The Electron

By a Gentleman

Insulators and Conductors

Conduction
All

conduction is due to the movement

of free electrons.
Im
free

+
In a Semiconductor the electrons are
fixed until they receive a little energy

The Silicon, Si, Atom

Silicon has a valency
of 4 i.e. 4 electrons in
its outer shell
Each silicon atom
shares its 4 outer
electrons with 4
neighbouring atoms
These shared electrons
bonds are shown as
horizontal and vertical
lines between the
atoms

This picture shows

the shared electrons

Intrinsic Semiconductors

Conduction half way between a conductor

Im
and an insulator
free
Crystals of Silica

photon releases an electron that now

can carry current

Intrinsic Semiconductors

A photon releases an electron that now can

carry current

Heating Silicon
We have seen that,
in silicon, heat
releases electrons
from their bonds
This creates
electron-hole pairs
which are then
available for
conduction

Intrinsic Conduction
If more heat is
applies the process
continues
More heat
More current
Less resistance
The silicon is acting
as a thermistor
Its resistance decreases
with temperature
Slide 8

The Thermistor
Thermistors

are used to
measure temperature

They

are used to turn

devices on, or off, as
temperature changes

They

are also used in

fire-warning or frostwarning circuits

Thermistor
Symbol

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

The LDR is very similar to the

thermistor but uses light
energy instead of heat energy
When dark its resistance is
high
As light falls on it, the energy
releases electron-hole pairs
They are then free for
conduction
Thus, its resistance is
LDR
reduced

Symbol

Two semiconductor devices

1) Light dependant
resistor resistance
DECREASES when light
intensity INCREASES
Resistance

2) Thermistor
resistance
DECREASES when
temperature
INCREASES

Resistance

Amount of light

Temperature

THE VARIATION OF THE RESISTANCE OF

A THERMISTOR WITH TEMPERATURE
10C

Digital
thermometer

Water

Thermistor

Glycerol

Heat source

Method
1.Set up the apparatus as shown.
2. Use the thermometer to note the
temperature of the glycerol and thermistor.
3. Record the resistance of the thermistor
using the ohmmeter.
4. Heat the beaker.
5. For each 10 C rise in temperature, record
the resistance and the temperature using the
ohmmeter and the thermometer.
6. Plot a graph of resistance against
temperature and join the points in a smooth,
continuous curve.

Precautions
Heat

the water slowly so temperature

does not rise at end of experiment
Wait until glycerol is the same
temperature as water before taking a
reading.

Extrinsic Semiconductors

Doping is adding an element of different

valency to increase conductivity of
semiconductor

Extrinsic Semiconductors
P-type

have more holes (Add Group3)

The Boron Atom

Boron is number 5
in the periodic table

It has 5 protons and

5 electrons 3 of
these electrons are
in its outer shell

Extrinsic Semiconductors
N-type

have more electrons (Add

Group5)

The Phosphorus Atom

Phosphorus is
number 15 in the
periodic table

It has 15 protons and

15 electrons 5 of
these electrons are in
its outer shell

Extrinsic Conduction p-type silicon

A current will
flow this time
carried by positive
holes
Note:
The positive holes
move towards the
negative terminal

Junction Diode
Two

types grown on the same crystal

P-type

N-type

Junction Diode

Near the junction some electrons from the

N fill the holes in the P crystal.

P-type

N-type

Junction Diode

This creates area in the middle where

there are no carriers so no conduction

P-type

N-type

This barrier is called the

DEPLETION LAYER

Junction Diode

When the diode is in FORWARD BIAS the

depletion layer disappears. The diode
conducts.

P-type

N-type

Junction Diode

When the diode is in REVERSE BIAS the

depletion layer increases. The diode acts
as a barrier or insulator.

Ptype

Ntype

2009 Question 12 (b) [Higher Level]

A semiconductor diode is formed when small
quantities of phosphorus and boron are added to
adjacent layers of a crystal of silicon to increase
its conduction.
Explain how the presence of phosphorus and boron
makes the silicon a better conductor.
What happens at the boundary of the two
adjacent layers?
Describe what happens at the boundary when the
semiconductor diode is forward biased
Describe what happens at the boundary when the
semiconductor diode is reverse biased.
Give a use of a semiconductor diode.

Homework
2004

HL Q12(d)

The p-n Junction no potential

0.6 V

As the p-type has

gained electrons it
is left with an overall
negative charge
As the n-type has
lost electrons it is
left with an overall
positive charge
Therefore there is a voltage across the junction the junction
voltage for silicon this is approximately 0.6 V

The Reverse Biased P-N Junction

Take a p-n junction
Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type negative
n-type positive
Close the switch
The voltage sets
up an electric
field throughout
the junction

The junction is said to be reverse biased

The Reverse Biased P-N Junction

Negative electrons
in the n-type feel
an attractive force
which pulls them
away from the
depletion layer
Positive holes in
the p-type also
experience an
attractive force
which pulls them
away from the
depletion layer

Thus, the depletion layer ( INSULATOR ) is

widened and no current flows through the
p-n junction

The Forward Biased P-N Junction

Take a p-n junction
Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type postitive
n-type negative
Close the switch
The voltage sets
up an electric
field throughout
the junction

The junction is said to be

forward biased

The Forward Biased P-N Junction

Negative electrons
in the n-type feel a
repulsive force
which pushes
them into the
depletion layer
Positive holes in
the p-type also
experience a
repulsive force
which pushes them
into the depletion
layer

Therefore, the depletion layer is eliminated

and a current flows through the p-n junction

The Forward Biased P-N

Junction
At the junction
electrons fill holes
Both disappear
as they are no
longer free for
conduction
They are
replenished by the
external cell and
current flows

This continues as long as the external voltage

is greater than the junction voltage i.e. 0.6 V

The Forward Biased P-N Junction

If we apply a
higher voltage
The electrons feel
a greater force
and move faster
The current will
be greater and
will look like
this.
The p-n junction is called a DIODE
and is represented by the symbol

The arrow shows the

direction in which it
conducts current

Diode as Valve
Only

allows current in one direction

Forward Bias

Reverse Bias

LED

An LED (Light Emitting Diode) works in the same

way. We use it for pin lights.

Forward Bias

Reverse Bias

Characteristic Curve - Diode

I/A
In
reverse
Bias
No
conduction

V/v
Junction Emf (0.6V)
Must be Overcome
before Conduction starts

VARIATION OF CURRENT (I) WITH

P.D. (V)
mA
+
6V
-

Diode in
forward
bias

VARIATION OF CURRENT (I) WITH

P.D. (V)

A
+
6V
-

Diode in
Reverse
bias

Rectifier
Uses

this to turn AC to DC

Mains
Resistor

This

is called half wave rectification

Rectifier

We use a capacitor to smooth the signal to

get something more like DC

Amplification
On

16 December 1947
William Shockley, John
Bardeen and Walter
Brattain built the first
practical transistor at
Bell Labs
Despite hardly talking
to each other.

Transistors

Small changes in the input signal greatly

changes the size of the depletion layer

The current increases if the D.P. is small

3A

1A
10mA

30mA

Signal Amplification
So

small changes in input signal

create large charges in output.

Thermionic Emission
Electrons

(as named by G. Stoney)

leaving the surface of a hot metal

e-

e-

e-

e-

Hot Metal

e-

Cathode Rays (Really Electrons)

First we heat the cathode to make the

electrons jump off by Thermionic Emission
We can use a high voltage to accelerate
the electrons to form a stream
C
A
T
H
O
D
E

e-

e-

High Voltage

A
N
O
D
E

Electron Energy Units

We calculate the energy of each electron

first in electron volts. The energy gained
when an electron crosses a potential
difference of 1Volt.
Energy Gained = 1 eV
C
A
T
H
O
D
E

e-

e-

1v

A
N
O
D
E

Electron Energy

We calculate the energy of each electron

first in electron volts
Energy Gained = 2000eV

C
A
T
H
O
D
E

e-

e-

2000v

A
N
O
D
E

Electron Energy

Then we convert this to joules ( Charge on the

electron = e = 1.6x10-19 C)

Energy Gained = e.V = 1.6x10-19 . 2000

= 3.2x10-16 Joules
C
A
T
H
O
D
E

e-

e-

2000v

A
N
O
D
E

Electron Velocity

All the energy on an electron must be kinetic

energy.

Energy Gained = 3.2x10-16 = 0.5mv2

electron mass = 9.1 10-31 kg

C
A
T
H
O
D
E

e-

e-

2000v

A
N
O
D
E

Electron Velocity
Energy Gained = 3.2x10-16 = 0.5mv2
electron mass = 9.1 10-31 kg

3.2x10-16 = 0.5 (9.1 10-31) v2

V2=7x1015
V= 2.6x107 m/s
C
A
T
H
O
D
E

e-

e-

2000v

A
N
O
D
E

CRT and Demo

2003 Question 9
List two properties of the electron.
Name the Irishman who gave the electron
its name in the nineteenth century.
Give an expression for the force acting on
a charge q moving at a velocity v at right
angles to a magnetic field of flux density B.
An electron is emitted from the cathode
and accelerated through a potential
difference of 4kV in a cathode ray tube
(CRT) as shown in the diagram.
How much energy does the electron gain?

What is the speed of the electron at the anode?

(Assume that the speed of the electron leaving
the cathode is negligible.)
After leaving the anode, the electron travels at a
constant speed and enters a magnetic field at
right angles, where it is deflected. The flux
density of the magnetic field is 5 102 T.
Calculate the force acting on the electron.
Calculate the radius of the circular path followed
by the electron, in the magnetic field.
What happens to the energy of the electron when
it hits the screen of the CRT?
mass of electron = 9.1 1031 kg; charge on
electron = 1.6 1019 C

H/W
2005

OL Q10

High Tension
Voltage

X-Rays

Electrons jump
from the
surface of a hot
metal

Thermionic
Emission

Accelerated by high voltage they smash into

tungsten
Most of the electron energy is lost as heat.-about
90%
X-rays very penetrating, fog film, not effected by
fields.

Photons
Bohr

first suggested a model for the

atom based on many orbits at
different energy levels

E2

E1

Photons
If

the electron in E1 is excited it

can only jump to E2.

E2

E1

Photons
Then

the electron falls back. The

gap is fixed so the energy it gives
out is always the same

A small amount
of energy in the
form of an e-m
wave is produced

E1
E2

Photons

So Max Planck said all energy must come in

these packets called photons.
He came up with a formula for the
frequency

E2 E1 = h.f
E2

E1

Where f=frequency
h= Plancks constant

Internet demo

2006 Question 12 (d) [Higher Level]

The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded in
1901 for the discovery of X-rays.
What are X-rays?
Who discovered them?
In an X-ray tube electrons are emitted from a
metal cathode and accelerated across the tube to
hit a metal anode.
How are the electrons emitted from the cathode?
How are the electrons accelerated?
Calculate the kinetic energy gained by an electron
when it is accelerated through a potential
difference of 50 kV in an X-ray tube.
Calculate the minimum wavelength of an X-ray
emitted from the anode.

H/W
HL

2010 Q9

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Now show them the spectra of different lights using linear

disperser

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Demo Light Emission

Albert Einstein

Uncle

Albert was already a published

scientist but the relativity stuff had
not set the world alight.
He set his career in real motion when
he solved a problem and started the
science of Quantum Mechanics that
the old world Jew in him could never
come to terms with.

The Problem

If

you shine light on the surface of

metals electrons jump off
e
e
e

Polished Sodium Metal

Electrons emitted
This is The PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT

A charged Zinc plate

is attached to an
Electroscope

When a U.V. lamp is

shone on the plate
the leaf collapses as
all the electrons
leave the surface of
the zinc

We can also prove this with the

experiment below

Vary intensity by moving lamp

back and forth

The Photoelectric Effect

The more intensity you gave it the
more electrical current was
produced
Light
Intensity
(# of
photons)
Current
(# of electrons)

Use of photocell
Light

meter
Burglar alarms

The Photoelectric Effect

However something strange happened
when you looked at frequency
Electron
Energy
Newtonian Physics
could not explain this
Frequency of
light

So we define the Photoelectric effect as:-

Electrons being ejected from the surface of a

metal by incident e-m radiation of a suitable
frequency.
Albert used Plancks theory that as energy came in
packets each packet gives energy to 1 electron only
A small packet would not give the electron enough
energy to leave
Low frequency light had too small a parcel of energy
to get the electron free.
Energy of each
photon = h.f

Electron
Energy

Einsteins Law

f0=Threshold
Frequency

Frequency of
light

Energy of incident photon =

h.f = h. f0+ KE of electron
Work Function,
Energy to release Electron

Energy
left over
turned
into
velocity

Einstein's Explanation

Waves come in packets called photons

Energy of a photon only depends on its
frequency
One photon gives all its energy to one
electron
If the energy is greater than the work
function the electron escapes
Incident Photon must be above a threshold
frequency

2004 Question 9 [Higher Level]

Distinguish between photoelectric emission and thermionic
emission.
A freshly cleaned piece of zinc metal is placed on the cap of
a negatively charged gold leaf electroscope and illuminated
with ultraviolet radiation.
Explain why the leaves of the electroscope collapse.
Explain why the leaves do not collapse when the zinc is
covered by a piece of ordinary glass.
Explain why the leaves do not collapse when the zinc is
illuminated with green light.
Explain why the leaves do not collapse when the electroscope
is charged positively.
The zinc metal is illuminated with ultraviolet light of
wavelength 240 nm. The work function of zinc is 4.3 eV.
Calculate the threshold frequency of zinc.
Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of an emitted
electron.

H/W
2003

HL Q 9
2005 HL 12(d)

Lets do Homework oh goody

2004

HL Q12(d)
2005 OL Q10
2010 HL Q9