause some slight winding movement,
and the ability of the transformer to survive further short circuits will then be severely reduced.
It is therefore desirable to be able to check the mechanical condition of transformers
periodically during their service life, particularly for older units and after significant short-
circuit events, to provide an early warning of an incipient fault. Conventional condition
monitoring techniques such as dissolved gas analysis (DGA) are unlikely to be able to detect
such mechanical damage until it develops into a dielectric or thermal fault, so a special
technique is clearly required for the monitoring and assessment of mechanical condition.
2.1 Sweep Frequency response analysis (SFRA):
The SFRA is one of the methods that seems promising because it appear to be sensitive in
detecting mechanical deformations in transformer windings and localizing the fault up to some
extent. Minor deformations which show no significant change in the operational
characteristics, where mechanical properties of the copper might be changed seriously risking
rupture on next event. The impulse strength might also be reduced significantly due to
damaged insulation and reduced distances.
An SFRA analysis permits to predict faults such as:
· Core fault – Low frequency variation

· Shorted turns fault - Low frequency variation
· Open circuit or high impedance winding fault - Low frequency variation
· Overall radial shift of the winding - Mid frequency variation
· Axial shift – Mid to High frequency variation
· Core earthing related faults in the transformer/ Tap changer leads & bushing leads
related faults - High frequency variation
SFRA interpretation requires experience to diagnose the type of fault and it is based on the
overall transformer circuit parameter as shown in Figure 1. Experiences shows that differences
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in the lower frequency ranges relate to core changes, or shorted/open circuits. Medium
frequencies show winding shifts, while more localized winding movement and leads issue is
seen at the higher frequencies.
Figure 1. Equivalent circuit parameter of Transforme r
2.1.1 Incipient electrical Fault detection of Transforme r by SFRA :
There was high impedance fault in U-phase of LV winding of transformer detected based on
DGA and SFRA data having following specification.
Manufacture year : 2004

Voltage : 160/20 kV
Rating : 80 MVA
Investigation of Transformer test data:
I. Oil Analysis (DGA test) :

Date IEEE C57 104 –
No Gas
June 2008 July 2009 1991 limits
1 Hydrogen 0 220 100
2 Methane 0 1710 120
3 Carbon mono xide 48 598 350
4 Carbon Dio xide 4076 0 2500
5 Ethylene 30 614 50
6 Ethane 82 552 65
7 Acetylene 0 0 2
Interpretations of DGA result are: Based DGA data and trend in gas rise Hot spot is suspected
in the range of 300 degC.
II. SFRA data Analysis :

In this case, base plot of SFRA was not available. After the rise in key gases in DGA the SFRA
was conducted first time and wide variation in LV winding plot was found when three phases
open circuit plot was compared is shown in figure 2 . From the figure 2, it is evident that there
is a high impedance fault in U-phase of LV winding (white color) of transformer having higher
dB response in mid and high frequency. The internal inspection of transformer on-site was
recommended as discussed below.
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Figure 2 : Comparison of S FRA pl ot of three phases for LV winding measured in 2009.
III Internal inspection :

In August 2009, the transformer was taken out of service and had visual investigation through
the man hole. Overheating at the lead conductor found at the Secondary winding of U-phase
connection.
Figure 3 : Localized overheating of lead LV windi ng.
2.1.2 Incipient Tapchanger Fault detection of Transformer by SFRA :
40 MVA, YD , 132 kV/11 kV Transformer was removed from service for routine maintenance
and condition assessment test were carried out. There was a slight deviation in the DC
resistance value at Tap No. 5 of the transformer in outer phase T. In fact, it was found that
SFRA plot of Transformer was not normal at Tap 5 in phase T and it is okay for other Tap like
Tap 12 as indicated in figure 4. During On-site internal inspection of Tap changer , mechanical
damage of selector switch is found at Tap 5 position.
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Figure 4 : Comparison of S FRA pl ot of three phases for Tap 12 and Tap 5.
2.2 Frequency response of Stray Losses (FRSL):
The diagnosis of FRSL methods is based on the flow of leakage flux through the windings, and
the FRSL method has the advantage of being sensitive to variations in eddy current losses in
the windings due to variation in measurement frequency. The method is capable of detecting
the disappearance of the insulation, which causes several parallel conductors to be short
circuited in one area of the winding, with the result that the conductor is made larger and
consequently the eddy current losses are increased. This kind of fault cannot be identified by
impedance measurement since the leakage channel remains virtually unchanged.
The diagnosis of winding displacement based on the frequency response of stray losses (FRSL)
is also possible since conventional impedance variation measurement is also possible at each
frequency. If a mechanical distortion occurs in the windings, the resulting realignment of the
leakage flux can lead to a change in the frequency response of the stray losses and/or
impedance. The combined measurement of the resistance and the impedance ensures a better
diagnostic because some faults that imply an increase in the eddy currents may not be seen by
the impedance while on the other hand some faults seen by the impedance may not necessarily
involve an increase in the eddy currents.
Stray loss component outside the winding could be measured on the transformer on-site.
Additional stay losses in one of the winding can result in its faster deterioration. Therefore per
phase measurement of on- load losses should be recommended as a routine test as well as a part
of predictive maintenance program.
Equivalent resistance representing stray losses usually increases as the frequency rises at a
power ranging from 1.4 to 1.8 [3]. Hence measurement of frequency response of stray losses
could bring additional benefits.
R = k · f 1.4- 1.8 stray
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As shown in Figure 5, the test circuit required for the FRSL measurement is the same as for the
impedance measurement and consists in supplying low voltage to one winding of the
transformer and in short-circuiting another one. Unlike the conventional impedance
measurement method, the FRSL method is applied on a range of frequencies from 15 to 400
Hz. This frequency range is given as a reference only and can be adjusted based on the
capacities of the source and/or wattmeter used.
Figure 5: Test circuit for FRSL measurement
The rms current (Irms), rms voltage (Erms) and active power (P) are measured for each
frequency in order to plot the equivalent resistance and impedance curves as a function of
frequency. The FRSL method covers the diagnosis based on the conventional impedance
variation measurement since this parameter is measured for each frequency, including
industrial frequency.
Equations (1) and (2) show the calculation of equivalent resistance and impedance. The value
of the inductance, which must remain constant or with a slight decrease in frequency, is a good
indication of whether the current test is proceeding correctly.
The source should provide a sinusoidal voltage with minimal harmonic distortion. Under sine-
wave conditions, formula (3) can be used to calculate the inductance based on the impedance
and the equivalent resistance.
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Figure 6: Standard curve of the equivalent resistance vs. frequency
Comparison of FRSL Results:
The FRSL diagnostic is not based on the absolute value of the resistance as a function of the
frequency but rather on curve comparison as shown in Figure 6. The FRSL measurements can
be compared in three ways:
· Between phases for three-phase transformers;

· With an identical transformer whether three-phase or single-phase;
· With an earlier measurement taken on the same transformer.
When the phases of a three-phase transformer are compared, variations can be observed that do
not necessarily imply a winding displacement. In fact, the tank can cause an increase in the
stray losses up to 15%. These additional losses are generated mainly in the windings and also
in the tank because of the change in the flux path due to the proximity of the tank. The increase
in the losses is not uniform on all three phases depending on the relative proximity of the tank.
Tests carried out to date show that the losses on phase B are always lower than those on phases
A and C. Again according to the proximity of the tank, the increases in phases A and C may
differ.
3.0 Incipient Fault detection of Transformer detected by SFRA and FRSL:
400 kV/220 kV/33 kV, 315 MVA Auto Transformer data is analyzed as part of condition
assessment activity following observation were made for SFRA and FRSL measurement:
· Change in the REACTANCE of Common winding (IV-N) of Autotransformer is very

significant in Phase A, which is almost 10 % when compared to other two phases as
indicated in Figure 7. This might have happened over a period of two years as too many
system faults is seen by the phase A of the transformer compared to other two phases.
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· Change in the REACTANCE of Full HV winding (HV-N) of Autotransformer is also
significant in Phase A, which is almost 5 % when compared to other two phases as
indicated in Figure 8.
· For winding IV-N A-phase , the three phase Short circuit plots are not identical . The
difference between the A phase plot when compared with other two phases is approx.
0.5 dB from 20 Hz. to 1 kHz which indicate change in the inductance of A-phase
winding. as indicated in Figure 9 and 10.
Hence, Winding deformation in A-phase Common winding is suspected (IV-N), based on

FRSL and SFRA result of the Auto transformer. The Other two phases B and C windings are
healthy based on FRSL and SFRA result of the Auto transformer.
The Transformer was kept under close observation with an increase frequency of DGA
sampling. After one month the transformer was sent to factory and after the winding inspection
hoop buckling in IV winding A-phase was observed to an extent that it require winding
replacement as shown in figure 7. Hence cause of deformation should be identified as early as
possible by internal inspection to save the transformer in incipient fault condition mode and
repair cost can also be minimized by replacing the faulty component only.
Figure 7: Short circuit Inductance plot for FRSL measurement of Common winding (IV-N)
with tertiary winding terminal shorted.
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Figure 8: Short circuit Inductance plot for FRSL measurement of HV winding (HV-N) with
tertiary winding terminal shorted.
Figure 9 : Co mparison of SFRA SC plot for HV-N A- phase with tert iary shorted taken in 2007 and 2009.
Figure 10: Zoomed v iew of SFRA SC p lot for IV-N A, B and C phases with tertiary shorted .
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Figure 11: Deformed winding of IV-N ,A phase.
4.0 Moisture assessment of power transformers by combined time domain

and frequency domain dielectric response method:
Moisture increases the risk of dielectric failures and has a double function: it accelerates ageing
and also ageing generates it. Additional moisture can penetrate from the atmosphere into the
tank. Independent of its origin moisture is absorbed into the oil-cellulosic insulation system.
Hence, measurement of moisture in different stages of transformer’s life became a challenge
for transformer experts .
Based on extensive research and practical experiences a new dielectric response method was
developed. Its methodology improves the measurement itself and also the moisture analysis.
Up to now it is not possible to discriminate between the dielectric influences of water and the
dielectric influences of aging byproducts on site. Thus an aged insulation will appear to be
more wet than it actually is. It also covers the whole temperature range occurring at power
transformers and effect of oil conductivity [4].
The dissipation factor plotted via frequency shows a typical s-shaped curve [5]. With
increasing moisture content, temperature or aging the curve shifts towards higher frequencies.
Moisture influences the low and the high frequency parts. The middle part of the curve with the
steep gradient reflects oil conductivity. Insulation geometry conditions determine the "hump"
left of the steep gradient. In order to determine the moisture content of the insulation, the
measurement should also provide data left of the "hump", where the properties of the solid
insulation dominate as shown in Figure 12.
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10 100
moisture of
Dissipation factor
cellulose, ε'
aging
ε', ε ''
10
1
high
high ε" ε'
low 1
0.1 low
0.1
moisture of
and aging
insulation
geometry
cellulose
0.01 high
0.01
oil ε"
conductivity low
0.001 0.001
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12: Interpretation of FDS measurement data
Dielectric diagnostic methods deduce moisture in the solid insulation from dielectric properties like
polarization depolarization currents and dissipation factor vs. frequency. By comparing the dielectric
response with the previous measurements or with the model curves based on the insulation system’s
construction, the new method based on combined measurement called DIRANA provides an indication
of the insulation condition such as:
· Moisture content in the oil/paper insulation

· Faults in OIP, RBP and RIP high-voltage bushings
· Faults in the generator, motor and cable insulation
· Monitoring of moisture content in solid insulation during maintenance actions such as On-
site drying will be very effective and should be considered as an important application.
Application at Onsite Measure ments:

Here the example of a heavily aged transformer dedicated for scrapping should be
considered. Such a case delivers a good opportunity to compare different approaches to assess
moisture content. Mineral oil type Shell Diala 6KX having a neutralization number of
0,49 mg KOH/g oil from 1954 filled the transformer. This high value together with an oil
conductivity of 900 pS/m indicates a strong influence of conductive aging products and
therefore a progressed aging state. Paper samples were taken after measuring the dielectric
properties (polarization and depolarization currents, frequency domain spectroscopy) and oil
sampling (moisture content in ppm, moisture saturation in %). Figure 13 depicts the
measurement data of the dielectric measurements. The fast decaying currents in time domain
and the high dissipation factor in frequency domain indicate a highly conductive insulation.
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1E-04 10
Dissipation Factor
Current / A
1E-05 1
1E-06 0,1
Ipol
Idep
1E-07 0,01
1 10 100 1000 10000 1E-04 0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10 100 1000
Time / s Frequency / Hz
Figure 13. Left: polarisation currents measured between HV- and LV-wind ing
Right: dissipation factor as measured between HV- and LV-winding
Figure 14 compares the moisture results of the different measurement and analysis
approaches. Karl Fischer titration at paper samples came to 2,6 % moisture by weight (KFT).
The analysis results of the dielectric response methods differ from each other: Two algorithms
had no compensation for conductive aging products and determined 3,8 and 4 % moisture by
weight (FDS, PDC). The new analysis software having a compensation for conductive aging
products indicates 2,9 % moisture relative to weight (Dira).
In an oil sample the moisture saturation was measured directly onsite and also the moisture
content in ppm by Karl Fischer titration in a laboratory. Via an moisture sorption isotherm ,the
relative saturation reading lead to 2,5 % moisture in cellulose (RS), which well agrees with the
paper samples and the dielectric response analysis compensating for conductive aging
products.
6,0
6
Moisture content [%]
5
4,0 3,8
4
2,9
3 2,6 2,5
0
KFT PDC FDS Dira PPM RS
Paper Dielectric Oil sample
sample response
Figure 14. moisture content in the solid insulation as obtained from various measurement methods
To conclude, the findings at this very aged transformer show, that a compensation for aging
products is necessary both for the measurement based on moisture equilibrium and them based
on dielectric properties.
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5.0 Conclusion:
This paper discusses various approaches to measure mechanical fault , dielectric fault and
moisture in power transformers using various Frequency response approach which is effective
in incipient fault detection of Transformer.
6.0 References:
1. .”GUIDE for Life Management Techniques For Power Transformers”. CIGRE WG 12-
18 To be published in 2003
2. CIGRE Report of working group, WG A2.26 in October 2006 , “Mechanical condition

assessment of transformer winding using Frequency response analysis
3. M.F. Lachman, Y.N. Shafir, Influence of Single- Phase Excitation and Magnetizing
Reactance on Transformer Leakage Reactance Measurement (IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 4, Oct 1997, pp. 1538-1546).
4. M. Koch, S. Tenbohlen, T. Stirl: “Advanced Online Moisture Measurements in Power

Transformers” CMD 2006 International Conference on Condition Monitoring and
Diagnosis, Changwon, Korea, 2006.
5. CIGRÉ Working Group 15.01 Task 09, “Dielectric Response Methods for Diagnostics of
Power Transformers”, Electra, pp. 24-37, June 2002.
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RECOVERY OF WASTE HEAT FROM BOILER FLUE GAS BY
USING KALINA CYCLE
Somnath Bhattacharjee*1, Dr. Lajpat Rai*2
*1 Sr. Supdt. (B MD), NCPS-Dadri, sbhattacharjee03@nt pc.co.in (corresponding author)
*2 Retired Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Delhi, railajpat@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The rapidly increasing demand for energy which is covered mainly by the use of fossil fuels in
thermal power plants has serious environmental impacts and magnifies the global warming
phenomenon. The K alina Cycle is a break t hrough technology providing higher level of
performance, impossible to attain with traditional steam plants. The technology is the creation
of Dr. Alexander Kalina, a Russian scientist. Kalina developed a new bottoming cycle, which
utilizes a binary mixture as the working fluid. The ‘‘K alina’’ technology has been developed
over two decades; however, the commercial marketing of the technique started only a few
years ago. Kalina power cycles work with a binary fluid and are uniquely capable of upgrading
low-t emperat ure heat to power at high efficiency. The mixture composition varies throughout
the cycle. The most common working mixture is a binary mixture of ammonia and water.
For Dadri Stage-II (2 X 490MW) units if all of flue gases (2000 tonnes/hr /unit) available at a
o
minimum temperature of 140 C are cooled to their minimum rec ommended temperat ure of
o
120 C, it is estimated that about 11 MW of heat energy could be recovered. Thi s paper
presents a cost benefit analysi s study for use of thi s technology for low-temperature
waste-heat recovery from boiler flue gas in NTPC Dadri Stage-II units.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Kalina cycle is principally a “modified” Rankine cycle. The transformation starts with an
important process change to the Rankine cycle - c hanging the working fluid in the cycle from
a “pure” component (typically water) to a “mixture” of ammonia and water. The modifications
that complete the transformation of the cycle from Rankine to Kalina consist of proprietary
system designs that specifically exploit the virtues of the ammonia-water working fluid. When
the liquid mixture is heated, the more volatile ammonia tends to vaporize first at a lower
temperature than does pure water. The temperature of the remaining saturated liquid ris es
as the ammonia conc entration decreases. Thus the boiling takes place over a range of
continuously varying temperatures. Therefore, in a waste heat recovery boiler, the
temperature profiles of the flue gases and the binary mixture follow each other more closely,
resulting in better thermody namic efficiency. Kalina cycle reduces entropy generation in
the heat exchange process
2. PRINCIPLE OF OP ERATION OF KALINA CYCLE
Rankine cycle plants are inherently poor performers. Cycle efficiencies of Rankine cycle
power plants vary from 35 to 42 perc ent. Major reasons for the low efficiencies are
technological reasons like imperfections in components such as turbine, boiler, condenser
and pumps and thermo-economic losses in heat exchangers. S tructural losses resulting
from finite heat capacity of heat sources and sinks also form a considerable part of losses.
The temperature of the heat source lowers as it gives up its energy to the working fluid.
Rankine cycle utilizes a single component, normally water, as the working fluid. Working fluids
in a Rankine cycle absorb much of this heat at a constant temperature due to the constant
boiling nature of a pure component. Reducing these structural losses is the goal of Kalina
cycle designs. This finally brings us to the lifeblood of the Kalina cycle – an ammonia-water
mixture working fluid.
Ammonia-water mixtures have many basic features unlike that of either pure water or pure
ammonia. A mixture of the two fluids behaves like a totally new fluid altogether. There are four
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primary differences. First, an ammonia-water mixture has a varying boiling and condensing
temperature. Conversely, both pure wat er and pure ammonia have constant boiling and
condensing temperatures. Second, the t hermo-physical properties of an ammonia-water
mixture can be altered by changing the ammonia concentration. The thermo-physical
properties of water and ammonia are fixed. Third, ammonia-water has thermo-physical
properties that causes mixed fluid temperatures to increase or decrease without a change in
the heat content. The t emperature of water or ammonia does not change without a change in
energy. The final difference is not really a change in a basic feature, but rat her an important
change in a fluid property. This is the freeze temperature. Water freezes at a relatively high
temperature of 0°C, while pure ammonia freezes at -78°C. Solutions of ammonia-water have
very low freezing temperatures.
The essence of the Kalina cycle takes advantage of the first feature change - the ability
of an ammoni a-water mixture, at any given pressure to boil or condense at a “ variabl e”
temperature. This is in distinct contrast to the “constant” boiling/condensing temperat ure of a
pure fluid like wat er. Ammonia has a low boiling and c ondensing temperature compared to
water. Therefore, ammonia in a mixture with water is the more volatile component of the two.
This means that when an ammonia-water liquid is heated, mostly ammonia will boil off first,
i.e. distillation will start to occur. Conversely, when an ammonia-water vapour is cooled,
mostly water will condense first. This unique feature is illustrated in a phase diagram shown in
Fig. 1.
Figure 1: Ammonia-Water Phase Diagram
This diagram plots temperature vs. ammonia-water conc entration for ammonia-wat er mixtures
at 550 kPa. (Eac h phase diagram plot is for a specific pressure). Point I at 156°C is the
saturation point of pure water. This is the temperature where water boils or steam condens es
at a pressure of 550 kPa. Similarly, point 2, at 6.9°C is the saturation point of pure ammonia
at 550 kPa. The bottom curve is the saturated liquid, or boil point for t he different
concentrations of ammonia-water. This is where initial vaporization occurs when the mixture
is heated or where complete condensation occurs when cooled. The top curve indicates the
saturated vapour, or dew point where complet e vaporisation or initial condensation occurs.
When an ammonia-water mixture is vaporized or condensed, a phase diagram conveys a lot
about the process. For ex ample, consider a sub-cooled 70 perc ent liquid ammonia (in water)
mixture, a common mix in the K alina cycle. When heat is applied, the mixture starts to
vaporize at 21°C, shown as point 3 in the diagram. As heat continues to be applied, the
temperature rises and more of the mixture (mostly ammonia at first) vaporizes. After the
solution starts to boil, but before it is fully vaporized, the solution actually has t wo separate
components – vapour and liquid. For example, at 66°C, t he 70 percent average solution is
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shown at point 4. The vapour component of this solution is shown at point 5. As indicated, this
vapour contains a rich solution of 97 percent ammonia (and 3 percent wat er). The liquid
component at point 6 contains a lean 36 percent ammonia in water solution.
3. OPERATI ON OF KALI NA CYCLE FOR WASTE HEAT RECOV ERY
Figure 2 shows the simplified diagram of Kalina Cycle used for recovering the heat energy
from the flue gases of a power plant.
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of Kalina cycle for waste heat recovery
The low-temperature exhaust gases generate superheated ammonia–water vapor mixture in

the boiler. This mixture is expanded in a turbine to generate shaft work or can be coupled to
a generator to produce power. Before the turbine, the ammonia-rich steam is separated from
the liquid phas e in a separat or. Afterwards, the ammonia-rich steam passes through the
turbine. The generator, coupled to the turbine, produces electricity. The molecular weight of
the ammonia (17 kg/kmol) is close to that of the water (18 kg/kmol) and therefore it is possible
to use normal back-pressure t urbines. The turbine needs no special materials for the
ammonia–water mixture. After the turbine, the steam and liquid phases are merged together
and condensed in the condenser. Because of t he change in the mixture ratio, the evaporation
temperature increases continuously in the wet-steam region while it decreases during
condensation. The low temperature (LT) and high temperature (HT) recuperators use the
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internal residual heat within the cycle. The efficiency is improved with thes e rec uperators.
Turbine exhaust is cooled, diluted with dilut e ammonia-water liquid mixture and condensed in
the absorber by cooling wat er. The saturated liquid leaving the absorber is compressed to an
intermediate pressure and heated. The saturated mixture is separated into dilute ammonia
liquid and nearly pure ammonia vapour. The liquid is cooled and depressurized in a throttle
and along with some of the original condensate, added to the nearly pure ammonia vapor to
obtain an ammonia concent ration of about 70 % in the working fluid. The mixture is then
cooled, condensed by cooling water, compressed, and sent t o the boiler via regenerative
feedwater heater. The mass flow circulating bet ween the separat or and absorber is about 4
times that of the turbine, thus, causing some additional condensate pump work.
All this points to the fact that the innovation and technology of the Kalina cycle i s in
the process itself, not in the equipm ent or m aterial s. There are no major equipm ent
developm ental hurdles.
The following are the salient feat ures of a waste heat recovery system operating on Kalina
cycle:
Ø An ammonia-wat er mixture (70% -NH3 and 30% -H2O) is used as the working fluid.
Ø Because ammonia lowers the boiling point, the K alina cycle is better suited to low-
temperature applications than the Rankine cycle, as in bottoming cycles, waste heat
recovery from exhaust gases of geothermal power plants, and so on.
3. COMMERCI AL OP ERATION OF KALINA CYCLE BAS ED PLANTS
Exergy Inc., a pri vate energy technology company with i ts headquarters in Hayward,
Californi a is the only known company that engineers Kalina cycles. The company
specializes in the design, commercialization and application of high electric power generation
technology bas ed on the proprietary Kalina Cycle. The following are a few known commercial
installations of Kalina cycle based electricity generation.
Ø A 6 MW pilot plant was constructed at Canoga Park, CA, in 1991. It uses Kalina as
the bottoming cycle that takes exhaust gas es at 543°C from an adjacent test facility
and generates electricity for use by the host facility.
Ø Ebara Corporation of Japan under the licensing agreement wit h Exergy, Inc.
constructed a 4.5 MW Kalina cycle plant at Fukuoka, Japan. The power cycle
recovers heat from an existing incinerator that burns municipal refus e.
Ø At Sumitomo Steel’s Kashima Steel Works in Japan, Ebara Corporation has
completed a 3.1 megawatt Kalina Cycle waste heat power plant. The plant heat
source is the 98°C cooling water effluent from the steel plant.
Ø At Husavik plant in Iceland, commissioned in year 2000, uses geothermal brine at
124°C & produces 2 MW power output.
Ø At Unterhaching plant in Germany, commissioned in year 2007, uses geothermal
energy as heat source & produc es 3.4 MW power out put.
The third application quoted above seems to be a successful demonstration of the technology
in the range of parameters of int erest to the current project
4. TECHNICAL ISSUES IN US E OF KALINA CYCLE FOR WASTE HEAT RECOV ERY
Kalina cycle when used with boiler exhaust gases of coal-fired power plant, the highest
o
temperature reached in the ammonia-water cycle cannot exceed 120-130 C. This fact
o
combined with t he cooling water inlet temperatures in the range of 25-35 C severely limits the
efficiency of the cycle. In the present case, with about 11 MW of heat available, the shaft
output cannot exceed 2.5 MW even with the efficiency equal to a Carnot cycle. Calculations
show that the net efficiency of an integrated Kalina plant i s between 12. 3% and 17. 1%.
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The second issue is that this tec hnology produces shaft power output, and hence could be
used for a variety of applications ranging from pumping or fans to running the compressor of a
vapour-compression refrigeration system for air-conditioning or cold storage.
5. COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF KALI NA CYCLE FOR WASTE HEAT RECOV ERY
It is estimated that maximum output of Kalina cycle producing shaft output from flue gases at
o o
140-160 C, at 2000 t/h and cooling water at 30-40 C and a heat recovery unit of 75%
effectiveness will be around 2 MW. A s per estimates gathered from open literature from
internet & research papers the cost of the unit is US D 1200 per kW, which converts to
Rs. 6 crores / MW, including the heat recovery equipment and generator for electrical
output.
Kalina cycle is a technology capable of producing shaft power output, and has a reasonably
high efficiency. The technology has been proven and commercially installed for applications
of similar nature and temperat ures. The expected net output is likely to be around 2 MW or
slightly lower. The project cost according to the estimates provided above would be
around Rs.12 crores.
The 2MW output (green power), if sought in the form of electrical out put, could be directly
added to the grid or used for running the auxiliaries in the plant. If harnessed directly in the
form of shaft power, it could be utilized for running a variety of equipment, starting from
pumps and fans, to the compressor of an air-c onditioning or cold storage system.
6. CONCLUSION
The technology is promising and is also commercially available. It is also proven to be

suitable for low-temperature waste-heat recovery. But the propriet ary nature of the
technology and the monopoly of Exergy Inc. over the technology are t he points to exercise
caution about. Utilization potential of waste heat recovery from boiler flue gas by using
Kalina cycl e i s more than recovery of waste heat from condenser cooling water. This is
because of the very low temperature potential of t his energy (condenser cooling water) above
ambient temperature. Any efforts to harness this energy would therefore be enormously
expensive when compared to the tangible outcome. Literature survey revealed that none
of the commerci ally available waste heat utilization technologies can utilize heat
o
available at tem peratures below 60-70 C.
The Kalina cycle presents a host of new ideas to the power industry at one time. Each idea
alone has a potential of several percentage points gain in efficiency. And because of t his
higher efficiency, the physical size of cert ain plant equipment will be smaller. The Kalina cycle
does not require technological breakthroughs in equipment design. There is only a lack of
experience with an ammonia-water working fluid in the power industry.
NTPC can start with a pilot scale project at Dadri with collaboration from Exergy Inc. R&D
manpower of NTP C can be utilized to evaluate these technologies and develop them to full
maturity. As a future prospect, Kalina cycle might be a good candidate for the bottoming cycle
in future combined-cycle power plants of NTPC as well as waste-heat rec overy units from
steam power plants. Waste heat recovery can be equated with green energy & use of
thi s technology will help NTPC in long run can to build brand image as an eco-friendly
power major.
REFERENCES :
1) El-Sayed, Y. M. and Tribus, M., 1985a, “A Theoretical Comparison of the Rankine

and Kalina Cycle”, ASME publication AES-Vol. 1.
722
2) Kalina, A. L., 1984, “Combined Cycle System with Novel Bottoming Cycle”, ASME
Journal of Engineering for Power, vol. 106, no. 4, Oct. 1984, pp. 737-742 .
3) Leibowitz, H. M., and Mirolli, M., 1997, "First Kalina Combined-Cycle Plant Tested
Successfully", Power Engineering, 101(5), pp. 4448.
4) Maack, R., and Valdimarsson, P., 2002, "Operating experience with Kalina power
plant", Web page http://www.X-orka.com.
5) Martin C, Goswami D. Experimental verification of a combined power and cooling

thermodynamic cycle. In: Proceedings of the 2004 solar conference, Portland, OR,
USA, ASME paper no. ISEC2004-65026, 2004.
6) Mlcak, A.H., 2001, "Design and start-up of the 2 MW Kalina Cycle Orkuveita
Husavikur geothermal power plant in Iceland", European Geothermal Energy
Council, 2nd Business Seminar EGEC 2001, Altheim, Austria.
7) Nag, P.K., and Gupta, A.V.S.S.K.S., 1998, "Exergy Analysis of the Kalina Cycle",
Applied Thermal Engineering, 18(6), pp. 427-439.
8) Skouka, M., 2002, "A Power Generating System by Low TemperatureHeat

Recovery", web page www.caddet-ee.org.
.
723
Trends in Power Electronics Technology for
Grid Connected Wind Power Generation
Subir Karmakar
Sr. Engineer, Farakka, NTPC Ltd
subirkarmakar@ntpc.co.in
SYNOPSIS
Because of the gradual depletion of fossil energy resources and the increasingly serious issue of
environmental pollution, it has become the consensus of all countries in the world to develop renewable
energy represented by wind energy and solar energy for the sustainable development of human society.
The wind turbine technology is the most technologically mature renewable energy available at the lowest
cost. It started in the 1980’es with a few tens of kW production power to today with Multi-MW range
wind turbines that are being installed.
The wind turbine rotor converts the fluctuating wind energy into mechanical energy, which is converted
into electrical power through the generator and then transferred into the grid through a transformer and
transmission lines with using power electronics technology.
In the earlier time wind power production did not have any serious impacts on the power system
operation and control, but now in many countries, energy planning with a high penetration of wind energy
is going on, which includes large wind farms. These wind farms may present a significant power
contribution to the national grid, and therefore, play an important role in power quality and the control of
power systems. Some of the important requirements that wind farms must meet in order to be connected
to the grid are frequency & active power control, reactive power control, harmonics , stability and short
circuit power level and voltage variation etc.
The power-electronic technology plays an important role in wind power generation and in integration of
wind energy sources into the electrical grid and meeting the grid code requirements, and it is widely used
and rapidly expanding as these applications become more integrated with the grid-based systems.
During the last few years, power electronics has undergone a fast evolution, which is mainly due to two
factors. The first one is the development of fast semiconductor switches that are capable of switching
quickly and handling high powers. The second factor is the introduction of real-time computer controllers
that can implement advanced and complex control algorithms. These factors together have led to the
development of cost-effective and grid-friendly converters.
In the paper details of technological trends in power electronics technology for fixed speed & variable
speed wind turbines and also how the power electronics technology play an important role for
interconnection of wind farms to the grid and meeting grid code, will be presented.
724
NANOTECHNOLOGY: THE NEW EFFICIENCY DRIVER
Ashis Dev Chhavindra Kurrey

NTPC Limited NTPC Limited
C&I, KSTPS, India C&I, KSTPS, India
Growing concern over climate change driven by man-made carbon emissions is prompting governments world
wide to look at ways of stabilising or reducing their carbon footprint. New, more energy efficient technologies
will play a large part on achieving these targets, with the emphasis being on making better use of existing
resources in t he short term while planning for new forms of energy in the longer term. Nanotechnologies,
already funded to the tune of four billion pounds by governments worldwide, are becoming a major weapon in
the struggle against climate change The technologies discussed in this report are all available now or within
the next two years, and some have been making stealthy inroads into global industry for as long as a decade.
Typical examples are better insulated buildings using aerogels which can help reduce the 30% of carbon
emissions generated from households, w hile lighter, stronger materials based on nanotechnology are being
used in cars, busses and aero planes to dramatically improve fuel efficiency. Simultaneously, advances in fuel
cells and hybrid electric powered vehicles are enabling the world’s largest automotive manufacturers to
produce lower zero-emission vehicles that combine energy efficiency with the kind of performance that
consumers are accustomed to. In the meantime, the use o f fuel borne catalysts based on nanomaterials are
being used to improve diesel fuel efficiency by as much as 10%.
E
I .Introduction to nanotechnol ogy
Nanotechnologies describe the creation, analysis and application of structures, molecular materials, inner
interfaces and surfaces with at least one critical dimension or with manufacturing tolerances (typically) below 100
nanometers. The decisive factor is that new functionalities and properties resulting from the nanoscalability of
system components are used for the improvement of existing products or the development of new products and
application options. Such new effects and possibilities are predominantly based on the ratio of surface-to-volume
atoms and on the quantum-mechanical behavior of the elements of the material. Nanotechnologies are worldwide
regarded as key technologies for innovations and technological progress in almost all branches of economy.
Nanotechnologies refer to the target-oriented technical utilization of objects and structures in a size in the range of 1
and 100 n m. They are less seen as basic technologies in the classic sense with a clear and distinct definition, than
they describe interdisciplinary and cross-sector research approaches, for examp le in electronics, optics,
biotechnology or new materials, using effects and phenomena which are only found in the nano-cosmos.
II Role of Efficiency Dri ver.
2.1 Anti-adhesi ve Layers for Boilers and Heat Exchangers in Coal-Fired Power Plants
A problem in the operation of coal-fired power plants or refuse incinerat ion plants are cakings of combustion
residues in the boiler area and in heat exchangers, which require regular and cost-intensive maintenance. Ceramic
anti-adhesive layers on the basis of nanoparticular coating materials can considerably help reduce cakings, thus
the operating life of heat exchanger tubes and maintenance intervals will be extended. Potentials for nano based
anti-adhesive layers are also provided in other industrial processes, in wh ich the encrustation of heat exchangers
and the resulting reduced thermal energy transport are a problem. Fuel Sav ings in Combustion Engines Fuel
consumption of car co mbustion engines is determined by engine friction to approx. 10-15%.The coating of
movable engine co mponents like cy linder, piston and valves with nanocrystalline co mposite materials helps
reduce friction and wear and,thus, save fuel. Efficiency and precision of Diesel in jectors can be optimized through
nanocrystalline piezo materials and nano-wear protection layers on the basis of DLC (diamond-like carbon).The
company Rewitec fro m Lahnau developed an innovative coating technology applied to ceramize the surface of
metal mechanical components in engines, gears etc. and thus to protect them against wear. Nanoparticles are
725
added during operation and, due to the tribological contact developing at high pressures and temperatures, react
with the metal surfaces forming hard ceramic co mpounds.Thus, the components are not only protected against
wear, but existing mechanical damages can also be regenerated. Apart from the application in combustion
engines, this process is also suitable for a number of mechanical co mponents such as gears, bearings or pumps,
and leads to significant energy savings and longer tool lives.Another toehold for fuel savings is provided by
nanopartiuclar Diesel additives of ceroxide, wh ich contribute to more efficient fuel combustion and the reduction
of particular emissions. Such nano particles are currently tested in practical field tests, in which fuel savings of up
to 11% could be verified. To date, however, little is known about possible side-effects caused by ceroxide
particles reaching the environ ment.
2.2 Ceramic Thermal Barrier Coating Systems for Turbi ne Blades
Today, gas turbine blades of industrial turbines are increasingly coated with ceramic thermal barrier coatings, for
example, of partly stabilized zirconiu m o xide. With the application of thermal barrier coating systems in
connection with efficient blade cooling, the gas inlet temperature of industrial turbines can be raised to a level
impossible to reach with unprotected turbine blades. Thermal barrier coating systems as a design element enable
therefore, on the one hand, an improvement of efficiency, on the other hand the reduction of environmental stress.
Thermal barrier coating systems consist of base material, adhesion promoting layer and thermal barrier coating
(TBC). Due to start-up and shut-down processes as well as capacity changes of gas turbines and the related
temperature gradients and transients, the thermal barrier coating system is exposed to thermo mechanical
alternating stress. The base material of the blade bears the mechanical stress. The ceramic thermal barrier coating
serves as thermal resistance and thus controls the heat flow into the base material. The adhesion promoting layer
serves the connection to the thermal barrier coating, balances the different thermal expansion coefficients of
thermal barrier coating and base material and serves as oxidation protection for the base material.In today’s
systems, this occurs through the formation of an Al2O3-rich top layer (TGO, Thermally Grown Oxide), wh ich
develops to a third layer between thermal barrier coating and metal. Here, an alu minu m-rich phase in the adhesion
promoting layer serves as aluminu m reservoir which helps maintain the alu minu m act ivity in the layer matrix
required for the top-layer formation over a long operation period. While the b lade base material allows application
of the metal adhesion promoting layer by LLPS (Low Pressure Plas ma Spraying), the thermal barrier coating is
applied through atmospheric plasma spraying (APS-process) or through electron beam physical vapor deposition
(EB-PVD).The influence of the surface structure of the adhesion promoting layer on the lifespan of ceramic
thermal barrier coatings is the subject of current surveys on crack format ion up to delamination, accompanied by
the development of suitable test methods and life assessment concepts. The research work is boosted by the
Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (MPA), Darmstadt, and the Institute for Materials
Technology (IfW) of the TU Darmstadt, wh ich together, form a powerful technical-scientific center with
internationally proven capacity in materials testing and research.
Fig 1.0 Turb ine Picture
2.3 Energ y Transport through Low-Loss Power Suppl y and Smart Gri ds
Regarding the reduction of energy losses in current transmission, hope exists that the extraordinary electric
conductivity of nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes can be utilized for application in electric cables and power
lines. Furthermo re, there are nanotechnological approaches for the optimization of superconductive materials for
726
lossless current conduction. In the long run, options are given for wireless energy transport, e.g. through
laser,microwavesb or electromagnetic resonance. Future power distribution will require power systems providing
dynamic load and failu re management, demand-driven energy supply with flexib le price mechanisms as well as
the possibility of feeding through a number of decentralized renewable energy sources. Nanotechnologies could
contribute decisively to the realizat ion of this vision, inter alia, through nano-sensory devices and power-
electronical co mponents able to cope with the extremely co mplex control and monitoring of such
grids.Considerable progress was made in the development of high-temperature superconductors in the last years
through the production of yttrium-bariu m copper o xide (YBCO) on metallic carriers (so-called Coated
Conductors, CC), which significantly extended the processability and applicability of this material class. Cable
lengths of over 600 m could already be realized. Superconductors will p lay a growing role in energy technology
for low-loss wired power supply, in coil windings and bearings of electric engines as well as in residual current
circuit breakers in high-voltage grids. The most important challenge is the production of all deposited layers
(superconducting and buffer protection layers) by chemical means from lo w-cost precursor to decrease costs to an
economically attractive value. Nanotechnologies provide toeholds for the control of the microstructure in layer
formation, for examp le through specific insertion of nanoparticles in the form of part icle inclusions in the lattice
structure.Currently, uperconductive nano structured systems from sol-gel precursors are being developed in a
project supported by the BMBF. In the long run, cables of carbon nano tube composites as high-efficient
conductors could be an alternative for a low loss power supply line in high-voltage grids. This, however, would
require further significant progresses with regard to more efficient production methods and technologies for the
production of long CNT-fibers with uniform structure. Efficiency of power transfer in high-voltage power lines
increases with increasing amperage. In Europe, current is usually conducted at approx. 400 kV, wh ile in extensive
countries like China and India high-voltage grids with up to 1500 kV are aspired.Due to increased voltages and
the required current compaction as a result of the feeding of decentralized power generators and the supply of
huge metropolitan areas, the electrical and mechanical strains on high-voltage power lines are growing. Hence, a
central task of high-voltage technology is the further development of electric insulation systems, for example
through the application of nanomaterials.The material design on the nanoscale enables the optimization of electric
insulation properties like breakdown voltage, for example, through the application of nanostructured metal o xide
powder in varistors as protection elements against vervoltages in power lines. Multifunctional, non-linear and
auto-adaptive insulation systems are in development,the mechanical and electrical properties of which change
with field strength, temperature or mechanical stress and adjust optimally to the power demand.
Fig 3.0 Nano crystalline Blank tape
2.4 Nanocoatings for the Sealing of Metal Surfaces
The company REWITEC fro m Lahnau deals with wear-protection layers and tribological properties of metal
components. REWITEC has succeeded in developing a nanocoating, which reconditions metal surfaces worn
during operation and provides lasting protection against wear and abrasion. These nanocoatings offer protection
for co mbustion engines, gear bo xes, co mpressors and bearings of all kinds, even under extreme conditions. The
REWITEC coating technology is based on the modification of the surface structure of grinding metal parts and
the generation of a new nanosmooth metal silicate layer with a surface roughness in the range of few
nanometers. The active components of the REWITEC active ingredient consist of a mixture of different
synthetisized silicate co mpounds. They react with the metal surfaces due to the high temperatures and pressures
727
developing in the friction area. Thus a metal-silicate/ metal-silicate frict ion pair with improved tribological
properties develops from the original metalmetal friction pair. In practice, the REW ITEC active ingredient is
added to the original lubricant wh ich transfers it to the friction areas. After a few operating hours it is completely
converted without influencing or changing the properties of the lubricant. The grain size of the particles contained
in the REW ITEC active ingredient is ranging fro m few nanometers to some micro meters. Ho wever, with regard to
the formulat ion of ready-to-use lubricants,REWITEC is increasingly dealing with the application of pure
nanoparticles. At granting the Innovation Award for the German Econo my 2008, REW ITEC got the final for their
innovative nano coatings for tribological systems. Application Fields The REWITEC nanocoating is applied in
tribological systems consisting of grinding metal surfaces. It extends service life and increases efficiency and
reliability of mach ines and appliances. Due to the significant reduction of the CO-HC- and NOX-emission and
Diesel exhaust particulates in combustion engines, it contributes much to environmental protection.REWITEC
nanocoating has already been successfully used in the following applicat ion.
2.5 Aerogels: Thermal Insulati on throug h Nanoporous Materials
The power demand for heating and cooling purposes in industrial fields and of private consumers has a
considerable share in the total energy consumption worldwide. Here, great savings potentials result from the
energetic reconstruction of old buildings, wh ich account for approx. 80% of the total building stock in Germany
and require more than twice the heating energy allowed according to the applicable Heat Insulation Ordinance for
new buildings. However, also insulation in technical processes ,e.g. in the transport of liquid gases, is of great
importance.Due to a pore size in the range of the average free path length of the gas molecules, nano porous
materials provide potentials for high-efficient insulation materials. Examp les for such materials are aerogels
which consist to 99% of pore volumes in a network of nanoparticles, for instance of silicon dio xide, and are thus
extremely lightweight. Despite relatively high manufacturing costs, first pilot projects are being realized for heat-
insulated outside facades of aerogel materials (cf. volu me 7, Uses for Nanotechnology in Architecture and Civ il
Engineering).Nanoporous polymer foams provide further development potential, even though their manufacturing
is not yet economically advantageous. The cell size of these nanocellular foams shall be reduced to such an extent
that they correspond to the average free path length of a gas molecule. Hence, heat exchange as a consequence of
the collision of gas molecules would cease almost completely. The resulting foams would show heat insulation
properties similar to those of vacuum panels without the application of vacuum. In this way, the insulation effect
of foam could be enhanced by more than 50% and the required material thickness for a given insulation capacity
could be reduced by more than the half. The work on this concept is currently still in a state of basic research.
Co mmercial products will therefore not be available in the mediu m run. A solution approach could be the
polymerization of organic monomers with the help of structure-templates,which enable the predetermination of
structure and pore size of the foam.
Aerogel, often known as frozen smoke, is the lightest substance that we can make, weighing just twice as much as
air and co mprising a tangle of silica containing around 90-99.5% air. In the manufacturing process, tiny pockets of
between 5 to 150 nanometres across are formed, making the material a fantastic insulator, two to eight times better
thanfiberglass or polymer foams.Although they were discovered as long ago as 1931, they were almost forgotten
about until they were postulated as a useful detector for particle physics in the early 1980s. Manufacturing them
reliably took until the mid 90s as pure aerogels are ext remely brittle and require long processing times.The fact
that modern aerogels are transparent (albeit with a slight bluish tinge), lightweight, tough and highly insulating
makes them an attractive substitute for glass in architectural applications such as skylights and roofing. Rather
than trying to generate energy from covering a roof with solar panels, it can be easier to let the sun shine in and
then trap some of the heat. Simu ltaneously the need for artificial lighting can be reduced. Nanogels can also be
incorporated into traditional glazing to further increase energy efficiency. The low hanging fruit for aerogels is
insulation for liquefied natural gas, most of which is landlocked and requires large amounts of cooling and
insulation to enable it to be liquefied and transported. Better insulation means less energy is needed to keep the
gas liquid, and better (and therefore thinner insulation) means less insulation and more gas can be transported
aboard ships.
728
Fig 4.0 Aerogels
2.6 Thin Film Solar Cells: Cheap And Flexi ble Sol ar Panels
Current solar technologies are based on silicon and are produced in a fashion similar to computer chips. As a
result, they are relatively expensive and brittle, wh ich is why after thirty years of development they are still a
minor source of alternative energy. Organic thin film, or p lastic solar cells, represent promising alternatives that
use low-cost materials, main ly based on nanoparticles and polymers. Cost rather than efficiency has been the
greatest barrier to the widespread adoption of solar energy. Since 2004 the price of po lycrystalline silicon has
risen by 500%, and with high prices predicted to continue for a further five years the economics of silicon-based
solar cells look increasingly fragile. Organic thin film solar cells, on the other hand, are produced on a polymer
substrate which can be both cheaply produced and processed.The use of a flexib le substrate means that the cells
can be produced via roll processing that is more akin to a newspaper press than an ultra-high-vacuum
semiconductor plant, offering the scope for dramatic cost reductions. Processing takes place on a continuous basis
rather than passing through a sequence of discrete steps. The flexibility also means that they can be used in
situations where silicon-based solar panels can not, on automobiles for example.Efficiencies will be similar or
greater than existing technologies (some have predicted as high as 30%) and develop ment has been spurred by
the large amount of funding going into both nanotechnologies and renewable energy. However, before solar
energy can become a ubiquitous solution there are a nu mber of issues relating to energy storage and conversion
that also need to be addressed. The ability to power a lightbulb only when the sun shines will do little for the
developing world.
)
2.7 Fuel Borne Catalysts:Increasing Efficiency, Reducing Emissions
Fuel-borne catalysts work by helping diesel fuel burn more efficiently in the engine, increasing fuel economy and
reducing particle emissions.Nanoparticles of materials such as cerium o xide are added to fuel and have the effect
of making the fuel burn more evenly and longer. By using catalyst particles in the range of a few nanometers the
efficiency of the material is dramatically increased as most of the active material is on the surface rather than
being locked up inside a particle. The catalyst is blended into diesel fuel at around 5 parts per million. Long term
trials by UK based Oxonica have indicated improvements in fuel efficiency of up to 10% and a reduction in soot
emissions of around 15%, reducing both carbon input and output. In a diesel engine, combustion occurs when the
fuel injected into a cylinder is compressed. By spreading out the burn, the fuel-borne catalyst reduces the force
exerted at the start of the burn, when the piston is still pushing into the cylinder—a mo ment when the diesel
engine is fighting itself. Later in the cycle, the particles may make a non-catalytic contribution: by decomposing
under the heat and pressure of combustion, the ceriu m o xide particles release some of their o xygen to feed the
flame, combusting residual pockets of fuel.Oxonica’s recent deal with with Petrol Ofisi A.S., Turkey's largest fuel
distributor, is expected to reduce CO2 emissions by up to 200,000 tons per year. Applying the same technology to
private automobiles in the United States could reduce emissions by a further 30 million tons.
729
2.8 Fuel Cells: Clean Energ y wi th Zero Emissions
A fuel cell is a device that employs an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) to
directly convert chemical energy into electrical energy. This can be viewed as the reverse of the princip le of
electrolysis, in which an electrical current is used to separate water (H2O) into hydrogen and oxygen. Honda has
created a clean-running system that is capable of continuous electrical generation when supplied with hydrogen
and oxygen, simu ltaneously generating electricity and water, with no CO2 or other harmfu l emissions whatsoever
Like a battery, a fuel cell uses stored chemical energy to generate power. Un like batteries, its energy storage
system is separate from the power generator. It produces electricity fro m an external fuel supply as opposed to the
limited internal energy storage capacity of a battery. A typical fuel cell requires a large amount of extraneous
control equipment like fuel pumps, cooling systems, fuel tanks, and re-circu lators that make them impractical for
portable applications. New developments like the small direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) can do away with a
large amount of the extraneous systems. Fuel cells are mo re efficient than combustion-type technologies,and are
being developed to power passenger vehicles, commercial build ings, homes, and even small devices such as
laptop computers. The key application will be in automobiles,with many of the highest fuel cell R&D spenders
being the major vehicle producers. The adoption of fuel cells for automotive applications will require the building
of a hydrogen filling station infrastucture.
2.9 Supercapacitors:High Power And Ultra Reliable
Capacitors use physical charge separation between two electrodes to store charge. They store energy on the
surfaces of metallized plastic film or metal electrodes; thus, the capacitance is a function of the dielectric mediu m
and the overlapping surface areas.Supercapacitors are electrical storage devices that can store a much higher
density of energy in a short time based on increased surface area afforded by the use of nanomaterials.The energy
density of supercapacitors is 100 times higher than in dielectric foil capacitors and the power density is 10 times
higher than in normal batteries allowing their use in portable electronics, electric vehicles and for storing energy
generated from renewab le sources such as wind and solar power. Supercapacitors are also finding applications in
a wide range of electronic and engineering applications in wh ich a large,rap id pulse of energy is required.
Supercapacitors offer a lightweight, low-cost source of energy to replace lead-acid or even lithium-ion batteries in
a range of applicat ions fro m power tools and mobile electronics to hybrid electric and fuel-cell-powered
vehicles.They can be used in hybrid-electric and fuel-cell-powered vehicles that need such a surge of energy to
start, which cannot be provided by regular batteries, and to rapidly store the energy generated by vehicle braking.
A battery pack built using existing technologies would need to be relatively large to withstand the high-power
pulses, and its durability would be limited to less than two years. Supercapacitor technology is more appropriate
because of its significantly higher cycle life.
2.10 Nanocomposite Materials:Lighter Stronger Materi als To Repl ace Steel
Nanocomposite materials are poly mers to which an amount of another material such as nanoparticles, clays or
carbon nanofibres have been added in order to alter the properties of the bulk material. These are one of the oldest
applications of nanotechnology in the transportation sector, in use since the 1990’s and being used to replace steel
with composites in an increasing number of components.The simplest way to reduce the emissions generated by a
vehicle is to reduce its weight. Fuel consumption is directly related to the weight of a vehicle and replacing steel
with lighter materials such as nanocomposites can generate huge fuel savings in everything from auto mobiles to
aircraft. Co mposites will co mprise 100% of the skin o f Boeings 787 aircraft and 50% of all the materials in the
aircraft. Not only are these materials stronger, lighter and in many cases cheaper than aluminiu m and steel, but can
be assembled using fewer rivets, cutting production time by a factor of up to four times.The automotive industry is
following suit replacing exterior parts such as step plates and side mouldings with composites.Perhaps the biggest
impact to date has been the development of conducting composites by adding small quantities of carbon
nanotubes and nanofibres. This has allowed composites to be used in applications from fuel tanks to engine
components where the danger of a spark generated by static electricity previously precluded the use of non
metals.Nanocomposite materials are also being used in applications such as food and beverage packaging, where
their use as an oxygen permeation barrier allows products such as beer to be produced in lightweight plastic
bottles.
730
III. Conclusion
This paper provides a brief overview of the benefits created by nanotechnology, and substantiates the claim that a
variety of ethical systems will be necessary to deal appropriately with the range of issues raised by nanotech.
Typical examp les are better insulated buildings using aerogels which can help reduce the 30% of carbon
emissions generated from households, while lighter,stronger materials based on nanotechnology are being used in
cars, busses and aeroplanes to dramatically improve fuel efficiency. Simu ltaneously, advances in fuel cells and
hybrid electric powered vehicles are enabling the world’s largest automotive manufacturers to produce lowor
zero-emission vehicles that combine energy efficiency with the kind of performance that consumers are
accustomed to. In the meantime, the use of fuelborne catalysts based on nanomaterials are being used to improve
diesel fuel efficiency by as much as 10%. This report gives an introduction to the key technologies being used,
their impact on emissions, their availability and the key players involved.
REFERENCE
1. http://www.cientifica.eu/
2. N. Wang et al. "The smallest carbon nanotube" Nature 408 (2000) 50
3. US patent 4663230, "Carbon fibrils, method for producing same and compositions containing
same", granted 1987-05-05
4. NSF Nano tech Definition: http://www.nsf.gov/home/crssprgm/nano/omb_nifty50.htm
731
RFID TECHNOLOGY & ITS APPLICATION FOR DETECTION OF
REMOVAL OF FISH PLATE IN RAIL TRACKS
R.K. CHAKRABORTY, SR. MANAGER(NETRA)
Abstract:
RFID, or Radio Frequency Identification, is the term used for technologies that
leverage radio waves to identify items automatically. Typically, this happens through
a stored serial number on the tag that identifies a product. The tag may also have other
information, such as where the item was made, manufacture date and other
information stored in that item like temperature, vibration, contact status, current,
voltage, speed , pressure, flow, etc.
RFID has two main components namely RFID reader and RFID tags. A reader (RFID
interrogator) is basically a radio frequency (RF) transmitter and receiver, controlled
by a microprocessor or digital signal processor. The reader, using an attached antenna,
captures data from tags, then passes the data to a computer for processing. As with
tags, readers come in a wide range of sizes and offer different features. Readers can
be affixed in a stationary position, portable or even embedded in electronic equipment
such as print-on-demand label printers.
RFID technology can be used effectively for many applications in NTPC and one of
them is detection of removal of fish plate in advance to avoid any derailment or
damage to NTPC’s Locos and wagons. RFID tags can be attached in each fish plate
and if there is any removal of fish plate then it can be sensed by RFID reader. RFID
reader can read tags upto a distance of one kilometre and thus a RFID reader located
in the LOCO can detect any removal of fish plate by sensing its corresponding TAG
for one kilometre range. This concept has been demonstrated successfully in one of
NTPC site.
1.0 Introduction of RFID system

RFID is a complete system solution that operates in the electromagnetic spectrum to
transmit data without contact or line of sight. It is an automatic identification and data
collection technology utilizing “electronic” programmable tags for tracking, tracing
and identification of objects. RFID enables identification from a distance, and unlike
the bar-code technology, it does so without requiring a line of sight . RFID tags (see
figure 1) support a larger set of unique IDs than bar codes and can incorporate
additional data such as manufacturer, product type, and even measure sensitive
parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, vibration, etc. Furthermore, RFID
systems can discern many different tags located in the same
area.
Fig. 1 – RFID reade rs & differe nt types of RFID tags
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RFID is a system with the following components:
• RFID Tag (Transponder)

• RFID Reader (Interrogator)
• Antenna
• Computer System
1.1 RFID Tag (Transponder)
RFID tags consist of an integrated circuit (IC) attached to an antenna—typically a

small coil of wires—plus some protective packaging (like a plastic card) as
determined by the application requirements. Tags also sometimes are called
“transponders”. RFID tags can come in many forms and sizes. Some can be as small
as a grain of rice. Data is stored in the IC and transmitted through the antenna to a
reader. RFID tags are either “passive” (no battery) or “active” (self-powered by a
battery).
Another distinguishing feature of modern RFID is that tags can contain far more
information than a simple ID. They can incorporate additional read only or read-write
memory, which a reader can then further interact with. Read-only memory might
contain additional product details that may not to be read every time a tag is
interrogated but are available when required. For example, the tag memory might
contain a batch code, so if some products are found to be faulty, the code can help to
find other items with the same defects. Tag memory can also be used to enable tags to
store self-describing information. Although a tag’s unique ID can be used to recover
its records in an online database, communication with the database might not always
be possible. For example, if a package is misdirected during transportation, the
receiving organization might not be able to determine its correct destination.
Additional destination information written into the tag would obviate the need and
cost of a fully networked tracking system.
Other RFID applications take advantage of read-write memory available in some tag
types. Although the size of these memories is currently small but it is likely to grow in
the future and to be used in creative ways. These tags could lead to a distributed
memory capability embedded in our surroundings. If locations in a city were tagged
with RFID, a reader could write messages directly into the tag. This might be used for
historical data or for updates about nearby services.
Time stamps can also be stored in an RFID memory alongside other data that has
been written there. Unfortunately, passive RFID tags do not have the continuous
power needed to support an onboard clock, so time stamps could not be derived from
the tag itself. However, the readers—powered from the infrastructure or from
batteries in a handheld unit—could contain an electronic clock and write time stamps
alongside other data written into the tag.
1.2 RFID Reader (Interrogator)

The reader/interrogators can differ quite considerably in complexity, depending upon
the type of tags being supported and the functions to be fulfilled. However, the overall
function is to provide the means of communicating with the tags and facilitating data
transfer. Functions performed by the reader may include quite sophisticated signal
conditioning, parity error checking and correction. Once the signal from a transponder
has been correctly received and decoded, algorithms may be applied to decide
whether the signal is a repeat transmission, and may then instruct the transponder to
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cease transmitting. This is known as the “Command Response Protocol” and is used
to circumvent the problem of reading multiple tags in a short space of time. Using
interrogators in this way is sometimes referred to as “Hands Down Polling”. An
alternative, more secure, but slower tag polling technique is called “Hands Up
Polling” which involves the interrogator looking for tags with specific identities, and
interrogating them in turn. This is contention management, and a variety of techniques
have been developed to improve the process of batch reading. A further approach may
use multiple readers, multiplexed into one interrogator, but with attendant increases in
costs. Readers can be fixed, i.e. mounted, or portable such as a handheld depending
on the application. Fig. 2 shows a typical RFID Reader with all communication
features.
Fig. 2- RFID reader with communication facilities
1.3 Antenna
A typical reader contains an antenna to transmit information to the tag as well as
receive it from the tag. The size and form of the antenna will be dependent on the
specific application as well as frequency chosen. It typically houses a decoder and RF
module as well as the antenna. Similarly, tags also have antenna for its
communication with Readers. The tag antenna is the means by which the device
senses the interrogating field and, where appropriate, the programming field and also
serves as the means of transmitting the tag response to readers.
1.4 Computer System

An RFID system can be stand-alone or interfaced to an IT platform for exchange of
information. In either situation, a host system is needed to collect the data to convert
into useful information for the end- user. Information is sent to and read from RFID
tags by a reader using radio waves. In passive systems, which are the most common,
an RFID reader transmits an energy field that “wakes up” the tag and provides the
power for the tag to respond to the reader. In active systems, a battery in the tag is
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used to boost the effective operating range of the tag and to support additional
features over passive tags, such as temperature sensing. Data collected from tags is
then passed through communication interfaces (cable or wireless) to host computer
systems in the computer systems for interpretation, storage, and action. An RFID
reader can communicate with a computer by variety of interfaces like RS232, USB,
Ethernet, Bluetooth and GPRS. Fig. 3 shows an RFID reader with connected
computer system for monitoring tags data.
Fig. 3 – RFID Reader with re quired software in computer for data acquisition
2.0 Working Principle of RFID system
Communication of data between tags and a reader is by wireless communication. Two

methods distinguish and categorise RFID systems, one based upon close proximity
electromagnetic or inductive coupling and one based upon propagating
electromagnetic waves. Coupling is via ‘antenna’ structures forming an integral
feature in both tags and readers. While the term antenna is generally considered more
appropriate for propagating systems it is also loosely applied to inductive systems.
Transmitting data is subject to the vagaries and influences of the media or channels
through which the data has to pass, including the air interface. Noise, interference and
distortion are the sources of data corruption that arise in practical communication
channels that must be guarded against in seeking to achieve error free data recovery.
Moreover, the nature of the data communication processes, being asynchronous in
nature, requires attention to the form in which the data is communicated. Structuring
the bit stream to accommodate these needs is often referred to as channel encoding
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and although transparent to the user of an RFID system the coding scheme applied
appears in system specifications. Various encoding schemes can be distinguished,
each exhibiting different performance features.
To transfer data efficiently via the air interface or space that separates the two
communicating components requires the data to be superimposed upon a rhythmically
varying (sinusoidal) field or carrier wave. This process of superimposition is referred
to as modulation, and various schemes are available for these purposes, each having
particular attributes that favour their use. They are essentially based upon changing
the value of one of the primary features of an alternating sinusoidal source, its
amplitude, frequency or phase in accordance with the data carrying bit stream. On this
basis one can distinguish amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK)
and phase shift keying (PSK). In addition to non-contact data transfer, wireless
communication can also allow non- line-of-sight communication. However, with very
high frequency systems more directionality is evident and can be tailored to needs
through appropriate antenna design. The physical wiring constraints allow
communication links and networks to be effectively isolated from each other in a
wired communication system. The approach that is generally adopted for radio
frequency communication channels is to separate them on the basis of frequency
allocation.
Three frequency ranges are generally distinguished for RFID systems, low,
intermediate (medium) and high. The following table (Table-1) summarises these
three frequency ranges, along with the typical system characteristics and examples of
major areas of application.
Frequency Band Characteristics Typical Applications
Low Short to medium read Access control

100-500 kHz range Animal identification
Inexpensive Inventory control
low reading speed
Intermediate Short to medium read Access control

10-15 MHz range Smart cards
potentially inexpensive
medium reading speed
High Long read range Railroad car monitoring
850-950 MHz High reading speed Fish plate monitoring
2.4-5.8 GHz Expensive Toll collection systems
Industrial applications for
condition monitoring
Table 1. Commonly used RFID Frequency Bands and Applications
3.0 Active RFID for Industrial Applications

Active RFID is a technology not too dissimilar in concept to the passive RFID
systems. Wireless tags automatically identify and account for objects they are
attached with. In passive tagging, small and low-cost tags are attached to objects and
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read via a reader infrastructure. Passive RFID systems run the risk of poor accuracy
due to an unacceptably low tag signal strength and poor reliability from signal
interference. On the other hand, active RFID tags have batteries on-board enabling
them to be recognized over greater distances when placed on many different objects
and therefore offer the enterprise a dramatically broad, diverse set of solutions.
Active RFID systems tag people, assets and vehicles, as well as deliver sensor data
from in and around the enterprise. They are used for identifying, locating, tracking,
monitoring, securing and sensing enterprise objects. The tags can be programmed to
emit beacon signals at a particular frequency. Greater distances are achieved outdoors
as in the case of fish plate removal detection system. The choice of tag type, size,
function and receiver placement is based on the solution to be architected. The
variations are endless and initial active tag systems form a platform for scalability and
for adding new applications as needed.
A variant of active RFID technology is “Dual-Active” RFID tagging, or activating

tags to transmit their signal only when needed. Individual Radio Frequency (RF)
activation fields are established at control points for the purpose of activating tags to
transmit their location. With dual-active RFID, tags are automatically triggered
whether on equipment or personnel, and offer reliable operations under virtually any
setting. The robust long range signal from active RFID combined with dual-active
location monitoring capabilities are solving problems that are not possible with other
wireless technology.
In the sensor area, active tags can have sensors embedded inside the tag or sensor
inputs can be connected from outside. Temperature, contact, voltage, current,
vibration and humidity can be sensor inputs, useful for many industries. Any two-wire
digital sensor output can be connected into a tag to trigger an alarm condition. This
means the sensor implementations are highly flexible and limitless. Inboard motion
sensors can sense the slightest movement or vibration of equipment or assets designed
to be stationary and stable. Anti-tamper circuits sense any kind of tampering with the
tag, immediately sending an alarm signal.
4.0 Application of RFID system in NTPC

Passive RFID systems can be used in any power plant for asset management system
as well as for store inventory system. It can also be used effectively for power plant
maintenance. However, active RFID systems can be used for online condition
monitoring of any power plant equipment. Active RFID tags connected with
temperature, vibration, contact, current, voltage or any other sensors can monitor the
health/condition of any power plant equipment. This information can be used to
finalise operation and maintenance strategy. RFID systems are more useful in power
plant areas where other conventional measurement systems are not available and
operation and maintenance engineers feel that information regarding these areas may
be useful for operation & maintenance decisions.
5.0 Detection of Fis h Plate Removal in Rail Tracks

One major issue in NTPC sites is availability of coals from nearby coal mines.
Generally, coals are transported from coal mines to NTPC plants using railway tracks.
Most of these tracks are maintained by NTPC. NTPC also maintains LOCOs and
wagons required for transportation of coals in these tracks. There are many cases of
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fish plate’s removal and this had caused derailment of locos & wagons. These
derailment / accident of locos & wagons caused delay in coal transportation to NTPC
plant. Sometimes, these accidents / derailment can also damage locos & wagons
beyond repair.
RFID technology can be used effectively for detection of removal of fish plate in
advance to avoid any derailment or damage to NTPC’s Locos and wagons. RFID tags
can be attached in each fish plate and if there is any removal of fish plate then it can
be sensed by RFID reader. RFID reader can read tags upto a distance of one kilometre
and thus a RFID reader located in the LOCO can detect any removal of fish plate by
sensing its corresponding TAG in one kilometre range.
This concept has been demonstrated successfully at Loco maintenance bay in one of
NTPC site. RFID reader was kept inside the Loco and RFID tags were kept on rail
tracks. Any contact status change in any RFID tags can be sensed by the RFID reader
inside the Loco. A simple contact switch (sensor) was incorporated into RFID tags,
with a thin loop of wire extending from the tag through the fish plate and back to the
tag. If any tampering occurs in the fish plate, the wire breaks and this can be sensed
by any RFID reader inside any Loco. Fig. 4 shows an arrangement of RFID sensors in
fish plate & RFID reader in a Loco.
Fig. 4 – RFID tag connected in Fish plate joints & RFID reader in Loco
6.0 Conclusion
RFID is a viable technology with many applications that are well suited to its
functionality. The future for RFID is strong as evidenced by its continued growth in
the past several years.Based on the momentum of RFID and the breadth of the
applications across multiple industries, there is no doubt that RFID will grow rapidly
and become pervasive throughout the enterprise. In fact, with system costs declining
and business opportunities exploding, one can envision a day when every person and
every asset in the enterprise is tagged.
Although there are issues of cost of the complete RFID system & safety of RFID tags
on rail tracks but this solution seems to be technically viable. If size of RFID tags can
be reduced then it can be kept easily inside the railway sleepers. Fish plate joints can
also be reduced by directly welding railway tracks wherever possible. Reduction in
fish plate joints will automatically reduce requirement of RFID tags and thus cost of
total system will come down. In addition to fish plate removal detection, there are
many RFID applications in NTPC plant. RFID’s potential benefits are large and we
are sure to see many novel applications in the future—some of which we can not even
begin to imagine.
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7.0 References
1. K. Finkelzeller, The RFID Handbook, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
2. R. Want, “Enabling Ubiquitous Sensing with RFID,” Computer, vol. 37, no. 4,
2004, pp. 84–86.
3. D.W. Engels and S.E. Sarma, “The Reader Collision Problem,” white paper
MITAUTOID- WH-007, Auto-ID Center, Nov.2001.
4. R. Want, “Introduction to RFID technology,” IEEE trans. on pervasive computing,
Jan-Mar’2006, pp25-33.
5. Allen Gribenow, “Dual Active Radio Frequency Identification is ideal for
Integrator,” Axcess White Paper.
6. Zebra’s RFID readiness guide: “Ensuring a successful RFID implementation.”
7. “12 Basic steps for DoD RFID Compliance” An Avery Dennison White Paper.
8. “Shrouds of Time – The history of RFID” An AIM Publication.
9. “RFID – A Basic Primer” An AIM Publication.
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What we do
ONLINE BIOFILM & SCALE MONITORING
THROUGH MEMS TECHNOLOGY
MEMS sensors forin-situ, real-time&continuous

water & liquids qualitymonitoring
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Mission & Activities
Needs of new tools & solutions

foralerting & preventing
...not for “analyzing” !!
Alert
Monitoring Regulation
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Monitoring Solutions
for Water and Industrial Liquids
Fouling Monitoring
ü Legionella risk-assessment
ü Chemical discharges optimization
ü Quality of products
ü Industrial efficiency and competitiveness
ü Increase of process uptime
ü Reduction of energy consumption Dissolved Oxygen Monitoring
ü Waste reduction ü Extended life of industrial equipment
ü Water quality
ü Reduction of operating cost
ü Increase of process uptime
ü Reduction of energy consumption
…Ask us for what’s next !

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FS-1000 probe:
A unique tool to monitor & control
a common « headache » in all
industrial processes: Fouling
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Industrial Solutions
FS-series
New stand-alone MEMS based FS-

1000
Cooling Low Stress Cooling High Stress
or sea water or Pulp & Paper Food & Beverage Explosion Proof
Low Temperatures (water) High Temperatures (process)

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What is the measurement principle ?
§Measurement is based on thermal principle (4 patents) :

? Unique technologydesignand realization (MEMS) allowing to
integrate both heating device and accurate temperature sensor in
a specific arrangement where temperature sensor is (i) precisely
located in the center of thermal flux (homogeneous, no side-
effects) and (ii) very close to fluid interface (just behind a very
thin metal layer of 316L SS for example),
? Both emitter (heating device) and receptor (wall sensor) are
embedded closely into a thermal insulator packaging in order to
drive 99,9% of thermal flux to the water side.
Detection principle is based on the fact that any kind of deposit (fouling,
biofouling, biofilm, slime, scales, …) is instrinsically a thermal insulator,
Controlled heating device more or less. The thermal barrier effect of the deposit is increasing with
its thickness.
§ For detection to be made :
? Very small and controlled thermal flux is created by electrical way
in the heating device,
Accurate wall temperature ? Thermal flux is spreading through the sensor, interface and to be
dissipated into the fluid,
? With no deposit onto the surface, no barrier to thermal
dissipation, and so, no increasing wall temperature appears,
? If deposit has been formed onto the sensor surface, then, as it
acts like a thermal barrier, dissipation is lowered and a thermal
resistance appears onto the sensor surface generating an
increase of wall temperature !
CONFIDENTIAL
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No fouling… Fouling…
…no resistance to thermal transfer ! …wall temperature is increasing !!
CONFIDENTIAL
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TEMP What is the measurement principle ?
Circulating water
Wall temperature is the same !…
0 z
TEMPERATURE PROFILE DURING A NON-HEATED PHASE and HEATED PHASE WITHOUT ANY DEPOSIT
CONFIDENTIAL
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TEMP What is the measurement principle ?
Circulating water
Wall temperature increases !!

…when a deposit is formed
DT
0 z
TEMPERATURE PROFILE DURING A NON-HEATED PHASE and HEATED PHASE WITH DEPOSIT
CONFIDENTIAL
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§ Besides sensor technology, unique calculation and computational

algorithm are embedded into the system thanks to the probe electronics
card.
§ The embedded electronics card is able to deliver 2 active analog outputs
(4-20mA) for both measurements : deposit thickness and process
temperature.
§ The microprocessor is containing specific calculation methods for both
driving the current generator (related to thermal flux) and computing
measurements from wall temperature evolution given by the miniaturised
sensor.
§ Several methods exist for achieving reliable measurements in different
situations and industrial environments, such as:
Current ? Circulating media with small temperature process variations,
generator
A/D ? Circulating media with high amplitude temperature variation,
? Non-circulating media,
? High pressure, flow-rate and temperature,
? etc…
Micro-processor
Power 4-20mA
D/A 4-20mA
supply
0…9-18Vdc
250 Ohms max
CONFIDENTIAL
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Technologicalassembly
PCB PCB+MEMS
cap (carbonsteel, stainlesssteel , a new sensorisborn !!

…)
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Réalisation technologique & Assemblage
Pastille en Inox 316L
Pâte thermique
Epaisseur : 200µm
Epaisseur 15µm
Diamètre: 15,5mm
PCB CAPTEUR MEMS

Epaisseur :600µm Puce isolante 350µm
Teflon
Epaisseur 2x350µm
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Technologicalassembly
Assemblyinto the probe body
Sticking or welding
Final assembly
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Some of ourcustomers
Coolingsystems&
Process
Utilities
Food &Beverage
Power
Pulp&Paper
Oil&Gas
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Application: Dairy sterilizer
Scope: Production batches & CIP monitoring
Results: CIP efficiency checking (Cleaning In Place)

Advantages: Increase production time (17%), CIP optimization (reduced chemicals
usage), final products quality (decreased by 400 K€ the amount of rejected products)
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Application: Dairy sterilizer
Scope: Production batches & CIP monitoring
Results: CIP efficiency checking (Cleaning In Place)

Advantages: Increase production time (17%), CIP optimization (reduced chemicals
usage), final products quality (decreased by 400 K€ the amount of rejected products)
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Application: Tertiary Cooling Systems
Scope: Biocide treatment efficiency monitoring on organic fouling
Results: Perfect correlation between coupons monitoring & Neosens measurement

Advantages:Biocide treatment optimization, reduced the use of chemicals & the
environmental impact, production safety (Legionella), energy savings.
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Application: Tertiary Cooling Systems
Scope: Biocide treatment efficiency monitoring on organic fouling
Results: Found the minimal biocide dosage in order to control biofilm growth
Advantages: Biocide treatment optimization, reduced the use of chemicals & the
environmental impact, production safety (Legionella), energy savings.
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Application: Open recirculating cooling system
Scope: Biocide treatment optimization
Results: checked the efficiency of the new implemented biocide treatment

Advantages: Biocide treatment optimization, reduced the use of chemicals.
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Application: Open recirculated cooling system
Scope: Legionella risk management
Results: Legionella risk assessment with biofilm thickness monitoring

Advantages: Legionella “insurance”, biocide treatment optimization, reduced the use of
chemicals & the environmental impact, energy savings.
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Application: Paper production
Scope: Machine breaks reduction & paper quality enhancement
Results: Correlation between paper defects & machine break rate with slime (organic
fouling) quantity measured by Neosens inside the white water loop.
Advantages: Chemicals use optimization, reduced breaks frequency, operating expenses
reduced by 30 K€ / month
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Biofilm – Scale– Monitoring – Anticipation –
Control – Alert – Optimization – Environment – Industry
– Fouling – Dissolved Oxygen – MEMS – innovation – Know-
how – Solutions – Sensors – water – liquids –
Process – Industry
www.neo-sens.com
Contact : isabelle.girard@neo-sens.comor thierry.brisard@neo-sens.com
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Neosens™ On-Line & In Situ Fouling Monitoring Solutions: A New Approach to Fouling Control for industrial
applications
ABSTR ACT
Neosens offers innovative, cost effective sensor solutions for monitoring the presence of biofilm and scale in cooling towers , heat
exchangers and other industrial process applications.
Fouling in cooling systems is a worldwide, multi-billion dollar problem, reducing energy efficiency, increasing maintenance costs
and creating health risks due to Legionella.
The conventional approach to fouling control combines the “blind” application of biocides and anti-scale chemicals with periodic lab
testing. This often results in the excessive use of chemicals with the inherent side effects of accelerating system corrosion and
increasing toxic waste- not to mention the incremental cost of unnecessary treatments. Periodic lab testing is a valuable means to
check for Legionella bacteria, but it is difficult to predict the optimum testing interval, and Legionella may form in between samples,
making it harder to treat safely.
The Neosens approach is early, preventive, online monitoring of biofilm and scale. Our sensors continuously monitor the thickness
of fouling inside the cooling system, enabling the optimization of chemical treatments, maintenance procedures and lab testing
intervals. Neosens customers benefit from reduced operating costs, less environmental impact and health risk, and extended life
of their equipment.
Core Technology: Neosens FS-series fouling sensors utilize a patented micro Thermal Pulse Analysis (TPA) technique for
measuring the minute changes in local thermal conductivity and heat transfer due to fouling of just a few microns in thickness. The
sensors are based on MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) technology, which offers the integration of thermal micro
sensors and control electronics on a common silicon substrate. By using MEMS Neosens is able to reduce the size and cost of the
sensors, while increasing their precision and reliability in harsh environments.
Neosens sensors can be easily integrated with cooling towers, heat exchangers, chemical controllers and other monitoring
systems
Success stories: the presentation will be illustrated with success stories co-written with EDF (French National Power company)
and Laborelec (subsidiary of Tractebel, Belgium Power company, member of GDF-Suez Group).
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Neosens S.A. Diapason – Bat B – Rue Jean Bart 31674 LABEGE - FRANCE
Tel: +33 (0) 561 756 247 - Fax: +33 (0) 561 756 308
www.neo-sens.com
RESIDUAL LIFE ASSESSMENT (RLA), UPRATING,
RENOVATION & MODERNIZATION (R&M) OF
STEAM TURBINES
BY:
1. Amitabh Srivastava, AGM(STE) BHEL, Haridwar

2. G.C.Misra, AGM(STE) BHEL, Haridwar
3. Vivek Sharan, Manager(STE) BHEL, Haridwar
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In developed as well as developing countries increase in power generating capacities is bec oming
essential. It is now for utilities to see how this capacity addition is to take place. In addition to other
measures like reduction in T& D losses, utilities can prolong life of existing power stations and use
them more efficiently without compromising on safety standards. This brings in need for Ageing
Management based renovation & modernization including uprating of existing plants. We must go out
there and see the health of the equipment, assess the residual life of various components, and take
necessary measures for life extension including uprating of the unit as a whole. The life extension
including uprating of an existing unit amounts to capacity addition with much less burden on
resources, both monitory as well as environment al
For the future power plants incorporating health monitoring gadgets for systematic evaluation of
remaining life is very simple. For t he existing power plants, residual life assessment study is the first
step for determining remaining life popularly known as RLA Study. This study will provide details for
decision making about the plant TO RE TIRE or REFURBIS H or RE NOVA TE & MODERNISE or
RENOVATE & UP RA TE or any such measures.
2.0 STEPS OF RESIDUAL LIFE ASS ESSMENT
2.1 Collection of back ground information
Plant dat a management plays a crucial role and involves the collection, storage, and manipulation of
data associated with operating and maint enance histories, inspection, failure analysis, life
assessment, resources, schedules etc.
2.1.1 Material Data
The drawings of critical components, their materials and design data viz. rotors, casings, valves &
valve chests, guide blade carriers, steam inlet & exhaust connections etc.
2.1.2 Operational History
It is very important to know how the set has been operated in the past at the power station.
The effectiveness of the calculations made depends upon the accuracy of this data.
2.2 Preliminary Residual Life Asse ssment Calculations to identify cri tical zones
Based on design data the critical components / zones which need s pecial attention with regard to
normal wear, erosion, cracks, material properties etc. are identified. The background information &
operational history facilitate preliminary residual life assessment studies / calculation.
Condition-based techniques are used t o refine the accuracy of calculation-based methods and are
essential to expose any defect or unfores een damage derived from initial fabrication or unrecorded
operational upsets.
2.3 Component integrity a sse ssment
All the rotating and stationary components are cleaned by abrasive jet using Alumina powder or
sand. This is done to remove all products of oxidation from the surfaces to facilitate proper
763
interpretation of the subsequent tests. Various components of steam turbine are subjected to the
following tests:
2.3.1 Visual Examination

2.3.2 Dye Penetration Test (DPT)
2.3.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
2.3.4 Ultra sonic Te sting (UT)
2.3.5 Hardness Test
2.3.6 In-situ Metallographic Examination by Replication Technique
2.4 TESTS performed on CRITICAL Turbine Components
2.4.1 Turbine Rotors after thorough cleaning are subjected to visual, Boroscopic, MPI, UT, NFT and
Hardness & Microstructure testings examinations.
2.4.2 Stationary Components
All stationary components viz. turbine casings & guide blades, high temperat ure inlet & exhaust
connections, stop & control valves, strainer housings, U, I, & L- seal rings, gland seal bodies etc.
are cleaned thoroughly and Visual, NDT, Microstructure and Replica tests are performed
2.4.3 High temperature fasteners of high temperat ure zone will be checked for detection of cracks by
MPI / DPT / UT.Sample survey of turbine inner casing joint plane fasteners of high temperat ure
zone is carried out by destructive test on sample studs to det ermine mechanical properties and
impact values. Microstructure examination is also carried out.
2.4.4 Turbine Bearings are checked vis ually for any damage, by DP test for cracks, and by UT for babbit
bondage.
3.0 FINAL RESIDUAL LIFE ASS ESSMENT
Based on the material defect data generated (as mentioned at para 2. 4 above) and the operational
data obtained from site, stress analysis and life estimation calculations are performed.Operational
data along with material properties and design parameters are used for residual life calculation.
Based on these studies, for extending life of steam turbine components, recommendations are given
regarding:
§ Remaining life of steam turbine components.
§ Immediate replacement of a component is required or it can be replaced after a prescribed
period.
§ Repair of a particular component
§ Change in steam parameters at the inlet, if required.
§ De-rating of steam turbine.
§ Alterations in the mode of future operation of the set.
§ Alterations in the material of certain components
§ Need for more often inspections.
§ Proposals for R & M.
4.0 R & M OF STEAM TURBINES
Reliable and economical power generation is the primary goal of each electrical utility worldwide.
Such a goal can be achieved through:
§ Maximizing the efficiency of the turbine-generator.

§ Extending the intervals between inspections and
§ Achieving greater reliability in operation.
IMPROVEMENT IN PE RFORMANCE & OUTP UT OF S TEAM TURB INE CAN BE ACHIEVED BY
FOLLOWING:
§ Use of improved blade profile which res ult into reduction in the aerodynamic flow losses e.g.
profile loss, secondary flow loss & tip leakage loss.
§ More uniform flow distribution.
§ Optimization of flowpath.
§ Improvement in shaft sealing system.
§ Reduction in pressure drops.
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§ Reduced friction losses.
§ Optimization of inlet & exhaust section geometry of valves & casings.
§ Optimization of exhaust loss.
5.0 BHEL’S PROPOS AL FOR R&M OF 200 / 210 MW STEAM TURBINES (LMW DESIGN):
BHEL, Haridwar, has manufactured and supplied 57 sets of Type K-210-130 (LMW Design) steam
turbines. About 10 sets of similar design, imported directly by Utilities, from Russia, are also under
operation. These sets have already completed 13 to 30 years of operation. Thus the useful life of
most of the s ets is already over. The Steam Turbine of Ty pe K-210-130 (LMW Design) was designed
in early 60’s, therefore, there is good scope for renovation & modernization of these sets to extend
their operating life, making them efficient and inc reasing their out put. The upgradation of HP and LP
Turbines is possible by incorporating features mentioned al S.No. 2.0 above.
EXISTING DESIGN:
Existing 210 MW Steam Turbine (LMW design ) is fitted with impuls e blading. Figure 1 shows its
cross section of HP Turbine & Figure 3 shows t he c ross section of LP Turbine. In this design steam
pressure drop takes place mainly in guide blades provided in the diaphragms, while passing through
moving blades there is negligible pressure drop.
The LP Turbine is double flow and is provided with 2X4 stages. It has impulse blading. The maximum
heat drop takes place across the fixed / guide blades. The fixed / guide blades are called
DIAP HRA GMS which are in two halves. 1st & 2nd stage diaphragms are fitted in liners, which in turn
are fitted in the casing. The penultimate stage of this LP T is BAUMEN STA GE which is provided to
direct part of the steam flow to the condenser so as to reduce t he moisture content as well as the
volume of the steam flow in the last stages. The LP Rotor has a s haft and the discs of all the stages
are s hrink fitted on it. The blades are fitted in t he grooves provided in the discs. These blades are
provided with damping wire for dampening the vibrations.
5.1 Improvement In HP Turbine:
The HP turbines of 200 / 210 MW having impulse blading can be retrofitted by BHE L with state of art
high efficiency reaction blading. In this design steam pressure drop takes place in guide blades as
well as moving blades. Outer casing is kept same, if found healthy in RLA study. The internals i.e.
Rotor, Liners and diaphragms are to be replaced with Monoblock HP Rotor and Guide Blade Carriers
having more efficient reaction blading (Tx profile).
5.2 Improvement In LP Turbine:
Monoblock LP Rotor with advanced blading is provided for retrofit and existing liners & diaphragms
are to be replaced by new liners & guide blade carriers. The LP T will have 2X4 stages. The 1st stage
of moving & guide blades will be having “Tx” blading. The 2nd stage of moving blades will be “F”
blading. The moving blades of 3rd & 4t h stages will be “TAPER & TW IS TE D FREE S TANDING
BLADES”. The guide blades of 2nd and 3rd stages will be “TAPER & TWIS TED P RECISION CAST
BLADES”. The guide blades of 4th stage will be “BANA NA TYPE” hollow guide blades. Existing LP
Exhaust hood of LP Casing shall be reused and modified at site as part of upgradation.
765
5.3 Expected Performance Level:
Considering det erioration due to aging as per ASME -P TC-6 Report 1985, following will be the
performance levels:
§ PRESENT power output with steam flow of 662 t/h & rated parameters : 202.4 MW
EXP ECT ED PERFO RM AN C E IMPROV EM ENT IN TH E EXISTING IMPULS E D ESIG N SET

AFT ER R EFU RBIS HM ENT OF HP & LP T UR BIN ES AT R AT ED PAP A RM ET ERS, 0 % M U& 33
D EG REE COO LING W AT ER T EMP ER AT UR E:
BRAND DETERIORATED UPGRADED UPGRADED ST WITH

NEW ST CONDITION ST ENHANCED STEAM
FLOW
MAIN 662 662 662 695

STEAM
FLOW T/Hr
LOAD 210 202.4 217.5 225
(MW)
(This is only indicative data and will subject to change for specific project)
766
6.0 BHEL’S PROPOS AL FOR R&M OF 200 / 210 MW STEAM TURBINES (KWU DESIGN):
Existing 210 MW Steam Turbine (S IEMENS -KWU design ) is fitted with T2 reaction blading. Figure
6 shows its cross section of HP Turbine, IP & LP turbines. The LP Turbine is double flow and is
provided with 2X8 stages. It also has T2 reaction blading. For HP Inlet assembly, HP Out er casing
has buttress threads of 580x9 and accordingly Breech nuts are provided with matching buttress
threads.(Fig.7)
The HP Exhaust elbows are provided with Serrated Packing.
The purpose of the proposal for modernization of HP & IP Turbines (Siemens -KWU Design), is to
provide a cost effective modifications & upgradation package, to maximize the improvements on HP
& IP Turbines’ performance. Aft er renovation & modernization of HP & IP Turbines, by
implementation of the proposal, including action taken in accordance to recommendations of RLA
Study, by way of rectification / replacements of steam turbine components which are being ret ained,
their servic e life is expected to be about 30 years. The interval between inspections of inner parts of
HP & IP Turbine is 6 years.
FIGURE 6
767
BREECH
CYL PIN NUT
OUTER GUIDE U-RING INLET

CASING BLADE INSERT
CARRIER
HP T INLE T ASSEMBLY
DESCRIP TION BUTTRESS THRE DS SIZE

OLD DESIGN NEW DESIGN
HP OUTE R CAS ING 580X9 580X20
BREECH NUTS 580X9 580X20
Fig. 7 : HP INLET ASSEMBLY EXISTING DESIGN
6.1 Improvement In HP & IP Turbine:
The HP & IP t urbines of 210 MW, having T2 profile blading, can be retrofitted by BHEL with state of
art high efficiency T4 profile reaction blading. The existing HP Inlet Assembly will be replac ed by
new design well proven HP Inlet Assembly for ease in its assembly & dismantling (Refer Fig.7). The
existing HP Exhaust elbows having Serrated Gaskets will be replaced by well proven new design
HP Exhaust Elbows having U-Ring for enhancing reliability (Refer Fig.8). This will require following
components:
SCOP E OF SUPPLY FOR HPT SCOP E OF SUPPLY FOR IPT

COMPLE TE ASSEMBLE D MODULE OF HP T IP INNE R CASING B LADE D W ITH T4 PROFILE
FITTE D WITH HP ROTOR & HP INNE R BLADES, FULLY BLA DED IP ROTOR WITH T4
CASING WITH T4 / T4X P ROFILE BLA DING PROFILE BLA DES, IP SHAFT SEALS, A SET
(WITH STEAM FLOWPATH SO THA T OF HPR-IPR & IP R-LP R COUP LING BOLTS
INCREASED QUQNTITY OF S TEAM MAY ALONG WITH NECESS RY KEYS ETC.
PASS) ALONGWITH HP INLE T ASSEMBLY
AND HP T E XHAUS T ELB OWS.
6.2 Recommended Changes In LPR For Life Extension:
It is recommended to replac e last two stages of free standing blades i.e. stage no. 2L, 3L, 2R & 3-
R, as the set has already completed more than 1, 60,000 hours of operation, by new ones, and NFT
be performed for improving reliability during operation. This will require following material
SCOP E OF SUPPLY FOR LPT

COMPLE TE SE T OF MOV ING B LADING MA TE RIA L OF 2L, 2R, 3L & 3R OF LP ROTOR
ALONGWITH CLAMPING PIE CES.
6.3 Thermal Insulation:
Mineral wool spray thermal ins ulation will be supplied for Steam Turbine.
768
6.4 RLA Ba sed Repair / Replacements Of The Components / Assemblies
The major assemblies / components, such as given below, shall be subjected to RLA Study:
§ IP Outer Casing
§ LPT Inner-Inner Casing, Guide Blades, guide Blade carriers, Gland Seal Housings.
§ Cross Around Pipes (CAP )
§ ESV & Control Valve Steam chests of HP T as well as their Internals.
§ IV & Cont rol Valve Steam chests of IP T as well as their Internals.
§ Main Steam (MS ) / Hot Reheat (HRH) Steam Strainer Housings & their Strainer elements.
§ Turbine Bearings
6.5 Advantages: It gives following advantages over existing turbine:
§ Reduction in specific heat consumption.

§ Increased power output
§ Renewed blade lifetime.
§ Life extension of steam turbine.
§ For ease of assembly & dismantling of HP Inlet assembly, the buttress threads of 580x20
have been provided on HP Outer Casing & Breech nuts in place of existing buttress threads
of 580X9.
§ The HP T Exhaust Elbows assembly has been provided with U-Ring in each exhaust
connection in place of Serrated Gasket provided earlier thus increasing reliability of the
assembly.
6.8 Expected Performance Improvement in the existing impul se design set after Refurbi shment
of HP & IP Turbine s & replacement of Blades Of 2L, 2R, 3L & 3R Blades Of LP Rotor:
(A ) FOR TM CR CO NDITIO N
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AS PER HBD AS PER EXISTING AFTER R&M( for
CONDITION (for specific specific project)
project)
LOAD (VWO) IN MW 210 197 216.5
STEAM FLOW (T/ Hr) 630 662 650
MS PR (ata) 150 142 150
MS TEMP DEGREE C 535 538 535
HRH S TEAM TEMP 535 535 535
DEGREE C
VACUUM (at a) 0.1033 0.15 0.105
(B ) FOR VW O CO N DITION :
AS PER HBD AS PER EXISTING AFTER R&M

CONDITION
LOAD (VWO) IN MW 221 197 228
STEAM FLOW (T/ Hr) 662 662 686.3
MS PR (ata) 150 142 150
MS TEMP DEGREE C 535 538 535
HRH S TEAM TEMP 535 535 535
DEGREE C
VACUUM (at a) 0.1033 0.150 0.106
7.0 CONCLUSION
Remaining Life Assessment based R&M and UP RA TING of the units of Thermal P ower Station is
most cost effective way of augmenting generation capacity and life extension. B HEL have acquired
a vast experienc e of conducting RLA studies and handling variety of defects in the components.
BHEL being designer of power plant equipment naturally have an advantage in dealing with
unforeseen situations encountered during implementation of R&M including UPRA TING proposals.
It is advisable that utilities take initiative to have their machines studied thoroughly for their
remaining life before implementing R&M propos als for improvement in Output, reliability & efficiency.
While choosing the agency for conducting such studies BHEL’s inherent advantage and vast
experience should be given due consideration.
xxxxxxxxxxxx
770
R&M of 220KV /132KV Switchyard at TTPS
S.K.Bhoi
Sr.Supdt(Elect)
1.0 PREFACE
The TTPS switchyard was commissioned during 1967-69 for 14 bays of 132KV
system and 5 bays in 220KV system. The balance 8 bays of 220KV system
commissioned during 1979-83. This switchyard is heart of the Orissa Grid for which
state load dispatch center (SLDC) was functioning from TTPS till take over by NTPC
in june-1995.
The Switchyard was operated and maintained by M/s GRIDCO (former OSEB) till
take over by NTPC in Sept.2000 ( S/Y was taken over in Sept’2K).
2.0 ABOUT THE SWITCHYARD
There is two voltage level namely 132 KV & 220 KV interconnected by two
numbers of 160 MVA Auto-transformers. Each system is of one main bus and one
standby bus. There are 14 bays in 132 KV & 13 Bays in 220 KV system. The bays are
as follows:
132 KV generator bays:- 4 nos ( 4X60 MW stage-I units)

132 KV line bays: 6 nos
132 KV Station bays:- 2 nos
132 KV ICT bays: 2 nos
132 KV Bus coupler Bay: 1 no.
(One number of line & one number station transformer are sharing single bay)
220 KV Generator bays: 2 nos. ( 2X110 MW stage-II units)

220 KV line bays: 6 nos
220 KV Station bays:- 2 nos
220 KV ICT bays: 2 nos
220KV Bus coupler Bay: 1 no.
132KV system is equipped with
a. Bulk Oil circuit breaker, Westing House, USA make.

b. Vertical operating single break manual Isolator, Westing House USA make.
c. Main & stand by Bus (multi strained cupper conductor of 34 mm overall dia)
d. HV CTs are OCB bushing mounted, No line CT or CVT provided. Only
coupling condenser with wave trap provided for carrier communication & inter
tripping.
e. Bus PT of GE, USA makes.
f. Protection provided was of Westing House make electromechanical type.
220KV system is equipped with
a. BULK oil CB Westing House USA make for 2 ICT Bays.

b. Vertical ABCB HBB make for 6 bays.
771
c. Horizontal ABCB HBB make for 2 bays.
d. SF6 breaker ABB make for 3 bays.
e. The isolators are of vertical break (WH) & horizontal double break of Hivelem
make with manual operation.
f. Main & stand by Bus (ACSR Twin zebra)
g. In case of OCB the CT were bushing mounted & for balance 11 bays CTs were
ABB/BHEL/make.
h. Bus PTs were BHEL make.
i. Protection provided are of Westinghouse make electrometrical relay/English
Electric make MM3V scheme/English Electric make MM3T scheme.
3.0 PROBLEM FACED IN SWITCHYARD BEFORE R&M.
As the switchyard is very old different type of problems were faced in maintaining the
same. In 132 KV the bus conductor, cross bus conductor are of copper and became
very soft. The hot spots have been detected on bus conductor also. These were
rectified by using ACSR ZEBRA conductor and suitable PG clamps & bimetallic
strips. The followings are the list of problems faced frequently. From 1995-2004 there
was 43 trippings causing a generation loss of 60.70 MU due to the problem in
switchyard equipments.
A-HOT SPOT:
i. The 132 KV Bus conductors were getting heated up.
ii. Isolator contacts were getting heated up.
iii. The 220KV conductor strings are snapping.
B- CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
i. 2nos. 132KV OCB and 01 no. vertical ABCB failed.

ii. Air leakage common problem in pneumatic drive
mechanical.
iii. No spare available of both OCB &ABCB.
iv. No service personnel available for OCB. ABB has stopped
service support for ABCB.
v. Contact resistance, breaker timing was beyond the limit.
C- ISOLATOR:
(i) Isolator contacts were getting heated up.

(ii) Contact resistance was too high.
(iii) The driving mechanism couplers were breaking.
(iv) The proper closing/opening of the isolator was operating person
dependant.
D- PROTECTION:
(i) Multiple units tripping with station blackout has occurred several times
due to non-proper operation of relays.
(ii) Only single distance protection and back-up protection was provided in
lines. There was no redundancy.
(iii) No Bus bar protection available.
772
(iv) There was no Event logger, Disturbance recorder.
E-CT/PT:
The CT for 132 KV systems are OCB bushing mounted type. There is no
separate core for metering and protection. But in 220 KV sytem the CTs are provided.
One number of PT and number of CT has failed during 1995-2000 resulting multiple
unit tripping. Energy metering accuracy was very low.
F- GENERAL:
The proper drawing and documents are not available. Number of site
modification has been done in control, protection, metering circuits without any
change in the original drawing. It was very much time consuming for fault finding.
Considering the above proble m it was decided by NTPC management to

do the R&M of TTPS s witchyard and order was placed on M/s BHEL
Ltd.(TBG) on 15.10.2004.
4.0 FACTORS CONSIDERED DURING AWARD:
(i) Old structure to be retained.

(ii) Old earth mat to be retained.
(iii) Old LAs to be retained.
(iv) Old PLCC panels are to be shifted to new Control Room.
(v) CB, Isolators are to be replaced at original position due to space constraint.
(vi) New CT, CVT are to be provided.
(vii) Bus conductor to be changed to ACSR double-MOOSE with associated clamps and
connectors.
(viii) Control, protection, metering panels are to be procured and install in newly
conducted control room building which will accommodate ACDB,DCDB,Battery,
Battery charger, Air conditioning system and fire fighting system.
(ix) Separate cable trenches are to be made for new system, so that there will not be
problem with old system.
(x) Bus post insulators with lattice structure to be replaced by solid core insulators with
pipe structure.
(xi) The protection scheme to be changed to state of art numerical relays with Bus bar
protection.
After award of contract it was decided to replace the Duplex control Board of 4 x 60 mw
Stage-I units. This duplex board contains the protection of G, GT, UTA(Westinghouse make
electromechanical relay 87G.87GT.87UTA,40G.64G,21G,51NGT,60G) and electrical
contacts of unit, Unit Aux, station Aux.
5.0 THE MAJOR CHALLENGES FACED DURING IMPLEMENTATION-
(i) Erection is to be done keeping one bus live.

(ii) There is no space for vehicle movement inside the switchyard.
(iii) Isolators are installed at an elevation of 21mtrs, 14mtrs and 10mtrs without any
support structure on top.
773
(iv) All equipment erection to be done manually using derrick. Derrick support stay
ropes movement restricted by live line clearance.
(v) Availability of shutdown of adjacent bay from M/s GRIDCO.
(vi) Foundations to be made after dismantling of existing equipment.
(vii) Rock is encounter after a depth of 300-800mm and to be excavated using
pneumatic breakers.
(viii) The line breakers are under Bus-II and Unit, Stations Tr. Breaker are under Bus-I.
So it is not possible to do the simultaneous work on both though they are in same
cluster to keep are Bus in service.
(ix) Frequent Bus charge over is required for erection of equipments.
6.0 EXECUTION PLANNING
As the R&M is to be carried out keeping the s/y charged a joint programme was made
involving NTPC CCPE, NTPC COS, NTPC site, BHEL Engineering, BHEL site and
Erection Agency. The minimum shutdown period was derived by identifying pre-shutdown
activities, clustering of bays, shutdown activities. The clusterisation of bay was done
considering the bays which are under single bus conductor. The tentative sequence and period
of S/D as decided in the above meeting was as follows.
Sl Bay No. Name of the Bay Duration of S/D

.No.
1 220 JODA# 1 &2 26,27 25
2 220 KV KANIHA & ST # 2A 24,25 26
3 220 KV BUS COUPLER 19 26
4 220 AT#1 , 2 , 132 KV AT#1 ,2 & 12,13,14,15 &16 35
132 KV ANGUL
5 220 KV MERAMUNDALLY #1 17,18 26
& UNIT # 5
6 132 KV BUS COUPLER 9 35
7 220 KV NALCO , UNIT # 6 , 20,21,22,23 51
MERAMUNDALLU #2 , ST # 2B
8 132 KV UNIT #3 & 4 10,11 35
9 132 KV DUBURY #1 & 2 , 3,4,5,6,7&8 62
CHAINPAL , UNIT #1 &2
-M/s GRIDCO was intimated accordingly to permit shutdown on lines, Units and ICTs.
But M/s GRIDO doesn’t agree to allow S/D on both ICTs at a time for 35 days, three lines
(132KV system) for 62 days. Hence it was decided to replace the Bus conductor, cross Bus
conductor and connect to the old isolators with contingency arrangement (Moose-Zebra or
Moose –Cupper connection as required)
7.0 EXECUTION
The pre-shutdown activities such as commissioning of 415 V AC & 220 V DC system,

erection of Bay Marshalling Kiosk, control cable laying termination from Control Room to
Site were completed and shut down of 1 st cluster taken.
CLUSTER-1 (Bay no 26,27) TTPS-JODA_I &II lines
774
Accordingly first shutdown was taken for 220 KV TTPS-Joda-I & II circuit ( Bay no 26
&27) from 10.11.2008.
As BPI pipe structures (6 nos per bay) are to be fixed on the existing foundation of the
lattice structure maximum care was taken to open the foundation nut. In spite of that two
number foundation bolts were sheared. The same was recasted using fast curing GP-2 cement
by creating pocket, welding new bolts to existing broken bolts.
The isolator structure base frame fixing holes re-fabrication was required it was not
matching to the existing structures.
As the size of the exsting isolator structures is not exactly identical the fabrication
requirement for fixing was different for all isolators.
The cable laying and termination at one end was completed as pre shutdown activity so
that the shutdown period could be reduced and the Joda-I & II circuits were charged on
27.11.08 & 24.11.08 respectively.
Cluster-2( Bay no 24,25) TTPS-Kaniha line & ST-IIB
Shut down of 220 KV Station Transformer-IIA & Kaniha line was taken from 20.12.2008
and commissioned on 15.01.09 & 21.01.09 respectively.
Cluster-3 (Bay no 19) 220 KV bus coupler
The ABCB is located under Bus-II. To carry out the R&M Bus change over is essential. So
it was decided to replace the Bus-1 isolator only and change over the bus using old breaker &
protection system. After replacement of Bus-1 isolator shutdown on Bus-2 was taken and
R&M work for CB, CT, Bus-2 isolator started and Bay charged on 04.03.2009.
Constraints: In existing system the BUS PTs are provided in Bus coupler bay. For
renovation these are to be removed by the same time the PT supply to non-renovated bays are
to be retained. Hence the BUS- CVTs were commissioned in other location in bus-coupler
bay and supply extended to old PT JB.
Cluster-4 (Bay no 20, 21, 22, 23) ST-IIA, Meramundli-II,Unit#6, Nalco line
Though it was planned to do the R&M of ICT bays in cluster-4, due to non-availability of
shutdown from GRIDCO the job for bay no 20-23 was planned. This cluster includes two line
bays, one 110 MW unit (#6) bay & one Station Transformer bay. The shutdown was
synchronized with the COH& DDCMIS renovation of unit#6. The s/d of bay no 20 & 22
issued on 20.06.09 & recommissioned on 23 & 27-07.09 respectively. The shutdown of bay
no 21 (TTPS-Meramundli-II line) &23 (TTPS-NALCO line) does not issued by GRIDCO
hence couldn’t be taken- up. However the main bus & cross conductor for all the four bays
completed taking 2 days off peak hour shutdown of the lines. Contingency arrangement done
to connect the cross bus with the Bus isolators & bypass isolator.
Cluster-5 (Bay no 17&18 ) Meramundli-I,Unit#5

The shutdown was synchronized with the COH& DDCMIS renovation of unit#5.Shut
down of #5 taken on 26.07.09 & commissioned on 02.09.09. Shut down of Meramundli-I line
taken on 01.08.09 & commissioned on 18.08.09.
BUS CONDUCTOR REPLACEMENT
After completion of R&M of above mentioned bays the 132 KV Bus-I & part of 132 Bus-
II were replaced during the AOH of the 60 MW stage-I units.
Cluster-6 (Bay no 12,14&15 ) 132 kv TTPS-Angul line & Auto-Transforme r-I
775
Shutdown on 132 KV Angul line & AT-1 taken on 11.11.09 and commissioned on
18.12.09 & 24.12.09 respectively.
Cluster-7 (Bay no 13,&16 ) Auto-Transforme r-II
It is under shutdown since 31.12.09 & planned to be commissioned on 04.02.2010.
PLAN FOR COMPLETION OF BALANCE JOB
Immediately after charging of the AT-II the 132 KV bus coupler bay shut down is to be
taken up for a period of 35 days. The 04 numbers of unit bay renovation is planned in the
COH of stage-I units in Aug’10-Nov’10.Along with the renovation of switchyard the
replacement of GRP & ECP of Stage-I units are also awarded to M/S BHEL. The same will
be taken up simultaneously. Pre-shutdown activities are in progress. Balance three line bays
will be taken up as soon as the shutdown is permitted from GRIDCO.
8.0 BENEFITS OF SWITCHYARD R&M:
Avoid multiple unit tripping & station outage

No Hot-spot in renovated bays
Isolator operation is reliable
Complete System became reliable.
Ease of Fault analysis due to EL & DR.
Energy metering can be achieved as per the Electricity Act-2003 i.e. at point of
connection with GRIDCO
9.0 LEARNINGS:
Use of old structure to be avoided as dimensional matching of structure to new equipment

is very difficult.
Possibilities of making new switchyard to be explored before going for Complete R&M
of switchyard to save time and duration of shutdown.
Before awarding detail engineering to be completed to avoid changes in scope. In TTPS
switchyard R&M already 8 amendments to contract have been made and 9th is under
process.
776
R&M of DDCMIS Stage-II (2 x 110MW) Unit at TTPS
By-S.K. Samal DGM( C&I)
D.K Patel DGM( C&I)
S. K. Rout SS(R&M-C&I)
Preface:-
Talcher Thermal Power Station (TTPS) was taken over by NTPC on
3rd June -1995 TTPS is having 4 x 60 MW (Stage-I) AND 2 X 110
MW (St-II) units having a total capacity 460MW . Stage-I was
commissioned during 1967-70 & Stage-II was commissioned
during 1982-1984.
C&I systems of TTPS
Stage –I C&I system has been renovated with DDCMIS system in

the year 2000 to 2003 with ABB & YIL systems.
Stage –II C&I system was equipped with IL kota supplied

instruments with LVDT based Transmitters and old Russian
model controllers. For better maintenance mini DAS/SOE were
commissioned in the year 2002-04. But total system was not
integrated and Russian technology was more maintenance prone
system.
Old C&I system and problems in ST-II before R &M
· All field inst. Are LVDT type of Transmitters which have low
accuracy & response time .
· Russian controllers were used for CLCS which are less
reliable, more maintenance prone and requires frequent
tunning.
· IL Kota RMC type of electrical actuators used in control
valves.
· Power supply was not reliable in the absence of UPS power
supply system.
· Control room was occupying large space
· Indicators were bulky and Calibration was cumbersome.
· Data transfer/ storage facilities & retrival facilities were not
available, After commissioning of mini DAS in 2002, certain
log reports were available.
· Spare availability was a problem as OEM IL kota is no more
in healthy business field.
777
· No SOE was available. During 2001 one Massibus SOE
with limited inputs was commissioned.
· There was no time synchronization facilities with mini
DAS/Annunciation/SOE/
· Certain loops were put on auto when single loop controllers
and pneumatic control valve were commissioned. But due to
unreliable power supply to controllers, there was frequent
unit tripping.
· Air flow Calculation/PA flow calculation with temp
compensation were not available. These were some how
managed after purchasing ABB mini controller.
· OPC Compliance facility was not available
· Frequent Unit tripping occurred due to less reliable field
instruments/poor reduancy.
Hence a proposal was intiated for C&I R &M in the year-

2005.
Major Hurdles faced to implement DDCMIS R &M
· To implement DDCMIS package with de-linking FSSS

package
· Space allocation for new panels for completion of major
erection jobs before unit shutdown
· Cable laying in cable gallery ( one cable gallery has water
seepage & other one flooded with existing power & inst.
Cable)
· Pre shut down erection activities with running units
· Material collection for those item which were not received
till mar-09
· Mobilisation of large skilled Manpower for a short period
· Routing of cable/erection of cable in boiler/turbine area
· Delayed Civil and structural work –as the package could not
awarded till mar-09
· Electrical inputs for GRP as YIL is not familiar with GRP
package.
· Synchronies with switch yard R&M.
· Retention of existing FSSS control desk, cable shifting and
pre-fab cable extension activities
· Relocation of UPS panel to PRDS floor in unit-6
· Accommodation problem for extra man power
778
R oad Map f or meeting the challenges:
· Committee consisting C&I, EMD, Civil formed and regular

meeting held to resolve various technical issues, detailed
planning and monitoring.
· Dedicated C&I group formed to workout FSSS de-link issues
and evaluate extra jobs/materials required for interfacing
FSSS to DCS
· After many Brain storming sessions, Panel layouts/ Cable
routing finalised in such a way to avoid any disturbance of
running units and completion of major erection activities
before shutdown.
· Micro level Planning, Scheduling and Monitoring done for
for the pre shut down activities
· Manpower arrange by YIL from diferrent sources.
· Unit-5 CER room was constructed with running contracts
by Civil & Mech dept
· YIL discharge all efforts to cover up all pre shut down in
time .
· All staff of C&I dept were involved fully during shut down
period for completion of jobs in scheduled time
· With regular follow-up, Bought out items were collected &
their commissioning engineer called in time
Major Steps taken for reduction of shutdown period.
1. Issues related to FSSS delinking were resolved before start

of erection activity.
2. UPS /Charge panel relocation to reduce shut down period.
As both the panels were planned to commission in
shutdown period.
3. 70 % of R&M jobs (cable laying , J.B mounting , CER room
panel commissioning etc) were completed before unit
shutdown.
Major work done during s/d jobs.
1. Commissioning of all 6.6KV modules/ LT modules/ soot

Blowing modules/ actuator modules through DDCMIS panels.
779
2. TSI fixture mounting & commissioning.
3. TG protection /GRP protection panel commissioning.
4. LVS and work station commissioning.
5. Inter connection of GRP panel & Switch yard panels.
6. Connection of all actuator with DDCMIS.
Major Achiev ements:
1. As per contract total 60 days were planned for each unit

with common shut down of 15 days where as it took only
38+33 days with 3 days COMMON S/D. This was due to
dedicated efforts of all staffs of C&I.
2. As per contract, duration for pre-shutdown jobs was 6
months, where as pre-shutdown jobs could be completed in
2 months. The delay was due to Engg issues related to
electrical interfaces and de-linking of FSSS.
3. No delay in work execution on account of shortage of
material
4. No unit tripping during pre shut down period.
5. No major or minor accident occur during whole
implementation period.
6. 300 nos (12 types) electrical actuators interfaced with DCS.
Analog Position feedback transmitters and dual on/off
status feedback syatem designed and fabricated at site.
7. CVMCC, DPMCC, Electrical modules modifications done for
DCS interfacing.
8. Re-engg done after de-linking of FSSS and interfacing of
FSSS signals with DCS.
9. Process instrument lines routing done at site
10. Shifting and erection of LIE, LIR and panels to various
locations having no approaches and in unit running
condition
Ex perience/ Learnings:
¬ While merging of GRP with DDCMIS it should be ensured

that the vendor has the required expertise in electrical Area
780
¬ Interrelated packages such as Air conditioning/ lighting /
civil / structural packages to be awarded before
implementation of DDCMIS.
¬ Closely related works of one package should not be shifted
to other package due to shortage of budget( e.g. Control
Valves of DCS to FSSS), to avoid de-linking and
coordination problem.
¬ More efforts are required to bring Engg clarity in the
interface areas of C&I and Electrical.
¬ Sufficient Time should be allocated for pre-shutdown jobs.
¬ Panel layout and cable routing during Engg stage should be
done in such a way as to completion of about 80-90%
erection and 30-40% commissioning jobs during pre-shut
period
¬ Availability of all erection material before start of erection
jobs.
¬ Major civil works (CER room, UPS and battery room etc)
should be completed before start of C&I erection activity.
¬ During Design and Engg stage, site specific requirements to
be taken to account (e.g. extra isolation/ protection for I/O
for interfacing with old swithgears having different voltage
levels like 220V DC, 240V AC)
¬ Common Power supply and looping in field side for
reduction of cable qty should be avoided as faults in power
supply leeds to multiple failure.
¬ UPS and Charger should be commissioned well in advance
to ensure early start of DCS commissioning.
¬ Online Ground fault detection system should be provided
¬ Floating I/O supply is preferable for interfacing with old
electrical systems, as these are prone to frequent ground
faults.
BENEFITIES AFTER R&M
¬ System over view with all parameter

¬ More accuracate process parameter.
¬ Single window system (all controls from any terminal)
¬ More redundancy for comparision.
¬ Easy peration
¬ Easy contol
¬ User friendly over view & operation switch
¬ Trend of all parameter.
781
¬ Data retrival facilities & long term data storing.
¬ Time sync.data with other system
¬ On line calibration & on line tuning control loop
¬ Compact ucd
¬ Less operation manpower due to clubbing pf both unit
control rooms
¬ Software base system
¬ Easy fault finding
¬ Hook up facility with other plc
¬ Merit order & effecincy calulation in running unit.
¬ On line calibration
¬ Redunant controler& efield equipment.
¬ Relaible power system
¬ Full proven protection /interlock system
¬ Data transfer to other location through sattelite
communication
¬ More safty of equipment due to relaible alarm /easy fault
finding package.
ACTIVITIES DONE AFTER Unit synchronisation

¬ Removal of Old cables from cable Gallary
¬ Installation & commissioning of Engg. station
¬ Master slave clock panel commissioning
¬ Remote I/O panel commissioning
¬ Peripheral PC commissioning
¬ Networking activities for data transfer.
¬ OPC server/ PI server commissioning
¬ Removal of Duplex panel and balance civil work
Conclusion
The old Russian design control room has been renovated with
latest technology PC based system (YIL- cs 3000 DCS). Efforts
has been given for replacement of all field instrument which
are more accurate and reliable.
Easy fault diagnosis/ reliable protection system, software

based mimic overview for easy operation. Moreover LVS has
been provided for easy and flexible operation .
782
UP GRADATION OF MATERIAL WITH T-91 FOR
REDUCTION OF BTL
(A case study of Vindhyachal 500 MW Reheater)
Anil Choudhary DGM (BMD)

Shaji John DGM (BMD)
Satya Narayan Sr.Engr (BMD)
INTRODUC TION
Super heater tubes producing steam at temperatures of 900F (482C) and higher
are subject to failure by creep rupture. A creep failure in fossil fuel fired boilers is
a major cause of unit outages. Unless the root cause of the failures are identified
and addressed, over heating w ill repeat and can lead to unforeseen shut down
and major replacements of reheaters and final super heaters. Replacement of
conventional T22 material w ith T 91 material or SS tubes alone w ill not solve the
root cause for overheating, w hat more important is to understand the reasons
and the eliminating the root cause.
The objective of this paper is to highlight the efforts made to improve and
optimize plant steam generating performance and life of the Reheater component
in the VSTPS Stage-II 500 MW units. This paper summaries the plan
development, implementation, results and the future direction. This includes co –
ordinate efforts of design, operation and maintenance improvements.
HISTORY OF BTL IN ST-II (2X500MW) BOILER –REHEATER
The Stage - II units of VSTPS of 2 x 500 MW were commissioned in 1999-2000.

After completing 80,000 hrs of running, these units had recently failures in the
Re- Heater due to overheating. There were two BTL in unit-7 and two in unit-8 in
the last one year at the identical locations. Almost 50% of the Reheater outer
loop of the exit panel had severe overheating. The oxide film thickness
measurement showed oxide film thickness more than 700 microns for almost 50
% of the tubes
SN. UNIT DATE LOCATION REMARKS
8 08.02.2009 Reheater outlet Panel # 71 Failure occurred at just above

T1 at 60 Mtr.Elevation the DMW joint(T22+T91) in T22
material

T1 at 60 Mtr. Elevation the DMW joint(T22+T91) in T22
material

T1 at 60 Mtr. Elevation the DMW joint(T22+T91) in T22
material
8 26.09.2009 Reheater outlet panel no-62 Failure occurred at just above

tube no 1. the DMW joint(T22+T91) in T22
material
783
ACTUA L
PHOTOGRAPH OF
FAILURE DUE TO
LONG TERM
OVERHEATING AT
REHETER OUTLET IN
PANEL NO71 TUBE
NO1 IN UNIT 8 ON
08.02.09
PRESENT OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS:-
There is an imbalance on the heat pick up of the different sections of the boiler,
leading to higher temperature on the RHS of the reheater. This restricts the
loading of the unit beyond a limit and requires frequent spraying in the RHS of
the Reheater and frequent LRSB operation .This can be understood by the
diagrams given below.
A) FLUE GAS FLOW DIAGRAM:-
B) REHEAT STEAM TEMPERATURE IMBALANCE :-
784
REHEATER I/L & O/L
HEADER
351 ºC 351 ºC 527 ºC
ATTEMPERATION
533ºC
HPT
EXHAUST
ATTEMPERATION
351 ºC 537 ºC
325 ºC
0 T/Hr
RH (LHS) SPRAY
14 T/Hr
RH (RHS) SPRAY
RH TEMPERATURE
Efforts were made is to improve boiler performance measures through

operational optimization &through operational practices like:-
- Optimum Total Air flow

- Operating with Burner tilt in a specified range
- Need based water wall soot blowing
- Focused long retractable soot blowing
- Optimum PA flow/ header pressure
- Maintaining proper coal fineness
Optimization Measures include:-
Evolving an optimu m operating regime/ develop operating Practices for a utility

Boiler.
Establishing a performance trend for variation with excess Air.
Studying the effect of PA flow on combustion regime and optimizing.
Establishing optimum burner tilt level for running the Boiler w ithout any
temperature
Excursions in Re-heater & Super heater sections.
Inspite of the above measures taken the requirement of spray was high and the
material of Reheater panels degraded over the period
TEMPERATURE ESTIMATION
To estimate the tube creep life, the metal temperature in operation must be
know n or estimated. The metal temperature is rarely measured directly in boiler
tubes. Thermo couples are provided at the out let portion of the re heater panel
in the pent house. How ever these thermo couples provide a measurement of
temperature of the un heated tubes in the pent house of the T91 segment. This
indication of out let steam temperature would still need to be correlated to the
metal temperature of the heated tube in the gas path
785
The unit material diagram of Re Heater is shown in fig below. The panel cosists of
material T11 at the inlet side, T22 in between and T91 at the outlet portion
UNIT MATERIAL DIAGRAM OF REHEATER AND SELEC TION OF T91:-
LOCATION OF
FAILURE IN T22
MATERIAL
786
63.5X4 T91
54X4 T91
FAILURE MECHANISM-C REEP DAMAGE MECHANISM
The boiler components undergoes c reep damage due to high temperature and
high pressure service .In general the processes leading to elevated temperature
failure under service conditions can be broadly classified as :
Creep strain accumulation with no significant decrease in creep strength

compared to the virgin material. Structural degradation causing a continuous
reduction in creep strength creep cavitations environmental attack
MIC RO STRUC TURAL DEGRATION
The majority of alloy steels used in the boilers depend on finely dispersed
precipitates to provide resistance to deformation .The creep rate is primarily
dependant on the inter-particle spacing and the associated mechanism by which
dislocations overcome the particles .It is also know n that thermally induced
coarsening of these particles or gradual replacement with more stable particles at
operating temperature can bring about tertiary creep leading to failure.
CAVITATION DAMAGE
Creep cavities nucleate and grow predominantly on grain boundaries oriented

normal to the principal stress. The density of cavities in ferratic steels used in the
boilers is dependant on the grain boundary chemistry, strain and stress.
787
Numerous controlling mechanisms are propounded for creep cavitation, namely
vacancy flow, continuum or power-law growth and constrained cavity growth.
EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT
Creep in aggressive environment including air normally leads to changes in

rupture life and ductility .the low alloy steels, used in the boilers, form oxides
which spall during exposure .Reducing the load bearing cross section and
accelerating creep. At service temperatures the oxide is strongly adherent and is
likely to bear some of the load because it generally creeps more slow ly than the
metal .In this case, the rate of attack is controlled no longer by inward diffusion
of oxygen, but by the frequency of surface cracking .The extent of oxidation is
dependent on strain rate as well as time.
MEASUREMENT OF INTERNAL OXIDE SCALE
Each tube contains a record of its individual thermal history in its internal (Steam
side) oxide scale. Since the growth of this internal scale is a function of time and
temperature it provides a means for estimating the tubes average metal
temperature.
The internal oxide scale thickness was measured all across the reheater
Panels. The reading of the film thickness indicated over heating towards the Right
side of the boiler (panel no 52-74) on the leading tube. The T91 tubes were
observed to be healthy and the over heating had taken place on the T22 portion
above T-91 part.
THEORY OF OXIDE SCALE GROWTH
The very high temperatures found inside steam boilers (in excess of 800ºC) can
cause the formation of a specific type of hard,brittle iron oxide called magnetite
on the inside and outside surface of steel boiler tubing .At very high temp,water
vapor will react with the iron in steel to form magnetite and hydrogen according
to following reaction.
3Fe+4H2O=Fe3O4+4H2
The speed of this reaction increases with temperature. Oxygen atoms w ill diffuse
inward through magnetite layer ,and iron atoms will diffuse outward, so the scale
continues to grow even after the tube surface is completely covered.
EFFECTS OF OXIDE SCALE GROWTH
Magnetite scale acts as thermal insulation on the tube, since the thermal
conductivity of scale is only about 5% that of steel. When the heat can no longer
transfer efficiently from the hot flue gas through the tube into the steam, the
tube wall will heat up to temperatures ,beyond the intended operating range
.Long term exposures to overly high temperatures, combined w ith the very high
pressure inside the tube ,leads to intergranular micro-cracking in the metal
,which in turn eventually leads to tube failure by bursting.
The growth of magnetite scale and associated metal damage are primary limiting
factor with respect to boiler tube service life .The process begins slow ly and
accelerates, as the scale grows thicker the tube wall becomes hotter and that in
turn increase the rate of both scale growth and metal damage. Studies in the
power generation industry have indicated that the effect of scale is relatively
insignificant up to the thicknesses of approximately 0.3 mm, but beyond that
thickness the negative effects of scale increase rapidly.
A secondary issue is oxide exfoliation, in which the pieces of oxide scale break off
(usually due to thermal stresses during boiler startup or shutdown) and may get
788
collected at bends. This may cause partial flow conditions in that tube as the
differential pressure is not sufficient to blow it off. It is there fore recommended
that when scale values are found to be higher than 800-1000 mic rons it is better
to check the bends either by radiography or by boroscope. Reduction in thickness
of tube is the direct indication of exfoliation hence thickness measurement is very
important along with oxide scale readings.
LIMITATION OF SA 213 T 22
The creep rupture strength of SA213 T22 material is shown in the diagram below.
The maximum temperature limit to which this material can be put to service is
579 deg C.
Fig 5-100 000 hrs Creep rupture stress of conventional ASTM materials
Carbon steel
1.25 Cr 0.5 Mo Si Steel (T11/ P11)
300
2.25 Cr 1 Mo Steel (T22/ P22)
250 Carbon 0.3 Mo Steel (Germ an Steel 15 Mo3)
Rupture stress MPa
304 H Steel (m in)

200
150
100
50
0
325 375 425 475 525 575 625 675 725
FAILURE ANALY SIS Temperature deg C
As it can been seen from the location of failure in unit material diagram and
photograph of actual failure that it is occurring just above the DMW joint in T22
material and the reason of failure is long term overheating. The oxide scale
thickness was measured in the failed tube; it was coming in the range of 900
micron. After two consecutive failures in unit 7, the oxide scale measurement was
done in the first tube of all the reheater outlet panels and it was observed that
the value of oxide scale thickness was coming between 500-920 micron from
panel no 01 to 74.
EFFECT OF CHROMIUM AS ALLOY ING ELEMENT
This is the major alloying element conferring the oxidation /corrosion resistance
to the steel. This element also provides resistance to corrosion in sulphur rich flue
gases.
1100 27
These temperatures are based on
Oxidation temperature (under
1000 oxidation/ corrosion by flue gases

wherever applicable.
flue gases) deg.C
900
In case of plain air as in pent
800 house region, higher metal
17 temperatures can be tolerated.
700 12
9
5
600
1 2.25
500 0 Fig-1 Continuous oxidation temperature vs the Chromium content
400 789
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Weight % Chromium
6.2) EFFECT OTHER ALLOY ING ELEMENTS:- The alloying elements used for
enhancing the creep resistance are Nb, V, and W. Similar to Mo these are strong
carbide formers, providing a fine network of carbides in the matrix impeding the
dislocation movement thus enhancing resistance to creep deformation.
Nitrogen is used in order to substitute the carbon and form nitrides which
provide creep resistance similar to carbides.
Referring to the creep damage mechanism and effect of various alloying element
like Cr, Nb, V and N. Selection of T91 material can be done in place of T22.
COMPARISON OF T91 WITH T22:
The chemical composition and metal temperature limits of the T22 and T91 is
detailed below
C Si Mn P S Ni Cr Mo V Nb N Al Temp
.limit
T22 0.15 0.25- 0.3- 0.03 0.03 - 1.9- 0.87 - - - - 579
max 1.0 0.6 max max 2.6 - ºC
1.13
T91 0.08- 0.2- 0.3- 0.02 0.01 0.40 8- 0.85 0.18 0.06 0.03 0.0
0.12 0.5 0.6 max max max 9.5 - - - - 4m 635º
1.05 0.25 0.10 0.07 ax C
UP GRADATION OF T22 MATERIAL WITH T91
Based on the above observations it was decided to upgrade the material from T22
to T91 above the DMW joint in approximately 7 mt r. Length (i.e affected length
from oxide scale deposition).For the above replacement, loops fabrication was
done at site .For the loop fabrication offset bend were prepared w ith the cold
bend process .Thickness was measured before and after the bending process ,and
it was found that the change in the thickness is less than 5%. After fabrication
of bend straight tubes were welded at both ends of the bend. Thus the loop
fabrication was consisting of two nos. T91+T91 joint, and one T91+T22 joint.
Total 54 nos. loops were replaced in unit 7 during the overhauling in July-august
2009.And for loop replacement in unit 8, procurement of 74 nos. loop is in
process.
COMPARISON BETWEEN ORIGINAL AND UPGRADED SCHEME
790
From the pictures given below difference between original and upgraded scheme
can be understood.
BEFORE AFTER
After the above modif ications carried out the condition of the tubes are being
monitored at every available opportunity. The condition of the remaining tubes
of T22 material is also under observation for any possible degradation. A
comprehensive long term solution w ill be worked out based on the
observations.
CONCLUSION:
Efficient operation of power generating units is the need of the hour particularly
in the changing power sector scenario. Operating parameters of plant has to
optimize to reduce losses. High temperature creep resistant materials have
been developed so that the operating parameters can be further raised for
improving efficiency.
To ensure the availability of the units by reducing forced outages of the VSTPS
stage-II boiler a short term and long term strategy has been developed. This
includes up gradation of of material of Reheater outer loop to T-91,
continuous monitoring of metal temperature, optimum soot blow ing and burner
tilt modulation.
*****
791
ANNEXURE
OXIDE SCALE & HARDNESS SURVEY OF RH OUTLET DURING BTL ON

12.04.09.
BTL Detail: RH-O/L Panel no. 70 fish mouth opening at T1 tube in T22 portion just above the T22-T91
joint.
Coil No. Thickness Oxide Scale Hardness Remarks

Of tube (mm) (Micron) (HB)
Desn Obsrvd
11 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.5 Less then 250 124,128,128
(Bottom) 5.6 Less then 250 130,132,121
12 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.6 260 122,126,130

Bottom 5.6 270 120,130,129
13T1 (Top) 4.0 5.2 280 136,135,124
Bottom 4.0 5.0 280 129,130,137
14 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.2 330 122,127,120
Bottom 4.0 5.2 320 123,137,132
15 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.0 400 137,134,130
Bottom 4.0 5.2 330 131,130,132
16 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.1 350 130,128,121
Bottom 4.0 5.1 370 131,128,131
792
17 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.4 300 117,117,111
Bottom 4.0 5.2 310 140,144,137
18T1 (Top) 4.0 5.6 320 117,118,128
Bottom 4.0 5.1 300 121,118,129
19 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.5 000 187,201,202
Bottom 4.0 4.2 000 187,191,193
20 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.9 410 126,128,128
Bottom 4.0 4.9 420 126,132,126
21T1 (Top) 4.0 5.3 380 135,141,142
Bottom 4.0 5.2 400 126,125,121
22 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.9 500 123,114,122
Bottom 4.0 4.9 580 124,119,126
23 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.0 440 129,124,113
Bottom 4.0 4.7 530 124,132,124
24 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.9 530 134,135,136
Bottom 4.0 5.0 570 129,118,126
25 T1 (Top) 4.0 Less then 250
Bottom 4.0 4.7 Less then 250 122,114,123
(Bottom) 4.0 4.3 700 124,122,130
(Bottom) 4.0 4.4 670 125,114,129
28 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.3 320 129,124,130
(Bottom) 4.0 4.1 800 122,130,126
29 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.2 740 128,114,115
(Bottom) 4.0 4.0 760 122,130,132
30 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.3 660 124,123,119
(Bottom) 4.0 4.0 560 128,124,127
31 T1 (Top) 4.0 Less then 250 120,124,120
(Bottom) 4.0 4.3 400 117,122,115
32 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.3 Less then 250 120,124,111
(Bottom) 4.0 4.4 570 122,125,113
33T1 (Top) 4.0 4.4 500 122,120,114
(Bottom) 4.0 4.1 620 119,108,119
34 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.2 Less then 250 124,114,116
(Bottom)
4.0 4.2 Less then 250 124,115,124
35 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.1 800 137,128,127
(Bottom) 4.0 3.8 850 127,126,128
36 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.5 430 112,110,109
(Bottom) 4.0 4.5 430 125,124,126
37 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.2 300 119,128,126
(Bottom) 4.0 4.4 500 127,134,130
38T1 (Top) 4.0 4.6 420 136,131,130
(Bottom) 4.0 4.4 390 119,129,133
39 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.1 Less then 250 124,117,126
(Bottom) 4.0 4.2 740 117,126,127
40 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.2 370 122,124,114
(Bottom) 4.0 4.2 Less then 250 123,132,130
41 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.2 800 119,124,128
(Bottom) 4.0 4.2 560 117,122,120
42 T1 (Top) 4.0 3.9 920 113,126,125
(Bottom) 4.0 4.8 870 112,114,112
43 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.1 790 125,130,132
(Bottom) 4.0 4.2 740 120,126,123
44 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.1 480 129,126,135
(Bottom) 4.0 4.2 760 123,120,127
45 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.0 720 122,128,135
(Bottom) 4.0 4.2 690 123,125,133
46 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.2 830 118,124,122
(Bottom) 4.0 3.9 730 126,121,136
47 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.3 890 127,125,125
(Bottom) 4.0 4.2 860 122,123,128
48 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.4 810 130,134,136
(Bottom) 4.0 4.1 800 124,123,126
49 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.4 690 111,117,126
(Bottom) 4.0 4.0 730 118,118,126
50 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.7 700 119,120,124
(Bottom) 4.0 4.2 820 119,123,122
51 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.2 900 128,132,134
793
(Bottom) 4.0 4.3 840 117,119,125
52 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.3 640 114,114,115
(Bottom) 4.0 4.2 Less then 250 124,126,115
53 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.5 760 111,113,117
(Bottom) 4.0 4.5 700 120,122,129
54 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.6 650 114,115,119
(Bottom) 4.0 4.6 670 132,134,135
55 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.5 800 130,133,135
(Bottom) 4.0 4.1 890 119,122,124
56 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.1 Less then 250 174,175,177
(Bottom) 4.0 4.0 Less then 250 149,150,157
57 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.2 330 123,126,124
(Bottom) 4.0 5.1 350 118,126,126
58 T1 (Top) 4.0 5.3 380 115,118,120
(Bottom) 4.0 4.9 430 112,113,115
73 T1 (Top) 4.0 4.6 610 138,134,128

(Bottom)
4.0 4.1 610 135,137,136
74T1 (Top) 4.0 5.4 Less then 250 186,185,188
(Bottom)
4.0 4.2 Less then 250 167,158,160
794
Dynamic Analysis of Turbine Blades
Dhirendra Goyal, Jitendra Ku mar,Himanshu Kumar *,

O&M Depart ment ( Opn. Group)
National Thermal Po wer Corporation Ltd
Dadri-201008
E-mail: himanshukumar@ntpc.co.in
AB STRACT
The work deals with the structural analysis of turbine blades and finding different types of unsymmetrical
bending modes of a turbine blade. Dynamic analysis of turbine blade is very crucial as different failures cause
various losses in generation. In addition to this there are some prevalent losses in turbine as aerodynamic losses,
friction losses, different energy distribution, leakage losses. This paper basically finds the dynamic behavior of
turbine blade in h igh temperature and high pressure environment and finding ways of minimizing failures and
hence losses. . The present work is extension of the work wh ich was dedicated for calculation for crit ical eigen
vectors, and natural frequencies of turbine blade assuming neglig ible mass and negligible thickness only. In the
present work, curv ilinear design and 3D modeling with finite mass of turbine blade is exp lored. Blade vibrat ions
under free and forced vibration cases are attempted. For simp lifying the analytical difficult ies, a cantilever beam
is used to replace the turbine blade. For modal analysis, Hood latch structural modal analysis is considered to
evaluate higher unsymmetrical bending nodes. The dimensions of blade are modeled in accordance of first stage
blade and fillet is given accordingly. SOLID45 is used for the three-dimensional modeling of b lade. Eight nodes
having three degrees of freedom at each node are used to define the element. The element has the properties like
plasticity, creep, swelling, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain capabilities.
Keywords: 3-D Modelling, Fin ite Element Method, Turbine Blade, Modal Analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Turbine Blade Vibration is a very critical phenomenon in Power Plants. Due to vibration,
unsymmetrical bending and distortions are produced due to different types of internal and
external forces. Failures of turbine blades are observed sometimes in power plants. The blade
failure [1] will shoot down the electricity plane and affect the power supply causing, economic
loss, as operation of the turbine engine has to be terminated. Failure of blades may have
different causes, such as the corrosion from the environmental pollution, deteriorated material
properties, incorrect operation, resonant vibration, etc, but resonant vibration is the most
critical one. In the dynamic analysis, the resonant vibration behavior can be analyzed and can
be avoided based on the analytical results. Generally, research [2] on the turbine blades focuses
on vibration frequencies and mode shapes. The present work is dedicated to structural analysis
of turbine blades and to find different types of unsymmetrical bending modes of a turbine
795
blade. The present work is extension of the previous work [3], which was dedicated for
calculation for critical eigen vectors, and natural frequencies of turbine blade assuming
negligible mass and negligible thickness only. In this work curvilinear design and 3D modeling
with finite mass of turbine blade is to be explored. Blade Vibration under free and forced
vibration cases will be attempted.
Generally, the turbine blades run at synchronous speed of 3000-3500 rpm under high
temperature, pressure and high speed of impinging jet. It always undergoes in unsymmetrical
bending and distortions due to stresses developed as a result of centrifugal force, bending stress
and internal and external forces. The dynamics of blade is analyzed by geometry optimization
like blade angle, blade height, aspect ratio and method of champhering and different damping
considerations like micro-slip damping. Constructions of turbine blades are made in such a
manner that it can persist the maximum deflections and distortions. The continuous approach
for a single blade requires analytical work before a numerical procedure can be adopted.
Discretizing the blade and formulating appropriate element relations have been carried out by
many researches by various discrete analysis techniques as Holzer’s method (4), Mykstad
method (5) Matrix methods (6), Finite difference methods (7-8) and finite element method (9-
10). The finite element method (9) has become popular in many research fields. Dokumaci [10]
used the matrix displacement method to determine natural frequencies of tapered blades.
Nagaraj and Sahu [11] analyzed the turbine blade by finite element method based on Rayleigh-
Ritz method and Galerkin procedures.
For simplifying the analytical difficulties, a cantilever beam is used to replace the
turbine blade. A single freestanding blade can be considered as a pre-twisted cantilever beam
with an asymmetric aerofoil cross-section mounted at a stagger angle on a rotating disk. The
starting solution for a simple stationary blade is obtained from the cantilever boundary
conditions for bending vibration and non-circular rod for torsion vibration. Coupled bending–
torsion vibrations occur when the center of flexure does not coincide with the centroid as in the
aerofoil blade cross-section and the vibrations are coupled between the two bending modes
because of pre-twist. The problem becomes further complicated because of second order effects
such as shear deflections, rotary inertia, fiber bending in torsion, warping of the cross-section,
root fixing and Coriolis accelerations.
The present work deals with the modal analysis of 3 D hexahedral 8-node element and
the unsymmetrical bending modes as well as their respective nodal solution are obtained. The
2D and 3D model has been compared also in respect of their modes and vector plot. Later, the
796
work is extended to mechanical toolbar for calculating higher unsymmetrical bending nodes
accompanied with adoptability of mechanical design constraints and SI unit conversions.
2. Analytical formulation for Modal Analysis

The analytical formulation for modal analysis may be obtained by defining the Lagrangian as
L = T- П (1)
where T is the kinetic energy and П is the potential energy. The potential energy is given by
П = ½ QT KQ - QT F (2)
Using the Lagrangian L= T- П , one may obtain the equation of motion as
M &x& + K x = F (t) (3)
For free vibrations the force F (t) is zero thus

M &x& + K x = 0 (4)
For the steady state condition, one may have x = X sin ω t, where U is the vector of nodal
amplitudes of vibration and ω is the circular frequency. Using this relation, one may reduce the
equation as
K X = ω 2 M X. (5)
This is the generalized eigenvalue problem

K X = M X. (6)
M is taken zero for modal analysis. Then K X= 0 or K [x] =0.

When, the forced vibration is also considered then one may have the equation as
M &x& + K x = F (t)
F (t) is the dynamic forces due to bending stresses and centrifugal stresses.
Initially for finding out the modal solution at natural frequency, one may assume the mass
matrix of equation is zero. In this case one may have only [k][x] = 0. For finding out the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors det [k- x I] = 0, where I is a square matrix. As the mass matrix is
assumed to be zero, one may consider the density of the model negligible for analysis.
2.1 Evaluation of Eigenvalue and Eigenvectors
The generalized problem in free vibration is that of evaluating an eigenvalue λ (= ώ 2 ), which is

a measure of the frequency of vibration together with the corresponding eigen vector U,
indicating the mode shape
KU = λ M U (7)
One may consider that K and M are symmetric matrices. Further, K is positive definite matrix
for properly constrained problems. For a positive definite symmetric matrix of size n there are
797
n real eigen values and corresponding eigenvectors satisfying above equation. The eigenvalues
may be arranged in increasing order as given 0 λ1 λ2 λ3……….. λ n
if U1 , U2 ,……, Un are the corresponding eigenvectors , we have
K Ui = λ i M Ui
The eigen vectors possess the property of being orthogonal with respect to both the stiffness an
mass matrices expressed as
UTi M Uj = 0 if i j
UTi K Ui = 0 if i j
The lengths of eigenvectors are normalized as
UTi M Ui = 1 (8)
The foregoing normalization of the eigenvectors leads to the relation, which is expressed as
UTi K Ui = λi
The length of an eigen vector may be fixed by setting its largest component to a preset value
i.e. unity.
Characteristic polynomial technique, one may have
(K- λ M) U = 0 (9)
If the eigenvector is to be nontrivial, the required condition is expressed as

det (K- λ M ) = 0 (10)
This represents the characteristics polynomial in λ.
3. Finite Element Modeling

In the present work curvilinear design and 3D modeling with finite mass of turbine blade is to
be explored. Blade Vibration under free and forced vibration cases will be attempted. For
simplifying the analytical difficulties, a cantilever beam is used to replace the turbine blade as
shown in Fig.1. The Fig. 2 shows the turbine blade as a cantilever beam.
Fig 1: Solid Model (Isometric View) Fig 2: Blade acts as like a cantilever
798
The starting solution for a simple stationary blade is obtained from the cantilever boundary
conditions for bending vibration and non-circular rod for torsion vibration. Coupled bending–
torsion vibrations occur when the center of flexure does not coincide with the centroid as in
the aerofoil blade cross-section and the vibrations are coupled between the two bending
modes because of pre-twist. The problem becomes further complicated because of second
order effects such as shear deflections, rotary inertia, fiber bending in torsion, warping of the
cross-section, root fixing and Coriolis accelerations.
For modal analysis, Hood latch structural Modal analysis is considered to evaluate
higher unsymmetrical bending nodes. The dimensions of blade are modeled in accordance of
first stage blade and fillet is given accordingly. SOLID45 is used for the three-dimensional
modeling of blade. Eight nodes having three degrees of freedom at each node define the
element: translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. The element has plasticity, creep,
swelling, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain capabilities. In the present work,
we have done Modal analysis of 3 D hexahedral 8-node element as shown in Fig.3 and Fig.4.
Fig. 3 :Model for hood Latch Modal analysis Fig. 4 : Hexahedral elements on solid model
4. Results and Discussions

For computational analysis of the problem, several assumptions are made. The blade
of turbine blade is considered as chrome steel and density of the chrome steel is taken for
analysis part. Stiffness matrix is found in suitability with number of nodes. As the present work
is dedicated to hexahedral 8 node element so the dimension of the stiffness matrix is (12 X 3)
as the finite element has 12 faces and three degrees of freedom. The modulus of elasticity is
taken 3 X 106 N/mm2 and the material is considered as isotropic and the poisons ratio is equal
in all direction and equal to 0.33. The free–free vibration of a single blade from the finite
element analytical results can match very well with the analytical data. The natural frequency
799
of a single blade obtained from FEM is only within 5% difference compared with the test
results. Therefore, the finite element method is confirmed to be a good method for performing
dynamic analysis of complicated geometric blades. At higher modes the mode of bending is
unsymmetrical as well as axially compressive and shows the criticality of design.
Turbine blade is modeled by using a mechanical toolbar using chrome steel for the material
of blade and SOLID 45 is used as a finite element. The different higher modes are obtained,
which are being presented in Fig. 5-14.
Fig. 5 : 1st Mode with Bend Fig. 6 : 2nd Mode with Bend +Twist
Fig. 7 : 3rd Mode with Bend Fig. 8: 4th Mode with Bend +Twist
800
Fig. 5 shows the first mode of the turbine blade, which is having the mode shape as bending.
However the second mode is having the shape of bending as well as twisting as shown in Fig.
6. The next two modes repeat the same behaviour and mode shape as shown in Fig. 7 and
Fig.8.
Fig. 9: 5th Mode with Bend +Twist+ Buckling Fig. 10: 6th Mode with Bend +Twist+ Buckling
Fig. 11: 7th Mode with Bend +Twist Fig. 12: 8th Mode with unsymmetric Bend +Twist
801
Fig. 13: 9th Mode with unsymmetric Twist +Bend Fig. 14: 10th Mode with A xial in ward co mpressed bending
Fig. 9-14 show the different higher modes of turbine blade and their detailed properties may
presented as Table.1
Table. 1: Natural Frequency and Eigen values of Higher Modes
S. N. Mode Number Mode Shape Eigen value Natural
Frequency
1. First Mode Bend .0018 x 108 21.85 Hz
2. Second Mode Bend + t wist .00111 x 108 53.089 Hz
3. Third mode Bend .0169 x 108 65.6 Hz
4. Fourth Mode Bend + t wist 0 .0501 x 108 112.75Hz
5. Fifth Mode Bend + t wist+ buckling .01551 x 108 198.326 Hz
6. Sixth Mode Bend + t wist+ buckling .2445 x 108 249.002 Hz
7. Seventh Mode Bend + t wist .3069 x 108 278.796 Hz
8. Eighth Mode Unsymmetrical twist and bend 0.3335 x 108 290.796
9. Ninth Mode Unsymmetrical twist and bend 0.5 x 108 356.286
10. Tenth Mode Axial inward co mpressed .5201 x 108 363.154 Hz

bending
Fig. 15 shows the nodal solution of a complex higher mode (5th Mode), which has bending,
twisting as well as buckling.
802
Fig.15: Nodal solution of 5th Mode
5. Conclusions
From the Modal analysis, it is concluded that the first mode shows only bending and its natural
frequency is generally lesser than mechanical frequency of the blade. Hence, this mode is not
very critical for the design purposes. The second and third mode show the bending as well as
twisting nature, which are counted to be critical, however, their frequencies are still very small.
Higher modes show the unsymmetrical bending and twisting behaviour, which are also having
axially compressive bending, which shows the criticality of design. In future, the whole blade
assembly may be considered, which will give a better picture for the vibration analysis for the
turbine blade.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Kearton W.J., 2005 Steam Turbine Theory and Practice, 7th Edit ion, CBS Publications, USA
[2] Gwo-Chung Tsai, 2004, Rotating Vib ration Behavior of the Turbine Blades with Different Groups of
Blades; Journal of Sound and Vibration, 271,pp. 547– 575.
[3] Saxena, R.K., Rastogi, V., Kumar, H., 2007 Modal analysis and flexural Vibration of a Single Turbine
Blade, Recent advances in Design, Dynamics and Manufacturing, Proceeding of National Conference on Design,
Dynamics and Manufacturing, Macmillan India Ltd., pp.118-120.
[4] Myklested, N.O., 1944, New methods of Calculating Natural modes of Uncoupled Bending VibrationJournal
of Aerosol science, Vol. 48, pp.153.
[5] Prohl, M.A., 1945, A General Method of Calculating Critical Speed of Flexible Rotors, Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Vol.12, pp.142.
[6] Downs, B., Vibration Analysis of Turbo machinery Blades using Dedicated Discretization and Twisted Beam
Theory, ASM E report.
803
[7] Carnegie W., Thomas, J., 1972, The Coupled Bending Vibration of Pre-twisted Tapered Blading, Journal of
Engineering for Industry, ASME Transactions, Vo l. 94, pp.255.
[8] [7] Carnegie W., Thomas, J., 1972, The Effect of Shear Deformation and Rotary Inertia on the Lateral
Frequencies of Cantilever Beams in Bending, Journal of Engineering for Industry, ASME Transactions, Vol. 94,
pp.267.
[9] Zienkiewicz, O. C., 1971, The Finite Element Method in Engineering Science, Mc-Graw Hill, London.
[10] Carnegie W., Thomas, J., and Dukumaci, E., 1969, An Improved Method of matrix Displacement
analysis in Vibration Problems, Aeronautical Quarterly, Vo l.20, Pp. 321.
[11] Nag araj, V.T., and Sahu, N., 1982, Torsional Vibrations of Non-uniform Rotating Blades with
Attachment Flexibility, Journal of sound and Vibration, Vol. 80(3), pp. 401.
[12] Chandrupatala and Belegundu, Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering.3rd edition PHI India
[13] Kearton W.J. Steam turbine theory and practice 7th Edition CBS publications.
[14] Goel Nagesh, IIT Kharagpur Su mmer training report on structural analysis for piezoelectric crystal (durat ion
5th may -27th June 2006 done at CM ERI Durgapur)
[15] ANS YS 6.1 User’s Manual, A NSYS Inc., Canonsburg, PA, 2002.
804
Rectification of High SHAFT-1 Vibration problem in Unit # 5
500MW KWU KORBA TG set
Contri butor :
· S. K. Ghosh – is B. E. (M ech.). He joined NTPC Ltd. as 12th Batch Executive Trainee in 1987. He has 23years of vast
experience in Power Plant M aintenance. Currently he is working as DGM in Turbine M aintenance of NTPC Ltd Korba Super
Thermal Power Station.
· H.P.Dewangan – is B. E. (M ech.). He joined NTPC Ltd. as 22th Batch Executive Trainee in 1998. Currently he is
working as Supdt in Turbine M aintenance of NTPC Ltd. Korba Super Thermal Power Station.
1.0 Brief Description of the Problem :
U nit #5 (500 M W ) w as s topped 0n 31/0 8/2006 f or plan ned c apital ov erhaul of

H P & IP m odule along w ith bearing ins pec tion. O n dis m antlin g of H P m odule,
dam ages in rotor an d inner c as ing w ere foun d. In order t o repair, t he rotor and
c as ing w ere s ent to B H E L H ardw ar and B H E L B hopal res pec tiv ely .IP turbine
rotor, c as ing and all be aring w ere ins pec ted and found in order. To s av e the unit
O utage tim e, the av ailable s pare repair rotor of S ingrauli w as us ed along w ith
K orba H P T inner c as ing after repair. A fter c om pletion of all w ork the m ac hine w as put on barring
gear on 24/11/ 2006. S ubs equen tly unit w as rolled and m ac hine w as s y nc hroniz ed to grid on
26/11/2006 . The H P T s haft v ibration w ent up t o 165-1 70 m ic ron on fu ll load. A ll be aring v ibrat ion w as
obs erv ed norm al.
To reduc e the HP T s haft v ibration trim balanc ing w as c arried out from 29/11/06 to 30/11/06 and after
balanc ing H P F s haft v ibration reduc ed to 13 0 m ic ron on fu ll
Load. A round 1060 g m w eights w ere added in H P front g land plane. B efore c apital ov erhaul of LP T
m odule ov erhauling , M P I & N FT of free s tanding blades , the unit w as running w ith 115-120 m ic ron at
H P F on full load .
The Turbov is ory param eters before and after th e ev ents are enc los ed herew ith.
805
806
807
808
2.0 HISTORY OF UNIT # 5 (500 MW)
U n it # 5 w a s first syn ch ro n ize d o n 2 5 /0 3 /1 9 8 8 an d m a ch in e w a s clo cke d a ro u n d 1 6 2 1 0 0 h rs
b e fo re th e sh u td o w n fo r o ve rh a u lin g on 3 1 .0 8 .2 0 0 9 . F irst ca pita l o ve rh a ulin g o f HP T & IP T
ca rrie d o u t in o n O ct 1 9 9 9 . U n it w ith d ra w n o n 3 1 .0 8 .2 0 0 6 fo r H P T & IP T pla n n e d ca pita l
o ve rh a u lin g . B e fo re th is sh u td o w n m a ch in e w a s ru n a b so lu te ly n o rm a l co n d itio n . T h e
tu rb o viso ry p a ra m e te r w e re w e ll w ith in th e lim it a n d n o a b n o rm a litie s w e re n o tice d d u rin g
o p e ra tio n .
3.0 Observations during the Inspection:
F o llow in g w e re th e o b se rva tio n s d u rin g th e re ctifica tio n w o rk :

(a ) S tu b sh a ft ru n -o u t w a s fo u n d a t h ig h e r sid e u p to 0 .0 7 m m .
(b ) D ism a n tlin g S w in g ch e ck va lu e fo u n d u p to 0 .4 3 .
(c) S o m e o f H P /IP co u p lin g b o lts w a s fo u n d to o tig h t.
(d ) C o u p lin g ru n o u t a t H P /IP /L P co u p lin g fo u n d in h ig h e r sid e .
F ig .1 – C ro ss sec tion o f 50 0 M W HP Tu rb in e
S HA FT
809
The tabulation of dismantling observation & Assembly correction.
Sl.No. WORK DISMANTLING ASSEMBLY

COUPLED HP-IP J2-025,IPC-06 J2-02,IPC-
1 RUN OUT 03
IP-LP J3-02,IPC-06 J3-01
1/2,IPC-06
LP-GEN J4-02,GEN-07 J4-02,GEN-
05
2 STUB SHAFT 0.07 0.01 1/2
RUNOUT
3 SWING 0.43 0.18
CHECK
4 FREE RUN
OUT
HP J1-01
J2-02 ½
HPC-04
5 ALIGNMENT
CORRECTION
PED-1 R->L-0.70
UP- 0.20
PED-2 UP-0.20
PED- NIL
3/BRG-3
PED/BRG- NIL
4
GEN L->R-0.17
DOWN-0.2
810
4.0 Rectification work :
(a ) S o m e H P /IP b o lt p o lish in g d o n e to b rin g d o w n th e sw in g ch e ck va lu e a n d
co u p le d ru n o u t a t co u p lin g s.
(b ) C o u p le d ru n o u t o f (H P /IP ) jo u rn a l w ith in 0 .0 2 a n d co u p lin g is with in
0 .0 3 m m
(c) Learning : Final alignment has been carried out after putting all
weight on the deck e.g Gen air filled up to 4 ksc, LPT outer casing
top half temporary put on bottom half , hot well filled above the
normal level equivalent to CW water weight. Generally such
practices are followed in spring deck machine. But it is observed
that the filling of CW / hotwell and generator gas is also affecting
alignment values in old 500 MW KWU design machines.
(d ) B e a rin g sid e p a cke r a n d yo ke ke y cle a ra n ce m a d e a s p e r th e d e sig n .
(e ) S tu b sh a ft a lig n m e n t w a s d o n e to b rin g d o w n th e ru n -o u t va lu e w ith in 0 .0 2
b y scra p in g /b lu e m a tch in g th e sp ig o t g ro o ve & fa ce
5.0 Conclusion & Results:
V ib ra tio n m e a su re m e n t o f b e a rin g / sh a ft-1 is p ro vid e d o n stu b sh a ft

h e n ce ru n o u t to th e va lu e o f 0 .0 7 w a s ca u sin g h ig h sh a ft vib ra tio n .
A lso p o lish in g o f tig h t co u p lin g b o lt h e lp in g in b rin g in g d o w n th e sw in g ch e ck & C R O va lu e
re su ltin g in re d u ctio n in sh a ft vib ra tio n .
A fte r ca p ita l o ve rh a u lin g o f L P T m o d u le a n d re c tifica tio n w o rk

M a ch in e w a s syn ch ro n ize d a n d a t fu ll lo a d th e H P fro n t sh a ft
vib ra tio n re d u ce d to 5 2 -5 3 m icro n & ru n n in g sm o o th ly in th is ra n g e .
S tu b sh a ft ce n te rin g w ith in 0 .0 2 m m , sw in g ch e ck co rre ctio n
p o lishin g o f tig h t co u p lin g b o lt re su ltin g in re d u ctio n o f H P fro n t sh a ft
vib ra tio n .
811
Turbovisory parameter of unit #5 before & after overhauling
ON LOAD ON LOAD
PARAMETER Before O/H After O/H
DATE 31.07.09 03/09/09
TIME 17.30 17:15
LOAD 516 515
SPEED 2977 3005
VACCUUM 78 91
NO.1 115.8 50.52
SHAFT NO.2 27.16 31.5
VIBRATION NO.3 42.47 36.8
(microns) NO.4 19.28 22.42
NO.7 25.4 19.12
NO.1 10.53 5.5
PEDESTAL NO.2 7.32 3.2
VIBRATION
NO.3 7.46 6.9
(microns)
NO.4 8.89 9.6
VIB
NO.5 10.97 10.3
PICKUPS
NO.6 9.19 8.2
ARE AT 45*
NO.7 9.4 7.9
AXIAL SHIFT -0.03 -0.11
HPT DE -2.294 -2.5
IPT DE 4.9 6.4
LPT DE 18.15 16.9
HPT ABS 26.17 29.9
IPT ABS 10.1 10.07
SEAL STM TEMP 300 284
NO.1 70/80/53/71 72/79/58/78
NO.2 62/61/57/72 67/66/57/74
NO.3 85/84 85/84
BRG TEMP
NO.4 82/93 84/94
(*c)
NO.5 76/75 73/73
NO.6 75/75 76/74
NO.7 65/62 66/62
THRUST BRG TEM 65/73/63/68 64/71/61/63
STRATEGIES ADOPTED TO CARRY OUT THE RECTIFICATION WORK.
812
1. Preparing Activity Chart formulating the various processes and parallel
activities.
2. Maximizing Parallel Activities.
3. Controlled Cooling of Turbine to save time.
4. Round-the-clock work at site in two shifts.
5. Identification of bottlenecks and its corrective action.
6. Round the clock supervision by the NTPC Executive.
HOURLY SCHEDULE OF UNIT # 5 LPT O/H, MPI & NFT OF LPT

ROTOR FREE STANDING BLADESS IN 500 MW.
Duration Start Finish

Acti vity Details
in Hours Day Day
Unit withdrawal for overhauling 01/08/ 2009
Turbine fast Cooling Down 96 1 4
Loosening of LPT outer ca sing P/P
alternate bolts (Parallel activity) 8 4 4
TG barring gear stop & Isolation of 1 4 5

AOP & EOP
C&I Isolation of B rgs. 1 to 4 pedestals 2 5 5
Measurement of oil guard clearances,
Loosening of bearing 1 to 4 pedestal 7 5 5
covers & Lifting
C&I Isolation of B rgs. 1 to 5 & 5 5 5
removal of diff. Pick-ups
Bearings 1 to 4 yoke key clearances
recording, Removal of yokes, bearing 8 5 6
top halves, recording bearing oil
clearances
Recording CRO, decoupling of
generator, decoupling of HP T-MOP, 10 6 6
decoupling of LP T-IP T
Removal of turning gear nozzle
assembly, lifting of outer casing 5 6 6
(exhaust hood) of LP T
TG rotor total float checking. Removal
of HP T front bearing bottom half, 7 6 7
fixing of shaft lifting device & Swing
check of HP T front journal
Decoupling of HP - IP. Placement of
HP T front bearing bottom half in 6 7 7
position
Alignment checking of HP-IP, IP-LP, 6 7 7
LP-Gen
HP/IP/LP journal FRO. Scaffolding for 4 7 8
removal of HP & IP casing keys
LPT roll check 8 8 8
HP & IP roll check 10 8 8
813
HP T rear bearing bottom half removal
and putting back in position after 8 8 9
thrust pads removal & Bump check
preparation
HP-IP Bump check 2 9 9
Fixing of wedges below LP T casing
bottom half, loosening of LP T outer- 8 9 9
inner casing parting plane bolts
Preparation for lifting of LP T outer- 1 9 9
inner casing top half
Lifting of LP T outer-inner casing top
2 9 9
half
LPT inner-inner casing parting plane 8 9 10
fasteners loosening
LPT inner-inner casing top half
1 10 10
removal
Flow path reading of LP T 3 10 10
Preparations for LP T rotor lifting 1 10 10
LPT rotor lifting & placement on stand 3 10 10
Alumina blasting of LP T rot or & 30 10 11
cleaning of other components
Bearings lower halves removal,
inspection, DPT, UT of bearings 8 10 11
(Parallel activity)
Placement of LP T cleaned rotor on 2 11 11
stand aft er Alumina blasting .
Dismantling of free standing blades
from rotor and cleaning of blades 24 11 12
roots.
MPI of free standing blades 24 12 13
NFT of free standing blades 40 13 15
Assembly of LP T rot or blades 36 15 16
Ovality check of LPT inner-inner 12 11 12
casing (Parallel activity)
MOP overhauling (Parallel activity) 28 12 13
Preparation for lifting of LP T rotor 2 16 17
Placement of LP rot or on pedestal 3 17 17
Trans fer of LP T rotor on bearing &
coupling spigot 4 17 17
Flow path meas urement 6 17 17

LPT inner-inner casing box up 6 17 17
Tightening of inner-inner casing 8 17 18
fasteners
LPT outer-inner casing box up &
tightening of parting plane fasteners 8 18 18
LP / IP, IP / HP rotor couplings

alignment correction 36 18 20
Final alignment check 2 20 20
HP/IP bump + roll check & casing 14 20 20
centering
LPT roll check and casing centering. 6 20 20
814
Removal of LP middle casing
wedges, scaffoldings and locking 6 20 21
of ca sing bottom keys. LPT
exhaust hood box up
Removal of bearing bottom half and
fixing of thrust pads, putting back 4 21 21
bearing 2 in position, Thrust bearing
float check & correction
HPT / IP T coupling, HP T swing 6 21 21
check at front journal
IP T / LPT coupling 4 21 21
HP T / MOP alignment & coupling 4 21 21
Bearing 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 assembly.
Assembly of bearing yoke keys &
side pads. Assembly of bearings oil 8 21 22
catchers & pedestal bottom oil guards
Fixing of barring gear nozzle,
Overspeed trip device. Adjustment of
overspeed trip devic es 3 21 21
C & I normalization of bearings

1,2,3,4, 5 & MOP 12 21 22
Bearing 1, 2, 3, 4+ 5-pedestal cover 8 22 22

assembly.
Removal of bearings 1 to 6 lub oil
throttle valves and fixing of oil 2 22 22
flushing devices.
TG bearing pedestals oil flushing. 16 22 23
Normalization of bearings lub. Oil
throttle valves.Cleaning of MOT 3 23 23
basket strainer.
TG on barring 2 23 23
815
Controlled Fast cooling down of 210 MW LMZ Turbine by compressed air to
reduce overhaul down time
VA Sharma, DGM(TMD), NTPC/Vindhyachal

Mukul Rai, Sr.Supdt(TMD), NTPC/Vindhyachal
Introduction:-
For the capital overhauling of turbine, the actual maintenance work can only be started after barring gear is
disengaged and lube oil is shut off. The barring gear is disengaged when metal temp of HPC/IPC is reached 150°C.
There are 68 Turb ines of 200/210 MW (K-200-130 series) LMZ design installed in India. No OEM reco mmended
standard procedure for forced casing of Turbine is availab le. Th is paper describes the forced cooling procedure
evolved in NTPC/ Vindhyachal wh ich is being used since last three years successfully for reducing outage hour.
Normally it takes approximately five days to achieve the metal temp of 150°C of HPC/IPC when turbine is
allo wed to cool naturally. If we cool the turbine metal parts by compressed air incontrolled manner we can achieve
the required temperature of HPT/IPT in 72 hours thus reducing overhaul period by couple of days. The forced
cooling of LMZ Turbine can be effected without installing any additional equip ment/ejectors and the cooling rate of
the turbine can be regulated also depending upon the TSI parameters & turbine metal cooling rate.
Procedure:-
After the turbine is stopped on sliding parameters with turbine maximu m metal temperature brought down to 470°C
for the overhauling , the forced cooling is being started after the maximu m metal temperature of the turbine is
reached below 400°C which takes approximately 15 to 18 hours after unit stoppage.
Forced cooling of turbine is carried out in three separate and independent steam path namely HP Turb ine , IP
Turbine & Flange & Stud heating chamber. The compressed air is admitted in the turbine to cool the casing and
turbine internals. The compressed air after cooling the turbine internals is evacuated through steam ejectors. In this
procedure the condenser vacuum is maintained by taking all the steam ejectors ( 02 main ejector & 01 starting
ejector) in service. The co mpressed air flow is regulated depending upon the cooling rate of the turbine and metal
temperature difference of turbine casing. As per OEM recommendation the maximu m cooling rate of turb ine is 6
degree Celsius / hour. In the entire process the turbine glands are steam pressurized to avoid air ingress into the
turbine casing through glands. The special arrangement has been done to facilitate the air ad mission through various
drain valves.
The detailed procedure for all three steam paths is described bellow.
1. HP Turbine :-
The air is ad mitted in the HP casing through first drains of both CRH Lines keeping the second drain line valves
closed. The air passes inside the casing and taken out through transfer pipe drains which is connected to condenser
vacuum through flash vessel. All four HP control valves are kept open mechanically to facilitate the flow of air
fro m HP Casing to transfer pipes drains. All the compressed air released in the Condenser is evacuated through
existing Steam Ejectors. The air ad mission is being done through special arrangement made in drain valves and no
cutting of valves is being done. The special arrangement is being fitted after opening the bonnet of the drain
valves..In the entire cooling process of the HP Turb ine the compressed air flo ws throgh following routes (Please
refer Fig -1)
Air Admission through CRH drains › HP Casing › HPCVs › Transfer pipe drains (ESVsclosed) › flash vessel
which is connected to Condenser › Steam Ejectors
816
817
2. IP Turbine :-
In IP turbine the air is ad mitted in the IP casing through first drains of IP t ransfer pipelines keeping second drains
closed . The compressed air enters the IP casing via IPCVs which are kept open and after cooling the casing it
goes to LP Turbine through Cross over pipes. All the air ad mitted in the cooling process is evacuated through
ejectors. Here also air ad mission arrangement is being fitted in the drain valve similar to HP casing air ad mission
arrangement. The air flow path in IP Casing cooling is as follows (Please refer Fig -2)
Air Admission through IP transfer line drains towards IPC › IPCVs › IP CASING › Cross over pipe
› condenser › Steam Ejectors
3. Flange & Stud heating chambe r :-
Cooling of flange and stud chamber of HP and IP Turbine is necessary to control Turbine differential expansions.
Air is admitted in the flange & stud chamber through second manual inlet valve keeping first manual inlet valve
fully closed. The admitted air flows inside the chamber and after cooling it is released to condenser through F&S
Chamber drain valves The air flo w to this chamber is regulated with the existing valves provided in the steam
circuit. The air flo w path in IP Casing cooling is as follows (Please refer Fig -3)
Air ad mission through Tapping manual v/v fro m M S line › Flange/Stud chamber of HPC/IPC › l Flange/Stud
chamber drains › flash tank › condenser › Steam Ejectors.
SYSTEM REQUIREMENT & PARAMET ERS MONITORING:-
After the unit is tripped on sliding parameters , the cooling process is started after approximately 18 hrs of of unit
stoppage when turbine metal temperature has reached below 400°C .Fo llo wing requirements are to be fulfilled
before start of forced cooling.
1. At least one CW pump is running

2 .At least one CEP is running
3. D/A , Condenser level normal
4. Vacuu m pulled (appro ximately-0.25 ksc) , Main ejectors/ Starting Ejector in service
5. HP/ IP Control valves in open condition but ESVs/IVs & Main stop valves in closed condition.
6. Drain valves/ Control valves to be in operative condition so that these can be operated as and when required.
7. Tu rbine on Barring gear.
818
8. Tu rbine gland steam charged and Station au xiliary steam available for the use in gland sealing/ steam ejectors.
9. Dry co mpressed air at sufficient pressure is available.
During entire forced cooling process following parameters are closely monitored and logged.
1. Condenser vacuum.
2. Condenser level.
3. D/A level.
4. Cold/hot turbine gland seal steam pressure & temp
5. TSI parameters(HPT/IPT top/Bottom temperature , Turbine differential expansions, Axial shift, Turbine metal
cooling rate. Co mpressed air pressure.
PRECUATION:-
The force cooling of the turbine is started after maximu m metal temperature of the turbine is reached below 400°C.
During controlled cooling process following care is being taken.
1. The comp ressed air is dry. To ensure this drains of the compressed air line are kept open and air driers are in
service. To ensure dryness of air , the dew point of co mpressed air may be measured.
2. The Turbine metal temperature cooling rate is within limit of 6°C per hour. If the cooling rate of turbine internals
exceed the permissible limit , the co mpressed air flow & condenser vacuum is regulated to maintain it. If in any
case the cooling rate exceeds the limit, the entire cooling process may be stopped for some t ime.
3. A ll the TSI parameters specially A xial Sh ift, differential expansions, Maximu m minimu m metal temperature
difference must be within specified limits. If the parameters tend to deviate from the normal values , the forced
cooling may be stopped immediately.
4. A ll the valves of TG are operative so that they can be operated as and when required
5. Tu rbine seal steam for g land sealing is charged and is having required temperature and pressure.
TEMPERATUR E REGULATION:-
The cooling rate of turbine metal temperature and maximu m min imu m temperature difference is maintained with
following methods. The following methods may be done in combination also.
1. By regulating co mpressed air flow to the turbine at the point of air ad mission with the help of manual valve
provided in every air ad mission points.
2. By regulating vacuum in the condenser by regulating steam pressure to main & starting ejectors.
Normally it has been observed that at -0.25 to -0.2kg/cm2 of condenser vacuum and 50% valve opening at 2.5
kg/cm2 of co mpressed air pressure, the required cooling rate of turbine is achieved without any deviation inTSI
parameters
CONCLUS ION:-
With this forced cooling process, which is already started in Vindhyachal Stage-I units, we are able to stop barring
gear within 03 days of unit shutdown and we could save 02 precious days in overhauling of the Turbine. This
controlled fast cooling procedure may be done in all existing 210 MW LMW/LMZ turb ines.
Authors
V.A. Sharma
Graduated in BE (Mech Engg) fro m SVNIT, Surat in 1986 and joined NTPC as XIth batch EET. Presently
working as DGM (TM D) in NTPC/ Vindhyachal
Mukul Rai
Graduated in BE (Mech Engg) fro m MANIT , Bhopal in 1989 and jo ined NTPC as XIVth batch EET.
Presently working as Sr.Supdt (TMD) in NTPC/ Vindhyachal
819
Technical risk involved in long-term operation of steam turbines
Ritesh Kumar, E.No-007104, Dy. Supdt, O&M,NTPC-Singrauli.
Sunil Kumar Jha . E.NO- 007328. Dy. Supdt, O&M,NTPC-Singrauli.
Abstract
The scope of the paper is the assessment of the technical risk involved in long-term operation of power units.
Detailed analyses have been conducted for steam turbine co mponents. The sources and consequences of risk
have been identified and the probability of turbine co mponents failure calculated. The quantitative assessment of
the risk has been made and possibilities of its reduction discussed.
1. Introducti on
Serious recent failures of power systems revealed the permanent presence of real risk of the loss of the
operational continuity of such systems, which may result in hard to predict social and economic effects. Thus,
these days more attention is focused on the assessment of the reliability of power systems, which involves both
the reliab ility of energy generation systems and transmission systems as well [1].
The essential factors determining the level of reliability are, among others: the structure of the system,
prevailing climact ic and atmospheric conditions, level of power reserves, organization of cooperation with
related systems, quality of automatic control and safety systems and technical state of power units components.
The last factor,
concerns, first and foremost, the age of generation units, which is quite advanced in many countries. In the next
10 years over 30% of power stations will reach the age of 40 years of operation. This may result in a prospective
increase of failure frequency of power units and, consequently, reduced reliability of the whole system [2,3]. In
the paper the quantitative assessment of technical risk associated with long-term operation of power units is
made. Detailed considerations concern the analysis of the operational risk of steam turbines, which, beside
boilers, constitute a fundamental element of a power unit. This risk is connected with the degradation processes
as well as with the unexpected increased load of mach ine co mponents. Other factors that may lead to failu res,
for examp le, human errors that are independent from the operation time have not been discussed.
2. Technical risk in operati on of steam turbi nes

The fundamental source of the operational risk of machines is the absence of the certainty that the
strength of every single component at any operating time is higher than its load. Th is results from the random
nature of many data [4] including for examp le, geo metrical d imensions of components, material p roperties, such
as: yield stress, material toughness, creep rupture strength, as well as thermal loads. This is because of random
temperature fields that are conditioned, especially in unsteady states, by random conditions of heat exchange.
The components of power machines operating in aggressive environments are exposed to the loss of material
strength due to the impacts of corrosion, o xidation or erosion.
The degree of the loss of strength evoked by these impacts should also be treated as a random variable. The
above mentioned factors indicate that their random character should be considered in the analysis of the loss of
durability of power machine components, which, Accordingly, leads to the assumption of a random character of
the level of stresses, amplitude of stresses and strains occurring in the operation cycles. In
conjunction with the scatter of the strength, creep and fatigue properties, the durability of a machine
component should be treated as a random variable and in its successive operating periods the
probability of damage should be assessed.
Quantitative assessment of technical risk should include all possible events resulting from t he
existence and operation of a power unit [5]. In a quantitative approach,
such risk is calculated as
R= ¼ (1)
where RE i is risk associated with event Ei , PE i is probability of the occurrence of event Ei , CE i is the
consequences of the occurrence of event Ei .
The probability of the occurrence of events may be assessed on the grounds of the analysis of
statistical data derived from observations, opinions of experts, or on the grounds of probability models
820
of the events of failure [6].As far as the assessment of the probability of failure of a power unit is
concerned, first and foremost, as it is a complex technical system, a detailed analysis of the risk of
failures of its particular components is required. Technical risk that is the scope of the detailed
analysis is understood as the risk of turbine failure during long-term operation. This risk includes the
probability of failure of main turbine components, such as valves, cylinders and rot ors caused by the
processes of degradation and the probability of instantaneous damage caused by increased stresses
or cracks in the component.
3. Probability of turbine components failure
3.1. Scenario of hazards evoked by degradati on processes

The operation of heat turbines has a cyclical nature. At the beginning of the cycle there is a
start-up, involving the supply of a working medium to a machine and gradual increase of the
parameters. Once the working medium reaches its nominal paramet ers, the steady-state operation
period follows, characterized by relative stability of the parameters of the working medium and the
thermal state of a machine. The shut-down occurs at the end of the operating cycle, followed by the
process of natural or forced cooling of machine components. At each phase of operation the material
is subjected t o gradual degradation and the loss of durability of machine components leads to
complete loss of machine life. During start-up, the main process that evokes machine life
consumption is low-cycle fatigue. The values of life cons umption vary depending on the number N of
turbine start -up shut down cycles. To determine the essential properties of start-up processes almost
100 start-ups of turbines were subjected to statistical analysis. The detailed analysis concerns
200MW condensing turbine with nominal steam paramet ers: for HP part 535º C and 13.5 MP a, for IP
part 535 ºC and 2.5MPa.
The curves of steam t emperat ure c hanges at start-up from the cold, warm and hot state were
analyzed in detail. Time variations of the steam temperature at the exemplary start-ups are shown in
Fig. 1. These start-up curves were assumed as input data for numerical simulations of thermo-
mechanic al states of turbine components. Firstly the thermal boundary conditions (steam temperature
and heat transfer coefficients) for different surfaces of components were determined by modeling t he
steam expansion in the turbine flow system. Next the transient temperat ure and stress distributions
were calculated. From computer simulations [7] it was possible to obtain the time variations of
stresses and strains at any point of turbine components.
The most stressed component of a 200MW turbine is IP rotor, in particular rotor bore, thus, detailed
calculation results given in the paper concern this part of a turbine. The distribution of temperature
and stresses in a rot or after 30 min of an exemplary start-up from the warm state is shown in Fig. 2.
Time variations of maximum effective stresses in the rot or bore for some selected start -ups from
the cold, warm and hot state are shown in Fig. 3. The distribution of stresses presented in Fig. 3
indicates that, contrary to theoretical start-ups, real ones evoke several stress amplitudes and,
accordingly, strain amplitudes as well. Thus, low-cycle fatigue life consumption ZN during a
single start-up of a turbine is equal to:
ZN= (2)
Zi =1/Nfi (3)
821
where Zi is the fatigue life consumption due to the ith amplitude in a cycle, Nf i is the number of
operation cycles to failure, m is the number of essential strain amplitudes in one operating cycle.
Statistical analysis of calculation results revealed that the average start-up-shut down cycle
of operation is characterized by two essential stress and strain amplitudes in a rotor. The mean
values and standard deviations of the strain ranges calculated as
(4)
where εi -εimax –εimin is the range of principal strains, are indicated in Table 1.
In steady-state operation t he life of components is limited by creep and the value of t he life
consumption depends on t he total time of component operation t. This phenomenon occurs with more
intensity in the high pressure section of valves, rotors and casings due to the highest steam
temperature in contact with the components surface.
For valves and casings the main load is the steam pressure, and for rotors—centrifugal forces. The
exemplary results of the creep analysis of the IP rotor after 30, 000 h of operation are present ed in Fig.
4. It has been estimated [8] that the mean value of the steady creep stresses in the rotor bore is 62
MPa and its standard deviation is 2 MPa.Detailed analysis of the creep of a valve in a 200MW
turbine was discussed in Ref. [9]. The calculat ed mean values of t he strain range during start -up-shut
down cycle and the mean stress in steady creep, as well as the estimated standard deviations of
these values make it possible to calculate the allowable number of operating cycles Nf and the
allowable time of operation under creep conditions tf .
The low-cycle fatigue life consumption in one operating cycle is
(5)
The creep degradation Zt in 1 h of operation is
(6)
Using a non-linear accumulation damage rule [10]:
(7)
the total life cons umption aft er N start-ups and an operating time t, is
822
(8)
where ZN,t is life consumption caused by fatigue and creep, s is the stress under the steady creep
conditions, De is the total strain range, a, b, c, d, e, r are constants, Nf is the number of cycles to failure,
and tf is the time to failure.
The third-term in Eqs. (7) and (8) takes into account a more complex interaction between creep and
fatigue [10]. The total life consumption ZN,t is a random variable. The probability of component damage
after N start-ups and operation time t is calculated as [11]:
Pf =P( 0) (9)
=Zc - ZN;t , (10)
where Zc is the critical value of life consumption. This is also a random variable.
Using the reliability index b, the first order approximation of the probability of rot or failure is
pf –Φ (-p) (11)
Where
β= (12)
Φ is the cumulative normal distribution function, µg is the mean value of g1 and sg is the standard
deviation of g 1.
To calculate the probability of rotor damage, the following coefficients derived from the rotor material
data [12] were assumed: b= -1.589, d = -2.892, r = 0.5.
Coefficients a, c and e are random variables, as well as the critical value of life consumption Zc . The
mean values and standard deviations for these normally distribut ed random variables are indic ated in
Table 2
.Moreover, the strain ranges and stress levels under creep conditions are also random variables. The
calculations of the probability of failure were carried out by means of the point estimation method
PEM [13].
823
824
The dependence between the probability of rot or failure pf and the operation time t and number of
start-ups N is presented in Fig. 5. For a given number N of start-ups and the total time of turbine
operation t, diagram in Fig 5 shows the probability of failure of turbine components.
For example the probability of rotor failure rises to level 10Ż³ after 300,000 operation hours and a
small number of start-ups (N<200). But for a big number of start-ups (N>1000) this level of probability
is achieved after 200,000 h of operation.
3.2. Probability of instantaneous failure
825
During turbine operation, the processes of ageing occurring in the components lead to
gradual degradation of material properties and their consecutive destruction. Apart from t he
processes dependent on time, other changes of steam parameters may occur, causing rapid growth
of stresses that might lead to the instantaneous damage of the components. In the absence of c racks
hazardous stress is assumed as the ultimate strength Rm of a material.
If a new performance function is introduced:
g2 = Rm - α (13)
the probability of damage is equal to:
pf =P( g2 0) (14)
For given values of µs =192MPa, sσ = 30MP a, µR = 470MPa, s R = 47MPa probability of the rotor failure pf
=3.1x was derived. The presence of flaws, cracks or discontinuities in a material may, in certain
circumstances, lead to the damage of the component. Possible defects in the rotor may be of
technological or operational origin. Despite the non-destructive tests performed regularly during every
overhaul, defects with dimensions smaller than the sensitivity level of the measuring equipment—
about 3mm—may remain undetected.
Such dimension of suspected defect in the rotor bore has been assumed in the calculations.
Considering the above scenario the performance function may be defined as [14]:
(15)
Where
Lr=σ/σy, σ is the applied tensile stress, l is the flaw-size dimension, M is the coefficient dependent on
the shape and location of a defect, σy is the yield stress, KIC is the material toughness and the
probability of damage may be expressed by the dependence:
pf = (g 3 0) (16)
where all variables, that is: KIC , M, σ, σy , and l are random.

Their random nature is due to variable temperature field (KIC , s, sy ) and indistinct location and
dimensions of a possible defect (M, l). The assumed probability characteristics are in Table 3.
The probability of damage calculat ed on the grounds of the above values is pf =7.762x
826
3.3. Total probability of component failure
The probability of instantaneous damage of components as well as damage due to the proc esses of
degradation was evaluated above. The probability of damage due to the processes of degradation
increases in time. The instantaneous damage hazard is associated with rapid changes in stresses
occurring under unsteady operation, first of all, during start-ups. This means that at eac h start-up,
there are several modes of possible failure of the component.
Total probability pfc of such failure may be estimated in the
following way:
(17)
where p f i is the probability of failure due to ith mode (i = 1,2,3).
The above estimation is accurate for low probability of failure and mut ual independence of possible
modes. From the results obtained for the probability of instantaneous damage and the damage due to
the passage of time, total probability of IP rotor failure in a 200MW turbine at start-up phas e was
estimated in Fig. 6. Three failure modes were accounted for: excessive stresses, fracture and
degradation proc esses. For example, for a turbine that has been in operation for 175,000 h and 600
start-ups, the probability of rotor failure at the start-up is about 7.76x . At steady-operation the
probability of failure is considerably lower and equals about 7.7x .
4. Consequence s of turbine failure

To assess the consequences of turbine components failure it is essential to fully understand
the mechanism of the damage and all effects of its occurrence, including, for example, the financial
implications such as loss of profit opportunities, costs of repairs, costs of replacement,
penalty fees, etc. Furthermore, the technic al consequences of the damage should also be considered,
for example, the impact of t he damage on the surrounding environment of a power station, such as
possible casualties, injuries to staff, pollution of the environment, etc.
The failure of turbine component has financial consequences connected with: the costs of purchasing
a new component, costs of replacement, costs of start-up losses, loss of profits involved in stand-by,
losses due to penalty fees for failure in energy supply. The sums of the above-mentioned costs vary
depending on the type of the damaged c omponent. For example, the financial implications of valve
damage, including its replacement, length of time required for the replacement and power unit stand-
by, amount to below 0.5% of the value of the power unit. In case of rot or failure, the costs are
considerably higher. The costs of replacing the rot or as well as other components that may also have
been damaged are bigger. The standby time due to the replacement is at least 6 months. Accordingly,
it may be assumed that the financial implications of such failure amount to 10% of the power unit
value. The consequences of the failure of other turbine components are in the range of 0.1–10% of
the power unit value. In the case of turbine failure and the resulting damage of its components other
implications may also occur: injuries of staff and, in the case of rotor failure- even casualties.
5. Ri sk a sse ssment
5.1. The assessment of the risk under present operating conditi ons
The calculation of t he probability of t urbine components failures in different phases of its operation
and the estimated implications of such damage make it possible to assess the risk involved. Thus, the
above-mentioned quantities were placed on the risk diagram in Fig. 7. Effects C in Fig. 1 have been
expressed in the percentage of the value of 200MW power unit. Hundred perc ent is equivalent to t he
full value of one power unit. The following areas were differentiated in the diagram: negligible risk (A),
low risk (B), medium risk (C), high risk (D), extreme risk (E). The risk connected with turbine operation
depends on its operating time and operation phase. After 250, 000 h of operation and 800 start-ups,
further operation of rotors (R) involves high risk—sees Fig. 7. The risk connected with valves (V ) and
cylinders (C) is on the medium level. The area of the risk connected with the operation of other turbine
components after the above-mentioned operating time is indicated in Fig. 7.
827
5.2. Possibilities of reducing technical risk
It is essential to examine the possibilities of reducing technical risk and assess the feasibility
of measures undertak en to reduce it. As seen in Fig. 7, after exceeding certain operation time and
number of start-ups, furt her operation of the turbine involves substantial risk. Due to the irreversible
nature of degradation processes, it is impossible to lower the probability of damage and reduce
the level of risk under steady operation conditions. However, it is possible t o reduce the rate of t he
increase of such risk for continued operation of the turbine.
For example, in t he case of heavily loaded IP rotor in a 200MW turbine, assuming that the frequency
of power unit start-up is 25 times a year, the probability of damage at start-up is shown as curve ‘‘a’’ in
Fig. 8. The curve will enter the high-risk area aft er 225,000 h of operation. If the start-up conditions
are improved early enough, to enable the reduction of maximal stresses and strain amplitudes by
20%, the operation time of the turbine may be prolonged at lowered risk level. For example, if such
technical improvement is made after 100,000 h of its operation, the change in the probability of
damage will follow curve b in Fig. 8. The curve will ent er the high-risk area after about 250,000 h of
operation.
Another possibility of reducing the level of risk involves lowering the rate of life consumption caused
by creep. This effect may be achieved by reducing the maximum temperat ure of steam, and, at the
same time, t he t emperature of turbine components. In cons equence, t he c reep characteristic of steel
will change accordingly. However, it is worthwhile to bear in mind that lowered steam temperature will
lead to worse efficiency and reduced effectiveness of the power unit operation. Thus, lowering
the temperature of steam may not be a feasible measure to implement.
6. Conclusions
828
Technical risk involved in the operation of turbines is controlled, first and foremost, by the
level of the risk of rotor damage. Cylinders and valves pose lesser risk. The value of t he risk is
determined by the operating time. It also changes under unsteady phases of the power unit operation,
especially at start-ups. With relatively short operating time and small number of start-ups, the level of
risk is low. A fter 200,000 h of operation and over 500 start-ups the risk is medium, whereas for
250,000 h and 800 start-ups it is high. Thus, it may be assumed that it is at that time that the
replacement of some turbine components should be considered. The rate of risk increase may also
be reduced by the change of the operating conditions, that is: proper cont rol of the start-up phase to
secure lower level of maximal stresses occurring in turbine components. The temperature of steam
may also be lowered. However, such measures may only turn out to be feasible if implemented early
enough. For the analyzed 200MW turbine and in c onsideration of its operation conditions to dat e, the
above-mentioned preventive measures should be implemented not later than after 150,000 h of t he
operation of the turbine.
References
[1] Beshir MJ, Favag AS, Cheng TC. New comprehensive reliability
assessment framework for power system. Energy Conversion Manage
1999;40:975–1007.
[2] Bissel A. Technical risk in power generation. OMMI 2002;1:1.
[3] Jovanovic A. Risk-based component life management in fossil power
plants. OMMI 2002;1:1.
[4] Miroshnik R, Jeager A, Ben Haim H. Probabilistic life assessment of
chest valve under thermal stresses. Int J Pres Ves Piping 1998;75:1–5.
[5] Faber MH, Stewart MG. Risk assessment for civil engineering
facilities: critical overview and discussion. Reliab Eng Syst Safety
2003;80:173–84.
[6] Stewart MG, Melchers RE. Probabilistic risk assessment of
engineering systems. London: Chapman and Hall; 1997.
[7] Lusas–user guide. FEA Ltd. UK: Kingston upon Thames; 1999.
[8] Rusin A, The life of the high temperature components of heat
turbines under the steady operating conditions. Trans Silesian
University of Technology, 127, Gliwice, 1996.
[9] Rusin A. Numerical simulation of turbine valve creep. Arch Appl
Mech 1992;62:386–93.
[10] Yagi K, Kubo K, Kanemaru O, Tanaka C. Damage evaluation and
life prediction under creep-fatigue loading condition for austenitic
stainless steel and low alloy steel. CJMR 1988;3: 115–35.
[11] Sundararajan C, editor. Probabilistic structural mechanics handbook.
New York: Chapman and Hall; 1995.
[12] Chmielniak T, Kosman G. Thermal loads of steam turbines.
Warszawa: WNT; 1990.
[13] Rajagopalan K. Point estimations technique for the reliability
analysis at ship structures. Comput Struct 1993;48(5):835–41.
[14] Webster GA, Ainswort h RA. High temperature component life
assessment. London: Chapman and Hall; 1994.
829
MIS & DOCUMENTATION THROUGH ERP PLATFORMS
DIWAKAR KAUSHIK-- DGM-ERP

R P SINGH -- SR.MGR- ERP
SANJAY KAYASTH --- SR.MGR- ERP
1. Introduction:
Implementation of ERP operation module in NTPC was a challenging task as SAP had no
standard module to meet the requirement of power plant operation & efficiency management
groups unlike other business modules of SAP.
•
Following were the key areas for ERP operation module implementation.
•
Transactional Data Capturing & MIS
•
Operational Performance Reviews & Actions Taken Reports thereof
•
Documentation & its Storage, Revision & Retrieval.
•
Real time process data capturing, storage
Development of Applications using real time data for process monitoring &
improvements
Real time process data capture & storage which is the essence for any analytical application is
covered in a separate paper
2. Transactional Data Capturing & MIS:
2.1 Pre-ERP scenario:

The system in force was working fine but had the following inherent limitations :
· A multitude of MIS existed at station, region and at CC. As these were not derived from
any single data source, lot of duplication work and consequent inconsistencies existed.
· It was a very time consuming process to gather related crucial information like Fuel
GCV, fuel receipt, fuel consumption etc from cross functional departments. Often data
mismatch was a big problem.
· MIS did not have much analytical features.
· It was not possible to customize the MIS, and due to this number of MIS was increasing
day by day , this was consuming a lot of useful time that otherwise could have been
utilized in performance improvement.
· It was a very cumbersome process to edit data once entered into the system.
· Access to MIS was limited at station and regional levels with the result that stations &
regions were not much aware about the performance of other stations on a day to day
basis.
· Real time process data was not at all available beyond unit control room
2.2 An integrated approach in ERP :

An integrated approach( Fig:1) has been adopted to source data already captured in different
domains for the purpose of MIS to reduce time and effort required and also to ensure data
consistency. Data flow for MIS creation is as shown in figure-1 below:
Some of the salient features of the integrated approach are:
§ Remote Access for Real Time Data for Analysis
830
§ Single Point Data Capturing with due Authorization & Validation
§ Consistent Information across the Organization
§ Traceability of Documents with Status Update
§ Current Status of Action Points
§ Self Confident End Users
§ Consistent & Error Free MIS
ERP Operation MIS DATA FLOW
MIS(SAP-ECC) MIS(BI Analytics)
Generation data
PI DATABSAE Data auto updation SAP-ECC DATABASE BI Server

once a day
Manual Data upload
Fig 1: Operation MIS DATA FLOW
2.2.1 Automatic Transaction Data capturing:
Even though online metering data was available in NTPC for the last 4-5 years, the generation
figures were still being manually entered. Integration of the metering system with PI (Plant
information server) and subsequent integration of PI with SAP system has helped seamless bi-
directional flow of such information wherever the infrastructure is available. (Fig:2). This is
being now extended to automatically capture unit trip/sync time.
Fig:2 Automatic Generation data transfer
831
2.2.2 Cross functional data capturing:
All Fuel receipt, consumption& stock related information is fetched from Material and Fuel
Management modules in ERP. Fuel quality Information is available in Quality module & is
fetched for calculation of performance parameters such as heat rate etc. The end user gets all the
relevant information about fuel seamlessly from different modules.
The data related to plant and machineries are captured in PM module. These include transactional
and history data like condition monitoring parameters (vibration, DGA, WDA, IRT, acoustics,
motor current etc.), status of notifications (job cards), status of work orders (permits) and status of
work clearance documents (isolations). Based on the information available in these documents/
process we have developed ORT related MIS . This report includes:
· Important Corrective Maintenance Notifications
· Equipment not available for more than 15 days
· Repeated failure during FY
· Maintenance Notifications Quantitative Analysis (Figure: 2A)
· Maintenance Order Quantitative Analysis
· Vibration Data
· Boiler Tube Leakage
Figure 2A: Maintenance Notification quantitative Analysis
Another important MIS developed in ECC is the Equipment Status Report utilizing the CBM
parameters captured in PM module. This has following reports:
· System Summary Report
· Equipment Summary Report – CSR History
· Equipment Summary Report – Overall Condition History
· Exception Report by Date
· Exception Report by Severity
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Using this transaction the total status of an equipment can be viewed as shown in the
graph in Figure: 2B.
Figure 2B: Displacement measurement of

HPBFP- C Recirculation Valve
2.2.3 Roles & authorizations& Data security:
An important aspect to ensure data accuracy and consistency is to restrict data entry through
proper authorization, checks and time window. These features in ERP ensures that only the right
person can enter, edit or modify data, that too within the allotted time period. Blanket ban on past
data modification after a certain time period ensures that data consistency is maintained. Further
the reports are available to only authorized persons for view.
2.2.4 Automatic Reports creation
In the pre-ERP era, due to inconsistency of data, the monthly and cumulative performance report
was a separate exercise at station, region and CC which starts 3-4 days ahead of the period end
date. ERP ensures that data captured on a daily basis takes care of all the reporting requirements
& all the period reports are generated from this daily entered data only with consistent calculation
methodology (Fig:3,4)
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Fig:3 Generation loss report
Fig:4 Daily Flash Report
2.2.5 Different Platforms for MIS
Depending on the analytical needs MIS reports are available in business warehouse platform and
ECC platform. Detailed daily/monthly/yearly performance reports which can be customized as
per individual's needs for hierarchy, parameters and time duration have been made available in
BW platform to ensure flexibility with the end users.(Fig:5)
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Fig :5 Daily /Monthly /Yearly performance report
2.3 Benefit of MIS in ERP:
Once the data is available centrally, MIS preparation does not require further effort. All the
standard MIS at Plant, Region, company are prepared automatically. Besides, additional
reporting needs can also be easily configured by the users themselves whenever required.
Analysis made easy: Unlike earlier reports the report developed in ERP are very flexible and
has analytical features like exception reporting, conditional reporting, view at different
hierarchical order, export to excel, print version, e- mail version , edit and save as favorite
etc.(Fig:6)
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Fig :6 Aux Power Vs Generation (Table & Graph)
3. Operational Performance Reviews & Actions Taken Status :
One of the major difficulties being faced in the pre-ERP era was lack of a system to centrally
capture the decisions taken at various operational performance reviews and its implementation
status. This led to many decisions not being followed up or status not known when it is required.
The essence of major reviews such as ORT, ROPR, Tech Audit, Energy audit TC audit etc have
been captured in ERP through the notifications raised to the concerned persons based on the
review and system gives updated implementation status as & when required.
4. Documentation & its Storage, Revision & Retrieval:
Another area of difficulty was systematic storage, revision & retrieval of important operation
related documents. In the pre-ERP period it was mostly in hard copy or on respective station
websites. However it had limitations in terms of area wise search, identification of superior
documents , central storage, online status monitoring etc.
Using document Management system it has been possible to store critical operation document
like Trip reports, Technical compliance document ,LMI, Operation instruction ,Emergency
procedure ,Audit report.
Following are some of the benefits ERP system offers:
· Very easy to retrieve a document with wide ranging of selection criteria, as shown in
figure 7.
· Document can be Reviewed and approved online subject to authorization.
· Document hierarchy can be maintained
· Document can be linked to a plant equipment, hence it is very easy to access a technical
document in case need arises.
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Fig :7 Approved Trip reports
Improvements through ERP is an ongoing process & any improvement in the system takes its
own time to stabilize due to far located locations & a large number of users involved. Basic
system catering to day to day requirement is already established & is very much stabilized also.
New requirements & user feedbacks are being continuously collected & critically analyzed to
affect further improvements in the existing MIS.
Conclusion: With platforms available for capturing and storing both real time process data and
transactional data and easy transfer of data between these two platforms, MIS creation for
performance monitoring has become very simple, standardized and stable. Data consistency and
availability of all information at individual desktops subject to authorization has become possible
in the process. With base data available in the data base since the launch of ERP, it is now
possible to meet all the present MIS needs and make continuous improvements based on feed
back & requirement.
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ENHANCING ERP EFFECTIVENESS
AUTHORS:
Sanjay K D Kayasth
Mr Kayasth is SR. Manager (ERP) in Plant Maintenance Team in NTPC Limited. He has work experience of over 20
years in maintenance, erection, commissioning and consultancy in different capacities in Heavy Chemicals, Cement
and mostly in coal based super thermal power plants.
Ashok Kumar Barlewar

Mr Barlewar is DGM (ERP) in NTPC Limited. He is the Team- Lead for Plant Maintenance Module of ERP
implementation in NTPC. He has work experience of over 20 years as operation, maintenance and maintenance
planning executive in different capacities, mostly in gas based power plants.
ABSTRACT:
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) has evolved as the most important development in the corporate use of
informat ion technology. Despite of predefined imp lementation roadmap and known key success and failure
factors it fails to bring the impact desired by most of the companies. A survey reveals that only 40 percent
of implemented ERP systems perform to full effectiveness. In order to achieve the desired results the
management should define the “Measures of Effectiveness” and devise methods to measure the
effectiveness. Based on the gap analysis, the desired improvements should be made in the different
modules of ERP. Top management support, training of end users, proper communication and user
participation play important role in enhancing ERP effectiveness. This paper gives an insight on the
research work done in this field and also on what NTPC Limited is doing to enhance the ERP effectiveness.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Every organization has legacy informat ion management system for different modules like Finance,
Material, HR, Operation, and Maintenance etc operating on different platforms. Depending on the
informat ion needs for its production, planning and growth, an organization feels the need of upgrading its
informat ion management system. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) integrates all functions and
processes of a business and generates a comprehensive view of the entire co mpany in a real time
environment. Enterprise resource planning (ERP), wh ich evolved fro m material requirements planning
(MRP) and manufacturing resource planning (MRP II), attempts to meet the practical needs of industry and
was named by the Gartner Group of Stamfo rd, Connecticut, USA, in 1990. Siemens in collaboration with
SAP, a German based software company, was first to imp lement an enterprises-wide ERP system in 1987.
Later, Dow Chemical Co mpany implemented its own ERP system designed to enable the complete
globalization of business operations in 1988. Since then ERP has evolved as the most important
development in the corporate use of informat ion technology as it provides seamless informat ion for the
efficient and effective use of the resources like material, manpower and finance of the co mpany.
This system has been maturing since 1990. There are many companies like SAP, ORA CLE, JD Edward,
Baan, PEOPLESOFT etc providing ERP packages suitable to different industries. The survey conducted by
Trunick (1999) reveals that only 40 percent of imp lemented ERP systems perform to their fu ll effect iveness
and 20 percent are scrapped as complete failures. Depending on how failure is defined, ERP failu re rate
may even exceed 50 percent, while Ptak and Schragenheim (1999) reported that 60 to 90 percent of
implemented ERP systems are less effective than the expected. Even leading mu ltinationals have either
failed in ERP system implementation, for examp le, Fo xMeyer Drug and Dell Co mputers, or suffered from
ineffective ERP systems, for instance, Whirlpool, Hershey Foods, Boeing, Mobil Eu rope, Applied
Materials, Kelloggs, and Nestle. Nonetheless, many enterprises have reaped the expected benefits after
implementing ERP systems, such as Eastman Kodak, Panasonic, Hewlett-Packard, and Cisco Systems.
All of the ERP prov iders have learnt fro m their failure and success of implementation. Now there exists a
well defined road map for ERP imp lementation wh ich clearly spells out about the steps to be taken fro m
planning to support phases of ERP imp lementation. One of the most elaborate works on the key success
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factors has been done by Nah et al. Despite of that many renowned organizations such as AeroGroup, Nash
Finch, Boeing, Fo xMeyer, Panasonic, Bruno Magli have failed to imp lement ERP package as planned,
either departing significantly fro m the original design specifications or missing project deadlines. Rockart
introduced the critical success factor (CSF) approach in the information systems field. He believed that
CSFs are among the few methods in which satisfactory results will ensure competitive performance for the
organization. Implementation fails mainly because companies concentrate on the technical and financial
aspects of the project while neglecting the non technical and change management elements.
ERP system can significantly improve enterprise competitiveness if correct pre- imp lementation, during-
implementation and post- implementation activit ies are performed. Otherwise, imp lemented ERP system
can become a negative influence or even a curse dragging the entire co mpany into a spiral of
ineffectiveness. A number of recent surveys by Faleti & W illis in 2002 conclude that comp leting ERP
system implementation is not the final stop but a starting point which needs continuous execution. As it
includes technological, operational, managerial, strategic, and organizational constructed components, ERP
implementation differs fro m other informat ion technology (IT) adoption.
ERP imp lementation at NTPC Limited has been one of the largest exercises by SAP in this subcontinent as
it involved more than 40 sites and more than 25000 people. Despite of its scale and diversity, the
implementation at NTPC has been termed as one of the best by SAP itself. Best imp lementation does not
guarantee the best results in terms of cost benefit, end user comfort, informat ion flo w and similar
parameters post implementation. There has to be continuous measurement of the effectiveness of ERP in
different modules and a consistent and systematic approach to enhance the module wise effectiveness.
This literature is based on the survey conducted by several researchers across over 400 large organizations.
The correspondents from each firm included seven to nine people including the CEO, top management, the
MIS leader, and five to seven randomly selected end users from different departments. Only those firms
were considered for analysis fro m where at least seven individual responded.
2. MEAS URE OF EFFECTIV ENESS:
ERP systems are based on best practices prevalent in the industry. As a result most of the organizations find
that the process wise performance, in general, imp roves. But, in the organizations where there are well laid
guidelines to carry out a business process, the end users fine tune the processes for the optimal result. In
such cases, non customizat ion of process leads to a departure from the optimal processes that have been
developed over a period of t ime.
For the effect iveness evaluation of ERP project Mabert and Ven katraman (2000) surveyed the ERP pro jects
of 479 U.S. manufacturing enterprise. Dev iating slightly fro m perfo rmance measurement schema of
informat ion systems most of the researchers agree that System quality, Informat ion quality, Vendor quality,
Individual Impact, Workgroup Impact and Organizational Impact are the predetermining factors for
effective ERP implementation.
As organizations world wide continue to acquire ERP systems, it co mes as no surprise that much of the
extant literature on ERP deals with issues relating to imp lementation critical success factors (CSFs), and
implementation methodologies. Gattiker and Goodhue surveyed over 70 organizations in the manufacturing
sector and sought to find systematic relationship between ERP driven process change and ERP impact at
the sub unit level. They defined ERP impact as the effect an ERP system would have on a subunit’s ability
to access necessary information, the ability to coordinate with other areas and the overall fit between ERP
and task needs. As per this research, the impact of change in process is positive but there is no correlation
between the ERP driven change and ERP impact. This raises a question about the universal superiority of
ERP embedded processes comprising of “Best Practices”. As per them the eleven key critical success
factors are:
· ERP Teamwork and composition

· Change Management Culture and Program
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· Top Management Support
· BPR with minimu m customization
· Business Plan and Vision
· Project Management
· Project Champion
· Co mmunicat ion
· Monitoring and Evaluation of Perfo rmance
· Software develop ment, testing and troubleshooting
· Appropriate Business and IT Legacy System
· Effectiveness of Training and Education program
So me of the factors are important in the implementation phase but not after the imp lementation is over.
There has to be basis for regular evaluation of ERP effect iveness post go- live. The parameters for the
effectiveness evaluation should be defined industry wise for comparative study. Following parameters may
be used to measure the effectiveness of ERP implementation post go- live:
2.1 Process Gap Resolution

During the Business Blue Print (BPP) preparation phase the gaps between the As- Is process and the
To- Be process are identified. As the legacy process might have matured over a period of time and the
end- users are comfortable with the process, it is difficult to accept a system wh ich is a bit less
comfo rtable even if it b rings lots of other benefits. This may be in terms of providing single window
transactions instead of need to surf through several screens. Sometimes mo re than one transaction
needs to be carried to complete a process which was not the case in legacy system. There may be such
small gaps which creep in as the customization is discouraged. This can be compared in terms of
degree of realis m of user’s pre - imp lementation expectations. This can be judged fro m:
Ø Nu mber of develop ments to bridge the gap
Ø Nu mber of pending issues after a soaking period
Ø Availability of reports
Ø Nu mber of support messages
2.2 End User Comfort

End users are the actual input providers. The database which is required to generate any meaningful
informat ion and report to the management is provided by these end users. If the transaction process is
user friendly there is higher probability of getting correct and complete data from the end users. If the
process is not conceived as user friendly the end users may adopt the path of least resistance in
providing the data. In such cases, though the data may be complete its accuracy is doubtful and it is
difficult to take business decisions based on such database. The scale of user satisfaction is:
Ø User Friendliness
Ø Information satisfaction
Ø Software satisfaction
Ø Software interface satisfaction
Ø Overall system satisfaction
Ø ERP Project Sat isfaction
2.3 Information Availability to the Management

The data available in the system should be presentable to the management in different formats at
different levels. The standard reports available in the system may not suffice the requirement for
making day to day business decisions. For the top management customized reports are required as the
business scenario may be dynamic. There should be provision for customizat ion so that all information
need may be met through single screen. The quality of info rmation available to the management can be
judged fro m:
Ø Data accuracy
Ø Database content (comp leteness)
Ø Response time
Ø Reliab ility of informat ion
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Ø Timeliness of information
Ø Usability of in formation
Ø Understandability of information
Ø Relevance of information
2.4 Cost Benefits due to i mplementation

As ERP is not considered a necessity but an Add-on or a replacement to the legacy information
management system, the expenditure on this head should be justifiab le. The benefits may not be
evident immed iately after the implementation but it should be in measurable terms over a period. As in
the case of any other investment, management needs an answer for the cost benefit analysis and the
break even period for the investment on ERP. This depends on the following degree of performance
improvement leading to organizational co mpetit iveness:
Ø Inventory cost
Ø Purchasing cost
Ø Inventory turnover ratio
Ø On- time delivery of products/ services
Ø Response time to customer co mp laints
Ø On- Time delivery of invoice
Ø Inter departmental co mmun ication
2.5 Process Simplification

As all the ERP providers base their processes on the best practices prevailing in the industry, the
business processes should get simp lified as compared to the legacy system. The legacy system may be
over customized in some of the cases but in general all the users should feel co mfortable with the
system. The service provider should be open to the ideas and feedback provided by the users. Such
feedbacks should be incorporated in the upgraded versions of the system. Degree of system stability
after such upgrades plays another important role in ERP success. Some parameters of measurement
are:
Ø Reduction in transaction time for a process
Ø Simp lification in data entry
Ø Elimination of duplicate/ repeat data entry
Ø New product development as a simplified process
Ø Simp lified workflo ws
3. ENHANCING ERP EFFECTIVEN ESS:
Institutionalization of an innovation has been defined as an important post imp lementation process wherein
changes are mastered by the organization, technology is stabilized, new competencies around technology
and redefined processes are developed and complimentary structure and norms evolve. Institutionalization
process is critical fo r the success of innovation, as it is during institutionalization that the organization uses
the innovation and comes to terms with the changes introduced by an innovation. Successful ERP
institutionalizat ion is important not only because it is where the benefits of ERP are realized but also it
provides foundations for further innovations.
The scale of measurement of ERP Effectiveness in imp lementation phase is different than that of post go
live phase when the processes have stabilized. So me factors which should be continuously addressed for
the overall success of ERP imp lementation post go- live are discussed here. The requirement is applicable
to all the modules of ERP.
3.1 Monitori ng and eval uation of performance

The performance of all processes is compared on quantitative and qualitative scale. A reduction in the
volume of transactions should act as an alarm to the management. The users may not be comfortable
doing the process either because it lacks clarity or it is too cumbersome to use. Accumulation of
incomp lete processes clearly indicates lack of understanding of the process or lack of desire to
complete the process. Lack of understanding can be tackled by proper training and education. Lack of
desire can be dealt by proper motivation by the top management or by simplification of the process by
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reducing the number of steps involved in co mpleting the process or by new development. Each process
should be evaluated for its completeness and content. The logical co mpletion of a process does not
guarantee the quality of data.
It has been found that codified user fields lead to better data quality as subjectivity is ruled out. The
data selected for a particular field should be logically checked through inbuilt programs to increase the
reliability of the system. Su itable alerts and pop-ups, for invalid or wrong entries, make the system
user friendly and imp rove information quality.
Figure-2: Co mparative report for Maintenance Orders

Figure-1: Program for mon itoring
PM related parameters in ORT
In NTPC, all the processes are continuously checked for the quality and quantity of transactions by
core team members of ERP. Each functional team has set the targets for monitoring and communicates
the findings to the respective user group, maintenance planner group, station head, regional
headquarter and to the process owner at the corporate office. For examp le, a program was developed to
monitor d ifferent transactional parameters related to PM module as in Figure-1 and a typical
comparative report is in Figure-2 so that COS could guide the end users in monthly operation review
meet ing. By doing so, many processes which were not getting completed are now co mp leted in time;
quality of data and information quality have improved. It had a chain effect and the monitoring started
at station and department level as well. The result is given in Tab le-1.
Period September 2008 December 2009

Type of Raised Co mpleted % Rais Co mpleted %
Notification ed
GEN MAINT 4560 2724 59.74 5039 4356 86.45
CORR. MAINT 8598 5312 61.78 1442 11367 78.81
4
PREV. MAINT 4035 1872 46.39 4139 3555 85.89
CBM 58 32 55.17 86 56 65.12
TOTA L 17391 10013 57.58 2394 19473 81.32
5
Cost Booking 1896.17 unit 6725.15 unit
Table-1: Co mparison of Pending MO befo re and after mon itoring
Equip ment healthiness status is reported through a report named EQCSR. Th is report is based on the
condition monitoring data like vibration, IRT, WDA, DGA, Acoustics, MCSA etc. In the initial phase
of process stabilizat ion there were insignificant entries. Once CENPEEP started monitoring the report,
most of the users started feeding the data regularly.
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When there is no monitoring, some users tend to take the path of least resistance and somehow
complete the process. The informat ion quality and the system quality are co mpro mised in such cases.
For general maintenance jobs, a provision of M1 type of notificat ions was made. Some users started
raising all types of notifications in this category as it involved lesser number of steps for complet ion.
The core team controlled it by limiting the authorizat ion.
In all train ing and education programs, users of plant maintenance module were told to get the
materials issued through maintenance orders and to make the service entry for maintenance orders so
that maintenance cost is available to the management. Th is did not happen till the issuing of material
(spares and consumables) and booking of maintenance services on cost centers was blocked. The users
complied with it when the guidelines were issued by the COS- SIIS in this regard.
3.2 Communication
After implementation phase the focus of the organization is on fine-tuning the system, resolving the
bugs and resolution of other technical issues. At this stage, the problems are mainly technical and
related to conversion of processes from legacy systems. As external support is withdrawn, help calls
fro m the end users increase many folds. Both positive and negative stories about the new systems
emerge. For enhancing the effectiveness of ERP it is important to provide platforms to raise the
technical and transactional issues and all such issues should be resolved in time. Proper
communicat ion plays most important role in resolving the issues and in stopping negative stories from
spreading. Some of the methods of communication are listed here:
3.2.1 Creating Hel pdesk

There should be 24X7 Helpdesk to support the end users. All the users should be told
during the training about the process of raising the support message to the helpdesk. Finer
tips like creating an attachment, making the issues location wise identifiable, selection of
proper component and use of proper communicat ion address should be clearly explained
during training. The contact numbers should be made available at places easily accessible
to all users.
The helpdesk should be equipped with the experts of different modules to cater to the
needs of the end users. A timeline should be maintained to resolve the problems raised to
Helpdesk. The helpdesk should be equipped with sufficient nu mber of telephones and
mobiles to meet very urgent requirements. After stabilizat ion the issues are mostly raised
as support message. The functional experts can be withdrawn fro m the helpdesk and they
can operate from any other suitable location.
3.2.2 Use of Local Intranet: ERP pro ject imp lementation schedule is normally very tight.
Issues like new codes for vendor, material and external services, uploading legacy P.O. in
ERP, inappropriate authorization, new authorization, extending material code fro m other
location, password locking etc are common issues post imp lementation. “ERP Help
Page” like document, containing details of the persons to be contacted for such issues and
brief guidelines regarding the issues, may be put on local intranet. This is very useful in
mu lti location implementation as it becomes easily accessible to all the users of that site.
Some of the issues may be specific only to the location concerned.
This exercise was carried at some of the stations of NTPC limited and the result was very
encouraging. The load to the central helpdesk reduces almost by fifty percent. Such a
document used at NTPC/ Singrauli is given in Annexure-I.
3.2.3 Use of Company Mailing System: All the end users are encouraged to use the Helpdesk
for creating any ERP related support message. It is observed that middle level and top
level executives do not use the system frequently. They remain unaware of the procedure
of raising support messages. Hence, in exceptional cases the issues raised through the
company mailing system has to be entertained.
All the users should be advised not to use private mails for raising ERP related issues. All
users using private mail for the purpose should be sent the procedure for creating a
support message and should be advised to send it as support message. All new functional
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developments related to ERP should be communicated through the company mail. A ll the
developments which affect R3 non users also should be commun icated through the ESS
or through company notifications.
3.2.4 Use of Mail through ERP: All major ERP providers have made provision of Business
Workplace for all the authorized users. This can be used when the regular mailing system
of the company is not working or not supporting the document type or size which the
users intend to send. This is fast, easy to use and the tracking of the response is possible.
However, this should not be treated as a substitute to the regular mail as system
performance is co mpro mised.
3.2.5 Using other means of Communication: End users are encouraged to raise all ERP
related issues through Helpdesk. This is primarily for the analysis of the issues raised
fro m different locations. But in complex organizations where informat ion abounds about
many critical issues, all lines of communication should be used by the organization. The
end users in the organizations value direct commun ication with ERP champions as the
best means of co mmunication. Process champions in all teams are not only critical in
interpreting and personalizing ERP related information for their team members but also
provide a direct link for ERP related resources for the team. Provid ing email addresses
and contact numbers of all the Core Team Members to the respective end users play an
important role in resolving crit ical issues the solution for which is not forthcoming fro m
the Helpdesk.
In NTPC, net meeting and video conferencing has been widely used to directly
demonstrate the process to the end users. This is the most effective way handle critical
issues which is difficu lt to exp lain otherwise. This saves travel time of end users and
experts and results in tremendous saving to the company. ABB related issues of almost
all sites were handled using video conferencing.
3.3 Change Management

Change in any system always brings some discomfort and faces resistance. The new ERP system may
be more user- friendly and may be of great value to the management but the end users have to change
the methods in which transactions were carried. Success of ERP imp lementation largely depends on
the ways and means of change management at all levels.
The end users of different functions should have their representatives as power users. At higher level
we should have process champions and process anchors. All these group of people should be engaged
in all the developments at all the stages of ERP imp lementation. They should be a communicat ion link
to the end users so that the end users are apprised of all the developments taking place in ERP. In this
way they are made to own the system under develop ment and accept the minor and major deviations, if
any, fro m the legacy process to the new process. All the changes should be well documented and all
the users well in formed.
The gaps in imp lementation can be reduced with continuous engagement of the consultants.
Brainstorming sessions can be held with the end users where the ideas of bridging the gaps may
emerge. Brainstorming leads to high psychological involvement and proactive participation by the
participants. Sessions may include cross functional teams to resolve issues involving more than one
module. The ideas emerged in such sessions are easily accepted by the end users and their confidence
in the ERP system imp rove. They start realizing the importance of ERP system.
In NTPC, end user meets were organized at all stages of development of ERP. Post imp lementation,
users’ feedback is taken in different workshops and the same is incorporated in the process for value
addition. The value addition may be in terms of reduction in transaction time, ease in doing the
transactions, better report generation etc.
3.4 Trai ning and Educati on

It is a normal pract ice to impart end user training before Roll- out of ERP. Functional and cross
functional training are given to the users as per their transactional needs. It is observed that hardly one
fourth of the trained users learn it seriously. Most of the participants are either unable to match the
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pace of the training or are unable to fully dedicate the time for the training. When the post roll out
support is withdrawn they have difficulty in do ing the transactions in changed scenario.
Most ERP works mix training and education together despite of substantial differences. Train ing aims
to teach hands-on operational skills such as correct input data, regular printing and ad hoc reports,
understand the specific functions of individual depart ments, and so on. Meanwhile, education aims to
teach general ERP concepts, such as how ERP affects the work of individuals and upgrades individual
productivity, why and how end-users are disturbed by the business process reengineering (BPR), how
important the BPR is in inducing ERP system, how to deal with conflicts created in imp lementation,
how to adjust individual working processes and get familiar with the new system after imp lementation
and much more. This immensely helps in change management.
Merely training users how to operate systems is insufficient since education has considerable influence
in pre imp lementation expectations of the users, in providing accurate data and in bringing about
system stability. Education should not be underestimated and should not be started too late. In many
cases education effectiveness is reinforced with well-prepared examp les and supported by the
management while t rain ing effectiveness is reinforced with follow-up train ing based on examinations.
Hiring and retain ing skilled and Knowledgeable ERP personnel leading the ERP imp lementation is
important for imparting train ing and for creating education program. In NTPC, a data centre, a
conference hall and a hall fo r video conferencing are dedicated for train ing and education of the end
users. Regular sessions are conducted by different functional groups.
3.5 Top management Support

Most researchers agree that post-imp lementation fate of ERP is determined long before the ERP
system begins to work. CEO co mmit ment and involvement, Professional management background of
MIS leaders, and Top-and middle-management co mmit ment and involvement are extremely significant
in imp lementation and post - implementation phases of ERP. The greatest complexity and difficu lty in
ERP imp lementation lies in dealing with human beings including all-levels of management and end-
users throughout the organization. Research indicates selecting the right executives can min imize the
possible failure to effectively imp lement ERP system and maximize the effectiveness of the post-
implementation ERP systems. The resistance to ERP implementation fro m end users increases with
decreasing professional management knowledge fro m MIS leaders. Executing the ERP imp lementation
is not a computer issue, but instead is a people issue. ERP implementation is not an IT or IS project,
but rather is a business project. The top management must make it clear at all levels so that the end
users accept it as their own process rather than terming it an IT tool.
Figure-3: Developed report for mon itoring Equip ment Status
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Figure-4: A BB summary report through ERP
846
All the users look forward to the Core Group for any clarification and training. Mostly, they abide by
the suggestions and guidelines issued by the Core- Team. But as explained in 3.1 top management
support to the ERP core team beco mes essential in some cases to get the job done by the users and to
make them maintain data quality. Activity based budgeting (ABB) is being done through ERP in
NTPC. Budget is automatically generated by the system based on the task lists and plans made by
different departments. The major categories of maintenance are preventive maintenance (PM),
overhauling maintenance (OH) and Corrective maintenance (CM). Task lists for all three types of
maintenance were made as a part of master data preparation. Based on the available data, the projected
budget was available to all the stations. Only 25% of user groups were serious about correcting the
data. Balance 75% started working only when the direct ive was issued from the DO’s office.
There are so me processes which are not critical for the regular business of the company. Due to lack of
manpower or sometimes due to ignorance by the end users, such processes remain unused. As no
financial issues are involved, they do not attract sufficient attention of the management. But quality or
uniformity or consistency of data or statutory requirements may be getting affected. It is the
responsibility of the core team to draw attention of the top management and get the users going for
such dormant processes. Top management support is important for maintain ing user discipline.
3.6 Linking SAP wi th other communication application
Another new research wave is to explo re the integration and cooperation among post-implementation
ERP, SCM, and B2B e-co mmerce to create a new, larger, and broader enterprise business system. All
major ERP providers are working for EERP. Using software which allo ws an organization to
incorporate decision steps related to the workflo w of any business process, Reports Management,
Leave Management, Travel Management etc in the user application like Lotus Notes available in the
organization will imp rove the ERP effectiveness. SAP, in collaboration with IBM, has developed
similar software “Alloy”. Alloy is both an application and a platform which has user friendly
functionality with customization tools.
In NTPC, ERP is linked with Business Interface (BI) software where many reports have been
developed for top management. It is lin ked with RW E software for operation related applications.
Using this platform an application has been developed by PM module as well for automatic
notification generation in case of emergencies and for automatic updation of counters like GT running
hours, mill running hours based on which maintenance schedules can be triggered. SRCM is also being
used in NTPC.
4. CONCLUS ION:
Implementation of the software is just a beginning of the ERP program. It just provides a new tool. The
most significant benefits of ERP are realized when the new systems are operational and desired results are
obtainable. Imp lementation success is defined quiet differently by d ifferent researchers and no single
definit ion has ever been developed. A clear-cut and valid metric for measuring the effect iveness of the
post-implementation ERP system remains elusive. Hence, the variables selected in the text may not be
complete.
In this literature measures for enhancing operating effectiveness of the imp lemented ERP system has been
discussed. Suitable ERP leaders can direct fitting implementation approaches, resolve resistance from users
effectively, and execute BPR fully and firmly. Hiring and retaining skilled and knowledgeable functional
personnel for ERP imp lementation has ranked number two in impo rtance. End-users across the
organization must be educated from the onset of ERP imp lementation. Emphasis should be given for
developing effective education program, and also developing methods of valuing such a program.
For enhancing ERP effect iveness it is important for the top management to extend continuous support to
the Core Teams. It is important for the Core teams to extend all possible help to the end users by engaging
them in workshops, training and by providing help documents. Continuous evaluation of processes for
content and data quality and Communicat ion are the key to manage the changes and to enhance ERP
effectiveness.
847
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1. Shahneel Baray, Shafqat Hammed, Atta Badii “ Analysing the effecti veness of
Implementing Enterprise Resource Planning Systems in the Printing Industry”; EMCIS,
2006
2. Nah F., Zuck weiler K.M., Lau J.L.S. “ ERP Implementation: Chief informati on officers’
perceptions of critical success factors”; Intnl Jnl of Human- Computer Interaction; 2003
3. Hong K.K., Ki m Y. G.; “ The critical success factors for ERP Implementati on: an
organisati onal fit pers pecti ve”; Information & Management; 2002
4. Es teves J., Pastor j.; “ Analysis of critical success factors relevance al ong SAP
implementation phases”; Proceedings of the seventh Americas Conf on Information
Systems; 2001
5. Prokopiev S., Seymour L., Belle J.P.V.; “ An empirical investigation of factors affecting ERP
Impact”; Managing Informati on in the digital economy: Issues & Solutions
6. Ifinedo, Princely Emili: “ Enterprise Resourse Planni ng Systems Success Assessment: An
Integrati ve Framework”; Uni versity of J yvaskyla; Fi nland: 2006
7. Gattiker T.F., Goodhue D.L.;”Software dri ven changes to business processes: an empirical
study of i mpacts of ERP systems at local level”; Intnl Jnl of Pdn Research; 2002
8. Kumar V., Maheshwari B., Kumar U.; “ ERP System Instituti onilazati on: A Model for ERP
Effecti veness”; Carlton Uni versity; ASAC 2002 Conference
9. Chian-Son Yu; “Causes Influencing the effecti veness of the post-i mplementation ERP
System”; Deptt of Information Management & Centre for ERP research, Shih Chien
Uni versity, Tai pei, Tai wan
10. Williams M., Kocakullah M.C., McGuire B.; “ Impact of Different ERP Systems on
Organizational Performance and Managerial Decision Making”; College of B usiness,
Uni versity of Southern Indiana
11. Reh M.; “ How to Increase Effecti veness, Res ponsiveness and Producti vity of Your Business
Users”; SAP Insi der, SAP AG
12. Ifinedo P., Nahar N.; “Prioritization of ERP System Success Measures: Viewpoints of two
Organizational Stakehol der Groups”; SAC’06; 2006
13. Ji-Ye Mao; “ Enabling Effecti ve User Partici pation in ERP Implementation: A Case Study
on the Role of Brainstorming Sessions”; Renmin Uni v of China: PASIC 2009 Proceedings
14. Jun-DerLeu, Wen-Hsien Tsai, Cheng J., Yi-Wen Fan;“ Influence of B usiness Process On the
ERP Project Effecti veness“; Proceedings of the First WS on Knowledge Economy and
Electronic Commerce, Tai wan
848
Annexure-I
Procedure for referring and Redressal of SAP / ERP Related Issuess
1. New Authorizations: (For those not having SAP Logon) - Requirement of New
Authorizations have to be put up in Template already circulated and given in Annex-A, duly
recommended by HoD and sent to DGM-IT for consolidation and approval of GM. The list
approved by GM will be sent to CC Basis Team for creation of new Authorizations based on
permissible Licenses.
2. Additional Authorizations: (For those having SAP Logon but not permitted for specified
Transactions) – Requirement of additional Transaction Authorizations should also be given in
Template already circulated and given in Annex-A, duly recommended by HoD and sent to
DGM-IT for consolidation and taking up with CC Basis Team.
3. Account Locked / Password not working: P lease send e-Mail to DGM-IT with Employee
No. and Error Message being displayed.
4. Extension of Existing SAP Material Code: Request may be sent to DGM-IT through
respective HoD for extending Code to SSTPS with justification.
5. New Material Code Allotment: User has to Generate Code Request Thru PowerTerm on
Corporate MCCS Server with IP Address: 191.254.249.7 (Contact IT for Help in Accessing this
Server). Login = cmm; Password = cmm123; Select Choice = 1 then select Application Login
Name = SSTPS and Password = SSTPS123; Select Menu item 9 for requesting New Code. Type
Details as required and Save. As per the existing Software provision, Site MTP will review the
Code requests and forward to Site Finance. Site F&A will check requisite details like Valuation
Class / Material Type etc. The List / Code Request will then be put up for approval of GM. After
GM’s approval, CC Codification Team will do the final Codification and Upload in SAP.
6. Extension of Vendor Code: For Extension of Vendor Code from Purchase Org 2000 to
3000 or vice versa, please give the SAP Vendor Code, Name of Vendor and type of Extension
required i.e. 2000 to 3000 or 3000 to 2000. Send these details to Finance (Shri Neeraj Sharma –
Dy.Mgr) or DGM-IT for forwarding to CC Team.
7. Allotment of New Vendor Code: Vendor Code details are to be filled in Template
provided in Annex-B and sent through C&M (Shri Premchand – Mgr(P)) to Finance (Shri Neeraj
Sharma – Dy.Mgr(F)) for whetting and forwarding to CC Team for allotment of New Vendor
Code.
8. PM Module Issues: All queries may be sent directly to CC- PM Core Team
skdaskayasth@ntpc.co.in with a copy to DGM-IT. For all other Module related issues, a copy of
all correspondence being sent to respective ERP Core Team should be marked to ERP-ROM
(SSTPS) at skdaskayasth@ntpc.co.in and DGM-IT.
9. ESS Issues: All queries may be referred to Mrs. Mrinalini (Officer- HR).
10. The Material & Service P.O. Uploads for Legacy Data will be done only up to
20.09.2008. All are requested to fill their left out Legacy Service P.O.’s in requisite Template and
get them checked by Contracts & Finance and forward to Shri S K Takhele – Sr.Supdt. (TMD)
(for O&M Service P.O.’s ) or Shri Anil Mishra – Dy.Mgr (IT) (for Non-O&M Service P.O’s).
849
PI System & NTPC – a journey just started
S SHYLESH-DGM( IT-ERP)
1. Introduction:
NTPC, as an integrated energy company, has several kinds of assets. The obvious ones
are Equipment, Employees & Financials but a key asset in today’s world is Information.
NTPC embarked on consolidation of this asset through the implementation of ERP. The
Operation module of ERP, unlike other modules, is a mix of Transactional and Real-time
data.
•
Following were the key areas for ERP Operation module implementation.
•
Transactional Data Capturing & MIS
•
Operational Performance Reviews & Actions Taken Status thereof
•
Documentation & its Storage, Revision & Retrieval.
•
Real time process data capturing, storage
Development of Applications using real time data for process monitoring &
improvements
2. Real-time Data Capturing & storage:

2.1 Pre-ERP scenario:
Real-time process data was available in process control systems of DAS, DDCMIS etc..
and would be stored in Data Historians of the control system vendor. This had the
following limitations –
- The data historians would be of proprietary nature and would need certain
programming knowledge to retrieve or access the data.
- The storage capacity was limited, typically of a few days.
- Since NTPC has a variety of control systems and of various vintage, lot of time,
effort & cost would be required to access even small amount of data.
- Dependency on the C&I engineer would be necessary for data access.
- Access to real-time data was limited to control room and hence not available to
other users at station, Regional or Corporate office for any analysis.
2.2 Post ERP - Third party Data Historian

One of the key objectives of ERP implementation was to integrate process information
with business transactions for effective decision making. Keeping this in mind, the PI
System, which is a third party data historian of OSISoft, has been used. The salient
features of the implementation are:
2.2.1 Scope:
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One PI server at each of the 15 Coal based & 7 Gas based power stations and one at the
Corporate office.
2.2.2 Network integration:

Prior to ERP implementation, the process control network and the Metering network have
been isolated from the IT network. Hence, integration of these networks has been done
with required security infrastructure to ensure power generation continuity.
The typical network diagram is given in Fig:1
Fig:1 Typical PI system
2.2.3 Implementation approach:

The implementation was done in a phased manner with one Gas, one Coal & Corporate
office as pilot locations. Then the rest of the locations were implemented.
- Due diligence : The PI system needs to integrate with a variety of process control
systems, and using different interfaces would be uneconomical & limit scalability.
Hence it was decided to use the available OPC interface of PI.
A detailed exercise was carried out at each station to understand the readiness for
implementation. This includes studying the process control system network,
availability of OPC servers for interfacing, completeness of network cabling
between plant network and IT network, availability of security infrastructure etc..
Based on the study, a draft PI system network topology diagram was prepared and
an action plan drawn for site readiness including tag identification.
- OPC compliance : NTPC has process control systems of varying from as old as
40 yrs to the latest DDCMIS. Many old systems are obsolete. It was a challenge
to ensure that the systems became OPC compliant and the decision on whether to
851
incur expenditure on installing an OPC server was based on obsolescence, R&M
plan, cost etc.. Wherever possible, in- house OPC servers were developed for
certain control systems.
- Installation, configuration & Training : Once the site is ready, the PI server is
installed from corporate office through remote login. The tag list is reviewed and
finalized in a template. The team then visits the station for configuration of the
Interfaces, establishing the network connections, creating the PI tags and ensuring
the tag values are getting updated in the PI server. Then the PI system admin and
end-users from Operation, Efficiency, planning, Maintenance groups are given
training as required. The station senior management is given an overview of the
system and benefits possible.
- Data transfer to Corporate PI server : Once data is available at the station PI

server, a PI to PI Interface is configured at the central PI server to transfer
Generation, Line flow and Environment data (termed as Golden tags).
2.3 Challenges:
The scope of implementation covered 22 power stations spread across India involving
around 125 generating units and a variety of process control and metering systems.
- The greatest challenge has been to ensure the interface to the PI system, within
reasonable cost and time. Several in- house efforts bore fruit in creating OPC
servers for obsolete systems or where cost was prohibitive.
- Network integration, particularly between process control and IT, has been an
experience in terms of both technical and human.
- Some End-user need a lot of convincing to understand the value and correctness
of process information being made available.
2.4 Benefits:
The benefits already being made available are:
- Generation information to senior officers at station, Regional & Corporate office
- MIS of station performance
- Ease of process data gathering for analysis
- Ease of identification of faulty instrumentation
The benefits expected in future are:
- Real-time Unit efficiency and Loss monitoring :
- ABT monitoring
- Shift logging
- Operation performance analysis
- Remote trouble-shooting by experts
- Early warning of abnormalities
- Comprehensive Startup/Shutdown monitoring
2.5 PI System usage in NTPC:

In the two years since PI system has been introduced to users in NTPC, the usage has
seen an exponential growth. Some of the areas of use are:
852
- Automatic transfer of Generation, Line flow, Outage and Ambient Partial Loss
`data from PI system to SAP database for MIS reporting.
- Generating Daily Flash report in a station
- Startup analysis
- Pre-Outage Analysis
- O&M Parameters Analysis for review meetings
- Generation information to senior officers on their handheld devices.
- Monitoring of critical parameters
- Stress analysis of critical components by NETRA
- Automatic generation of Maintenance Notification in SAP based on condition of
equipment.
2.6 The road ahead :
The journey has started and there is a lot to achieve in the years ahead. Some are:
- Implement PI at new stations
- Add balance control systems after they become OPC compliant
- Improve / increase instrumentation
- Reduce manual intervention by increasing more parameters for automatic transfer
to SAP
- Develop more applications for performance monitoring & analysis
- Train more and more O&M personnel in use of PI clients and applications
2.7Conclusion:
Till about two years back, it was nearly impossible to get real time process parameters in
discrete values or as a trend at a remote desktop for purpose of any analysis or
monitoring. Now with the implementation of PI system across NTPC, a remarkable
change has been ushered in wherein executives from different disciplines of O&M feel
confident that process data on real time basis is available to them for any analysis,
comparison etc. This has brought in transparency as well. Another area where immense
benefit is noticed immediately is the real time generation information from different
NTPC stations for senior management. PI system has replaced the outdated & difficult to
maintain GDAMS (Generation Data Acquisition &Monitoring System) which was being
used earlier for the above. NTPC now going for fleet-wide monitoring system , PI system
will be an indispensable part in this set up.
853
ROLE OF PI HISTORIAN IN PERFORMANCE
IMPROVEMENT – INITIAL EXPERIENCE AND
EXPECTATIONS
RM. RADHAKRISHNAN AGM (EEMG – R&M), Ramagundam, NTPC Ltd.,
G. S. RAO, SR. SUPDT (EEMG), Ramagundam, NTPC Ltd.
Abstract
Power industry has confronted a major change in the market during the past decades. Worldwide
competition has drastically increased. Market driven operation in process industry has in addition
confronted further complicating factors related to hard operating constraints imposed upon
production sites in terms of required reduction of consumption of energy and materials. It is now
necessary to satisfy simu ltaneously, in the best possible way, many co mpeting needs and
requirements for the generation companies to stay competitive, remain profitable, and consequently
to strive for excellence. A mong the most relevant objectives are those related to conservation and life
extension of major equipment, and to reduce any adverse environmental impact. This includes
minimizat ion of fuel consumption, minimization of heat rate, minimizat ion of thermal stress,
minimizat ion of pollutant emissions, and many others. More advanced process support systems will
therefore be required to meet the above challenges. With the recent installation of Plant Information
(PI) server at NTPC-Ramagundam as an Operational Informat ion System, performance monitoring
activities have significantly changed by the way data is retrieved and analysed. The role of PI in
performance improvement is discussed along with future road map for NTPC in utilising the PI
historian in performance enhancement
Introduction
NTPC is constantly challenged to operate at an optimu m profit and grow in capacity in the face of
changing business conditions and increasing competition. Engineering and operations management
makes critical operating decisions on day to day basis that affects profitability plant efficiency and
safety. These decisions may include; scheduling of generation, configuring equip ment for h ighest
productivity, scheduling equipment outages, planning equipment replacements or upgrades, and
conforming to environmental and safety standards. As part imp lementation of SAP to help in above
decision making, NTPC has installed PI along with Some A VAs with a view that PI will be
representing the basic process of power generation in the SAP setup.
The PI System - An Informat ion System designed for the Manufacturing Environ ment
The Plant Information (PI) System from OSI Soft ware, Inc. is a set of software modules designed for
plant-wide monitoring and analysis. The PI System Data Archive is the foundation of this system. It
handles the collection, storage, and retrieval of numerical and string data. It also acts as a data server
for Microsoft Windows-based client applications. Operators, engineers, managers, and other plant
personnel use these client applications to view the plant data stored in the PI System Data Archive.
The PI data archive accommodates very large real-time and historical databases typically sized so
that every recorded process point (called a "Tag") is stored on-line near its original resolution for
years. The Microsoft-based PI client applications enable personnel to easily access this high-
resolution data to view a plant's current condition while provid ing a very clear and accurate picture of
past operations. Data access to and from the PI Data Archive is extremely fast. Users can retrieve the
854
informat ion they need within a few seconds regardless of the number of tags or the size of the
archive.
PI role in performance i mprovement (Present)
PI and The Tools: The majo r job of a Performance Engineer at a Power plant involves main ly (i)
Top-Down approach of Heatrate improvement in which Heatrate deviations are calcu lated, accounted
for indiv idual equip ment deterioration and action plan is made (ii) a pro-active approach, bottom-up
approach, in which a set of key process indicators / parameters are monitored which enables to take
corrective action before the problem becomes sever enough to significantly impact Heatrate (iii)
Trouble shoot performance deteriorations. With the recent installation of Plant Info rmation (PI)
server at NTPC-Ramagundam as an Operational Information System, performance monitoring
activities have significantly changed by the way data is retrieved and analysed
Having real-t ime p lant data collected and available in a database has been valuable to plant
personnel. The next step we have taken is to make use of that data in our day to day activities of
EEM G while exp loring the tools available with PI. The tools to retrieve and present the data are
Process Book (to display data in the form of individual values, trends etc in its own display window)
and Datalink (to import data into an MS excel worksheet for further calcu lations/analysis in MS
Excel)
Usage of Process Book and Datalink: At Ramagundam EEM G, extensive Process Book displays
are configured for regular monitoring of parameter trends for monitoring all the parameters that
affect Heatrate, indicate healthiness of combustion process etc. Trending of such parameters are
giving better idea of the process compared to viewing at some instantaneous, maximu m, minimu m
and average of those parameters which were only available previously. At EEM G we have
configured and using at least 30 process book displays to monitor key p rocess indicators / parameters
in wh ich majority are trends with simultaneous display of similar Units data. Fig-01 (Flue gas
Oxygen at Economiser outlet for all the three Stage-1 Un its over a day) and Fig02 (Unit -4 Main
steam and Hot Reheat steam temperatures over a day) show such PB displays. To make Process
Books mo re interactive, a small knowledge of Visual Basic coding is required. Fig -01 and Fig-02
have some VB coding wh ich enable the user to add a tag or change dates at a click of a button.
Fig-01 Fig-02
Fig-03 is a screen shot of performance mon itoring of Stage-1 Condenser. Key process indicators of
Condenser are configured in Excel using Datalin k to show real-time values and those of other similar
Units can be viewed with click of preconfigured button using simp le VBA code. Similarly, using
Datalink, all the key perfo rmance indicators are calcu lated in MS excel files to show real-time
performance indicators. This can be made similar to a on-line performance monitoring system except
for data validation and other elaborate functionalit ies like for eg storing of performance indices etc.
855
ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT GROUP
CONDENSER PERFORMANCE SCREEN - PI DATA DATE: 21-Dec-08 10:54
UNIT No LOAD: VACUUM:

II 200.4 MW -684.7 mmHg
Parameter Unit Design Pass-A Pss-B
CW DT Deg. C 7.81 9.9 9.9
46.8 deg C TTD Deg. C 5.29 4.4 4.4
Depression Deg. C <5 3.2
42.7 deg C Saturation Temp Corres to Vacuum Deg. C 46.1 45.9
deg C 31.61 41.54 deg C

Loss of Vacuum due to Unit Design Pass-A Pss-B
deg C 31.62 41.57 deg C CW Inlet Temperature mmHg 0 -5.2 -5.2
CW Flow / Excees Heat load mmHg 0 8.1 8.1
Dirty Tubes / Air Ingress mmHg 0 -3.6 -3.6
46.2 deg C Total Loss of Vacuum mmHg 0 -0.7 -0.7
Fig-03
Process Book displays are very easy to use / configure and they are very effective in monitoring.
While regularly monitoring the operating parameters through such displays, a deviation in
parameters was observed (see Fig-04 & Fig-05) and operating regime was corrected accordingly
before the problem becomes sever enough to significantly impact Unit Heatrate
Fig-04 Fig-05
Added Value Applicati ons: But if we put in a PI System and do nothing with it, it will just sit there
and collect data. It’s important that we have a strategy to develop and support those applications that
will imp rove our business. The PI System is an enabling Platform, but it’s the applications we create
with the Platform that are the key to making the most of this technology. Each application adds value
to the company’s business and increases the rate of return on investment in the PI System.
Corp ERP team is the process of developing a number of applications based on real time data fro m PI
for the benefit of operation and EEM G. One such application being installed is “Thermal Loss
Analysis (TLA)” which helps in direct ly controlling the losses thus imp roving the Unit Heatrate.
TLA is on-line measurement and optimisation of thermal performance which analyses component
losses with drill down to the lo west level of the plant process by calculating actual heat losses against
condition based target values. Heat losses of processes are quantified and expressed as monetary
856
values and inter Unit performance comparison at any time is provided to the operator enabling the
operator to see the effect of the change in operating regime immediately. TLA functionally was
improved by adding the losses on the account of TDBFPs as per the request of Ramagundam EEM G.
Once this application co mpletes its trail / fine tuning, it is expected to be widely used as all the
operating Engineers have already been trained on the usage of similar application.
Using the platform of PI and its tools a performance engineer with some knowledge of VB can make
his own AVAs and this aspect is the most important functionally of PI set up. EEM G, along with
Operation, developed an A VA for Bo iler tube Metal temperature mon itoring. Th is A VA is developed
with the fo llo wing objectives:
1. to monitor boiler co mbustion deviations resulting in varied temp in SH/RH coils leading to
tube failures due to overheating
2. to identify deviations in flue gas path parameters
3. to analyse deviations in metal temperature band operated in a day or specified period in
relation to co mbustion regimes and internal surface condition of tubing
4. to identify coils / banks to be analysed / inspected during Overhaul
Metal temperature A VA gives graphical representation of temp trends, maximu m temp reached &
temp excu rsions, snap shot of metal temp across the boiler, co mparison among similar units, etc.
which was not possible previously. This is made in co mb ination of VB coding and MS excel to get
the follo wing informat ion by simple selection of dates and selection of Units fro m any of the
networked PC:
ü Max metal temperature in a period and its occurrence time / stay at max time in
minutes
ü Profile of temperature spread across the boiler fo r SH\/RH panels
ü Trend of temperature spread over a number of days
ü Temperature ranges over a day for each coil
Fig-06 and Fig-07 are the screen shots of Metal temperature A VA.
Fig-06 Fig-07
Data Mining: We are looking at PI historian for many of the EEM G requirements like averages
(over a day) of parameters for calculat ing Heatrate deviations & for h ighlighting the deviation to
O&M head on daily basis, real time data to know the unit status, past data for any analysis purpose,
etc other than the above mentioned PB screen and AVAs.
Enormous amounts of past data can be imported to MS excel using PI Datalink and analysed sitting
at a Desktop which is a boon to performance Engineer. Recent examp le of analysis of enormous data
was during the FGMO trail operation as per the procedure laid by SRLDC. During the trail operation,
857
online monitoring and operation control could be carried out effectively using PI process book
displays. Correspondingly the data was collected at seconds interval for analysis of
Unit/Stage/Station wise data and the data was presented to SRLDC
Data required by OS at Corporate centre for use in decision making can be accessed from PI with
less time and effort. One such an example could be the data forwarded to OS turbine group as per
their request, on typical values of condenser vacuum of stage-2 units (3 x 500 MW) through out a
year. This data for the last one year was retrieved fro m PI h istorian as PI, just by then, was having
one year’s data in it
Performance Engineers in the corporate office are assisting plant personnel by analyzing problems as
the same data is available to them. CenPEEP is regularly sending the analysis reports / problem areas
identified using PI data to Site EEM G wh ich is of great support to the Station. In addition, data from
similar equip ment at mu ltip le plants can be compared by Engineers at Corporate Office
To analyse Unit Tripping, PI data is being used extensively for data digging and analysis at Regional
and Corporate Offices, making the analysis very effective. Thus, simultaneous accessing of data
across the organization is helping in in-depth analysis of a Unit t rip
PI role in performance i mprovement (Expected)
RW E npower first implemented the PI System in 1990, to build a new Operational In formation
System (OIS). A p ilot implementation of the PI System was installed at two power stations from
October to December 1991, and the imp lementation was then rolled-out to ten remaining stations in
1992-1993.
AEP began installing PI servers in 1993 in its power plants and successively five servers were
installed by 1998. In AEP’s experience is: (i) PI Helps Control Production Costs (ii) PI Brings
Diverse Data to One Graphical View and (iii) PI builds Diverse Monitoring Capability
PI data can be used for plant and corporate initiatives such as process improvement, total quality
control, and predictive maintenance. The unified plant data repository ensures that all indiv iduals
view and analyze the same data. Software applications such as maintenance management, expert
systems, and optimization/ modelling programs can use PI to gain access to real time data. If a utility
has a corporate group responsible for a particular type of equipment or system, they can monitor the
performance of the entire fleet daily (i.e. the corporate turbine group can monitor the efficiency,
pressure ratios across stages, vibration, bearing temperature, etc. o f all turbines in the organisation).
Some utilities use the performance data (either real-time heatrates or more often heatrate deviations)
to compare the performance of operations personnel. By co llect ing the total heatrate deviation for a
unit each shift and averaging this data over a long period of time by operator or group (so each
operator or group will have been on duty each shift several times), the best performers can be
identified and their practices taught to the others.
Go ing by the experiences of the world-wide Power generating co mpanies where PI systems are being
used and by the capabilities of PI system the follo wing are to be considered for getting better return
on PI investment by which NTPC can take g iants leap forward in performance management:
ü Installati on of On-line performance monitoring system using PI data

EtaPro of General Physics is a time proven, world class monitoring system that turns process
data into performance information and puts that information, both real-time and historical, on the
desktop. There are nu merous such applications above functionality running on PI data world
wide.
858
ü Es tablish a corporate standard for monitoring and improving unit performance
Even though NTPC a standard for performance monitoring system, in the wake of availability of
PI it has to be strengthened for “Clear bench marks to quantify performance and value to the
corporation”
ü Centralized Data Moni toring / Fleet wi de monitoring

By centralized Data mon itoring, Stations can be provided with more accurate and speedy
consultation from pooled experts. Monitoring and Support during critical unit operations
including start up also can be made possible. And for it also helps in Knowledge Management,
Leverage the value of PI, OIS, and an experienced staff
Conclusions
As a long-term investment, the PI System provides strategic integration of systems, standardization

of best practices, and empowerment of people. We can continually asses the condition and
performance of the plant, make changes to the way we operate and maintain equipment, and quickly
evaluate the impact and benefit of those changes. With PI, we have better information to aid our
decision making.
In particular PI system is being used extensively for performance mon itoring. Its capabilit ies are
being explored to get better Added Value Applications / Process books displays are per the
requirement. The urgent need after successful implementation of PI system is to have a on-line
performance monitoring system which is going to change, significantly, the way performance
monitoring is carried out at Stations.
PI System should be planned and maintained properly keep ing in v iew the future requirements and to
make the system available fo r 100% as this will be the reference for analysis by expert group as well
as by users
References:
1. OSIsoft, Inc. Web site: Customer PI System So lution Case Study – “Cutting the Cost of
Flexib le Operation in a Co mpetitive Po wer Market”.
2. “Using EtaPro to Support Pacificorp’s Heatrate init iative in co mpetitive Energy market”
presentation at EPRI Heatrate conference Jan 2003.
3. Presentation “Technology is Integral to Corporate Culture” by H. Kevin Stogran Director -
Market Operations Support AEP on May 8th, 2008.
4. “SMART 24 x 7: Ho w to get there” by Ramesh (“Rudy”) Shankar, Signatech Systems, Inc.
presented at Workshop on “Fleet Wide Monitoring” at PMI, No ida.
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COMMISSIONING OF EARTH/ROCK-FILL DAM/RESERVOIR FOR
HYDRO POWER PROJECT WITH REFERENCE TO KOLDAM HPP
S.C. Gupta, GM, Koldam HPP
M.P. Singh, DGM, Koldam HPP
B. Basu Roy, DGM, Koldam HPP
Synopsis
Commissioning/first filling process of a dam/reservoir is a very crucial activity and requires proper
investigations, well planning, appropriately drawn reservoir filling schedule, carefully designed inspection/
monitoring programmes prior, during & after commissioning. Monitoring of dam/spillway behaviour
through instrumentation can play a major role in removing/handling the concerns which may arise.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Most of dams in India have been constructed and owned by State Government agencies. There are no
well defined legal requirements in India to be full-filled before commissioning/first filling/impounding of
reservoirs. Dam safety legislation may codify procedures once it comes into force. However in the absence of a
well coded legislat ion, the hazard posed due to impoundment of reservoirs should not be ignored.
1.2 Co mmissioning/first filling of an earth/rock-fill dams has to be a gradual process. Systematic and
strong observations/inspection programmes before, during and after first filling process are crucial for removing
and handling the concerns. As far as behaviour of clay core (the most crucial component) is concerned, rock-fill
dam is essentially similar to conventional earth dam. Clay core in dam acts as a seepage barrier and transfers
hydrostatic thrust to dam body as a whole by way of retarding seepage due to its low permeability.
1.3 A well investigated and well designed dam should generally perform well during its first filling. Areas
above MDDL would become available on a yearly basis for inspection and repairs. However, areas below
MDDL would remain submerged in water most of the times and are the most crucial areas of concern. Due care
has to be taken so that small problems in these areas do not assume a large concern at a later date and entail
costly measures.
1.4 This paper deals with pre-requisites for initial filling/impounding, general inspections/
tests/evaluation/reviews & general filling criteria for earth/rock-fill dam/reservoirs and measuring instruments
provided for monitoring of behaviour of dam/spillway at Koldam HPP & mechanism for controlling reservoir
filling, reservoir filling schedule, inspection of dam/spillway/associated structures/reservoir, behaviour
monitoring through instrumentation.
2. INITIAL FILLING OF EARTH/ROCK-FILL DAMS/RES ERVOIRS
2.1 General Requirements
2.1.1 Before Reservoir Filling
v Declaration to State Govern ment about commissioning of Dam.
v Classification of dam based on degree of risk it can pose to persons and property (vulnerability and
potential consequences as per CWC Guidelines).
v Determination of dam failure consequences based on characteristics of downstream area and
delineation of area.
v Informing district authorities and agencies like Civic Administration, Relief Co mmissioner and State
Disaster Management Agency (involved in disaster relief) about the filling schedule of reservoir.
v Sensitizing local population adequately about likely gate operations of diversion tunnel/spillway
leading to wide fluctuations in river discharges during filling process.
v Timing the filling operation/schedule of reservoir in collaboration with authorities involved in
operation of downstream reservoir/power house, as there may be some short term shortfalls in inflows
into downstream reservoir due to filling operations of reservoir. Operation authorities for downstream
reservoir may also need to make their own contingency plans for handling this type of situation, so that
abstraction of inflows during filling operation does not become serious.
v Drawing out the filling schedule (based on hydrological data and structural contexts) in consultation
with designers, who would identify geo-technically difficult treat ment zones in foundation/abutments
and determine how much time would be required to assess performance of measures taken.
Hydrological schedule ensures that the existing operations of other facilit ies dependent upon
unconstrained river flows are affected to a minimu m.
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v Installation of a temporary gauging and discharge measurement site at a convenient location
downstream of confluence of any major t ributary with river where backwater effects are less and
catchment area added between reservoir & site is min imu m.
v Establishing the wireless communicat ion and spillway discharge curve for site and arrangement for
hourly gauging and reporting round the clock during filling sessions. This would help in calculating
probable rise of reservoir & time by which target reservoir levels would be achieved. A small software
to compute rise of reservoir level in given time with given discharge can help in visualising situation.
v Installing adequate warning systems (sirens, public address systems etc) properly in downstream river
reach between reservoir being filled up and downstream reservoir. Hot line communicat ions between
district disaster management of State and dam site should also be setup, tested and commissioned.
v Organising the entire data on quality control and foundation & abutment treatment (grout intakes,
permeab ility test results etc) in a co mputerised database so that test results/reports for dam/reservoir are
readily available/accessed on short notice as needed. It may help to establish safety assurance
programme for future life of dam.
2.1.2 During Reservoir Filling
v Generally, the first filling of reservoir is carried out during a period when reservoir is not likely to
observe major floods so as to ensure a smooth rise of reservoir in pre-defined steps. Inflows change
very rapidly during flash flood period. Therefore, it is better to avoid flash flood periods for filling
reservoir. However, small floods of about 70% of the diversion capacity can be considered.
v Monitoring of behaviour of dam as reservoir level rises and comparing with design parameters. It is
ensured that there is no localised unusual phenomena, which can endanger safety of dam and
appurtenant works.
v Posting of a team of designers/consultants/experts familiar with dam features at site and another similar
team at design office with robust communications (FAX & e-mail facilit ies) between the two to handle
any emergency, to provide a rational response and to exchange sketches, other engineering informat ion
like results of analyses, photographs/videos. Facilities for organizing video/audio/voice conferences
between the teams and other experts, who may not be present at the site, may be preferred.
v Maintaining the records of rise of reservoir level with t ime to fo rm t ime base for identify ing occurrence
of any incident of concern. During filling of reservoir, seepage paths may establish gradually in dam
body/its foundation/abutments. Depending on permeability values achieved, seepage may take d ifferent
time to appear in the downstream. In in itial filling period, flow will be more of a diffusive nature than
that of a steady state convective nature.
2.1.3 After Reservoir Filling
v Putting a programme of structural behaviour surveillance in the realm of dam.
v Establishing a systematic dam safety programme.
v Establishing a team of executives with work of dam/reservoir and placed in position before
decommissioning of quality control and construction setup, so that necessary records and databases are
handed over properly.
v Keeping all necessary records and data base generated during construction and commissioning period
as far as the dam behaviour is concerned in safe custodian.
2.2 General Inspections/Tests/Evaluati on/Reviews
Before impounding reservoir, it beco mes very important to examine safety of dam/associated structures to
safeguard investment made & to ensure public confidence in continued accrual of benefits derived from pro ject
and to protect human life and property in downstream reach fro m any potential hazard. Objective of dam safety
inspections is to detect any existing or developing structural of hydraulic weakness and existence of conditions
which are hazardous or which with time might develop into safety hazards. Field inspection of dam should
consist of visual inspection of dam/abutments/critical appurtenant structures and a review of readily available
engineering data. Photographs/drawings may be used to record conditions to minimize descriptions. Inspections
should be conducted by qualified engineers, geologist and other specialists, including experts on mechanical and
electrical operation of gates & controls, knowledgeable in investigation, design, construction and operation of
dams based on hydrologic, hydraulic, soils & structural engineering/engineering geology.
2.2.1 Inspection before Impounding
2.2.1.1General Inspecti ons
v Field inspections are made before raising water in reservoir.
v It begins with a written notification to the Govern ment and dam plans, quality control programme and
hazard risk assessment.
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v Co mmissioning inspection of dam is responsibility of designer/competent person in such a manner that
all safety related issues are adequately considered.
v It continues with necessary field inspections, which can be reviews of structures and foundations
conducted during different stages of work.
v Schedule for raising water level in reservoir is established in course of inspection.
v It is completed when all structures are operationally ready, have been brought into full-scale use and
approved to function as planned.
v At the closing of commissioning inspection, records of field inspections & comp letion documents are
collected and a final statement is co mpiled.
v Obstructions to accessibility and visibility of galleries-access ladders, lighting & roads/bridges,
communicat ion/remote control lines, cables/telemetering systems.
v Systems used to monitor drainage to assure their proper operation and functioning.
v Adequate slope protection against waves/currents/surface run-off to pass discharge freely without
taking embankment/foundation material, erosion-formed gullies, wave formed notches, benches
reducing embankment/exposed less wave resistant materials.
v Stilling basins, including baffles, flip buckets or other energy dissipaters for any conditions posing
constraints.
v Existing condition of channel downstream of stilling basin.
v Facilit ies provided for drawdown of reservoir to avert impending failure of dam or to facilitate repairs
in the event of stability or foundation problems.
v Hydraulic control structure for stability, erosion, unauthorized installations on crest.
2.2.1.2 For Reservoir Vicinity
v Determining to what extent the water impounded by dam would constitute a danger to safety of dam or
a hazard to hu man life or property.
v Determining land fo rms/bedrock around reservoir for active/inactive landslide reducing reservoir
capacity/creating waves over-toping dam.
v Determining reservoir/drainage area for excessive sedimentation causing sudden increase in sediment
load and reducing reservoir capacity.
v Determining reservoir upstream hazard areas of potential back-water flooding resulting in loss of
human life or property at reservoir levels up to MWL.
2.2.1.3 For Hydro-Mechanical Equi pment
v Structural members, connections, gates, hoists, cables, operating machinery and adequacy of
normal/emergency power supplies to determine the structural integrity.
v Operating deck/hoists, broken/disconnected lift chains/cables, unprotected exposure of E-M equip ment
to weather/sabotage/vandalism/structural members.
v Operational adequacy of operating/emergency/control gates/valves/bulkheads/other equipment &
availability/capability, condition of cranes/lifting beams handling them.
v Control, p rotective, alarms (limit switches, sump high water alarms, d rainage pumps).
v Trash racks control/cleaning arrangement: uncleared drift, parting, loss of anchorage.
2.2.1.4 For Measuring Instrument
v Inclino meters, inverted plumb bobs, gauge points across joints, horizontal/vertical movement
measuring devices, align ment instrument, settlement plates/gauges.
v Warning, safety and performance monitoring instruments.
2.2.2 Inspection after Impounding
2.2.2.1 For Generic Occurrence
v Seepage/leakage (increase or decrease, turbidity & piping, colour, dissolved solids, location & pattern,
temperature, taste, evidence of pressure, boils, recency & duration
v Drainage (for obstructions, chemical precipitates and deposits, unimpeded cut fall, sump pump
facilit ies, bacterial growth).
v Cavitation (surface p itting, sonic evidence, vapour pockets)
v Stress & strain (for cracks/crushing/displacements/offsets/shears/creep in concrete, crack/extension/
contraction/bending/buckling in steel; displacement/settlement/ crack/ consolidation/subsidence/
compression/ zones of extension/compression in rock/soil)
v Stability (tilt ing, tipping, sliding/over-turning in concrete and steel structures; bulging, sloughing,
slumping, slid ing, cracks & escarpments in embankment structures slumps, slides, rock falls, bulges &
cracks in rock cut slopes, foundation and unlined tunnels).
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2.2.2.2 For Embankment Structures
v Embankments/downstream toe for localized/overall settlement, depressions/sink holes
v Embankment slope for non-smooth/non-uniform/irregular alignment, unusual changes from orig inal
crest align ment/elevation, movement at/beyond toe, surface cracks.
v Downstream face of abutments, embankment slopes/toes, embankment-structure contacts; downstream
valley area for seepage-its sources & causes; potential severity.
v Inadequate seepage control (wet spots, new vegetal growth, seepage/leakage, boils)
v Erosion control (loss, displacement/deterioration of upstream face riprap, d/s face slope protection)
v Foundation for consolidation and liquefaction.
2.2.2.3 For Concrete Structure/S pillway/Outlet Structure
v Concrete structures for cracking, abnormal settlements/deflections/lateral movements.
v Drains in foundation, joint & face to determine, if performing their design function.
v All water passages/concrete surface subject to running water for deterioration, erosion, cavitation,
obstructions, leakage or significant structural cracks.
v Face, abutments and toes for seepage or abnormal leakage sources.
v All monolith and construction joints for condition of joint and filler material, any movement of jo ints
or any indication of d istress or leakage.
v Foundation for damage or possible undermining of downstream toe.
v Abutments for sign of instability or excessive weathering.
v Approach/outlet channel for conditions imposing constraints on spillway functioning.
v Outlet works (all structures to release water belo w spillway crest through spillway).
v Water stops in monoliths, face slabs, reservoir impounding backfill at spillway control sections,
retaining walls, approach channel, slides slumps, cracks, cut slopes
v Terminal structures for inadequate energy dissipation, jump undercutting, sweep out, retrogressive
erosion, loss of foundation support for flip bucket substructure, unsafe jet trajectory/imp ingement.
v Return channels for impaired outfall, obstructions, slides, slumps/cracks in cut slopes, erosion of
deposition creating dangerous tail water elevations.
v Severe leakage about tunnel plugs.
v Undesirable/dangerous spillway flow patterns.
2.2.2.4 For Materials for their Characteristics
v Concrete for alkali–aggregate reaction, pattern of crushing/cracking, leaching, abrasion, general
deterioration, strength loss
v Rock for degradation, softening, dissolution
v Soil for degradation/dissolution, loss of plasticity/strength/mineralogical change
v Soil /cement for loss of cementation, cru mbling
v Metals for loss cementation/ corrosion/stress-corrosion fatigue/tearing/rupture.
v Timber for rotting, shrinkage, co mbustion, attack by organisms
v Rubber for hardening, loss of elasticity, heat deterioration, chemical degradation
v Joint sealers for loss of plasticity, shrinkage, melt ing.
2.2.2.5 For Dam/S pill way Instrumentation
v Headwater/tail water gauges to determine relationship between other measurement (flow/uplift
pressures/alignment/discharge with upper/lower water surface elevations).
v Pore-water pressure, piezometer measurements to determine if pore-water pressures in embankment &
foundation would impair safety of dam
v Uplift pressures measurements to find if pressures for maximu m level would impair safety of dam.
v Drainage flow measuring instrument to establish normal relat ionship between reservoir elevations &
discharge quantities to determine any change fro m the orig inal.
v Seis mic instrument to know seismic activ ity/response of structure to past earthquakes.
v Review of available records/readings of instruments to detect any unusual performance of instruments
or unusual performance/distress of structure.
2.3 General Filling Criteri a
2.3.1 General
v Initial reservoir filling is first testing of dam to perform its intended functions.
v Sizing of outlet works to meet probable outflow requirements during initial filling has to be fixed
during designs. Therefore, information on desired rates of rise of reservoir level must also be available
during design requirements.
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v In order to monitor reservoir performance, filling rate should be controlled to the extent feasible to
allo w accomp lishing a pre-determined monitoring programme, discharge capacity sufficient to
maintain filling rates specified by initial filling criteria and to hold reservoir levels reasonably constant
for elevation above 50% of dam height.
v Inflo w into reservoir may be assumed as average of mean monthly inflo w in selected filling period and
reasonable frequency flood.
v Criteria for init ial filling of reservoir are established to provide a planned programme with adequate
time to monitor/evaluate performance of dam/allied structures.
2.3.2 Factors to be consi dered for Establishing Initi al Filling Criteria
v Constant physical parameters for vulnerability to be considered are dam height, dam type, dam
foundation and impounding capacity of dam.
v Variable parameters for vulnerab ility to be considered are dam condition, seis mic zone and reliability
of discharge facilit ies of dam.
v Geology of dam foundation, reservoir and landslide potential along reservoir banks
v Hazard potential, inflow characteristics, hydrology (flood patterns/seasonal flows).
v Release provisions for project requirements, flood release & emergency evacuation.
v Instrumentation type, monitoring provisions, reading, evaluation time, response time.
v Safe channel capacities downstream of dam and characteristics of reservoir/storage.
v Filling rates for concrete dams are not much restricted and are not normally specified for bottom half of
depth of reservoir being impounded.
2.3.3 Broad Stages of Reservoir Filling (as per CWC Criteria for Reservoir Filling)
v First stage of reservoir filling may involve filling up to MDDL without restraint as there is no hazard
potential to public/economic develop ment downstream of dam.
v Second stage may involve filling fro m MDDL to crest of spillway in following sub-stages at a
controlled & specified rate:
§ Reservoir above MDDL should be gradually built @3m/fortnight and temporarily suspended at
half of dam height from MDDL to spillway crest to assess behaviour of structure based on
observations and to take decision about further filling.
§ After decision is taken to continue filling further, build ing of storage should be done in gradual
sub-stages of 2 to 3 m/ fortnight depending upon height of dam.
v Third stage may involve filling fro m crest level of spillway to FRL as follows:
§ Reservoir filling rate should be restricted to 0.3 m in 48 hours.
§ Filling need to be suspended temporarily at half of height of dam between crest of spillway & FRL
to allow sufficient time for monitoring/evaluating dam performance taking into account instrument
response time and to take decision about further filling.
v Observation of instruments installed in dam (pore pressure cells, uplift pressure, seepage quantum etc)
need to be observed at each stage after allowing a suitable stabilizing period before going on to next
sub-stage of filling.
2.3.4 Filling Criteria adopted at some of Reservoirs
No worldwide specific criteria for init ial filling of reservoir are available. Appropriate decision for adopting
specific criteria for reservoir filling is taken by the respective project authorities. Filling rates of reservoirs for
some of the hydro power projects are given below:
v Reservoir of Lost Creek Lake Project US Army Corps (104 m high embankment dam, gross storage
573 MCM , dead storage of 25 MCM, top of dam 574m, MWL 570.5m, FRL 552m) was planned to fill
at any rate up to an elevation of 518m and then limited to 0.9 m per day (o r 13.5 m per fortnight).
v Chicoasen Dam in Mexico (261m high earth/rock fill dam) was filled first @ 2m/day in 2.5 months (1st
May, 1980 to 18th July, 1980) fro m elevation of 220 m to 380m.
v Kafue Dam Reservoir in Zamb ia was init ially filled at a filling rate 0.6-3 m per day.
v Filling of reservoir o f Tehri dam was planned to be commenced fro m March, 2006, allowing to rise un-
restrained till arrival of first flood around mid August, 2006 (except fo r releases for power
production/other obligatory releases), restricting maximu m rise to El 795m during 2006 flood allowing
to monitor behaviour of right abutment consisting poor rock formations & to assess the adequacy of
stabilization measures. Control on rate of raising was planned to fill reservoir fro m El 815 (crest of
spillway) to El 830m (FRL) @60cm/day in 3 sub-stages (El 815-820m, El 820-825m & El 825-830m
keeping minimu m 1-week t ime between successive sub-stages in order to assess the behaviour of dam.
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2.3.5 Strategy for Reservoir Filling
v Downstream toe of dam, drain of any extraneous material and growths (which may prevent visual
observations of downstream slope of dam/dam-abutment interface) need to be cleaned. For this
purpose, entire length of dam may be divided in various reaches and a round the clock observation
programme may be launched with co mmencement of filling operation and continued till a period
considered satisfactory as far as seepage path development is concerned.
v Reaches should have seepage measuring facilities like V-notches. All groups should be equipped with
communicat ion equipment to inform status periodically. Mobile network and SMS based system can
work very well. Observations can be on an hourly basis or longer depending upon rate of rise of
reservoir & steady state periods in between. Seepage may occur after 24-48 hours (not immediately) on
achieving reservoir level. If such occurrence is faster, there could be a potential emergency.
v Surface settlement observations can be established on upstream portion of dam remaining above
MDDL and on the entire downstream face by small surface settlement points embedded in the body of
dam with a depth of about 60 cm. Surface settlement surveys should be carried out say once a week
during filling period so that any pockets of settlements are identified in time. A general surveillance of
downstream face can be kept by illu minating up the face appropriately and taking visual inspections at
every 3-6 hours interval. Any surface ravelling observed should be reported immediately.
v Entire reservoir filling schedule should be divided into steps of rise of reservoir levels (say about 20%
of head increment in each step). However, with increasing capacity with each increment at higher level,
more time may be needed to control/reduce reservoir levels. Step heights for higher reservoir levels can
be reduced if outlet characteristics create constraint. Once the reservoir level rises above crest of
spillway, considerable discharge capacity need to be added. This constraint has to be considered till
dependence rests upon diversion tunnel outlets.
v Reservoir need to be brought to each predetermined steps and allowed to remain steady for a specific
period reco mmended by designers to ensure that performance of dam up to the achieved head is
satisfactory.
v All concerned should record seepage/other settlements occurring in their jurisdictions and enter the
same in a common database with necessary software facilit ies. Designers should be able to view entire
records in totality in pictorial format to visualise concerns of entire dam (not reach-wise). If contract
conditions do not permit addit ional wo rk, some other agency should be emp loyed for this purpose.
v All instruments provided in dam/foundations for measurement of pore pressures, internal movements
should be read every 3-6 hourly intervals and pore pressure contours in dam sections should be plotted/
analysed for values above design. For rapid analysis & v isualisation, software based approach is
required. Similarly, vert ical settlements and horizontal movements should also be plotted/ analysed.
Slope indicator casings are installed for measuring horizontal movements and for finding any potential
slip surfaces. Intensive observation programme can be g iven a reduced frequency of once a day after
the first 48 hours, if the reservoir is going to remain steady at current level for longer t imes due to some
other unrelated phenomenon.
v Usual measures to handle dam related emergencies are to provide loading berms and filters to stop
piping phenomena and dumping of material in settled pockets to make up profile as well height of dam.
Pervious & imperv ious materials and construction equipment should be in readiness for entire filling
period.
v Any difficult ies reported during initial filling should be attended in real time. Enough materials and
spares including fabrication facilit ies should be kept in readiness for handling seals, hoists, winches
and differential movement emergencies.
3. REFERENCE TO KOLDAM RES ERVOIR
3.1 Dam/ Reservoir of Kol dam HPP
v A rock/gravel fill with impervious central clay core dam (crest 648m, crest length 500m, crest width
14m, height 163m, live storage 9 MCM between FRL 642m & MDDL 636 m) and spillway (gated
crest, crest level 625m, crest length 108.5m, chute length 420m, 6 radial gate bays each with 15.5m
span, probable maximu m flood 16500 m3/s) are being constructed at Koldam. Sub mergence at FRL
would spread up to 42 Kms in Bilaspur, So lan, Sh imla and Mandi Districts of Himachal Pradesh.
v Koldam dam is designed for maximu m intensity of earthquake in the region. Core material, filters,
outer shell zones & rip-rap of dam have been processed specially to meet requirements of such a high
dam. Dam has zones (including rip-rap) co mpacted to very high degree to ensure mobilizat ion of
requisite shear resistance with least deformat ion. Foundation of dam is adequately consolidated with a
grout curtain.
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3.2 Measuring Instruments for Monitoring of Behavi our of Dam/Spill way
v Extensive instrumentation has been done in the dam/spillway structure for monitoring any adverse
behavior Measuring instruments mostly based on vibrating wire technology are being installed in
dam/spillway to monitor dam behaviour, providing advance warn ing, taking remedial measures in time,
checking/validation of design, future design aid of structures and decision making during O&M Stage.
v 375 instruments (344 at various elevations at 11 sections in dam, 27 in dam drainage gallery and 4 in
diversion tunnel outlet gate) are being installed to monitor pore pressure in
structure/foundation/abutments, earth pressure in dam, temperature variations in dam/foundation,
structural deflect ion/displacement/settlement in dam, seepage & vertical/horizontal displacement.
Instruments being installed are vibrating wire p iezo meters (fill & foundation type), vibrating wire
settlement cells, open chamber & porous tube piezometers, mu ltip le position borehole extensometers,
strong motion accelerographs, monitoring beams, close chamber piezo meters, cell settlement cells and
fill extensometers.
v 87 instruments (65 in 6 modules of spillway and 22 in spillway drainage gallery) are being installed to
monitor hydrostatic/uplift pressures on structure/foundation/ abutments, earth/hydrodynamic p ressures
on concrete structures, temperature variations in concrete, displacement/deflection/settlement in
structures, stresses in reinforcement/anchors, seepage & vertical/horizontal rock d isplacements.
Instruments include joint meters, water tubes, pore pressure cells, open/closed chamber piezo meters,
inverted/direct plumb lines, group of 5 strain gauges with no stress strain meter, group of 5 strain
meters with 1 stress meter, mu ltipoint borehole extensometers, temperature meters & straight vinchon
apparatus.
v Sensors of measuring instruments in dam would be connected with Centralized Data Acquisition
System having a programmable data logger duly supported with printer, p lotter, other hardwire and
software to perform their measurement control functions and storing/processing/intercepting data.
Centralized Data Acquisition System to be installed in dam monitoring building would be interfaced
with main plant Superv isory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA).
v Weather Monitoring Station for flood forecasting/warning is being established at Koldam. CWC’s
existing network at upstream Su mdo, Khab, Powari, Nathpa would be extended to downstream at
Rampur upto Pandoa to provide forecast to Koldam. This includes setting of data collection p latform
with satellite based transmitter, auto water level sensor at Pandoa, automatic weather stations at Pandoa
for temperature, evaporation, wind velocity & direction & relat ive humid ity, V-satellite at Shimla &
Koldam fo r inflow forecast transmission, automatic weather stations at Rampur. Seismolog ical
Observatory with facility for lin king of seismological stations through V-satellite, data transmission by
telemetry system, central record ing station at Koldam is being establishment for monitoring seismicity
around Koldam/ its catchment.
3.3 Mechanism for Controlling Reservoir Filling
3.3.1 Control Gate in Di version Tunnel [for Control up to Spill way crest level (625 m)]
3.3.1.1 During first filling of reservoir, intake gates of both the diversion tunnels would be closed. Diversion
Tunnel No. 1 would be plugged permanently. Any additional in flo w into the reservoir over the required filling
rate would be discharged in to Diversion Tunnel No. 2 (by creating a slope by having inlet invert at an elevation
of 510m and outlet invert at an elevation of 503m) through a well-mouthed structure near diversion tunnel
intake gates and would be controlled at a gate structure at an elevation of 540m having stop log gate as well as
radial gate, being provided at about midway of Tunnel No. 2, where both the tunnels are jo ined fro m the top.
Control panels for operation of gates of this structure would be shifted to a high elevation. Water from control
gate structure would be further discharged through 2 pipes and then would be discharged back into Sutluj river.
Reservoir level at 580m would create a d ischarge of 6500 m3 /sec in tunnel.
3.3.2 Radi al Gates at Spill way [for Control above crest level (625 m) to FRL]
3.3.2.1 Control of rate of filling of reservoir above spillway crest level of 625m to FRL of 648m would be
done through radial gates installed at spillway. Any additional inflow into the reservoir over the required filling
rate would be discharged through these radial gates.
3.4 Reservoir Filling as Per EDF
S. Time Final Filling Rate Remarks
No. in days Level (m)
1 0 505
2 7 510 Invert Level of d iversion tunnel. Water is already filled up to
this level.
3 14 560 7.1 m/day
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4 44 560 Filling to be suspended temporarily for 30 days to allo w
sufficient time fo r monitoring/evaluating dam performance
taking into account instrument response time & to take decision
about further filling.
5 144 625 0.65m/day Spillway Crest Level
6 204 625 Filling to be suspended temporarily for 60 to allow sufficient
time fo r monitoring/evaluating dam performance taking into
account instrument response time/ take decision about further
filling.
7 264 642 0.28m/day FRL
The above reservoir filling schedule has been indicated below:
Filling to be
suspended for 60
days
Filling to be
suspended for 30
days 44,560
Reservoir
Level
Duration (days)
3.4.1 Li mitations/Issues for Filling Reservoir as per EDF Schedule

Above scheduled would be reviewed in view of the following:
i) Water is already filled up to invert level (510m) of d iversion tunnel.
ii) Trends of inflo ws observed during filling period.
iii) Discharge capacity of outlet structure in diversion tunnel is 351 m3 /s etc. for elevation 560 m
3.5 Inspection of Dam/S pill way/Associated Structures and Reservoir
3.5.1 Inspection before Filling of Reservoir
3.5.1.1 Administrati ve/ Technical Measures
v Finalizing the filling timings, filling schedule based on hydrological data and controlling structures.
v Due to obstruction of inflows at Koldam reservoir during impounding, there may be short term
shortfall in inflows into downstream Bhakra reservoir. Therefore, first filling of Koldam reservoir need
to be planned in coordination with BBM B authorities involved in operation of Bhakra reservoir as
BBM B may require aug menting diversion of water of Beas through Beas Satluj Lin k & power
generation at Dehar PH.
v Installation of wireless communicat ion and arrangement for hourly gauging and reporting systems
round the clock for filling period. For rap id visualization of situation, a co mputer software need to be
developed for computing rise in reservoir level in g iven time step with given discharge.
v Arrangement for develop ment of computerized database on quality, treatment of foundation/abutment,
results, reports for dam/reservoir.
v District authorit ies and agencies involved in disaster relief activ ities (civil ad ministration, relief
commissioner, State disaster management agency etc) need to be informed about filling schedule of
reservoir.
v Implications of population growth and activities in near vicinity of reservoir & along its periphery
should be anticipated. This can increase the hazards of submergence during filling and drowning
downstream due to opening of gates suddenly.
867
v Local population downstream of Koldam reservoir to Bhakra reservoir need to be sensitized about
likely operations of diversion tunnels/spillway gates, which may lead to wide fluctuations of river
discharges during filling period.
v Adequate warning systems (sirens, public address system etc) need to be installed in river reach
between Koldam and Bhakra reservoir.
v Hot line co mmunication also needs to be commissioned between district disaster management and
Koldam site.
v Suitable CCTVcameras need to be installed for monitoring and security point of view at strategic
locations of dam, reservoir, spillway, decanting chamber, outlet etc.
3.5.1.2 Physical Ins pecti ons for
v Vegetative growth on downstream face and in reservoir which may result in massive trees with deep
roots penetrating into dam body. Eventual death of tree or uprooting of the same can then lead to
potential pip ing paths.
v Gates/control structures for any hydro-mechanical problems, as sudden failure of their component may
release impounded water suddenly. In localised failure, downstream hazard may not be much but
implications during flood season are significant.
v Adequacy of electrical power for operation of gates under all conditions through fail-safe mechanisms.
3.5.2 Inspection duri ng/After Filling of Reservoir
3.5.2.1 Physical Ins pecti ons
v Detecting leakage, erosion, seepage, excessive wetness or slushiness in the areas downstream of dam,
presence of sand boils, change in water table conditions downstream, slope instability, undue
settlement, displacement, tilting, cracking, deterioration/imp roper functioning of drains & relief wells.
v Observation of forces, pressures, loads, stresses, strains, displacements, deflections or other related
conditions and utilize them in safety evaluation.
v Measurement of pore pressure developed through dam body, as excessive pore pressure may cause
establishment of gradients leading to occurrence of piping phenomena in isolated locations due to their
capability to dislodge the particles and carry it with the flow. Pore pressures will affect the effective
stresses in body of dam and can generate slip surfaces along which downstream slope dam can fail.
v Measurement/inspection for settlement, as it can generate voids and paths in dam body or foundations
through which piping phenomena and excessive seepage can occur. Failu re can lead to overtopping of
dam, if slip surface cuts to upstream face side and emerges below reservoir level. Most common
problem is development of seepage paths, isolated patches of incipient piping on downstream toe/dam
foundation. Dam/abutment interface are other vulnerable p laces for such phenomena. Settlements can
come up afterwards, if incip ient piping is not handled immed iately.
v Inspection for turbidity of seepage and piping within various reaches of the dam. It needs to be closely
monitored as migration of fines first manifest as turbid seepage water. Seepage monitoring mechanis ms
at toe drains usually attract significant vegetative growth and maintenance of toe drains and rock toe
faces is an important surveillance measure. Potential p iping has to be immed iately arrested by
provision of appropriate loading berms and inverted filters with proper gradation. Surveillance should
be maintained round the clock after measure has been implemented till such time that seepage quantum
& quality co mes back to desired values.
v Inspection for desiccation related cracking as it can occur in dams having significant drying periods 3-4
months of very high ambient temperatures. Deep desiccation of core leads to internal shrinkage cracks
& can be a cause of failure if the reservoir is filled after a long time. Investigations can be carried out in
field by test pits and also rate of filling of reservoir has to be closely controlled.
v Inspection for gully erosion on slopes of dam as it can reduce dam section. Deep gully ing can expose
filter and core materials to surface and can lead to serious failure hazard with high reservoir levels.
Gu lly formation can also reduce effective width of top roadway. Phenomena can be tackled by
providing adequate surface drainage arrangements on downstream face. Gu llying can be initiated by
local paths.
v Inspection for wave erosion on u/s pitching done to reduce local slope failures at predominant reservoir
levels (can be other than FRL). M iniature wave breakers for severe wave attack (concrete block,
tetrapod shapes) can be provided.
v Any abnormal/undesired phenomenon taken place and treatment done/remedial measures taken need to
be recorded.
3.6 Moni toring through Instrumentation
v Monitoring of pore pressure in structure/foundation/abutments, earth pressure in dam, temperature
variations in dam/foundation, structural deflection/displacement/ settlement in dam, seepage &
868
vertical/horizontal displacement by analysing readings of instruments installed in dam, dam drainage
gallery and diversion tunnel outlet gate.
v Monitoring of hydrostatic/uplift pressures on structure/ foundation/abutments, earth & hydrodynamic
pressures on concrete structures, temperature variations in concrete, displacement/deflection/settlement
in structures, stresses in reinforcement/anchors, seepage and vertical/horizontal rock displacements by
analysing the readings of instruments installed in spillway and spillway drainage gallery.
v Flood forecasting/warning based on reading of Weather Monitoring Station at Koldam and Central
Water Co mmission’s extended network.
v Monitoring seismicity around Koldam/its catchment with Seismo logical Observatory.
4. CONCLUS IONS
4.1 Co mmissioning process of dam/reservoir is a very important and crucial phenomenon. It needs to be
performed after proper investigations, well planning, aptly drawn reservoir filling schedule and carefully
designed inspection/monitoring programmes. For computation of probable rise of reservoir level & time by
which target reservoir levels would be achieved, it is essential that spillway discharge curve is made available at
site, wireless communication and CCTVcameras at strategic locations are established and arrangement is made
for hourly gauging/reporting round the clock.
4.2 Installation of adequate warning systems/sirens/public address systems for giving t imely warning and
hot line commun ication between district disaster management of the State and dam site are also required.
Coordination between local population, different departments of State Govern ment and project authorities and
to take safety measured during impounding is a very important and critical process to build up public
confidence.
4.3 To carry out dam/spillway safety inspections/structural behaviour monitoring becomes necessary to
detect any existing or developing structural of hydraulic weakness. Measuring instruments installed in
dam/spillway may play a major role in this. At the time of closing of commissioning inspections, records of
field inspections & completion documents should be collected and a final statement should be compiled.
Apprehension reported during commissioning of dam need to be attended in real t ime. Materials and spares
including fabricat ion facilit ies in sufficient quantity need to be kept in readiness for handling seals, hoists,
winches and differential movement emergencies. Develop ment of co mputer based database on quality control,
undesirable incidences and remedial measures, like foundation/ abutment treatment taken, is highly desirable.
Keeping all necessary records/database generated during construction and commissioning period in safe
custodian would help in establishing safety assurance programme for future life of dam.
*****
869
ASSEMBLY, ERECTON/PRE-COMMISSIONING TESTS FOR
200 MW GENERATORS AT KOLDAM HPP
M.P. Singh, DGM, Koldam HPP

Sampreet Singh, Sr. Engineer, Koldam HPP
Vivek Kumar Gupta, Sr. Engineer, Koldam HPP
Synopsis
Components of large hydro generator are generally assembled at site. For satisfactory operational
performance of generator, it is essentially required that various physical/dimensional tests to verify
proper size/clearances, electrical tests to verify actual electrical parameters/safety factors assumed in
design and mechanical tests to verify mechanical strength of generator are performed on their
components during/after their assembly in service bay and erection in generator barrel.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Co mponents of the large size hydroelectric generators are generally assembled in service/erection bay
in power house at site due to transport limitations, high cost of transportation because of their heavy weight &
large size and to avoid damage to equipment during transportation. Therefore, it becomes essential that various
necessary physical, electrical and mechanical tests are performed on generator components during/after their
assembly in service bay and erection in generator barrel to avoid any problem regarding their performance.
1.2 Rotor and stator are the heaviest components of powerhouse with comp lex construction. Therefore, it
is very difficult to rectify defects after generator erection. Stage testing during assembly and erection facilitates
timely rectification of defects and reveal any design flaws. After assembly of stator core, stator core loop test is
performed. High potential test of stator is done after the assembly of stator coil, circuit ring and dry out &
varnish treatment. Insulation resistance of rotor coil is measured & voltage drop test is performed after making
temporary pole-to-pole connection and after assembly of pole-to-pole connection rotor coil & connection of
excit ing copper bar. Dielectric test of rotor coil winding is also carried.
1.3 Stator centring is done after temporary mounting of upper bearing bracket and centring is rechecked
after grouting stator base and lower bearing bracket. Leakage test for lower oil reservoir is executed after
installing lower shaft/lower oil well tube. Shaft plu mb-ness is checked after coupling of generator shaft &
turbine shaft and rechecked after insertion of rotor. Run out check for generator is made after installing of upper
shaft & temporary mounting of upper bearing bracket. Runout is rechecked after assembly of upper air
deflector. Adjustments are also made for clearance of upper and lower guide bearings.
1.4 Tightening torque of foundation bolts, coupling bolts and other bolts used for rotating parts are checked
as insufficient tightening torque would cause loosening afterwards and excessively large tightening torque
would elongate the bolt in excess of allowable limit and remarkab ly high repair reliability/breaking &
deformation/destruction of parts.
1.5 Before installing the generator, turbine assembly centre is measured accurately and assembly centre of
generator is determined. As the position adjustment of anchor bolts is impossible after grouting the concrete,
installing position of anchor bolt is measured correctly while checking the dimensions from turbine & generator
centres and mutual distance of each bolt. Prior to installat ion of generator, checking is done for generator
installation centre, elevation of surface packers for installing sole plates for lower bearing bracket & stator,
embedded position of anchor bolts and position & dimensions of embedded pipes & ducts.
1.6 Any generator consists of two parts, viz. stator and rotor. Both stator and rotor are combinations of
frame, core and windings fastened together to make a single mass. Generator au xiliaries main ly comprise of
stator air coolers, brake & jack system etc.
1.7 Paper deals with co mponents of generator at Koldam, present status of assembly/erection wo rks of
generators, types of tests for generator duri ng assembly/erection/pre-commissioning, tests for stator,
tests for rotor, tests for generator accessori es and checks/adjus tment for generator cantering & el evation.
870
2. COMPONENTS OF GEN ERATOR
2.1 Koldam Hydro Power Project consists of four numbers of vertically mounted synchronous generators,
each of 200 MW capacity having 36 po les and 166.6 rp m speed. Generat ion voltage is 13.8 kV with rated
output of 222 M VA at 0.9 power factor. Generator is directly coupled to runner of a Francis type turbine
through runner shaft.
2.2 Generator assembly consists of stator, rotor, collector, upper bracket, upper guide bearing (with its
lubrication & cooling devices and its generator upper shaft), lower bracket, comb ined lower guide and thrust
bearing (with its lubrication, cooling & oil injection devices and its generator lower shaft), combined braking
and jacking system, fire protection system and monitoring and protection sensors. Generating units are supplied
by joint venture of M/s TOSHIBA and M/s BHEL.
3. PRES ENT STATUS OF ASSEMB LY/ ERECTION WORKS OF GEN ERATOR

3.1 All four generators are to be assembled and tested at site. Status of assembly/erection/testing of
generating units is given below:
Unit#1: Stator and rotor have been assembled, tested and erected. Unit has been boxed up.
Unit#2: Stator has been assembled, tested, erected and placed in barrel. Rotor assembly is comp lete.
HV test on stator and rotor are to be performed soon.
Unit#3: Rotor and stator assembly works are in progress.
Unit#4: Stator and rotor assembly works are to be started.
3.2 Assembly of generator components and erection/pre-commissioning tests were performed by
TOSHIBA & BHEL for Unit#1 and supervised by NTPC. For the remaining units, activities of assembly/
erection/pre-commissioning tests are being performed/would be performed by BHEL.
4. TESTS FOR GENERATOR DURING ASSEMBLY/ERECTION/PRE-COMMISSIONING
4.1 Basically three type of tests are performed on stator/rotor to ensure successful operation of alternator.
4.1.1 Physical and Di mensional Tests: These are most basic and important tests. Correct d imensions ensure
correct waveform and necessary mechanical strength.
4.1.2 Electrical Parameters: These are performed to verify actual electrical parameters and safety factors
assumed in design. So me electrical tests indicate correctness of physical parameters. For examp le, core loop test
verifies proper stacking of core.
4.1.3 Mechanical Tests: Mechanical tests include tightness checks of bolts, matchining of surfaces, strength
of welding/brazing/soldering etc. These tests are necessary to verify the mechanical strength of alternator.
5. TES TS FOR S TATOR

5.1 Mechanical and Di mensional Checks/Measurement
5.1.1 Checking/Measurement of Height of Erection Base: Stator frame was received at site in four
segments and was assembled at site on 8 numbers of base plates/stools. Heights of base plates were
checked with transit up to the tolerance of 1 mm (H max – H min < 1 mm). It was also checked by means of a
transit that there is no remarkable difference of measured height of all erect ion bases (<1mm). Adjustment
in height was done by placing shims, if found necessary, before setting stator frame portions on bases.
5.1.2 Tightness Check for Frame Jointing B olts: Four parts of Stator frame are jointed by bolts at
specified torque so that they are not twisted or out of level condition.
5.1.3 Measurement of Inner Di ameter of Stator Frame: Inner diameter of stator was measured
during stator assembly using centre post. Vert icality of centre post was maintained within 0.02mm/ m.
Tolerance of inner diameter of frame was kept 2.24 mm, i.e. D max -D min 2.24 mm.
Frame inner d iameter was adjusted, whenever it exceeded the allo wable dimension.
5.1.4 Measurement/Adjustment of Lower Clampi ng Plates: Height of clamping p lates was adjusted
by means of stator rib nut so as to remain within +1.0 mm to +2.0 mm in relation to specified dimension.
Position of clamping fingers and of adjacent clamp ing plates was adjusted by stator rib nut so that the
steps between them maintained < 0.3mm.
871
5.1.5 Dimension Measurement of Slot wi dth and Core Height: It was checked that slot width was
not narrowed/slots not bent during intermediate pressing. Stacked thickness of punched laminations was
measured at 3 points/sectors at outer periphery on key positions of dovetailed key-bars. Stack thickness
was kept within 2050 ± 3mm tolerance. Thickness was adjusted, whenever it exceeded permissible limit.
5.1.6 Measurement/Adjustment of Diameter of Stator Core: Inside diameter of stator core was
measured. Whenever found necessary, the roundness of stator core was corrected within 2.8mm in
differences of minimu m and maximu m inside diameters. Roundness of stator core was also checked
during the centring process in the pit.
5.1.7 Tightness of Upper Cl amping Plate Bol ts: After p lacing stator punching, core is pressed
between upper and lower clamp ing plates to make it a single mass. Stator core t ightening nuts of upper
clamping plates are re-tightened using torque wrench after performing stator core loop test.
5.1.8 Measurement of Gap between Top Bar and Wedge: After inserting wedge, gap between top bar &
wedge was checked with master slide gauge. Wherever required, spacers under wedge were adjusted to 0 ±
10mm area of master slide gauge. Pushing force of master slide gauge was kept as 0.26 N and was checked
using spring balance.
4.2 Electrical Tests

4.2.1 Stator Core Loop Test/ Magnetization Test
Stator core loop test was done before installation of stator winding to check the laminar insulation of core, to
identify areas of higher temperature than average and hot spots in lamination. In case of any fault or damage in
interlaminar insulation, the losses as well as temperature would increase.
Test Arrangement
Magnetizing coil was encircled around stator through main bore and around outer frame with about 44 turns to
obtain specified magnetic flu x density. When supply voltage and current need to be modified as per capabilities
of rating in testing facilities, the number of loop turns may be changed to achieve the specified flu x density.
Magnetic flu x search/magnetizing coil was encircled around the periphery of stator core only with one turn (not
covering stator frame member) to keep uniform flu x d istribution and measure actual core flu x. Lead wire
connected to search coil was twisted to avoid the influence of leakage flu x.
Induced voltage on search coil was 137.3 Vr ms per turn at the reached condition of specified flu x density.
Formula used to compute induced voltage (Vs ) on search coil was:
Vs = 4.44 x f x Bc x (D1 -D2 ) x Lef f Where,
2
f : Frequency (50 Hz) Le ff: Effective core length = (L- Nv x b b ) x Fs
Bc : Specified core flu x density (1.1Tesla) D1 : Outer diameter of stator core (9.65m)
D2 : Dia. of bottom stator slots (8.976m) L: Gross core length (2.05m)
Nv : Nu mber of ventilation duct (49) bb : Width of ventilation duct (0.006m)
Fs : Core stacking factor (0.95)
Vr
V
Legends
Circuit 44 turns
Search CT: Current Transformer
Breaker
Coil PT: Potential transformer
V: Search Coil Vo lt meter
Vr: Variab le Vo ltage
CT PT Stator core
~ ~
T T
Temperature recorder and RTDs were used for measurement of temperature of amb ient and stator external
core surface. Thermocouple sensor was insulated fro m core.
872
Following source of power was used:
Line Vo ltage : 6600 volts
Input Current : 80 A (Appro ximately)
Capacity : 528 A (Appro ximately)
Motor-generator set was not available at site and thus a transformer with on-load tap changer was used. Output
voltage range was fro m less than 1 kV to the specified value.
Test Procedure
Wiring connection and IR of magnetizing cable were checked. It was ensured visually that there was no foreign
substance on the inside-diameter surface. Stator frame was grounded.
Circuit b reaker was closed to supply power to magnetizing coil. Min imu m supply voltage of magnetizing coil
was kept as 1 kV or less. It was confirmed that there was no excessive heating and/or abnormal vibration at this
voltage. Voltage was increased in steps of 500 V to achieve specified flu x density with induced voltage of
search coil. Vib rations and heating of core was monitored at every step.
After establishing specified conditions (search coil voltage 137.3V +5% and -20%), supplied voltage & current,
induced voltage on magnetic flu x search coil and temperatures were recorded periodically t ill the stabilization of
temperature, which was achieved after 4 hours.
After shut down power supply, temperature of inside-diameter surface was sensed by hand-touching and was
measured by probe type thermo meter with special attention to prevent any accident, as inside-diameter surface
of core has electric potential when test circuit was energized. Temperature o f inside surface of stator core was
also checked by thermo viewer as soon as possible for identify ing any localized heating in core.
Core bolts were re-tightened since core got loosened during test due to vibrations.
Acceptance Criteria
Stator core should have no area of excessive heating point with 100 C or more to the average core temperature. It
is confirmed that there was no excessive heating in stator core by applying specified magnetic flu x. Area with
hot spots of more than 100 C above average core temperature have to be repaired/varnished again.
Test Results
Search Coil Vo ltage : 128.56 V
Testing Time at rated flu x : 4 hours
No hot-spot observed by thermo viewer.
Thermographic Image obtained during Stator Core-l oop Test
*>60.0°C *>60.0°C
60.0 60.0
55.0 55.0
50.0 50.0
45.0 45.0
40.0 40.0
35.0 35.0
30.0
*<31.0°C *<30.0°C
Slot No. 28 - Slot No.49 Slot No. 74 - Slot No. 104

Avg. Temperature 46.00 C Avg. Temperature 45.20 C
Min. Temperature 42.10 C Min. Temperature 32.30 C
Max. temperature 47.40 C Max. temperature 49.00 C
4.2.2 Insulation Resistance Test of Stator Bars
IR value of each stator bar was measured with 5 KV Megger.
873
Acceptance Criteria
IR value of each stator bar should be > 300 MΩ .
Test Results
IR value of each stator bar was more than 300 MΩ.
4.2.3 High Voltage Test of Stator Windi ng (Top and B ottom bars)
This test was done at 28.6 KV A C after insertion of top & bottom bars and before starting the brazing work of
top & bottom bars.
Test procedure
i) All bottom and top bars were connected with copper wire. Slot inside and bar end portion were cleaned
with co mpressed air/vacuum cleaner.
ii) All winding RTD’s were grounded with copper wire in terminal bo x outside frame.
iii) IR (1 minute & 10 minutes values) was measured with DC 5KV Megger. Bottom and top bars were
dried out by hot air blowers to achieve IR >300 MΩ and polarizat ion index > 2.5.
iv) AC voltage was applied to all bottom bars and all top bars as follo ws.
Test Voltage AC : 2E+1= 28.6 kV (E=13.8kV)
Time Durat ion : 1 minute
Or
Equivalent DC voltage could also be applied at all bottom and top bars as follows:
Test Voltage DC : (2E+1) x1.7= 48.7 kV (E=13.8 kV)
At Koldam the test was performed at 28.6 kV AC voltage.
v) After HV test, IR value and polarization index of stator winding was again measured.
vi) Stator bars were grounded immediately after finishing the measurement of IR.
Acceptance Criteria
IR value of each stator bar should be > 300 MΩ and polarizat ion index should be > 2.5.
Test Results
Stator withstood at 28.6 kV for 1 minute.
IR value of each stator bar was more than 300 MΩ and polarization index was > 2.5.
4.2.4 Final High Voltage Test of RTDs (Resistance Temperature Devices)
After high potential test of top and bottom bars, all top and bottom bars were grounded with copper wire.
Insulation resistances of all RTD’s were measured with 1 kV Megger. HV test was performed by applied 2 KV
AC test voltage for 1 minute duration on all RTDs.
Acceptance Criteria
RTDs should withstand 2 kV A C for 1 minute.
Test Results
RTDs successfully withstood 2 KV AC for 1 minute. After high potential test, insulation resistances of all
RTD’s were measured. Stator bars were grounded immed iately after finishing the measurement of IR.
4.2.5 Measurement of IR and Temperature of Stator windi ng during drying-out
During drying-out stator winding for > 15 hours with 500 C to 700 C at bar end temperature, IR of stator winding
and temperatures were recorded at hourly intervals.
Acceptance Criteria
IR value of each stator should be > 300 MΩ.
Test Results
IR value of stator was more than 300 MΩ.
4.2.6 Final High Voltage Test for Each Phase of Stator Winding
AC voltage was applied to each phase of stator winding as follows.
Test Voltage : 2E+1= 28.6 kV A C (E=13.8kV)
874
After drying-out and varnish treatment of stator winding, IR (1 minute and 10 minute values) of each phase
were measured with 5kV DC Megger.
Acceptance Criteria
Winding should withstand 28.6 kV AC for 1 minute and IR of each phase should be >300 MΩ and polarizat ion
index should be >2.5 after HV test.
Test Results
Winding successfully withstood 28.6 kV AC for 1 minute.
Measured IR value of stator winding was >300 MΩ and polarization index was > 2.5.
Wherever, IR value was < 300 MΩ and polarizat ion index < 2.5, stator winding was again dried –out with hot
air b lower. Stator bars were grounded immed iately after finishing the measurement of IR.
4.2.7 Tan Delta Measurement
Tan delta testing (also called loss angle or dissipati on factor testing), is a diagnostic method of testing the
quality of insulation of generator. Values of test results are taken as reference for comparison with future values
to help in determin ing the health of insulation of generator.
Legends
VR: Vo ltage Regulator
Ic: Capacitor Cu rrent
CT: Current Transformer
HVTr: HV Transformer
AC: Alternating Current
PTr: Potential Transformer
Test Procedure
After fin ishing the connection, initially, 2 kV supply voltage was applied as test voltage and value of tan δ was
measured. Supply voltage was stepped to 13.8 kV in the steps of 3 kV and value of tan δ was measured in each
step tan δ is measured at increasing as well as decreasing voltage steps and thus values of ∆ tan δ were
computed. A graph was plotted between ∆ tan δ and applied voltage as indicated below:
Tan δ (%) E (13.8 V)
Decreasing
∆ Tan δ E voltage
Increasing
0 2 KV Vo ltage
Acceptance Criteria
Judgement of dielectric loss angle is done with parameter ∆ tan δ (maximu m test voltage tan δ- initial test
voltage tan δ) (∆ tan δ E = 13.8 kV tan δ- 2 kV tan δ). Value of ∆ tan δ E should be 2.5%
Test Results
Value of ∆ tan δ E was < 2.5%
875
4.2.8 Parti al Discharge Measurement
Partial discharges are sources of erosion that affects long term life of insulation. These discharges are termed as
partial discharges because they occur in areas which occupy a small portion of electrical path length and are
limited in magnitude because they are in series with mostly good insulation (which may eventually degrade).
These discharges may occur in insulation having gaseous inclusions, cavity or voids.
Legends
1 Vo ltage Regulator
2 Calibrat ion Pulse
3 Pulse Counting Rate Meter
4 Amplifier
5 High Pass Filter
6 Oscilloscope
7 Resistance Type Attenuator
Rd Resistance Type Detector
Cx Capacitance of Stator
Co Capacitive Coupler
Cc Calibrat ion Probe
Test Procedure
At normal operating conditions, the maximu m voltage potential to ground was 8 kV at line terminals and it
gradually decreases as proceeding to neutral point. Test voltage was applied at stator line terminals. Magnitude
of discharge was measured at the same point. Test voltage was applied in four steps (13.8 kV, 11.7 kV, 10 kV
and 8 kV) and at each step values were stored in computer.
Acceptance Criteria
Partial d ischarge analyser has two types of amplifiers: one having active wide frequency band (3 kHz to 3 M Hz)
and other having low frequency band (3 kHz to 200 kHz).
At Koldam Project, wide frequency band criteria was used, which is given below:
Qma x at E of 8 kV 1000 pico -coulo mb,
Where, Q max is the magnitude of part ial d ischarge in Pico-coulo mbs of 50 pulses/sec at 8 kV.
Test Result
Values of Q max at E of 8 kV observed was 1000 p ico-coulo mb.
4.2.8 High Voltage Test
HV test was performed again to check the probable damages or deformities wh ile p lacing the stator at its final
position in barrel fro m assembly bay. Test procedure was same as described in 4.2.6.
4.2.9 Visual Corona Observation
Corona discharge is a luminous partial discharge from conductors and insulators due to ionization of air, where
electrical field exceeds a critical value.
Vo ltage was applied to stator and increased continuously till v isible corona (corona start voltage) occurred and
voltage afterwards was decreased continuously till corona discharge ended. Pictures of visible corona were
taken.
Acceptance Criterion
Visib le corona (blue g low) should not occur before 16.5 kV (120% of rated voltage, 13.8 kV)
876
Test Results
Visual Corona
Start Voltage - 22 kV
Visible Corona
Visual Corona
End Voltage - 21 kV
Image of Visible Corona at 22 kV

5. TES TS FOR ROTORS
5.1.1 Checking/Measurement of Level of Rotor Erecti on Pedestal: Level of rotor erection pedestal was
measured and adjusted by shims within 0.1 mm/ m or less. Then bolts were tightened to sole plate.
5.1.2 Checking/Levelling of Upper Surface of Rotor Spoke: After coupling two halves of rotor spoke,
level on upper surface of rotor was measured with sprit level and adjusted to 0.05 mm/ m or less.
5.1.3 Checking of level of Brake Ring Sectors: Undulation of mounted brake ring face was adjusted to
0.5mm between sectors. Also it was checked that there is no gap between outside of brake ring and rotor spoke.
5.1.4 Checking/Measurement of Ri m Height of Rotor: Approved stacked height of rotor rim is 2295 ± 2.5
mm. Rim height of rotor was measured and was adjusted, where found necessary. Tolerance not > ±2.5mm
when stacked rim height was compressed with the designed staking height 2295mm. .
5.1.5 Dimension and fi tting of pole keys and stopper: Dimensions of pole keys were measured and
checked for proper locking of key stoppers.
5.1.6 Reamer Studs Tightening: Reamer studs were tightened for elongation in the range of 1.59-2.2 mm.
5.2 Electrical Tests
5.2.1 IR measurement of Each Pole
Insulation resistance of each pole was measured at 500 V.
Acceptance Criteria
Pole was accepted, if its IR value obtained was mo re than 50 MΩ.
Test Results
IR value obtained was more than 50 MΩ. Wherever necessary, pole was dried out till IR value reached to the
specified limit.
5.2.2 Impedance Measurement of each Pole before Interconnection
100 V A C was applied to each pole and voltage drop across each pole was measured. Variation in voltage drop
across poles should not be > 10% of average value. More than 10% variation indicates inter-turn fault in pole.
Test Results
Impedance of each pole was within 10% of average value of all pole impedances.
5.2.3 Detecti on of Hot-S pots through Thermographic Images Rotor Coil
Hot-spot test for rotor was carried. Thermo-v ision camera was used.
AC Vo ltage
A
Vo ltage Regulator
0-400 V
877
Test Procedure
100 V AC was applied to each pole for 5 minutes. After 5 minutes, supply was switched off and thermo graphic
images of pole coil and pole face were captured as early as possible. Check was done for any possible hot spot
at rotor coil with help of thermo v ision camera.
Acceptance Criteria
No hot-spot should occur at 100 V AC.
Test Results
No hot-spot observed in thermo graphic images.
Images obtained from camera are given below:
Area1 Area1
Min Mean Max Min Mean Max
23.6 25.2 29.8 23.3 24.7 28.8
Pole No. 5 Pole No. 30

Avg. Temperature 25.20 C Avg. Temperature 24.70 C
Min. Temperature 23.60 C Min. Temperature 23.30 C
Max. temperature 29.80 C Max. temperature 28.80 C
5.2.4 Polarity Test of Poles
DC current was applied to all poles. Po larity of each pole was tested with the help of magnetic needle.
Acceptance Criteria
Polarity of poles should be north and south alternatively.
Test Results
Polarity of poles was found OK, i.e. north and south alternatively.
5.2.5 Pole DC Resistance Measurement
100V DC was applied at terminals of all poles connected in series and voltage drop across each pole was
measured.
Acceptance Criteria: Total DC resistance of pole should be 0.139 at 750 C
Test Results
Measurement results are indicated below:
Measured value of total DC resistance of pole - 0.132
Total DC resistance of pole as per approved data sheet - 0.139 at 750 C
5.2.6 High Voltage Test
High voltage was applied between rotor coil and rotor body as follows:
Test voltage : 3050 V A C Duration : 1 minute
Acceptance Criteria
Rotor should withstand 3050V A C test voltage for 1 minute.
Test Result
Test voltage was successfully withstood by rotor.
5.2.7 Measurement of IR Value
IR resistance was measured before and after the high voltage test of rotor.
878
Acceptance Criteria
IR value of rotor should be more than 50 M .
Test Result
IR value of rotor was more than 50 M .
6. TES TS FOR GENERATOR ACCESSORIES
6.1.1 Hydraulic Test for Air Coolers: Hydrau lic tests were performed on all generator coolers applying test
pressure as 1.47 MPa for 10 minutes. No leakage was found.
6.1.2 Tests during Installati on of Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearing pads were checked for free movement by pushing them slightly and elevation of LBB was also
checked as per requirements. Lower shaft in LBB was tightened to thrust runner with bolts with specified torque
(148-201 kg-m).
Difference of distance measured fro m reference portion of LB supports to outside of shaft was kept < 0.05mm.
6.1.3 Pressure Test for Deli very Pi pe
After bleeding air in pipes connecting high pressure oil equipment and thrust bearing and tightening the flanges,
pressure test was performed on delivery p iping applying oil at 20.6 MPa (210 kg/cm2 ) for 10 minutes.
No leakage was found.
6.1.4 Checking/adjusting Gap between Gui de Bearing Pads & Shaft Collar/ Gui de Sleeve
Gap was measured using filler gauge and adjusted within 0.35mm to 0.37mm in lower guide bearing and
0.17mm to 0.19mm in Upper guide bearing by fastening the lockout screw.
6.1.5 Measurement of Contact Resistance Of Excitation Collector Carbon Brushes
Resistance was measured between collector ring and excitation lead. Value of resistance should be < 15 µ .
7. CHECKS/ ADJ US TMENT FOR GEN ERATOR CENTRING & ELEVATION
After centring turbine in shaft free condition (centring turbine within 0.05mm and turbine shaft verticality
within 0.02mm/ m), centre of generator was aligned with reference to turbine shaft centre by extending turbine
shaft centre using plumb and piano wire. Distance between symmetric point on stator centre and the following
components were adjusted with fo llo wing tolerances:
Item Acceptable tolerances
Inner circu mference of UBB Within 0.05mm (with respect to turbine shaft centre line)
Inner circu mference of LBB Within 0.02mm (with respect to turbine shaft centre line)
Outer circu mference of turbine shaft coupling Within 0.05mm (with respect to turbine shaft centre line)
Inner circu mference of Stator core Within 1.4 mm (with respect to turbine shaft centre line)
Magnetic axis of stator It should match with magnetic axis of rotor with in 4.0 mm
After the complet ion of centring works, stator volts were tightened by specified torque.
8. CONCLUS IONS
8.1 It is essential that necessary tests are performed on generator during assembly of its components at site
in service bay, its erection/pre-commissioning in generator barrel to ensure that generator would perform well as
per designs. These tests need to be performed by the contractor in the supervision of supplier of the equip ment
and need to be well supervised by the Project Authorities.
8.2 Stators and rotors of the first two generators have been assembled in service bay at Koldam Project site
and all necessary tests during/after assembly co mpleted successfully for. Stator and rotor of the first generator
have also been erected in generator barrel and all necessary tests during/after erection have been performed
successfully. The unit has been boxed up and is ready for commissioning. Test results for the first two units
have been documented in the form of protocols for future reference/analysis.
*****
879

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2.2. Solar Thermal or Concentrated Solar Powe r (CSP)

These systems have

Dish technology is modular and

Fig 4 : Solar dish with Sterling engine

3. Anta solar plant details

3.1. Land Details

Area for power block etc.

Fig 5: Arrangement of solar field & power block

3.2.1. Solar Map by NREL

Fig 6: DNI map of Asia from NREL

3.2.2. Solar Data from DLR, Ge rmany

yearly sums DNI_satellite (kWh/m²) Anta

Fig 7: Yearly DNI data for Anta

5. Proposed Anta solar plant details

Fig 10: Schematic sketch of an evacuated absorber tube

5.3. Oil circulation system

Fig 12: HTF/steam heat exchangers

5.6. Start up powe r

5.7. Wate r require ments

6.0 Plant capacity

Implementation of 15 MW Solar parabolic trough based thermal power plant at NTPC

· Copeland R.J. and Ullman J.(1983), Comparative Ranking of Thermal Storage

· National Renewable Energy Laboratory Report NREL/SR-550-3444, 1617

· FR / DPR of Solar Anta Project, 2009

Peter Lindenhoff, MSc & Hans Jensen-Holm, Ph.D,

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

The SCR catalyst

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

SO3 + NH3 + H2O ® NH4 HSO4

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

250 300 350 400 450

Figure 3 DeNOx activity and SO2 o xidation characteristics

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

Micro pore Meso pore Macro pore

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Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

Figure 5: Scanning electron microscopy shows a fouling layer of calcium sulphate on

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

Homoporous Pore System Tri-modal Pore System

Yangcheng Thermal Power Plant

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

Guangdong Guohua Yuedian, Taishan Thermal Power Plant

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

Fujian Huadian Kemen TPP

Taiyuan Iron and Steel Co., TISCO

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

Information contained herein is confidential; it may not be used for any

S.D. Muduli1 , B.D. Nayak2 and N. K. Dhal2

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Table – 1 (X - ray fluorescence anal ysis of raw materials)

Major components Fl y ash (wt % ) Gypsum (wt % )

Fig-1 (X- ray Diffraction study of fly ash)

Fig-2 (X- ray Diffraction study of carbonated ash)

Table-2 (Physical characteristics of substrate)

Table- (3 Di fferent growth parameters of Pl ants)

Height (cm) Girth (cm) Height (cm) Girth (cm)

Acacia mangium in garden soil Acacia mangium in carbonated ash

Dalbergia sisso in garden soil Dalbergia sisso in acti vated ash

Solar Energy: The Challenges

Nanotechnology: Solutions and Future

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