Two Decades of Fuzzy Topology

Uspekhi Mat.
Nauk 44:6 (1989), 99-147
Russian Math. Surveys 44:6(1989), 125-186
Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas,

notions, and results
A.P. Shostak
CONTENTS
Introduction
0.
Preliminaries: fuzzy sets
1.
Fuzzy topological spaces: the basic categories of fuzzy topology
2.
Fundamental interrelations between the category Top of topological
spaces and the categories of fuzzy topology
3.
Local structure of fuzzy topological spaces
4.
Convergence structures in fuzzy spaces
5.
Separation in fuzzy spaces
6.
Normality and complete regularity type properties in fuzzy topology
7.
Compactness in fuzzy topology
8.
Connectedness in fuzzy spaces
9.
Fuzzy metric spaces and metrization of fuzzy spaces
10.
The fuzzy real line 3~ (R) and its subspaces
11.
Fuzzy modification of a linearly ordered space
12.
Fuzzy probabilistic modification of a topological space
13.
The interval fuzzy real line
14.
On hyperspaces of fuzzy sets
15.
Another view of the subject of fuzzy topology and certain categorical
aspects of it
Conclusion: some reflections on the role and significance of fuzzy topology
References
125
127
135
138
140
143
146
149
157
158
161
164
165
168
169
170
176
177
Introduction
The notion of a fuzzy set, introduced by Zadeh [169] in 1965, has
caused great interest among both 'pure' and applied mathematicians. It has
also raised enthusiasm among some engineers, biologists, psychologists,
economists, and experts in other areas, who use (or at least try to use)
mathematical ideas and methods in their research. We shall neither dwell
upon the clarification of the reasons for such a considerable and diversified
interest in this notion nor discuss its place and role in mathematics as a
wholethe reader will possibly find an answer to these and other similar
questions after consulting the monographs [ 1 ] , [69], [114], and others.
126
A.P. Shostak
We are much more modest and concrete in our purpose, which is to present
the basic concepts of fuzzy topology, the branch of mathematics which has
resulted from a synthesis of the subject of general topology with ideas,
notions, and methods of fuzzy set theory.
General topology was one of the first branches of pure mathematics to
which fuzzy sets have been applied systematically. It was in 1968, that is,
three years after Zadeh's paper had appeared, that Chang [16] made the
first "grafting" of the notion of a fuzzy set onto general topology. He
introduced the notion that we call a Chang fuzzy space (1.1) and made an
attempt to develop basic topological notions for such spaces. This paper was
followed by others in which Chang fuzzy spaces and other topological type
structures for fuzzy set systems were considered. Since the early eighties,
the intensity of research in the area of fuzzy topology has increased sharply,
and at present there are some six hundred publications in this area.
In the present work we shall try to make the reader familiar with the
basic ideas and categories of fuzzy topology, to present more or less
systematically the basic notions, constructions, and results in this area, and
to discuss the directions in which it is developing. We must state explicitly
that our survey does not pretend to completeness. In particular, we shall
only very briefly touch on such topics as fuzzy uniform structures [55],
[6], [128], [173], [95], [8], fuzzy proximity structures [64], [65], [6],
[8], [178], cardinal invariants of fuzzy spaces and their fuzzy subsets [155],
[179], fuzzy topologies on groups and other algebraic objects [33], [113],
[68], [66], and topics in fuzzy topological dynamics [81], [129].
Let us outline briefly the contents of our work. In 0 we present the
minimal amount of information on fuzzy sets needed for reading the main
body of the work. In 1 various approaches to the definition of a fuzzy
space (and, accordingly, to the subject of fuzzy topology) are discussed and
compared, the principal categories of fuzzy topology are considered, and a
unified terminology is established. 2 is devoted to clarifying the fundamental
interrelations between the categories of fuzzy topology and the category of
topological spaces. Let us stress that the clarification of interrelations of
such kind has both a technical interest and a fundamental (and even
philosophical) importance for fuzzy topology. In 3 the notion of a fuzzy
point is considered and the local structure of a fuzzy space is discussed. Let
us note that the problem of finding an adequate analogue of a point in a
fuzzy situation and the related problem of local study of fuzzy spaces have
become a stumbling block for a number of authors. In 4 convergence
structures in fuzzy spaces are studied. We draw the reader's attention to
subsection 4.5, where the so-called fuzzy neighbourhood spaces are
consideredan essentially fuzzy phenomenon having no analogue in general
topology and defined by means of filters.
In 5 - 9 the most important topological properties for fuzzy spaces are
considered. In 5 various approaches to the definition of the Hausdorff
Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results
127
property for fuzzy spaces are discussed (see also 15.6). We think that this
discussion is important not so much because it surveys various definitions of
the Hausdorff property in fuzzy topology as because this simplest example
demonstrates an inevitable branching process of ordinary topological notions
under their extension to the categories of fuzzy topology. In 6 properties
similar to normality and complete regularity are considered for fuzzy spaces.
Assertions on maps from such spaces to the fuzzy interval, the fuzzy real
line (10), and other 'standard' fuzzy spaces deserve the most attention.
7 is devoted to a rather detailed discussion of a most important topological
property, that of compactness, as well as to the compactification problem
for fuzzy spaces. (We shall return to the problem of compactness and
compactifications in subsection 15.7, where we shall look at it from another
point of view.) Properties similar to connectedness for fuzzy spaces are
considered in 8. Finally, in 9 we shall discuss various approaches to the
notions of a metric and metrizability in a fuzzy situation. Fuzzy stratifiable
spacesa property similar to generalized metizabilityare also considered
there.
In 10-14 constructions belonging, in the opinion of a number of
authors, to the "gold reserve" of fuzzy topology are discussedthese include
the fuzzy interval and the fuzzy real line (10), fuzzy modification of a
linearly ordered space (11), Klein modification of a connected space (11),
fuzzy probability modification of a topological space (12), the interval real
line (13), and the construction of hyperspaces of fuzzy subsets of a
uniform space (14).
In 15, which occupies a particular place in the survey, another (at a
stretch, more general) view of the subject and objectives of fuzzy topology
is presented. A wide use of category topology helps us very much in
presenting this point of view. In this section we shall take a fresh look at a
number of questions considered earlier. At the end of the work there is a
conclusion, whose purpose is explained by its title.
0. Preliminaries: fuzzy sets
(0.1) Fuzzy sets.
Let X be a set. Following Zadeh [169] we define a fuzzy (sub)set of X as
a map : X -* I: = [0, 1 ] . In this connection M(x) is interpreted as the
degree of membership of a point in a fuzzy set M, while an ordinary
subset A C X is identified with its characteristic function A %A:
X_> {0, 1} = : 2.
(0.2) ,-fuzzy sets.
Having noticed that many properties of an interval prove to be inessential if
not burdensome for one working with fuzzy sets, Goguen [41] introduced
the notion of an L-fuzzy set, where L is an arbitrary lattice with both a
minimal and a maximal element, 0 and 1 respectively. An L-fuzzy (sub)set
128
A.P. Shostak
of X is a map M.X^-L.
In particular, an I-fuzzy set in X is a "classical"
fuzzy set in X (0.1) and a 2-fuzzy set in X is an ordinary subset of it. We
denote by Lx the totality of all Z-fuzzy subsets of a set X.
(0.3) Fuzzy lattices.
Although the definition of an Z-fuzzy set makes sense for an arbitrary
lattice L, fuzzy topologists restrict themselves, as a rule, to the use of the
so-called fuzzy lattices. Following Hutton [56], we define a fuzzy lattice as
a complete completely distributive lactice with a minimal element 0 and a
c
maximal element 1, on which an order-reversing involution a -* a is fixed
c
c
(that is, a < b, a, b G L = b < a ). (For those lattice theory notions not
defined here see, for example, [12]). In particular, having introduced an
involution on the lattices / and 2 by the rule a - ac : = 1 a and having
endowed them with the natural order, one may consider them as fuzzy
lattices. In what follows L always stands for a fuzzy lattice.
(0.4) Orthocomplemented lattices.
In some respects there is most resemblance between the lattice 2 and the
so-called orthocomplemented lattices: an involution a -* ac on is called
an orthocomplementation if a \J ac = 1 and a /\ ac 0 for every a G Z.
An important example of an orthocomplemented lattice is the lattice 2Z of
all subsets of a set naturally ordered by inclusion and endowed with an
involution A -* Ac: = Z\A.
(0.5) Operations on fuzzy sets.
Let ' {At: i ")} d Lx be a family of L-fuzzy sets in X. By the union
and the intersection of this family we mean respectively its supremum
\J J: = V {Ar- i e .7} and infimum /\ Jr. = /\ {.4,-: i < 2}. The
complement Ac of an ,-fuzzy set A is defined by the rule Ac{x): = G4(x))c,
x I If /7 is an ,-fuzzy subset of a set Xy for each G , then we
define the product of these fuzzy sets as the ,-fuzzy subset of the set
X = EUv defined by () = / (*) (see [ 169], [41 ]). It is easy to
verify that for L = 2 these operations reduce to the ordinary set-theoretic

operations of union, intersection, complement, and product, and that the
behaviour of the operations just introduced is completely analogous to that
of the corresponding set-theoretic operations. For example, the de Morgan
law (\/ Aif = /\ ACj can be stated easily, and so on [ 169], [41 ]. If is an
i
orthocomplemented lattice, then clearly the complementation in Lx is an

orthocomplementation as well: A \' Ac = 1, A /\ Ac 0.
(Along with the definitions of basic operations on fuzzy sets presented
above, there are other definitions of these operations occuring in "fuzzy
mathematics" and especially in its applications. For example, the intersection
and the union of fuzzy sets A, B G Ix are given respectively by and
min{^4 + , 1}, and so on. The reader may become acquainted with various
approaches to the definition of operations on Z-fuzzy sets, including
129
axiomatic ones, by means of the papers [18], [78], [79]; see also [1],
[69], [114]. In the present survey, as usual in fuzzy topology, operations
on Z-fuzzy sets are always understood in the sense of the definition at the
beginning of this subsection.)
(0.6) Images and inverse images of fuzzy sets.
Let , be sets and let / : X -* be a map. The image f(A) G LY of a
fuzzy set < Lx is defined by f (A )(y) = sup { (): e 1 (y)} i f / - 1 ( }')
and f(A)(y) = 0 otherwise; the inverse image f'l(B)
G Lx of a fuzzy set
Y
-1
L is defined by / ( S ) ( x ) = Bf(x). Properties of images and inverse
images of fuzzy sets are completely analogous to properties of images and
inverse images of ordinary sets. For example, f1 (V#i) = V 7 /" 1 (#;), and
i
so on (see [ 169], [41], [ 161], and others).

If / : X - is a map, then by letting f(A): f(A) for each A G L ^ w e
obtain a map f:Lx->-LY
(this is the so-called Zadeh extension principle
[169]).
(0.7) Inclusion relation for -fuzzy sets.
For Z-fuzzy subsets A and the inequality A < is treated as the statement
"A is a subset of an L-fuzzy set B" [169], [41].
(0.8) Fuzzy inclusion relation for L-fuzzy sets.
Along with the relation < on Lx Lx we shall need the fuzzy inclusion
relation cz: LK Lx L,defined by A CZ B: = inf (Ac \J B){x) (see [22],
X
[24]). It is evident that for ordinary subsets A and of a set X, ii A C

then 4 c S = 1, and A CZ = 0 otherwise.
There is a definite parallel between the properties of the ordinary
inclusion CZ and the corresponding properties of the fuzzy inclusion C .
This parallel manifests itself in the correspondence of the implication
"if ... then" to the inequality " < " . For instance, to the statement "if A C 5
and A C C then A C C" {A, B, C C X) there corresponds the inequality
"(-4 T ) 0 4 (Z C ) < C S C" (, 5, C G L x ) ; to the statement
"if A CB then /G4) C / ( ) " (A 5 C X, / : X - 7) there corresponds the
inequality "(.4 c B) < (/ (^4)C / (.))" W, 5 C I 1 ; / : X -> 7), and so
forth. However, there are some deviations from this rule. For example, the
"transitivity inequality" (A CZ B) /\ (B cz C) ^. C in general is not
valid. For more on the properties of fuzzy inclusion see [22], [141], [150].
(0.9) Fuzzy cardinals.
We define a fuzzy cardinal [155] as a non-increasing map of the form
: > I, where is the class of all (ordinary) cardinals, such that
y. (0) = 1 and () = 0 for some a G I In [155] fuzzy cardinal arithmetic
is developed, which is in a sense similar to the ordinary cardinal arithmetic.
The cardinality of a fuzzy set Ix is a fuzzy cardinal defined by
- () = sup {t: | 1 (t, i] | > a}, where a G i
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A.P. Shostak
1.
Fuzzy topological spaces: the basic categories of fuzzy topology
1.1. Fuzzy topological spaces: Chang's approach.
As we noted earlier, the first definition of a fuzzy topological space is due

to Chang [16]. According to Chang, a fuzzy topological space is a pair
(, ), where X is a set and is a fuzzy topology on it, that is, a family of
fuzzy subsets ( C Ix) satisfying the following three axioms:
(1)0,1 e x ;
(2) if U, F G T, then U V GZ ;
(3) if /j for every i G J, then \[Ut e .
7
A map / : X -* between fuzzy topological spaces (, ) and (, ) is

said to be continuous if f~\V) G for each V G .
Fuzzy topological spaces and continuous mappings form a category which
we denote by CFT and call the category of [Chang] fuzzy [topological]
spaces. (Hereafter we put in square brackets those words to be omitted in
the sequel if no ambiguity arises.)
A fuzzy subset A of a fuzzy space (X, r) is called closed if Ac G r. We
denote by TC the totality of all closed subsets of a space (, r). One verifies
easily that ( l c ) 0, 1 G r c ; (2C) if A, G TC, then A\J Grc; (3e) if_
At G TC for all i G Cf, then /\At G TC. The smallest closed fuzzy set
i
containing (0.7) a fuzzy set G Ix is called the closure of M, and the

largest open (that is, belonging to r) fuzzy set Int contained in is called
the interior of M. The basic properties of the closure and interior operations
in fuzzy spaces bear a complete analogy to the corresponding properties of
the closure and interior in topological spaces. For example,
= /\{: , > }; \J = \J ;
/\^,\,
= for every , G I (see, for example [ 161 ]; cf. [29]).

Quite naturally one introduces also the notions of a base and a subbase of
a fuzzy topology, an open and a closed map, a homeomorphism, and so on.
1.2. L-fuzzy topological spaces; Goguen's approach.
Generalizing Chang's approach, Goguen [41] introduces the notion of an
,-fuzzy topological space. Let L be an arbitrary (fixed) fuzzy lattice (0.3).
We define a [Chang] L-fuzzy [topological] space as a pair (, ), where X is
a set and is an L-fuzzy topology on it, that is, a family of ,-fuzzy subsets
X
(T C L ) satisfying the axioms (l)-(3) from the preceding subsection.
,-fuzzy spaces and their continuous maps (where the continuity is understood
precisely as in 1.1) form a category CFT(L). Clearly, CFT{I) is just the
category CFT, and CFT{2) is (up to an evident isomorphism) the category
Top of topological spaces.
All that we said on fuzzy spaces in 1.1 remains valid for ,-fuzzy spaces.
131
1.3. Laminated fuzzy topological spaces: Lowen's approach.

In 1976 Lowen [88] proposed a new notion of a fuzzy topological space
which differs from Chang's definition (1.1) in that instead of the axiom (1)
the following sharper axiom is used:
(1 ) contains all the constants c /.
In what follows we shall refer to such spaces as laminated [Chang] fuzzy
[topological] spaces. The category of laminated fuzzy spaces and their
continuous maps (where Lowen continuity is understood precisely as in 1.1)
is denoted by LCFT.
An essential feature of laminated fuzzy spaces is that, as is easily verified,
the constant maps of such spaces are a priori continuous (that is, they are
morphisms in LCFT) [88]. We note also that there is a continuum of
different Chang fuzzy topologies on a one-point set *, while there is only
one laminated fuzzy topology (r = / * ) . From here Lowen and Wuyts [105]
deduce that LCFT, unlike CFT, is a topological category in the sense of
Herrlich [47].
Noting this and a number of other important advantages of laminated
fuzzy spaces (see, for example, 1.6, 6.1, and so on), Lowen recommends
that we persistently restrict ourselves to the study of such fuzzy spaces
[88]-[105].
It is natural to call a Chang L-fuzzy space laminated if its -fuzzy
topology contains all constants c S L. (Such spaces occur, for example, in
[97], [125], [128], and others.)
It is easily verified that LCFT{2) CFT{2) and up to an isomorphism it
is the category Top of topological spaces.
1.4. Fuzzy topological spaces.
A certain disadvantage of all the approaches considered above is some
inconsistency in the use of the idea of fuzziness. In each of these approaches
a fuzzy topology is an ordinary subset of the family of all fuzzy (or Z,-fuzzy)
subsets of a given set X. In [146] another, more consistent approach to the
use of ideas of "fuzzy mathematics" in general topology has been developed.
According to [ 146] a fuzzy topological space is a pair (X, gf), where X is a
set and %f: Ix * I is a map (that is, a fuzzy subset of a set Lx) satisfying
the following axioms:
(1) $ (0) = g (1) = 1;
(2) JT (U V) > W (U) A f (V) for any U, V <= Ix;
(3) W ( V Ut) > f\S~ (Ut) for every family {Ut: i e J } C Ix.
i
In this connection the inequality f (U) > , where a G (0, 1 ], is treated as

the statement "the degree of openness of a fuzzy set U is not less than a",
and the inequality ^ (Uc) > a as the statement "the degree of closedness of
a fuzzy set U is not less than a".
A map f:X^-Y
between fuzzy spaces (X, 3~x) and (Y, 3~Y) is called
continuous if If (f~l (V)) > STY (V) for each V / y . Loosely speaking,
132
A.P. Shostak
one regards as continuous those maps that do not reduce the degree of
openness of fuzzy sets under transition to the inverse image.
We denote the category of fuzzy spaces and continuous maps by FT.
A map f:X-+Y
between fuzzy spaces (X, Sf _Y) and (Y, SfY) is said to be
a homeomorphism if / i s a bijection and both / a n d / " 1 are continuous.
A map / is said to be closed (open) if Sf (Uc) < Sf (}UC) (respectively
x
& (U)< Sf (fU)) for every U G I .

We call a fuzzy space (X, Sf) laminated if (1') Sf (c) = 1 for every
constant c G / (compare the definition in 1.3).
Clearly, constant maps of laminated spaces are continuous. We denote by
LFT the full subcategory in FT formed by laminated fuzzy spaces.
By substituting an arbitrary fuzzy lattice L for an interval / in the
definition of a (laminated) fuzzy space we arrive at the definition of a
(laminated) L-fuzzy space. We denote the resulting category by FT(L)
(respectively, LFT(L)).
1.5. Certain interconnections between the categories CFT(L) and FT(L).
By identifying, as usual, subsets of a given set with the corresponding
characteristic functions one can consider CFT(L) as a full subcategory of
FT(L). In this connection a fuzzy space (X, Si) (1.4) is evidently a Chang
one (1.1), that is, it lies in CFT(L) if and only if a fuzzy topology Sf in
addition to the axioms (l)-(3) satisfies the follo'wing:
(4) Sf (Lx) C 2 = {0,1}.
On the other hand, if (X, Sf) is an arbitrary L-fuzzy space and
e L + : = L \ {0}, then Sf a- = {U Lx': Sf (U) > a} is a Chang L-fuzzy
topology on X (the so-called -level Chang L-fuzzy topology of the given
fuzzy topology Sf). In addition, Sfca: = {U Lx: Sf (Uc) > a} is precisely
the family of all closed ,-fuzzy subsets of the Chang space (X. Sfa) These
observations enable us to reduce the study of certain properties of a fuzzy
topology Sf (1.4) to the study of much simpler objects, the corresponding
-level Chang fuzzy topologies Sfa- In particular, the continuity of a map
x
Y
/: (X, Sf ) -* (Y, Sf ) is easily verified to be equivalent to the continuity of
+
the maps /: (X, &i)-+ (Y, Sfl) for all a G L [146], [152].
Clearly, LCFT(L) = CFT(L) LFT(L). The categories LCFT(L), CFT(L),
and LFT(L) are coreflexive in FT(L) [138].
1.6. Initial L-fuzzy topologies and the product of L-fuzzy spaces [146],
[152].
Let : = {Sfy: } be a family of L-fuzzy topologies on a set X
(hereafter in this subsection we use the terminology from 1.4). The weakest
among all L-fuzzy topologies on X majorizing (in the > sense) every $~y we
denote by sup Sfy and call it the supremum of that family. It is easy to see
that every non-empty family of L-fuzzy topologies has a supremum and that
133
if all JJVs are Chang (laminated) topologies, then sup ify is a Chang
v
(laminated) topology as well.
r
Let I b e a set, (} , ) an Z-fuzzy space, and /: X -* (Y, ) a map. We
call the weakest Z-fuzzy topology $~: = f'1 ($) on X making/ continuous
the initial Z-fuzzy topology for /. One can show that for a map
/: X -+ (Y, S) the initial ,-fuzzy topology is determined by the formula
+
0- (U) = V [SO. ) : e L }, where

U e L*, fa: = {1 (): V , 8 (V) > a}.
The weakest Z-fuzzy topology on X making continuous all the maps
fy: X > (Yy, y), y r , we call the initial one for that family of maps. It
is easily shown that the initial topology for a family {/Y: y } is determined
as sup Z"1 (Y). If in addition all SY's are Chang (laminated) Z-fuzzy topologies,
then the initial topology sup f'1 (y) is Chang (laminated) as well.
y
Let {{Xy, 3~y): } be a family of Z-fuzzy spaces. The product of this

family is the pair (X, if), where X = Xy is a set product and 3~ is an
,-fuzzy topology on X which is initial for the family of all projections

/V X - (Xy, c5"Y), . It is easy to verify that the operation so defined
is indeed a product in FT. If in addition all (Xy, J"Y)'s are Chang (laminated)
spaces, then so is their product.
It should be stressed that in contrast to the situation in general topology
the projection maps of products of fuzzy spaces (including Chang ones) need
not be open. Another feature of the products of fuzzy spaces is that a
"fibre" XYo {: 0 } in a product 1|\ of fuzzy spaces is not,
generally speaking, homeomorphic to the space Xy<t. A necessary condition

for projections to be open and, as a consequence, for fibres to be
homeomorphic to the corresponding coordinate spaces, is that all the factors
are laminated. (In this sense both LFT(L) and LCFT(L) are "more
topological" categories than FT(L) and CFT(L)\ (cf. 1.3).)
(For Chang Z-fuzzy spaces the product was first introduced by Goguen
[42] and studied in detail in [89] and [118].)
Dually, the final Z-fuzzy topology and the coproduct, or the direct sum
of/--fuzzy spaces, are introduced ([146] ; for Chang spaces [89]).
1.7. Subspaces of ,-fuzzy spaces.
The simplest and at the same time a very important operation of general
topology is transition to a subspace. In considering a similar problem for
/--fuzzy spaces, two different approaches are possible: an (L-fuzzy) subspace
of an Z-fuzzy space (X, if) based on an ordinary crisp set A C X and
an (L-fuzzy) subspace of an Z-fuzzy space (A", if) based on an L-fuzzy set
. In the case of the first approach (which is by the way the only
possible one from the category point of view) the problem causes no
trouble: it is natural to mean by a subspace any pair (A, if A), where
134
A.P.Shostak
3 A: LA L is a fuzzy topology on A defined by
= sup {<r (y): v = /*, y

(It is clear that if gf is a Chang (laminated) topology, then so is S~A.) For
the second approach the problem has no reasonable solution within the
categories considered; we shall return to it in subsection 15.5 after
developing another point of view of the subject of fuzzy topology.
1.8. On the notion of continuity defect in fuzzy topology.
In the vast majority of works on fuzzy topology the authors start from the
fact that by analogy with general topology all maps between fuzzy spaces
are divided into two classes: continuous maps, or morphisms in the
corresponding category, and discontinuous ones. However, sucii a "crisp"
classification of fuzzy spaces, based on two-valued logic, does not always
seem natural in the context of fuzzy topology. In [174] another view of
this problem is suggested, based on the notion of continuity defect of maps.
We now present the basic ideas of that approach, restricting ourselves to the
case of Chang fuzzy spaces (1.1).
Let (, ), (, ) be Chang fuzzy spaces. We define the continuity
defect of a map f:X-*
as the number
cd(/) = sup sup (tHV)V
())().
It is easy to show that

cd (/) *= sup sup ( 1 (B) - f1 ())(*) = sup sup (f(M)-f
X
(M))(y).
Clearly, the condition cd(/) = 0 means precisely the continuity of/. If

, are topological spaces and the map / is discontinuous, then cd(/) = 1.
In the case of arbitrary fuzzy spaces , the continuity defect may be any
number G /; its value characterizes to what extent the given map differs
from a continuous one.
For illustrative purposes let us present the following assertions.
The continuity defect of a composition of two maps does not exceed the
sum of the defects of those maps. The continuity defect of the diagonal of
a family of maps is equal to the supremum of the continuity defects of
these maps [174].
By analogy with the continuity defect one may define also the defects of
other properties of maps between fuzzy spaces, which enables us to view
certain aspects of fuzzy topology as a whole in a different light.
1.9. Some features of the presentation of the material in
The diversity of the original categories of fuzzy topology
also 15) makes a unified presentation and perception of
results of this field more difficult. Therefore let us agree
the survey.
(see 1.1-1.4, and
ideas, notions, and
to the following.
135
Taking into account that most works in the area of fuzzy topology are
based on Chang's definition (1.1) and that the presentation of the theory for
Chang spaces is essentially easier than for fuzzy spaces in the sense of 1.4
and for L-fuzzy spaces (1.2), in the sequel we shall speak as a rule of Chang
fuzzy spaces only and the term "fuzzy [topological] space" will be
understood in the sense of 1.1.
We refer to the category LCFT only if it is actually necessary. If
constructions and results in a cited paper are presented for laminated spaces
but are easily transferrable to the case of arbitrary Chang spaces, then we
present them in such a situation without any reservations. We believe that
under such a presentation, on one hand the role of the laminatedness
condition, and on the other hand those "topological opportunities" afforded
by the non-topological [47] category CFT, will be apparent.
Let us remark that many results that are true for CFT can be extended in
one form or another to CFT(L), sometimes for an arbitrary fuzzy lattice L,
but more often for those fuzzy lattices meeting certain additional assumptions,
of which the most common are separability, linearity of ordering on L, and
the presence of orthocomplementation in L. In the present work we refer
to CFT(L) occasionally and for illustrative purposes only.
On the other hand, let us recall (1.5) that the study of the category FT
can often be reduced to the study of Chang spaces by transition to -levels,
a S ( 0 , 1].
2. Fundamental interrelations between the category Top of topological
spaces and the categories of fuzzy topology
Everyone working in the area of fuzzy topology has to answer (at least,
for himself) the following two closely connected fundamental questions.
(1) By virtue of which functors from the category Top to the categories
of fuzzy topology are the most important and essential interrelations
between them established?
(2) What should be regarded as analogues of objects of the category Top
in the categories of fuzzy topology?
We shall consider here the simplest functors (correspondences) of this
kind; certain specific more complicated constructions are described in
10-14.
2.1.
Top as a subcategory of CFT:
the natural inclusion functor
e.Top^ CFT.
Identifying, as usual, subsets of a given set with the corresponding
characteristic functions, we can treat a topological space (X, T) as an object
of CFT. In this way an inclusion functor e : Top -* CFT arises, which
identifies Top with the full subcategory of CFT whose objects are just those
fuzzy spaces (X, r) satisfying the condition r C 2X.
136
A.P. Shostak
2.2. Embedding Top into LCFT: the functor : Top -* LCFT.

Following Lowen [88] we associate with any topological space (X, T) the
laminated fuzzy space (, ), where is the totality of all lower
semicontinuous maps of (X, T) to the interval /. It can easily be verified
that the continuity of a map / : (X, Tx) -* (Y, TY) implies the continuity of
the map / : (, ) -> (, ). Thus, can be viewed as a functor
: Top - LCFT mapping Top isomorphically onto a full subcategory of
LCFT. Lowen restricts himself to laminated fuzzy spaces and suggests that
the space : = (, ) should be considered as the fuzzy copy of a
topological space X (see [88] -[105] and others).
A fuzzy space (X, r) whose fuzzy topology is of the form = for an
ordinary topology on X is called topologically generated [88] or induced
[164].
Let P be a topological property and $> the extension of that property to
the category of fuzzy topological spaces. Lowen [90] calls an extension 3
good if any topologically generated fuzzy space (, ) possesses the
property if and only if the corresponding topological space (X, T)
possesses the property 5J- The significance of the notion of a good
extension is that it enables us to distinguish among a large number of
possible (and rather natural) extensions of a property p to CFT some of the
(in a sense) most successful ones.
2.2. Laminated modification of a fuzzy space.
In [152] the functor was extended to the so-called laminated modification
functor : FT -* LFT. In particular, if (, ) is a Chang fuzzy space, then
\x : = (, ), where is the weakest laminated fuzzy topology on X
majorizing . It is easy to show that results from closing the family
: = !J {c : c EE 1} with respect to finite intersections and arbitrary unions.
(In other words, is a subbase [35] of the fuzzy topology r.) It is not
difficult to note that the restriction of the functor to Top coincides with
the functor . The functor commutes with a product: ( ) = (-'
\
for an arbitrary family of fuzzy spaces {Xy: }.

The use of laminated modification often proves helpful in verifying
various statements of fuzzy topology (see, for example, 8.1).
2.3. The functor / : CFT - Top and weakly induced fuzzy spaces.
Let (, ) be a fuzzy space. As is easy to note, /(T) : = 2 is an
ordinary topology, moreover, it is the maximal among all topologies
contained in r. Since evidently the continuity of a map / : (, ) -* (, )
guarantees the continuity of the map / : (X, JTX) -* {, }), we can regard /
as a functor / : CFT -* Top.
Martin [111] distinguishes an important class of fuzzy spaces by means of
the functor /; a fuzzy space (X, r) is called weakly induced if for all U
137
the maps U: (X, /) -> / are lower semicontinuous. A space (A', r) is weakly
induced if and only if = /, where is the functor from 2.5.
A fuzzy space is topologically generated (2.2) if and only if it is both
laminated and weakly induced [111].
2.4. Fuzzy extensions of a topology to a family of fuzzy spaces: the
functor : Top -* FT.
Let us present here an example of a functor which, unlike those considered
above, performs an embedding of the category Top into the category
FT rather than the category CFT. A functor of this kind was first described
by Diskin [22]. We present here the construction of a similar functor from
[146].
Let (, ) be a topological space; putting $ (M) = C Into, (0.8)
for each G Ix, where Into, M: = V {u- u < M, U ) (that is,
\ntj\i is the interior of in ), we get a map : = if: Ix > /, which is
a fuzzy topology (1.4) on X. In addition, if a map / : (X, Tx) -> (Y, TY) is
continuous, then the m a p / : (, ) -> (, r\TY) is continuous as well.
The functor : Top -> FT arising in this way maps Top isomorphically
onto a full subcategory () of the category FT. In addition,
(Top) CFT = {0}, that is, to any non-empty topological space an
essentially non-Chang fuzzy space is assigned. For more details on the
properties of this and other analogous functors, see [22], [152], [146].
2.5. The functor 1: CFT - Top.
Following Lowen [88], let us associate with every fuzzy space (X, x) the
ordinary topological space (, ), where is the weakest topology making
all the U E into lower semicontinuous maps U: (, ) -* /. (Equivalently,
= {U'1 (a, 1]: /, U (: }.) It is not hard to verify that if a map
/: (, .\) > (, xr) is continuous, then the map /: (, ) > (, ixy) is
continuous, hence we can regard as a functor 1: CFT * Top [88], [89].
The functor is the right inverse of the functor : obviously, in ()
for every topology T. A fuzzy space (X, x) is topologically generated if and
only if = (). For more on this and other properties of see [88],
[89].
Let 3J be a topological property. A fuzzy space (, ) is said [90],
[110] to be an ultralfuzzyi.-P-space if the topological space (, ) has the
property 3*. Clearly, the extension of a topological property 5 to the
property of being an ultra-^-fuzzy space is a good one (2.2).
In [152] the functor is extended to the category FT.
2.6. The functors : CFT -> Top.
The -level functor i a , where a G [0, 1), associates with a fuzzy space (, )
1
the topological space (, ) , where : = {U' (, 1] : U } is the
" c u t " of the fuzzy topology at the level a, and with a continuous map
/: (X, xx) -> (, Ty) the (continuous) map /: (, )-^(, ).
138
A.P. Shostak
The -level functors were introduced in [90] and were later used by various
authors ([121], [125], [73], and others) for solving some problems of
fuzzy topology by reducing them to standard problems of general topology.
2.7. The functors i*a : CFT -> Top.
Along with the functors , the functors *: CFT -> Top, where a e (0, 1],
are used not infrequently in fuzzy topology. The functor * associates with
a fuzzy space (, ) the topological space (, ), where * is the topology
1
defined by the subbase na: = {U' [a, 1]: U }, while leaving morphisms
unchanged [90], [121].
Let us note that the properties of the functors and * and the information
provided by them differ essentially from each other.
2.8. The hypergraph functor G : CFT -> Top.
Let (, ) be a fuzzy space; we consider the topology GT on the product
[0, 1) defined by the subbase
{{(x, a): U () > ): X, a e [0, 1), U }.
Now assigning to any fuzzy space (, ) the topological space G{X, ) : =
= ( [0, 1), GT) and to a continuous map / : (, ) -* (, Y) the
(continuous) map G(f): G{X, ) - G(Y, rY) defined by G(f)(x, a): =
- (fx, a), we get an embedding functor G : CFT -> Top.
This and some other similar functors were first considered by Santos (in
preprints) and Lowen [90]. Rodabaugh made use of them for studying
separation in fuzzy spaces [121], [125].
Klein has shown that for each fuzzy topology the inclusion Gt d : ,
holds, where {[0, ): 1). In this connection the equality
GT = Th is valid if and only if r is topologically generated [74].
3. Local structure of fuzzy topological spaces
3.1. On the notion of a fuzzy point.
In general topology, as in many other areas of pure mathematics, a
fundamental role is played by the notion of a point. A point is a minimal
object in the sense of the relation of belonging 6: it either does or does
not belong to a set, while nothing can belong to a point. One of the
fundamental peculiarities of fuzzy set mathematics and, in particular, fuzzy
topology, is the absence of such 'minimal' objects. In order to fill the gap
caused by this, many authors use, sometimes quite successfully, kinds of
"substitutes" for pointsthe so-called fuzzy points, appearing in the early
80s in works by Pu and Liu [117], [118], Sarkar [130], [131], Srivastava,
Lai and Srivastava [133], de Mitri and Pascali [19]. (The definitions of a
fuzzy point and of the corresponding relation <=? of a fuzzy point belonging
to a fuzzy set given independently by these authors are very much alike,
though they differ in some details. The definitions of a fuzzy point and the
139
relation of belonging due to Wong [166] seem inadequatefor a criticism of

them see, for example, [44].) Following [ 117], [ 118], let us present here
the basic definitions and facts connected with the notion of a fuzzy point.
A fuzzy point of a set X is a map p: = pi,: X /, where x0 ,
t (0, 1], defined by p(x0) = t and p(x) = 0 for 0 ; here x0 is called
the support of the fuzzy point and t its value. An ordinary point x 0 is
treated as a fuzzy point pi,. A fuzzy point belongs to a fuzzy set
(&) if t <M(x0).
Along with the relation , PU and Liu consider the so-called quasicoincidence, or Q-coincidence relation: a fuzzy point p: = pi, is quasicoincident (Q-coincident) with a fuzzy set (pQM) if M(xo)+t > 1.
With respect to the operations of union and intersection of a family of
fuzzy sets {Ut: i 3} there are both analogies with the behaviour of GE and
differences from it in the behaviour of and Q:
pmUt;pQ/\ Ut ^VipQur,
V U %
A fuzzy point is a minimal object neither with respect to EE nor with

respect to Q: having chosen s (0, t) and r G ( l - / , 1) for a given
t (0, 1 ], we have p*. GE />x. and pljQpl,To conclude, we note that in [36] an axiomatic approach to the notion
of a fuzzy point is developed, and in [ 159], [172] the notion of a molecular
is introduced, which is a kind of analogue of a fuzzy point in Hutton spaces
(15.4), and on the basis of it an attempt is made to develop a local theory
of Hutton fuzzy spaces.
3.2. Neighbourhoods in fuzzy spaces.
There are several approaches to the notion of a neighbourhood in a fuzzy
space and, correspondingly, to the study of the local structure of fuzzy
spaces: the approach by Warren [161], [162] and a (less successful)
approach by Ludester and Roventa [106], using fuzzy neighbourhoods of
ordinary points, the approaches by Pu and Liu [117], [118], Sarkar [130],
[131], Srivastava, Lai and Srivastava [133], [134], and de Mitri and Pascali
[19], based on fuzzy neighbourhoods of fuzzy points (a comparative analysis
of the approaches from this group is carried out in [70]), and the approach
by Rodabaugh [128], based on fuzzy neighbourhoods of fuzzy sets. Let us
dwell on the approach by Pu and Liu.
A fuzzy set is called a neighbourhood (Q-neighbourhood) of a fuzzy
point in a fuzzy space {X, r) if r Int (respectively, pQ Int M). Let
denote the family of all neighbourhoods (respectively, Q-neighbourhoods)
of a fuzzy point in (, ). Then: (1) U 6 ^ v = = U (respectively
pQU); (2) U, V EE ^ P = U /\ V JVV\ (3) U ( > p , U < V = V <*%;
(4) for every U ^JTV there is a V e such that V < U and F e JTr for
each fuzzy point r with r e F (respectively, rQV).
140
A. P. Shostak
Conversely, for every fuzzy point of a set X let a family of fuzzy sets
be fixed in such a way that the conditions (l)-(4) are satisfied. Then
x
the family formed by all fuzzy sets U G I such that U e JTV so long as
U (respectively, so long as pQU) forms a base for a fuzzy topology
(a fuzzy topology = ) on X. In this case Jfv is the base of a system of
neighbourhoods (respectively, of the system of all Q-neighbourhoods) for the
fuzzy point in (, ). (Let us note that there are inaccuracies in the
formulation of the converse statement in [117].)
To characterize laminated fuzzy spaces in a similar way, it suffices to add
r
to the axioms ( l ) - ( 4 ) the following one: (5) if p: = pi,, then t e -A p
(respectively, s " for all s > 1 - t).
JVP
3.3. Local characterization of the closure and closedness of fuzzy sets.

To illustrate some opportunities afforded by the study of the local structure
of fuzzy spaces, we shall characterize in local terms the closure operation
and the closedness property of a fuzzy set (cf. [29]).
A fuzzy point is a fuzzy space X is called an adherence point of a fuzzy
set e Ix if for each Q-neighbourhood U there is a point such that
U(x) + M(x) > 1. An adherence point : = p{' of a fuzzy set is called a
limit point [117] if either or if e= , then for every Q-neighbourhood U of there is an distinct from x0 such that U(x) + M(x) > 1.
The closure of a fuzzy set coincides with the totality of all its
adherence points. A fuzzy set is closed if and only if it contains (=) all its
limit points [117]. Also the following fuzzy version of the classical Yang
theorem holds [71], the totality of all limit points for a given fuzzy point
is closed [117].
In [160] local properties of the boundary of a fuzzy set are studied.
4. Convergence structures in fuzzy spaces
There are two different convergence theories used in general topology that
lead to equivalent results. One of them is based on the notion of a net due
to Moore and Smith (see [71 ] ; another one, which goes back to the work
of Cartan and Bourbaki (see [14]), is based on the notion of a filter. Each
of these theories has a fuzzy analogue. We begin with an exposition of basic
convergence theory of fuzzy nets developed (in the spirit of [71]) by Pu
and Liu [117], [118].
4 . 1 . F u z z y nets in f u z z y spaces [ 1 1 7 ] , [ 1 1 8 ] .
Let X be a fuzzy space and H the set of its fuzzy points. A map of the
form : S -* X, where (S, > ) is a directed set, is called a fuzzy net in X.
We shall also write a fuzzy net in the form (ps)szs, or (ps), where ps: = <^(i).
Subnets are defined in an obvious way. A fuzzy net (ps) is final in a fuzzy
net (finally Q-coincides with M) if there is an s0 S such that psE
(respectively, psQM) for all s ^ s0. A fuzzy net (ps) is cofinal (cofinally
141
Q-coincides) with if for each s S there is an s' > s such that ps/ =
(respectively p&.QM). A net (ps) converges to a fuzzy point if it is finally
(2-coincident with each neighbourhood of it.
A fuzzy point is in the closure if and only if some fuzzy net
contained in converges to p. A fuzzy set is closed if and only if no
fuzzy net contained in it converges to a p ^M.
If a fuzzy net (pe)s=s does
not converge to p, then there is a subnet (pf)ees> of which no subnet
converges to p. A map f:X^
is continuous if and only if the fact that a
fuzzy net (ps) converges to in X implies that the fuzzy net (f(ps))
converges to /(p) in Y.
These and many other properties of fuzzy nets are in complete analogy
with properties of ordinary nets. However, there are significant differences.
For example, there are universal nets that are cofinal but non-final in a
fuzzy set. (It is natural to call a fuzzy net universal if from being final in
U V V, where U, V S Ix, it follows that it is final either in U or in V.)
In [117] the notion of a convergence class of fuzzy nets is introduced
(in the spirit of [71]). Convergence classes are used for describing all fuzzy
topologies on a given set.
4.2. Fuzzy filters in fuzzy spaces.
A theory of convergence of fuzzy filters was developed by Lowen [91] for
laminated spaces and then extended to arbitrary fuzzy (Chang) spaces by
Warren [163]. (We remark that this extension was in some respects nontrivial.) We now present its basic ideas in brief.
A fuzzy filter in X is defined as a non-empty family of fuzzy subsets $
(that is, if (Z Ix) not containing 0 and such that:
(1) if , e f, then /\ e f ;
(2) i f J l f S . f and > , then <= .f.
Unlike an ordinary filter, a fuzzy filter in general cannot be obtained as
the intersection of all maximal fuzzy filters majorizing it. To surmount this
difficulty, Lowen considers the family $ m (,<f) of all fuzzy filters that are
minimal (with respect to inclusion) in the set (.IF) of all principal (in the
spirit of [ 14]) fuzzy filters majorizing a given fuzzy filter &, and demonstrates
that f = {#: # <= spm {sr)y
The fuzzy adherence set and the fuzzy limit set of a fuzzy filter fr in a
fuzzy space are defined by
adh = inf {/V: ( f)
and
lim = inf {adh f : $' <= $m (f)}
respectively. Loosely speaking, adh $ (x) (lim f (x)) is the degree with
which is an adherence point (respectively, limit point) of the fuzzy filter f.
If f, $' are fuzzy filters and f ZD .f, then adh f < adh f, but in
contrast to the situation in topological spaces the inequality lim $ < lim $'
in general is not valid. A map / : (, ) -* (, ) is continuous if and only
142
A.P. Shostak
if adh / (,f) > / (adh t f) for every filter f in I or, equivalently, if

lim / (&) > / (lim <f) for every principal fuzzy filter $ in X.
Lowen successfully applies the theory of convergence of filters to the
study of the compactness and separation properties of fuzzy spaces [91],
[92], [168].
4.3. The interrelation between the theories of convergence of fuzzy nets
and fuzzy filters has been studied by Lowen (in preprints). As in the case
of general topology, the two theories lead to essentially equivalent results.
However, the transition from one theory to another is much more complicated
both in conceptual and technical respects than that in general topology.
4.4. Other convergence theories in fuzzy spaces.
The convergence theories considered above are the most advanced and
seemingly the most successful ones in fuzzy topology. However, there are
other (non-equivalent) convergence theories. For example, in [45] a certain
convergence structure is introduced by means of fuzzy nets; fuzzy filters
and other similar constructions underlie those convergence structures
described in [45], [67], [ 17]. Convergence of fuzzy filters in Hutton fuzzy
spaces (15.4) has been considered in [56], [57].
4.5. Fuzzy neighbourhood spaces [93], [94].
With the help of fuzzy filters Lowen has distinguished an important subclass
of the class of laminated fuzzy spacesthe fuzzy neighbourhood spaces,
characterized by the fact that their fuzzy topology may be restored from
the so-called fuzzy neighbourhood systems. The class of fuzzy neighbourhood
spaces is wide enough to contain, in particular, all topologically generated
fuzzy spaces and all fuzzy uniform (in the sense of [95]) spaces. On the
other hand, these spaces possess a number of important properties that do
not hold for arbitrary fuzzy spaces.
To define a fuzzy neighbourhood space, we consider a set X and for each
G X fix a fuzzy filter fx.
A family : = {fx: zGE X} is called a [fuzzy]
neighbourhood system on X if:
(1) N(x) = 1 for each G X and each Gr fx;
(2) if fx for each > 0, then sup { ) <= fx;
(3) for arbitrary I G X , GE fx, and > 0, there is a family

{Nl: G= *}, where Nl <= f 2 is such that
sup
() ',
(y) -
) < (y)
for every y G X.
By putting () = inf {sup (M /\ N)(y): GE f x ) , where G Ix and
'x Gr , the fuzzy closure operator (1.1) is defined, and by the same token
the fuzzy topology t () on X. A fuzzy space (X, r) is called a neighbourhood
space if = t ()for a neighbourhood system . (In [93] the property of
143
a fuzzy space of being a neighbourhood space is characterized internally as

well, including a characterization by means of closure.)
The closure operator in fuzzy neighbourhood spaces has a number of
important features. For example, it is uniformly continuous in such spaces:
if , Ix, where X is a neighbourhood space, then
|| - |{ < || - || (|| ||: = sup | () |).
For each constant : / we have /\ = f\ a (see also the example at

the end of this subsection).
The coincidence t () = t (') where , ' are two neighbourhood
systems on X, holds (if and) only if = '. A map {X, t (Zx))~- (, ( Y ))
between neighbourhood spaces is continuous if and only if Z"1 (!fix,) CI &.
for every 0 X
If (X, T) is a topological space, then the neighbourhood system of the
fuzzy space (, ) generated by it is of the form
: = {srx: = {N e / : () = 1
and is lower semicontinuous at a point ) : X}
A fuzzy neighbourhood space X is Hausdorff (5.2) if and only if for every
x, y e , y, and > 0 there are Nx e F, Ny S ,f with /\ ' < .
In conclusion, we consider the following example. Let X be a set,
\X\ > 2, = {: /} U { W e / A ': 7 < ~ } Then for each x e i w e
have %x %x = Xx . an<3 so (X r) is a non-neighbourhood

laminated space.
5. Separation in fuzzy spaces
Here we shall discuss properties similar to r 0 -7Yseparation in fuzzy
spaces. The main attention will be paid to T2-separation, or Hausdorffness,
as the most important property of this kind; the rest of the properties are
mentioned only in passing.
At present no less than ten approaches (or patterns) to the definition of
Hausdorffness in fuzzy topology are known. Some of them differ negligibly
from each other, but others do basically. We start with the spectral theory
of Hausdorffness, which provides a framework for the description of many
other theories of Hausdorffness as particular cases (for example, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4).
5.1. Hausdorffness spectra of a fuzzy space [139].
For arbitrary a, b / and a fixed > 0 w e put a <; b: a <z b for a < 1,
0
b > 0 and a = b for either a = 1 or b = 0;

a<Z b: <=> < b .
< 5: ^ a < 6;
144
A. P. Shostak
Let (, r ) be a fuzzy space. For each pair (i, j) e
{0, 1, 2} we define
the Hausdorffness (i, j)-spectrum as the set Hj(X) formed by pairs (, y) I2

such that for any distinct x, y G X (and an arbitrary > 0) there are
U, V G r with U () > , V (y) > , and i/c V Vc > . Loosely speaking,
the fact that the pair (, ) belongs to the spectrum H((X) means that for
any x, y G X there are neighbourhoods U and V that are "higher" than at
the corresponding point and that intersect "lower" than yc. In this
connection "higher" and "lower" are understood either strictly, non-strictly,
or "up to ", depending on what values are taken by / and /.
If (, ) G Hj(X) and ' < , y' < y, then evidently (', ') {(). If
i > /', / > /', then H\ (X) Z) H\'> (X); in this case H\(X) is closed and if
(, ) e //!(*), 0' < 0, V < , then (j3', ) G //(Z). Thus, (/, />spectra for
various (/, /) may differ at the boundary only. (It is not difficult to
construct examples showing that they can actually be different.)
For any fuzzy space X and (i, j) ? {0, 1, 2} 2 , the set
(I X {0}) U ({0} X /): = FCZ Hi (X);
in the case where X is laminated, {(, ): + < 1} = : G CZ H\ (X). If X
is a topological spiice, then HJ(X) = {() = I2 if and only if X is
Hausdorff; otherwise H{(X) = F and \() = \() = G.
If ", X' are fuzzy spaces and there exists a continuous injection : X -+ X',
then H{(X) D HJ(X'); in particular, under transition to a subspace
Hausdorffness spectra do not decrease. If X is a product of fuzzy spaces
{Xa: a(=A}, then H\ () ) \ (Xa); if in addition all the Xa's are
a
laminated, then H\ (X) = H[ (Xa).
(In the general case the equality need
not hold.)
A very important characteristic property of a Hausdorff topological space
is that the diagonal is closed in its square. To formulate a fuzzy analogue of
this assertion, let us define the notion of closedness spectrum of a fuzzy set
in a fuzzy space, which is necessary in what follows.
We define the (/, j)-closedness spectrum of a fuzzy set in a fuzzy space
2
X as the set Clj(M, X) formed by pairs (, y) G I such that (for every
c
c
> 0) there is a W G r with M V W > and in addition W () ^>
whenever Mc () > . (We stress that the closedness spectrum of a fuzzy set
i
generalizes the topological notion of closedness in an entirely different

direction from that of the definition of a closed fuzzy set (1.1).) The
Hausdorffness spectrum of a fuzzy space can now be characterized by
HJ(X) = Cl((A, X2). The closedness spectrum also enables us to present the
following assertion (cf. [29], Russian ed., p. 171). Let , be fuzzy spaces
and let /, g : X -* be continuous maps. Then
H\ (Y) CZ Cli ({x: f(x) = g (x)}, X).
145
Properties of the boundary of the spectrum HJ(X) are investigated in [59].

In [139], [155] the spectra {, () and (X) are also considered,
corresponding to the topological properties of Tt- and 7Vseparation. With
the help of the closedness spectrum the ^-separation spectrum may be
characterized as follows: T[i(X) = f)Cl](x,X), which evidently corresponds
-
the characterization of topological -spaces as those spaces whose onepoint subsets are closed. We note that H\ (X) f] (, i)2 d T\i (X) for every
fuzzy space but, generally speaking, ] () { (X).
5.2. The Hausdorff property of a level: Rodabaugh's approach.
In [121], [126] the -Hausdorff (a G [0, 1)) and a*-Hausdorff (a G (0, 1])
properties are studied in detail. Making use of the terminology of 5.1, these
properties can be characterized as follows. A fuzzy space is a-Hausdorff
{a*-Hausdorff) if and only if (a, 1) G H&X) (respectively, (a, 1) G H\{X)).
It is not difficult to note also that the -Hausdorff (a*-Hausdorff) property
of a fuzzy space (X, r) is equivalent to the Hausdorff property of the
topological space (. ) (respectively, (, )), where , tj are the -level
functors (2.6), (2.7). In [126] the a- and a*-Hausdorff properties have been
extended to the case of fuzzy subsets of fuzzy spaces.
5.3. Separation of disjoint fuzzy points.
Pu and Liu [117] call a fuzzy space (, r) Hausdorff if for any two of its
fuzzy points p\ and psy with distinct supports there are Q-neighbourhoods
(3.2) U and V respectively such that U /\ V = 0. In [133] a fuzzy space
(X, r) is called Hausdorff if for any two of its fuzzy points p*x and psy such
that y and s, t < 1 there are U, V G r such that p'u e= F, p'x G? U and
U V = 0. It is not difficult to show that the two definitions of the
Hausdorff property are equivalent and may be characterized by H\(X) = P.
A fuzzy space is Hausdorff if and only if no fuzzy net in it converges to two
fuzzy points with distinct supports [117] (see also 5.4). Every Hausdorff
fuzzy space is ultra-Hausdorff (2.5); on the other hand, there is an ultraHausdorff non-Hausdorff fuzzy space.
5.4. Hausdorff property and filters.
After characterizing Hausdorff (5.3) fuzzy spaces by the fact that the limit
of every fuzzy filter in them does not vanish at one point at most, Lowen
and Wuyts [168] introduce by means of fuzzy filters a series of axioms of
TQ-T2
type. In particular, they define T'^'-spaces as those fuzzy spaces in
which lim ff, where if is an arbitrary fuzzy filter, reaches a positive
maximum at one point at most; those spaces in which this requirement is
met at least by all principal filters f are called 2-spaces. Clearly,
T2 =* T'2" => T'2'; the reverse implications do not hold in general. For fuzzy
neighbourhood spaces (and for topological spaces as well) the conditions T2,
T'2', and % are equivalent.
146
A.P. Shostak
5.5. Separation of fuzzy points: the approaches of Adnadjevic and Sarkar.

In 5.3 (and implicitly in 5.1, 5.2, 5.4) the Hausdorff property of a fuzzy
space was determined by the presence of disjoint ((^neighbourhoods of
every two disjoint (that is, having distinct supports) fuzzy points. However,
unlike ordinary points, fuzzy points may have a common support but differ
in values. The possibility of separation of such points in one sense or
another was by no means guaranteed in the preceding subsections. We shall
consider here two approaches to the Hausdorff property problem, taking
into account the possibility of separation of points with common support.
One of them was developed by Adnadjevic [3] and his pupils [58], [72];
the other is due to Sarkar [ 130], [ 131 ]. (We note that the idea of
separation of fuzzy points with a common support appears for the first time
in [117], where a fuzzy space is called a quasi-T0-space if for any pair of its
fuzzy points psx and px such that s < / we have px psx.)
We call a fuzzy space {X, r) A-Hausdorff [3] (S-Hausdorff [130]) if for
any pair of fuzzy points px and psy:
(1A) if y, then there are U, V <= such that pi e? U, psy ^V_, and
U J\^V = 0 (respectively, (15) if y, then pi e U, pi ^ V, pi^V", and
p% & U for some U, V r);
____
(2) if = y and s < t, then pi e= U and pi U for some U G r.
Clearly, every yl-Hausdorff space is both 5-Hausdorff and Hausdorff, but
not vice versa. For a laminated space the Hausdorff and ,4-Hausdorff
properties are obviously equivalent. Fuzzy points in an S-Hausdorff space
are closed. (Adnadjevic calls a space in which every fuzzy point is closed a
-space [3].) We stress that the closedness of fuzzy points (unlike the
closedness of one-point sets) was in no way guaranteed by the approaches of
5.1-5.4. Both A- and 5-Hausdorff properties are multiplicative and
hereditary.
5.6. The reader may become familiar with some other definitions of the
Hausdorff property, for example, via [37], [82], [134], [180], and others
(see also 15.6).
6. Normality and complete regularity type properties

in fuzzy topology
6.1. Normality.
In contrast to the diversity of approaches to the notion of Hausdorffness
(5), most authors are in agreement with each other when studying the
notion of normality in fuzzy spaces, and take as a basis the definition by
Hutton [54] or equivalent reformulations of it. To some extent this is
explained by the fact that normality in general topology is defined in terms
of open and closed sets only, without appealing to points, hence it can be
carried over in a standard manner to the language of fuzzy topology.
147
A fuzzy space (, ) is called normal [54] if for any pair of fuzzy sets A
and U, where A ETC, U GT, and A < U, there is a V G satisfying the
inequalities A < V < V < U. It is easy to verify [108] that a fuzzy space
is normal if and only if for each pair of closed fuzzy sets A and such that
A + B < 1 there are U, V G such that A < U, < V, and U+V < I.
As in the case of topological spaces, the normality property is not
preserved under taking products; in addition, contrary to the situation in
Top, the normality of a product of fuzzy spaces does not guarantee the
normality of the factors [126]. A sufficient condition for the normality of
the factors to follow from the normality of a product is that all the factors
are laminated. The normality property is inherited by closed subspaces.
A closed continuous image of a normal fuzzy space is normal [108], [126].
Hutton [54] characterized the normality of a fuzzy space by means of
maps from it to the fuzzy interval (/), having proved a kind of a fuzzy
Urysohn lemma (for the definitions of (I), (R) and all the notation
involved, see 10.1).
A fuzzy space (X, r) is normal if and only if for each pair of fuzzy
subsets A and U such that A G TC, U G r, and A < U there is a continuous
map f: ,+ f (/) with A(x) < / ( ) ( ) < / ( x ) ( 0 + ) < U(x) for all G X.
Recently Kubiak [83] has obtained an analogue of the Tietze-Urysohn
theorem: any continuous map /: A -- (/), where A is a closed subspace
of a normal fuzzy space X, has a continuous extension /: X -*- (/).
We note that the problem of existence of such extensions has been raised
repeatedly in the literature ([121], [123], and others). Kubiak's proof is
based on a fuzzy analogue of Katetov's theorem (cf. [29], p. 88) due to him:
a fuzzy space X is normal if and only if for each pair of maps g, h: X >- (R),
where g is upper semicontinuous and h is lower semicontinuous and g < h,
there is a continuous function/: X -> (R) withg
<f<h.
6.2. Perfect normality.
A normal fuzzy space of which every closed fuzzy set is the infimum of a
countable family of open fuzzy sets is called perfectly normal [54].
A fuzzy space (, ) is perfectly normal if and only if for each pair of
fuzzy subsets A and U such that A G TC, U G r, and A < U there is a
continuous function /: X -> (I) with A(x) = / ( ) ( ) < / ( ) ( 0 + ) = U(x)
for all G X, see [54]. (Cf. Vedenissoff's theorem [29], p. 69.)
Every continuous map /: A -*- (R), where A is a closed subspace of a
perfectly normal space X, has a continuous extension f: X -*- (R). (It is
not known whether the condition of perfect normality may be weakened to
that of normality (cf. 6.2) [84].)
Important examples of perfectly normal fuzzy spaces are (7), (R), as
well as their countable powers ( f (/)) and ( (R)). The spaces ( (R))*
for k > S o are non-normal. It is not known whether the spaces ( (/))''" are
normal for k > fc$0.
148
A.P. Shostak
6.3. Complete regularity.

Functional characterizations of normal and perfectly normal spaces naturally
suggest that the complete regularity of a fuzzy space should be defined by
means of maps from it t o f (/). This is what Hutton [55] and Katsaras [65]
undertake, having first considered the properties of this type. Hutton calls a
fuzzy space (, r) completely regular if for each UET there are a family of
fuzzy sets {Mt: i e 3} and a family of maps {frX -* .f (/): i SE 3} such that
V ; M, = U and Mt(x) </,()() </,(x)(0 + ) < U{x) for all i e Cf and .
(Katsaras's definition [65] differs in form from the definition presented
above, but it is easy to see that the two definitions are equivalent.)
A completely regular topological space is completely regular in the
category of fuzzy spaces as well. A normal fuzzy 7Vspace (5.5) is completely
regular. A product of completely regular fuzzy spaces is completely regular;
complete regularity is hereditary under transition to a subspace [65], [86].
The most important examples of completely regular fuzzy spaces are
f(l), f (R), and products of them [65]. A fuzzy r r space (5.5) is a
completely regular space of weight k, k > Xo, if and only if it is
homeomorphic to a subspace of (f (l))k, see [65], [86].
A fuzzy space (, r) is completely regular if and only if r is generated by
a fuzzy uniformity [55], [86] (cf. [29], p. 523). A fuzzy space (X, r) is
completely regular if and only if r is generated by a fuzzy proximity [65]
(cf. [29], p. 554).
6.4. ^-regularity [153].
We recall that a topological space X is called ^-regular [ 10], where is a
Hausdorff topological space, if X is homeomorphic to a subspace of Ek for
some cardinal k. In particular, /-regularity of a topological 7\ space is
obviously equivalent to complete regularity.
We shall now consider a fuzzy analogue of ^-regularity. We believe that
in fuzzy topology the ^-regularity property should play a more important
role than its particular casecomplete regularity ( = ,f (/)-regularity). The
point is that in fuzzy topology along with the fuzzy interval f (1) there are
l
other "canonical" objects: the laminated fuzzy interval $f (1) (10.1), the
fuzzy probabilistic interval (7)(12.1), the interval real line 3 (R) (13),
and so on, to say nothing of the versions of these constructions in the
categories CFT(L). In the relevant situation each of these spaces becomes a
"central object" pretending to the role of "interval".
The second essential difference between the situation in CFT and the
situation in Top is that while the spaces occurring in general topology "as a
rule" satisfy at least the 7Yseparation axiom, in fuzzy topology even the
axiom 7\ (for example, in the sense of 5.1 or 5.5) seems very restrictive (it
is not satisfied by the spaces .f (/), f (1), (1), and ^ (/)) Hence it is
appropriate to distinguish between ^-regularity and -Tychonoff notions for
fuzzy spaces.
149
So, let be a fixed fuzzy space. For a fuzzy space (X, r) we put
C {X, ): = 0
(* -1") (that is, C(X, E) is the set of continuous maps
from the space X to all possible finite powers of E). A fuzzy space X is
called -regular if C{X, E) separates points and closed fuzzy sets in X, that
is, for every A G TC, 6 1 , and > 0 there is an / G C(X, E) such that
A (x) > / (.4)(/z) . We call a fuzzy space E-Tychonoff if it is
homeomorphic to a subspace of f c for some cardinal k.
A fuzzy space is .f (Z)-regular (() -regular) if and only if it is completely
regular (respectively, completely regular and laminated). A topological space
is completely regular in Top if and only if it is /-regular in CFT.
A product of "-regular fuzzy spaces is ^-regular. The ^-regularity
property is preserved under transition to a subspace. A fuzzy space (X, r) is
is-regular if and only if r is initial for the family of maps C((X, ), ).
A fuzzy space X is ^-regular if and only if for every divergent fuzzy net (ps)
in it, having a limit point, there is a continuous function / : X -> sending it
to a net divergent in E.
A fuzzy space X is -Tychonoff if and only if it is ^'-regular and
is-Hausdorff (that is, for any x, y G , y, there is an / G C(X, E) such
that fx fy). In the class of HVspaces the ^-regularity and -Tychonoff
properties are equivalent. ((, ) is called a W0-space if for any x, y G X,
y, there is a U G rx such that U(x) U(y).) Hence it follows, in
particular, that subspaces of the product f (/)R are precisely the completely
regular fV0-spaces of weight k (cf. 6.3).
7. Compactness in fuzzy topology

The compactness property of a topological space is one of the most
important notions not only in topology but in the whole of pure mathematics.
Therefore it is natural to pay particular interest to this notion in fuzzy
topology, and as a consequence there are many publications devoted to it.
We shall consider the main theories of compactness in the sections; on the
way we shall touch on the Lindelof, countable compactness, and
paracompactness properties. In subsections 7.7-7.10 we consider the
problem of fuzzy space compactifications (see also 15.7).
7.1. Compactness of fuzzy spaces: the approach of Chang and Goguen.
The first definition of compactness for fuzzy spaces was proposed in 1968
by Chang [16]; soon after, Goguen [42] extended it to the case of I-fuzzy
spaces. It is convenient for us to present this definition here for Z-fuzzy
spaces; for L = I it turns into Chang's definition.
A family % is called a cover of an Z-fuzzy space (, ) if \/ % = 1.
An Z-fuzzy space is called compact if one can choose a finite subcover %0
from an arbitrary cover % (that is, %0 (Z %, \% I < Ko, and \J %0 = 1)
[16], [42].
150
A.P. Shostak
For L = 2 this definition turns into the ordinary definition of compactness

of a topological space. On the other hand (for L = ) it is clear that there
do not exist any (non-empty) laminated compact fuzzy spaces, which is,
in Lowen's opinion, a serious disadvantage of this definition.
Tychonoff's theorem on the compactness of a product, which is one of
the most important results of topological compactness theory, admits under
this definition the following "coupe" fuzzy analogue only: the product X
of a family of non-empty compact ,-fuzzy spaces {Xy: GE }, where
< k {k is a cardinal number), is compact if and only if the element
1 G L is fc-isolated in L (that is, sup A < 1 for each A C L with \A I < k
and 1 A). On one hand, there follows the classical Tychonoff theorem
(for L = 2), and on the other hand it follows that only finite products of
compact fuzzy spaces are compact (for L I).
The similarly defined Lindelof and countable compactness properties have
been considered in [165].
7.2. -Compactness and strong compactness of fuzzy spaces: the approach
of Gantner, Steinlage, and Warren [35].
A fuzzy space {, r) is called -compact, where G [0, 1), if for every
% Z such that V % > there is a finite % C % satisfying V %o > a.
A fuzzy space that is -compact for all [0, 1) is called strongly compact
[35].
A fuzzy space X is -compact if and only if the topological space is
compact (2.4). The notion of strong compactness (in contrast to the
compactness of 7.1) is good (2.2). A continuous image of an -compact
space is -compact. A product of non-empty fuzzy spaces is -compact if
and only if all factors are -compact [35].
The spaces f (I), f>- (I) (10.1), (I), and J/ (I) (12.1) are strongly
compact [35], [100]; on the other hand, the spaces ^ ( R ) , .<P (R) (10.1),
M. (I), and Jtk (I) (12.1) are not -compact for any G [0, 1), see [35],
[100].
The -Lindelof and -countable compactness properties have been
considered in [108]. In [147] the -Lin delof number of a fuzzy space (in
the spirit of [29], p. 248, cf. [179]) has been used.
7.3. Compactness of fuzzy spaces: Lowen's approach.
Lowen [88] calls a fuzzy space (, ) compact if for every a G I, every
% satisfying \J %^ a, and every > 0 there is a finite %0 C % such
that V "Wo > . (If at least the constant = 1 satisfies this condition,
then the space is called weakly compact [90].)
The properties of compactness and weak compactness are preserved by
continuous maps. A product of non-empty fuzzy spaces is compact if and
only if all the factors are compact; weak compactness is preserved under
finite products only [88], [90].
151
The compactness property is good. Every strongly compact space is

compact. On the other hand, there is a compact fuzzy space (, ),
I X I !> Xo, s u c h that for every [0, 1) the topological space (, ) is
discrete (hence, (, T) is not -compact for any [0, 1)) [88], [90].
An interesting property of Hausdorff (5.2) compact fuzzy spaces has been
established simultaneously and independently by Lowen and Martin: every
compact Hausdorff fuzzy space is weakly induced (2.3) [111], [112].
Every compact Hausdorff laminated fuzzy space is topologically generated
(2.2) [92].
Thus, the two properties of different nature, those of compactness and
separation, imposed simultaneously on a fuzzy topology, guarantee a close
connection of it with a certain ordinary topology on the same set. We
believe that results of this kind bear additional witness to the specific role
that compactness and Hausdorff properties play together, not only in general
topology but in fuzzy topology as well.
A closed continuous map / : X -* between fuzzy spaces is called perfect
if the inverse image f~1(y)
of each point y is compact [34]. Invoking
the notion of a Q-neighbourhood, Friedler [34] has shown that a map / is
perfect if and only if for every fuzzy space the product / id z is closed
(cf. [14], English ed., p. 97; see also [10]). The inverse image of a
compact space under a perfect map is compact [141].
7.4. Spectral theory o f c o m p a c t n e s s [ 1 4 1 ] , [ 1 4 9 ] .
This theory enables us to study very subtle properties of compactness type
for fuzzy subsets of fuzzy spaces. It embraces the theories of subsections
7.1, 7.2, 7.3 as particular cases. It may be applied also to a description of
compactness type properties of fuzzy subspaces of ordinary topological
spaces. Without striving for maximal generality, we present here the basic
ideas and results of the spectral theory of compactness.
Let (, ) be a fuzzy space and (i,;) {0,1, 2}2. We define the
(i, j)-compactness spectrum of a fuzzy set as the set Q(M) formed
by numbers (3/ such that for each % d satisfying I c V ^ P
an
( d
every > 0) there is a finite %* C % such that 71/ci V ^o > (Here the
j
notation from 5.1 is used.) The set SC(M) formed by numbers / such
that for each % a x satisfying Mc \J (\/ %) > there is a finite %B c %
such that Mc \J (\J %) "^> is called the strong compactness spectrum of
the fuzzy set M.
It is not difficult to note that a space X is compact (7.1) if and only if
1 C\(X); a space X is -compact (strongly compact) if and only if
SC(X) (respectively, SC(X) = [0, 1)); the compactness of a space X in
the sense of 7.3 is equivalent to Cl{X) = [0, 1]; finally, a space X is
weakly compact if and only if 1 Cf(X).
152
A.P. Shostak
The connection between various compactness spectra, as well as possible

types of compactness spectra for various fuzzy spaces, has been studied by
Steprans and Shostak. For example, they have established that a necessary
and sufficient condition for a subset A C [0, 1) to be the strong compactness
spectrum of some fuzzy space X of countable weight (or, equivalently, the
strong compactness spectrum of a fuzzy subset of such a space) is
\A\A
|<Kv
Let us dwell on the properties of the spectrum C(M): = Cl(M). To begin
with, we present the following simple characterization of it:
e
C (M) ^ (V% CZ t {M CI V 11 > = sup {M CZ V %*

%oCZ%, \%0 | < N . } > )).
The number c(M): = inf(/\C(M)) (inf <> : = 1) is called the compactness
degree of the fuzzy set M. Clearly, c{M) G C(M) for every M.
The reader will easily recognize those facts from general topology that
serve as prototypes for the following assertions.
Let , be fuzzy spaces, let Ix, and let / : X -> be a continuous
map. Then C(M) C C(fM). Loosely speaking, continuous maps do not
diminish the compactness spectrum. (The changes that the compactness
spectrum may undergo under maps of a given defect (1.8) are described in
[174].)
If , , (,<,<: , then C (N) CZ C (M), C (M) CZ C (M f\ )
and C (N\/K) Z) C (N) f] C (K).
The following analogue of Tychonoff s theorem holds. Let X = -- be
a product of fuzzy spaces Xh
i e "J, and let = ^ be a product

i
of fuzzy sets Mt e /**, i e J . Then c (M) > inf c (Mt). (The inclusion
i
C (M) ZD f) C (Mj) is not valid in general.) If in addition all the A/,'s are
normed, that is, sup Mt (J ( ) = 1, then c (M) = inf c (/,) (and, moreover,
C {Mi) Z) C (M)).l
i
For a continuous map / : X - we define the compactness spectrum and

compactness degree of it by C (/): = V\ C (f 1 ({/)) and c (/): = inf ( 7 \ C (/))
V
respectively. If / : X -* Y, g : -+ are closed continuous maps and G IY,

then c (/-1 (TV)) >c(j)/\c
(N) and c (g . /) > c (g) c (/) (cf. [29],
Russian ed., p. 278). Under the additional assumption f{X) = is it true
that c(g of) = c (g) c (/)? (Cf. [29], Russian ed., p. 280.)
In general topology statements on the interaction between compactness
and separation type properties are of considerable interest (for example,
statements on the normality of a Hausdorff compact space and on the
equivalency of compactness and absolute closedness properties in the class of
r3-spaces). The statements presented below testify that an interaction of
this kind extends to the category of fuzzy spaces as well.
153
Let (, ) be a fuzzy space, , G r c , G Hf(X), < c{M) c(N), and

< . Then for each > 0 there are U, V G r such that
W c i / > p - i , J V C F > p - e , a n d 1/ ^ < +
Let {, ) be a fuzzy space and let G /*. Then C(A/) ()
(1/2, 1] C Cl{M) and (7/() R(X) () (1/2, 1] = C(M)
R(X) # ( * ) (1/2, 1 ], where Cl(M) : = C/ftM); #(): = HftM)
(see 5.1); ACl(M) : = {/?: (Z is a fuzzy subspace, D I and J3 #(Z)) =*
=* G C7(M, Z)} is the absolute closedness spectrum of the fuzzy set M, and
R(X) is the so-called regularity spectrum of the space X (see [ 141 ], [ 149],
[139]).
Limitations of space do not allow us to touch here on the problem of
characterizing the compactness spectrum of a completely regular space by
embedding it in a specific (so-called relatively closed) way into the cubes
$ (I)" or the theory of ^-compactness in fuzzy topology closely connected
with this problem [ 177].
In conclusion, let us present examples of compactness spectra in the
simplest situationfor fuzzy subsets of a topological space (X, T).
If C X, then C(M) = [0, 1] if and only ii is compact; otherwise
C (M) = {0}. e i x is upper semicontinuous, then C(M) = [0, c(M)];
if in addition X is compact, then C(M) = [0, 1 ].
Let X = U Z, where = 0, let 0 < a < b < 1 and : = aY+ bZ.
If X and are both compact, then C(M) = [0, 1]. If X is compact and
is not, then C{M) = [0, bc] U (ac, 1 ]. If X is non-compact and is
compact, then C(M) = [0, ac]. Finally, if both X and are non-compact,
then C(M) - [0, bc}.
Let X = R be the real line, let G /, /^) > M2(x) = (2/) larctanxl,
M 3 (x) = 1 -M2(x).
Then C ^ ) = C(M2) = [0, a c ] ; C(M3) = [0, a ] .
Spectral theories of Lindelofness and countable compactness in fuzzy
spaces have been developed [151], [142]. In [143] the so-called spectrum
of hereditary Lindelofness of a fuzzy space is studied.
7.5. JT -compactness [158].
The notion of ^"-compactness (from the word "Net") seems to be a very
successful one. It was introduced by Wang Guojun and used by a number of
Chinese authors afterwards ([87] and others). A fuzzy net (Px^^s is called
an -net, where a G /, if the corresponding number net (a s )ses converges
to a.. A fuzzy set in a fuzzy space X is called J/'-compact if every -net
in ( G (0, 1 ]) has a limiting fuzzy point in with value a. A space X
is called jr-compact if the constant 1 is ^T-compact.
The property of ^"-compactness is preserved under continuous maps and
is inherited by closed fuzzy subsets. A product of fuzzy spaces is .^-compact
if and only if all the factors are .y-compact. A topological space (X, T) is
compact if and only if the fuzzy space (, ) is ^-compact.
154
A.P. Shostak
^"-compact sets possess interesting properties from the map-theoretic

point of view. For example, every ^-compact fuzzy set reaches its
supremum. In particular, closed (open) fuzzy sets reach their supremum
(respectively, infimum) in an J^-compact space. Applying this assertion to
(, ), where (X, T) is a topological space, we obtain a generalization of
the Stone-Weierstrass theorem:
Lower (upper) semicontinuous maps from a compact topological space to
IR reach their infimum (respectively, supremum).
A strongly compact fuzzy space is ^"-compact if and only if every closed
fuzzy subset reaches its supremum.
7.6. Comparing various definitions of compactness.
The basic relationships between compactness type properties of a fuzzy
space can be represented in the form of the following diagram [35], [90],
[104], [143]: ultracompactness (2.5) => JT-compactness =* strong
compactness =* compactness (7.3) <* C(X) = [0, 1] => weak compactness *=
= compactness (7.1).
The implications converse to those presented above are not valid in
general. Nevertheless, within certain rather wide classes many of those
properties become equivalent. For example, if a fuzzy space X is Hausdorff
(5.2) or weakly induced (2.3), then the following are equivalent: (a) X is
ultracompact; (b) X is ^-compact; (c) X is strongly compact; (d) X is
-compact for some a; (e) X is compact (7.3) ([110], [111], [176]; cf.
[15]).
Within the class of fuzzy neighbourhood spaces the following conditions
are equivalent: (a) ultracompactness; (b) ^"-compactness; (c) strong
compactness; (d) 0-compactness. A fuzzy neighbourhood space (4.5) is
compact (7.3) if and only if it is -compact for all (0, 1); however,
there are compact (7.3) neighbourhood spaces that are not 0-compact [94].
There are other definitions of compactness occuring in the fuzzy topology
literature. For example, F/-compactness [67] defined by means of fuzzy
filters; ^-compactness, based on the notion of a Q-cover [85], the so-called
probabilistic compactness [51], and so on (see also 15.7).
We now consider some approaches to the problem of fuzzy space
compactifications. The first of them (7.7) reproduces in the fuzzy situation
the idea of Aleksandroff one-point compactification. The idea of the second
approach (7.8) worked out by Martin consists in a transition from the
category CFT to the category Top via the functor with a subsequent
return to the CFT. The third approach (7.9) is due to Cerutti; it is based
on the ideas and techniques of categorical topology and is mainly applicable
to weakly induced fuzzy spaces.
7.7. One-point -compactification of a fuzzy space [35].
Let (X, r) be a fuzzy space, let < 1, and let S? be the family of all closed
-compact (crisp) subsets. We put X X \J {0}, where is an arbitrary
155
element not belonging to X, and for every i e s a w e define : X -* 2 by

R (O) = 1 and K(x) = Kc(x) for X Further, for each / r we define
7: JT -> / by letting 0 (Q) = 0 and C/fx) = f/(x) for . Let be the
fuzzy topology on X determined by the subbase {0: / } {R- e }
Then the space (, ) is -compact and (X, r) is a subspace of it; in
addition, X is dense (7.8) in (,) if (and only if) the space (X, r) is not
-compact. If in addition (, ) is locally -compact (respectively, weakly
locally -compact), that is, for every X there is a t/ G r such that
U(x) = 1 (respectively, U(x) > a) and /~, 1 ] is -compact and 1 *-Hausdorff
(respectively, -Hausdorff), then the compactification (, 01) is 1*-Hausdorff
[35] (respectively, a-Hausdorff [121]).
7.8. Ultracompactifications o f a fuzzy space [ 1 1 0 ] , [ 1 1 2 ] , [ 1 7 6 ] .
A fuzzy subset of a fuzzy space (X, r) is called dense if = ; is
called ultradense if all the sets M~l[a, 1], < 1, are dense in the topological
space (X, IT). It is not difficult to note that the ultradensity of in the
space (X, r) is equivalent to its density in the space (, ). An ultracompact
fuzzy space (bX, ), containing a given fuzzy space (X, r) as an ultradense
subspace, is called an ultracompactification of (, ).
To construct ultracompactifications of a fuzzy space (X, r) we consider
the compactification (bX, b(ir)) of the topological space (X, IT) and put
Tb : = {Ui U (b (IT)) and U \x e? } It can be shown that Tb is a
fuzzy topology on bX and in addition (bX, rb) is an ultracompactification
of (X, T).
If the space (, ) is completely regular and (, ) is its Stone-Cech
compactification, then the corresponding ultracompactification (, 0) of
the initial space (X, r) has the following property, which enables us to call
it the Stone-Cech ultracompactification.
Every continuous m a p / : {, ) -> (, ), where (, ) is an ultracompact
ultra-Hausdorff fuzzy space, has a continuous extension/: (, ) -> (, ).
The following description of all ultracompactifications of a given fuzzy
space (, ) is due to Martin. Let (bX, rb) be as above and let rb be a
fuzzy topology on bX contained in r 6 and inducing on X (for example,
= {0 = sup {F: F E T 6 , F |.Y = [/}}. Then (bX, r'b) is an ultracompactification of (X, r). Conversely, an arbitrary ultracompactification of
a space (, ) can be represented in the form (bX, r'b) for a suitable choice
of(bX, Tb) and r'b C rb.
In conclusion we stress that though the scheme presented above enables us
to describe ultracompactifications only, the scope of its applications is
broader than may seem at first sight. The point is that for Hausdorff (5.2)
and for weakly induced fuzzy spaces all the main definitions of compactness
are equivalent to ultracompactness (7.6). We also remark that the existence
of a Hausdorff compactification of a fuzzy space is equivalent to the soace
itself being Hausdorff (5.2) and weakly induced [111].
156
A.P. Shostak
7.9. The categorical approach to compactification theory [ 1 5 ] .
Let % be the category of 1*-Hausdorff (5.2) compact (7.3) fuzzy spaces, and
let e : % -* CFT be the natural inclusion functor. The functor : CFT -+'$,
which is left adjoint to the functor e, has a number of properties making it
similar to the functor : Top -* Comp of the Stone-Cech compactification
of a topological space. We point out the most important of these properties.
The functor is reflexive: for every fuzzy space X there is a morphism
rx: X -* such that each morphism /: X * ~ % admits a unique
factorization of the form / = rx. The equality (3ocj = cooj3is valid,
hence the functor acts on the category (), which is an isomorphic
copy of Top, precisely as the functor acts on Top. The two functors
and are naturally isomorphic, hence can be recovered from the functor .
Within the subcategory of weakly induced spaces the equality = holds,
hence for weakly induced spaces the reflection rx: X -> ~ coincides with
the corresponding reflection r u Y : iX ->- fnX. In particular, it follows that %
is an epireflexive subcategory of the category of weakly induced 1 *-Hausdorff
spaces.
Nevertheless, in spite of the fact that the two functors and jif are closely
related to each other and in many respects seem alike, the situation with
Stone-Cech compactification in CFT is much more complicated than in Top.
One of the reasons is that the category ' (unlike the category Comp of
compact Hausdorff topological spaces) is not algebraic over Set or Top.
7.10. Other approaches to the compactification problem in fuzzy topology.
Liu [85], [86] has constructed a Stone-Cech type compactification of a
fuzzy completely regular (6.3) space by embedding it into the cube (5" (/))*
of the corresponding weight and subsequently taking closure in it. Wang
Goujun has investigated ..-F-compactifications of a fuzzy space. An entirely
different approach to the compactification problem in fuzzy topology is
developed by Eklund [25] (see also 15.7). Compactifications of fuzzy
subsets of fuzzy spaces have been considered in [177]. In conclusion we
dwell on some unresolved problems in compactification theory.
1) To obtain an internal description of compactifications of fuzzy spaces
and fuzzy subsets of them.
2) To construct a fuzzy Wallman type compactification [112].
3) To describe compactifications of fuzzy spaces in terms of fuzzy
proximities (in the spirit of Yu.M. Smirnov's theory) [112], involving either
an already known [64], [65], [8], [178] or a new fuzzy proximity type
structure.
4) To develop a general categorical theory of extensions of fuzzy spaces
and fuzzy subsets.
7.11. Paracompactness of fuzzy spaces.
The -paracompactness property of a fuzzy space (in the spirit of 7.2) has
been studied in [109]. A deep analysis of the Q-paracompactness property
157
of fuzzy spaces and fuzzy subspaces (in the spirit of Q-compactness, 7.8) has
been undertaken in [107]. Paracompactness type properties are considered
in a number of other papers.
8.
Connectedness in fuzzy spaces
8.1. C o n n e c t e d n e s s o f f u z z y sets: t h e approach o f Pu and Liu [ 1 1 7 ] , [ 1 1 8 ] .

We call a fuzzy set in a fuzzy space (X, r) (C-)disconnected if there are
, < such that /\ 0, /\ 0, < A V , and

A /\ /\ = 0. We call a fuzzy set (unconnected if it is not
disconnected. A fuzzy space (X, r) is called connected if the constant
= 1 is connected.
The closure of a connected fuzzy set is connected. The connectedness
property is preserved by continuous maps.
Any maximal connected fuzzy set contained (in the sense of < ) in a
given fuzzy set is called a component of M. Every connected fuzzy
subset ( < ) of a fuzzy set is contained in a component of M. In addition,
if and '2 are two components of a fuzzy set M, then A\ V N2 is
disconnected (both as a fuzzy subset in X and as a fuzzy subset of the
subspace M~l(0, 1 ]). If a fuzzy set is closed, then so is each component of it.
A product of non-empty fuzzy spaces is connected if and only if every
factor is connected. (Let us note that in the proof of this fact a transition
to the laminated modification (2.2) is used, which does not influence the
connectedness property.) A topological space (X, T) is connected if and
only if the fuzzy space (, ) is connected.
8.2. 0-connectedness of fuzzy sets.
We call a fuzzy set in a fuzzy space (X, r) O-disconnected if there are
U, F r such that /\ U 0, /\ V 0, < U V V, and
/\ U /\ V = 0; otherwise we call O-connected. Lowen [96] calls a
fuzzy space connected if each strictly positive open-and-closed fuzzy subset
is O-connected.
In contrast to general topology, the use of closed fuzzy sets and open
fuzzy sets in definitions of "connectedness" of fuzzy sets results in distinct
concepts, C-connectedness and O-connectedness respectively. For example,
let (X, 71 be a connected topological space represented as a union X = U Z,
= 0, , , and 0 < < 1. We define fuzzy topologies ,,
i = 1, 2, on X by means of subbases m = {: GE /} U {*/,, F,} U
respectively, where Ux: = OLY, VX : = aZ, U2 ' = U[, V2 ' = V[. It is easy to
verify that in (X, r t ) all the constants |3 G / are C-connected, but not
O-connected for |3 < a; on the contrary, in (X, r 2 ) all the constants | 3 7
are O-connected, but not C-connected for < .
8.3. Pathwise connectedness of fuzzy sets.
Let be a fuzzy topology on / formed by all U: / -* I such that i7~1(0, 1 ]
is an open subset in /. Following Zheng Chong-you [171], we define a
158
A.P. Shostak
fuzzy path in a fuzzy space (X, r) as a fuzzy subspace of the form (1),
where : (/, ) -+ (, ) is a continuous map and / is a C-connected fuzzy
subset in (/, ) such that 1(0) > 0, /(I) > 0. In this connection the fuzzy
points ') and p1^ are called, respectively, the beginning and the end of
the fuzzy path (1). A fuzzy set is called pathwise connected if for
any two fuzzy points p, g g= there is a fuzzy path (1) in (that is,
?(/) < M) for which is the beginning and q is the end [171].
A pathwise connected fuzzy set is both C-connected and 0-connected. If
a family of pathwise connected fuzzy sets has a non-empty intersection,
then the union is pathwise connected as well. Every pathwise connected
fuzzy subset of a fuzzy set is contained in some pathwise connected
component of K. In addition, different pathwise connected components of
a fuzzy set are disjoint [171]. (Certain mistakes in the proofs of these facts
made in [171] have been corrected by Wuyts [167].)
8.4. A spectral theory of connectedness of fuzzy sets in fuzzy spaces (in
the spirit of the spectral theories in 5.1, 7.4) is developed in [ 1 4 9 ] , [ 1 5 0 ] .
8.5. Connectedness properties of the fuzzy real line and subspaces of it.
Rodabaugh [124] has shown that there are no non-empty open fuzzy sets U
and V in ,<f (IR) such that U /\ V = 0 and (U V V) (x) > 0 for all G X
(that is, making use of Rodabaugh's terminology, f (R) is 1-connected).
Recently Kubiak [175], invoking the Helly space construction [29], has
established that the fuzzy interval f (I), the fuzzy cube $ (I)k, and their
laminated versions are ultraconnected (2.5), and therefore (because the
properties of C- and O-connectedness are good ones) C-connected and
O-connected as well.
9. Fuzzy metric spaces and metrization of fuzzy spaces
There are several viewpoints of the notions of a metric and metrizability in
fuzzy topology. They can be divided into two main groups.
9.1. The first group is formed by those papers in which a fuzzy
+
(pseudo-)metric on a set X is treated as a map d: >- R , where
x
x
X CZ I (for example, -f = I (Erceg [31]) or X = the totality of all fuzzy
points of a set X (Deng [20], Hu Chang-ming [53])) satisfying some
collection of axioms or other that are analogues of the ordinary (pseudo-)
metric axioms. Thus, in such an approach numerical distances are set up
between fuzzy objects.
The main problems in which the authors of this approach are interested
are: how a fuzzy metric induces a fuzzy (quasi)uniformity (in the sense of
[59]) and a fuzzy topology [31], [20], [53]; critieria of (pseudo)
metrizability (that in [31] is in the spirit of [29] p. 523, and that in [53]
is a fuzzy version of the Nagata-Smirnov theorem); separation properties in
(pseudo)metrie spaces [31], [7], [53], [21]; properties of completeness
and total boundedness type [7], [21].
Two decades of fuzzy topology, basic ideas, notions, and results
159
It follows from the results of [31] and [7] that an approach to the
(pseudo)metrizability problem in fuzzy topology from the viewpoint of
fuzzy (quasi)uniformities due to Hutton [55], [57] is equivalent to Erceg's
approach [31].
9.2. We include in the second group those papers in which the distance
between objects is fuzzy; the objects themselves may be either crisp, or
(more seldom) fuzzy. In our opinion, the most interesting papers in this
direction are those of Kaleva, Seikkala, and Eklund and Gahler [63], [61],
[28].
We define a fuzzy metric on a set X as a map d: X X X -- CJ (R), where
J(R)is the interval real line (13), satisfying the axioms: (1) d(x, y) = 0 if
and only if* = y; (2)d(x, y) = d( y, x); and (3) d(x, z) <d(x, y)+d(y, z),
x, y, . A number d(x, y)(t) is treated in this connection as the
"possibility" [170] that the distance between and y is equal to t. The
pair (X, d) is called a fuzzy metric space [63], [28]. (In [63] the authors
proceed from a more general definition according to which a fuzzy metric
space is a quadruple (X, d, L, R), where L, R : / 2 - / are symmetric
decreasing functions with L(0, 0) = 0, R(l, 1) = 1. In the case where
L = Min, R Max, this definition is equivalent to the one presented above.
On the other hand, for an appropriate choice of L and R every Menger
space [132] can be described as (X, d, L, R).)
In [61] the notion of a Cauchy sequence in a fuzzy metric space is
defined and on that basis the notion of completeness of a fuzzy metric
space is introduced. If lim d (x, y) (t) = 0 for all x, y G X, then the space
t-a
(X, d) has a unique completion up to an isomorphism [61].

Eklund and Gahler [28] worked out a construction that enables us to
assign a fuzzy (laminated) topology (d, 'S) on a set X to an arbitrary fuzzy
metric d on X and every family of maps : (0, 1] -*- 3 (R) satisfying
certain conditions. (Unfortunately, we cannot present that interesting but
rather cumbersome construction here.) A fuzzy space (X, r) is called
+
metrizable if = (d, ')for some d and <S. If %0 '= { t ^ R ), where
( t, then a fuzzy topology (d, ^ 0 ) is topologically generated (2.2). In
particular, if (X, T) is a topological space metrized with a metric m, then
= ( (/), 'So), where ()(, y) : = m(x, y).
Applying the so-called method of levelwise representation of fuzzy
numbers, Eklund and Gahler [28] define a fuzzy metric on the interval real
line ,7 (R) itself; for different this metric generates different fuzzy
topologies (, g) on J (R)(see also 13).
9.3. Stratifiable spaces.
The class of stratifiable topological spaces first distinguished by Ceder and
studied in detail by Borges [13] is one of the most interesting representatives
of the group of so-called generalized metrizable spaces. In [135] the notion
160
A.P. Shostak
of a stratifiable space was extended to the fuzzy case. We remark that the
property of a fuzzy space of being stratifiable may be used in some cases
instead of fuzzy metrizability type properties, and at the same time it is
comparatively easily amenable to study in the framework of fuzzy topology.
A fuzzy space (X, r) is called stratifiable [135], [136] if it is possible to
associate with every U G a sequence (/) C r in such a way that
(l)Dn<U
for all e ; (2) V Un = U, and (3) if U < V, VET, then
Un < Vn for all e N.
The definition introduced above is good in the sense of Lowen (2.2).
Every fuzzy stratifiable space is perfectly normal (6.2). The class of fuzzy
stratifiable spaces is invariant under transition to subspaces and closed
images. A fuzzy space dominated by a family of fuzzy stratifiable spaces is
stratifiable. A product of countably many laminated fuzzy spaces is
stratifiable if and only if all the factors are stratifiable [135], [136].
In [137] maps of stratifiable spaces to the fuzzy interval f (I) are
considered. In particular, it is shown that a fuzzy space (, r) is stratifiable
if and only if it is possible to associate with every U G a continuous map
/tr: X -*- f (J) satisfying the condition fu{x){\~) - Uc{x), G X, in such a
way that U < V G implies fv
<fv.
If (, ) is a stratifiable space, then it is possible to associate with every
pair (A, U), where A G r c , U G r and A < U, a function (fAU = ) /: X ->- f (I)
satisfying the inequalities A(x) < / ( * ) ( ) </Qc)(O + ) < U(x), G X, in such
a way that if A < and U < V (where G rc', V G , < V), then
JBV
<l
1AU-
What should be regarded as the analogue of a given topological space

(either arbitrary or at least among the most important ones, such as the real
line R, the unit interval /, and so on) in fuzzy topology? A kind of answer
to this question is contained in subsections 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, where the functors
e, , and r? have been considered, enabling us to associate with a topological
space (X, T) the fuzzy spaces (X, eT), {, ), and (, ), which can be
viewed as fuzzy copies of the original space. An essential feature of these
functors is that they change the topological structure only, leaving the
underlying set of the space unchanged. However, being to a certain extent
a copy of the topological space (X, T), a fuzzy space of type (, )
cannot, as a rule, play in fuzzy topology the role taken by (X, T) in the
category Top. We may say that objects of the type (, ) are too "poor"
to fulfil in fuzzy topology the functions of the object (X, T) in Top.
In the next five sections we shall consider important constructions of
fuzzy topology having an essentially different nature and enabling us to
approach the problem in a different way. The most completely investigated
construction among them is the so-called fuzzy real line f (R).
161
10. The fuzzy real line (R) and its subspaces

In 1974 Hutton [54] constructed the ,-fuzzy interval fL (I), and 4 years
later Gantner, Steinlage, and Warren, by developing Hutton's idea, introduced
the ,-fuzzy real line f r, (R) (in the original papers the notations I(L) and
R (L) are used, respectively). Laminated versions of the ,-fuzzy real line
(R) and the ,-fuzzy interval \ (I) appear for the first time in [ 126].
The fundamental significance of the Z-fuzzy real line for fuzzy topology
(and for the whole of "fuzzy set mathematics") stems from its topological
and algebraic properties, which enable us to consider it as the (most
important) fuzzy analogue of the ordinary real line, as well as the universal
and categorical [125] nature of its construction. We recall also that the
fuzzy real line underlies the definition of a fuzzy-valued measure [52], [79],
and others.
In the present work, following its main trend, we give most attention to
the [/]-fuzzy real line (R), that is, to the case L = I; certain features of
the general case will be noted in 10.6.
10.1. Construction of the fuzzy real lines (R), > (R).
Let (R) be the set of all non-increasing maps z: R ->- / such that
sup () = 1, inf () - 0. We introduce an equivalence relation ~ on Z(R)
X
by putting z1 ~ z 2 if and only if z1(x+) = z2(x+) and Zj(x~) = z2(x~) for all
e R (here (x+): = sup (), (~): = inf (t)), and let (R) be the
t>x
t<x
set quotient of (R) by the relation ~. (It is useful to note that there is
precisely one left semicontinuous function in each equivalence class
[z] e (R), see [123], [97].) We introduce a partial order < on (R)by
putting [zj < [z2] if and only if z1(x+) < z2(x+) for every X.
We define a fuzzy topology on f (R)by taking as a subbase the family
of fuzzy sets {lb, ra: b, e R) d / y ^ ) ; where lb, ra are determined by
lb[z] = z(b~)c(= 1 z(b~)), ra[z] = z(a+) respectively. The fuzzy real line
and the laminated fuzzy real line can now be introduced as follows:
f (R): = (f (R), ) and f (R) : = (f (R), ), where is the laminated
modification functor (2.2).
The subspaces of the fuzzy real line of the form
f(a,b) : = { [ z ] : 2 G Z ( R ) , 2 ( + ) = l , . ( i i > 0 } and
f la, b] := {[zh z e Z ( R ) , (<r) = 1, (b+) = 0},
where a, b 6 R, a < b, are called open and closed fuzzy intervals, respectively.
In particular, f 10, 1] = $ (I) in the Hutton closed fuzzy interval [54]. It
is not difficult to show that the spaces jf (a, b) and $ (R) are homeomorphic.
We expect the reader will have no difficulty now in defining the spaces
.f la, b), (a, b], f [a, + oo), f (e, b], (a, +oo), f (oo, b) and
their laminated versions, and in establishing which of these spaces are
162
A.P. Shostak
homeomorphic to each other. In the sequel we shall also need the following
+
notation: f (R ) : = (0, +00), f (R-) : = f (-00,0), f (R) : =
=
^(-,-).
>0
By identifying a number R withlx(_cxi,a]l, that is, with the equivalence

class containing the characteristic function of the set (, a], we are able to
consider [R as a subset of f (R). Moreover, the fuzzy topology induces on
R the ordinary (order) topology T< (and induces the fuzzy topology
7 <), which makes it possible to speak about the real line as a (canonical)
subspace of the fuzzy real line f (R).
We remark that a construction of (R)analogous to the construction of
f (R) was proposed independently by Hohle [50]. Up to an isomorphism
3f, (R)may be characterized as the set f (R) endowed with the weakest
fuzzy topology * containing such that
( P 6 *, a ^ I) -+ {{U + a) /\ ^ *, (C7 a) V 0 < *)
(For properties of (R) see also [ 100]-[102].)
10.2. Algebraic properties of the fuzzy real line.
In [123], [127] Rodabaugh defined the sum and product operations
on the set $ (R). The definitions given by Rodabaugh are very cumbersome
and require additional constructions. In [97] Lowen showed that the sum
of elements [zj, [zj e f (R) can be characterized by [zt] h2] (x) =
= sap (zx (t) /\ z 2 ( ))> where on the right hand side there appear left
semicontinuous representatives of the corresponding equivalence classes.
Without dwelling on the definition of the product O, let us present,
following Rodabaugh [127], the basic algebraic properties of the system
(f (R), -,The operations and induce on R, viewed as a subspace of & (R), the
ordinary sum and product, respectively, ( f (R), ) is an additive Abelian
semigroup with zero O e R , and (& (R), Q) is a multiplicative Abelian
semigroup with unity 1 R; in addition, is distributive over @. Let
a , i f (R). Then a Q b = 0 <<=> either a = 0 or b = 0; a Q b <
E R \ {0} =* a, b < R \ {0}. If a < b, then a Q c < b 0 e f or e e f (R+)
and 6 0 c < G c for c e " (R~) Both sets f (R+) and f (R") are
invariant under the operation .
The elements of the set f (R) are called fuzzy zeros. It is not difficult
to show that f (R) R = {0}; a Q b <=: f (R) ^ either a e f (R) or
i 6 i (R); if a, b f (R) then a 0 6 e .f (R); | f(R) I = ! ^ ( R ) | = c.
It is possible to cancel elements lying outside iF (R): i f a Q ^ = a O
Of (R), then b = c.
163
For every s f ( R ) w e p u t - a : = ( - l ) a a n d Aa : = {b: a -|- b f (R)}

The elements of Aa are called fuzzy additive inverses to a. It is not difficult
to verify that -a e Aa, Aa f) R = {a} for R and | 4 0 R I = c for
R.
The elements of the set f (1R1) : = {a + 1: fl6f(R0)} are called /wzzj
units. Rodabaugh shows that | f (R1) f (R) I = c; i f o , 6 e f (iR1),
then a Q J E f (R 1 ); i f a . l f (R1) f (R), then a + ,f (R 1 );
^ (R 1 ) R = {1}
The elements of the set Ma : = { , (): a Q t e f (R1)}, where
, (R), are called fuzzy multiplicative inverses to a. If = R,
thenM 0 R = $ , otherwise | / R ! = c; | Ma \ = | Ma f] Aa | = c.
(Rodabaugh [127] calls any algebraic system (H, +, , < ) satisfying the
properties similar to those listed above a fuzzy hyperfield. The prefix
"hyper" indicates that such a system is obtained as a fuzzy extension of an
ordinary field, in our case R.)
10.3. Continuity of algebraic operations on fuzzy real lines.
The continuity of the sum .f (R) x .f (R) -+ f (R) was established [123]
by using hypergraph functors (2.8); soon after, a simpler proof of the same
fact was obtained [97]. In [127] the continuity of the product operation
O f ( R ) x i ( R ) - ^ f (R) was proved.
It is important to note, however, that for fixed a e= f (R) and
6 (R++) U & ( R " ) the maps ha, gb: $ (R) -- & (R), defined by
ha (s) :=-- s and i t (s) : = i 0 s, s f (R), in general are not
homeomorphisms but only weak homeomorphisms, because the inverse maps
1 ! gb1 f (R) -* f (R)> being weakly continuous, need not be continuous
[123], [127]. (The property of weak continuity for a m a p / : (, ) -
-* (, ) distinguished by Rodabaugh [122], which is intermediate between
the property of continuity of/itself and the property of continuity of the
m a p / : (X, LTX) -> (Y, LTY), is an interesting and specifically fuzzy property
of maps between fuzzy spaces.) If a, b e R and b 0, then both ha and gb
are homeomorphisms [123], [127].
In connection with what we have said above it is interesting to note that
while f (R) is not -compact for any a E [0, 1), the space f (R) is
0-compact for G f (R) \ R. Thus, a "shift" of the fuzzy real line by a
"fuzzy vector" results in an essentially different object! It is not known
[127] whether the space <f (R) b is 0-compact (or at least -compact for
some e [0, 1)) when l e f (R ++ ) U f (R"~).
All we have said above remains valid for the laminated real line % (R) as
well.
It is not known if there exists a continuous extension of the algebraic
operations + and from the complex plane C = R x R to the fuzzy space
f (R) f (R) containing it in a canonical way [123].
164
A.P. Shostak
10.4. Topological properties of fuzzy real lines and fuzzy intervals have
been discussed in the corresponding subsections (6.2, 6.3, 7.2, 8.5, and so
on).
10.5. The role of the fuzzy real line in fuzzy topology.
We have tried to clarify this role when considering the corresponding
problems. In this connection we recall the "fuzzy Urysohn lemma" (6.1),
the "fuzzy Vedenissoff theorem", the "fuzzy Tietze-Urysohn theorems"
(6.1, 6.2), the functional characterization of stratifiable spaces (9.3), and so
on. The fuzzy real line is successfully and "purposely" (that is, as an
analogue of the ordinary real line) used also in the the theory of fuzzy
uniformities [55], [128], fuzzy proximity theory [65], in certain
constructions of compactifications ([85], [86], [177], and others).
We note also that every statement in the category CFT involving the
fuzzy real line remains true in the category LCFT with ;F(R) replaced by
the laminated fuzzy real line fx (R) (by the way, this is a manifestation of
the universality of the fuzzy real line construction).
10.6. On the I-fuzzy real lines fL (R) and fl (R).
Substituting an arbitrary fuzzy lattice L for the interval / in the definitions
of 10.1, we arrive at the constructions of the Z-fuzzy real lines fL (R),
fl (R) and the ,-fuzzy intervals fL (7) and f\ (I), see [54], [35], [ 126].
In particular, for L = 2 the 2-fuzzy real lines \ (R)and ^"2 (R) are
isomorphic to the ordinary real line R, and the 2-fuzzy intervals fr* (7)and
\ (/) are isomorphic to the ordinary interval /.
Properties of ,-fuzzy real lines and their subspaces may depend heavily on
the choice of Z. Let us illustrate this by just one example. Artico and
Moresco [9], while studying the property of a*-compactness (a G Z + ) of
the space .ft (/)(= the compactness of the space . (fL (7))(2.7)),
established that if is a chain (for example, = ), then ^ L (/) is a*-compact
for all a; but if L = 2Z for a set Z, then fL (I) is a*-compact if and only if
either | | < tf0 or | | > c .
11. Fuzzy modification of a linearly ordered space

The main idea of constructing the fuzzy real line was used in [147] to
construct the fuzzy modification (fuzzification) of an arbitrary linearly
ordered space.
Let X be a linearly ordered space. We define the set Z{X) and an
equivalence relation ~ on it by analogy with 10.1, and let () be the set
quotient of Z(X) by the ~ relation. Then by analogy with 10.1 we define a
fuzzy topology on X (X) and put
X (X) : = ( (), ), X>- (X) : = ( (),
).
165
The fuzzy spaces X (X) and () are called respectively the fuzzy
modification {fuzzification) and laminated fuzzy modification {laminated
fuzzification) of the linearly ordered space X. Clearly, X (R) is precisely the
fuzzy real line f (R), and (R) is the laminated fuzzy real line $~?" (R).
Although the spaces X (I) and f (/) are distinct, an isomorphism between
them is easily constructed.
By identifying an element a G X with the function class iy.(_,O]] = X (X),
we canonically identify X with a subspace of X (X), and with a subspace
of ().
The weight of a space X is equal to the weight of the fuzzy space X (X),
and if | | > $0, it is equal to the weight of (X) as well. (We define
the weight of a fuzzy space as the minimal cardinality of a base for a fuzzy
topology of it.)
The following conditions are equivalent: (1) the space X is bounded (that
is, there are maximal and minimal elements); (2) the space X (X) is strongly
compact; (3) the space X (X) is -compact for some a [0, 1). If X is not
bounded, then for every a [ 0 , 1) the -Lindelof number (7.2) of X (X) is
equal to the cofinal character of X, see [147].
A fuzzy space X (X) is stratifiable if and only if X is metrizable [ 147].
Similar statements are also valid for ().
Let (, <^), (, <) be linearly ordered spaces and let / : X -* be a nondecreasing continuous map. For every = Z{X) we define uz Z{Y) by
putting uz (y) : = inf {z (x): f (x) < y} if (<-, ] f{X) and uz{y): = 1
otherwise. The map / () - j (5r) defined by f[z] = [uz] is continuous.
If/: -- is an increasing homeomorphism, then the map /: X {X) -*- X (Y)
is a homeomorphism as well. Thus, the fuzzy modification X can be viewed
as an embedding functor from the category Ord of linearly ordered spaces
and continuous non-decreasing maps into the category CFT; this functor
associates with a linearly ordered space X the fuzzy space X (X) and with a
continuous non-decreasing m a p / : X-* the continuous map f:X(X) -+ X(Y).
Similarly, a laminated fuzzy modification can be treated as a functor
&; Ord-*- LCFT [148].
In the case when the linearly ordered space X is connected, the fuzzy
modification X (X) is isomorphic to the construction of tt (X) due to Klein
[75], see [148].
12. Fuzzy probabilistic modification of a topolbgical space
It is not difficult to note [40] that elements of the fuzzy real line f (R)
can be treated as distribution functions on R and by the same token one can
arrive at a probabilistic interpretation of the fuzzy real line. The first to
distinguish explicitly the probabilistic aspect of the fuzzy real line was
Lowen [100] - [ 1 0 2 ] . (Similar ideas are traced in Hohle's works [49], [50],
and others.) Developing the probabilistic treatment of the fuzzy real line,
166
A.P. Shostak
Lowen extended this construction to the class of all separable metric spaces:
he associates [100] with every separable metric space X a fuzzy space on
the set JI (X) of probability measures on X; for X = R this construction
leads to the fuzzy real line f (R)as a particular case. In [140], [44] this
construction is extended to the case of an arbitrary topological space X (and
even an arbitrary fuzzy (1.4) space X).
12.1. Construction of the fuzzy probabilistic modification of a topological
space [140], [144]. (For separable metric spaces see [100], [102].)
Let (X, T) be a topological space, SB (X) the -algebra of all Borel subspaces,
and Ji (X) the set of probability measures on X (that is, -additive maps
p: 3d (X)-*-I). For every family C (2.2) we define a fuzzy topology
Tj on JI (X) by taking as a subbase the family of fuzzy sets
e } C
where 6V (p) : = U dp.
We denote the resulting fuzzy space by
j / s (X) ; = {Ji (), ). In the cases = and = the construction of

the fuzzy probabilistic modification Jl% (X) can be viewed as an embedding
functor Ji%: Top ->- LCFT, associating with a topological space X the fuzzy
space -Mi (X) and with a continuous map / : X -> the (continuous) map
/: M\x (X) -** *& (X) defined by
f(p) {E):=p
( 1 ()) {p<=M (X), E^SB
(X)).
Let < SB {X); we denote by J&\ (X) the subspace of JCi (X) formed by
those measures for which p(Z) = 1. Then for = and = the map
: % () -> Jif () defined by
() ():= ( [} ){(
Ji (), < SB (X))
is a homeomorphism.
Let X be a r o -space. By assigning to each point X the corresponding
Dirac measure px (that is, px{E) = l * x ) w e identify X with the
subset 25 (X) of all Dirac measures of the space JI (X). Under this
identification the topological space X (respectively, the fuzzy space ) is
homeomorphic to the subspace 3) (X) of the space Jl\ (X) if and only if is
a subbase for (respectively, is a subbase for the fuzzy topology ).
Thus, by a "successful" choice of the system the -space "expands" to
the fuzzy space J s (X), which contains the initial space as a (crisp) nucleus,
or a basis; the measures \ {) \ 3) (X) can be treated as kinds of
fuzzy points of the space X (cf. 3.1).
By means of the functor the fuzzy topologies considered above are
closely related to the so-called Aleksandrov topology [ 5 ] W on the probability
measure space JC (X). (In a number of cases, in particular, if is a
separable metric space, W coincides with the so-called weak topology used
in measure theory (see, for example [11], [157]). In particular,
167
it T = ,,, = W. However, as the "forgetful" functor should do, under

transition from CFT to Top the functor loses part of the useful information,
which makes it impossible to investigate the constructions considered here in
the classical measure-theoretic framework. We shall illustrate this by the
following two examples.
For a separable metric space X, the set S> (A) is known to be closed in
the weak topology ([11], and others). The following equality, which is valid
for an arbitrary topological space X, is more subtle:
3(X)(p) = sup {/>{*}:
xtEX),
where 3) (A) is the closure of 3J (X) in either .Mr (A) or (), and is an
arbitrary smooth measure. The meaning of this equality is that the degree
to which a smooth measure is an adherence point for H> (X) in the spaces
JKi (A') and () is equal to the maximal value of its atoms.
We present also the following equality characterizing the closure of the
set CK (X) of all two-valued measures in the spaces JiT (X) and Jt(dT {X) (X is
a topological space): X (X) (p) = sup {/: if /, G and p(t/,) > 1 - t,
i = 1, ..., n, then /j f] ... f] Un 0 } (compare with the well-known
statement [157] on the weak closedness of X (X)).
12.2. The connection between the topological properties of a space X and
its fuzzy probabilistic modification we shall illustrate by the following
assertions [144]. (For a separable metric space see [100].)
The weight of X is equal to the weight of J!T (X), and for (A") > No is
also equal to the weight of JlaT (X). The density of X is equal to both the
density (that is, the least cardinality of dense subspaces) of JiT (X) and the
density of ~ # (').
The following conditions are equivalent: (a) the topological space X is
compact; (b) JlT (A) is compact (7.3); (c) J(T (X) is countably compact
(in the spirit of 7.3); (d) () is compact (7.3); (e) J(aT (A) is
countably compact (7.3). Moreover, in every item b, c, d, e the condition
of (countable) compactness can be replaced either by the condition of ultra
(countable) compactness (7.6) or by the condition of strong (countable)
compactness (7.2).
The separation properties of the fuzzy modification are very delicate.
For example, if X is perfectly normal and \X\ > 2, then
# ( ^ ( ) ) = {(, ): / , + < 1 } \ { ( 0 ,
(the notation follows 5.1). The separation properties in jfT
significantly worse.
1)}
(A) are
12.3. Construction of the fuzzy probabilistic modification as a generalization

of the fuzzy real line.
Assigning to every < Jl (R)the distribution function [40] - P : IR ->- /
defined by zp{t): = p(-, t), t e R, and putting () := [ 1 z p ] , we arrive
168
A.P. Shostak
at a map : Ji (R) -- f (R). Endowing the set JK- (R) with the fuzzy
topology r ff , where : = {( oo, a), (fc. -f co): a, fclR}isa standard
subbase of the real line, we make the map : J!n (R) - f (R) into a
homeomorphism [100]. This enables us to consider the construction of the
fuzzy probabilistic modification as an essential generalization and at the
same time a standardization of the fuzzy real line construction.
We also note the following [ 148]. If X is a linearly ordered space of
countable character without isolated points, then : Jl^ (X) -+ (X) is a
homeomorphism. ( and are defined here by analogy with the preceding
paragraph.)
As Lowen [100] showed, in spite of the fact that the fuzzy topology
on (R) is weaker than , and its laminated version is weaker than
(in particular, their separation properties are considerably worse), the
equality vrn = ^' = W nevertheless remains valid (cf. 12.1), which, in
Lowen's opinion, is of fundamental value. We also point out the identity of
the compactness properties for all spaces of the type J!n(X), MT(X),
(),
where X is a linear space of countable character without isolated points
[100], [148].
13. The interval fuzzy real line

Along with the fuzzy real line f (R)and its variations .f (), Jl (R), (R),
and so on, in the literature on fuzzy topology another construction based
on the real line R is used, which we call here the interval real line.
13.1. The construction and algebraic properties of the interval real line
J ( R ) [63].
We define a regular fuzzy number as a map z: R >- / that is convex (that is,
r < s < / implies min {z (r), (<)} <; (s) for all s, r, t 6 R), normed, upper
semicontinuous, and such that every level of it za : = z~x[a, 1 ], a G (0, 1 ],
is a bounded subset of R (that is, taking into account the preceding
conditions, za = [z al , sa2] for some z a l , z a 2 e= P.) The set of all regular
numbers forms the interval fuzzy real line J (R). Identifying a number
R with the characteristic function , we may consider R as a subset of
the interval real line.
The sum and product of regular fuzzy numbers are defined respectively by
(u + v) (t) : = sup u(s) V (r); (u-v) (t) : = sup u (s)/\v(r).
Clearly,
these operations induce on R the ordinary sum and product operations

respectively. We put u~v : = u + (\)v and ( - I ) M = : u. Then {-u)(t) =
= u(t) for all i e R ; (u + v) = () + (u); both equations a + z 0 and
az = 1 (, % (R) and 0 in the second case) have a solution (which
is unique) if and only if R ([63], see also [115]).
By putting u <; (u, 3 (R)) if and only if uai < u a i , = 1,2, for all
G (0, 1 ] , we obtain a partial order on Cf (R). In addition, if u, , > 0.
169
then z(u + v) - zu + zv. If u < v, then < u and u + < + for every
2 3 (R).
Each J (R) can be represented as = + + ~, where z~, z+ are regular
fuzzy numbers determined by their -levels zZ% : min {z ai , 0} and
+
+
+
Zai : = max {z ai , 0}. We have u~ + v~ < (M + U)~, (t/ + u ) < u + v ,
+
+
+ +
(u-v)~ = inf {u"y , u*v~), (u-v) = sup {M~I>~, u v } [ 2 8 ] .
13.2. Fuzzy metric on y ((R).

As we have mentioned, the interval real line plays a key role in the definition
of a fuzzy metric (9.2). Following [28], we now show how a fuzzy metric
is introduced on ,*f (R) itself. For u, j ( I R ) and (0, 1 ] we put
(u. ) (a) : = \ ual Vai \ -r \ ua2 i' o 2 I and let
I u, | : = [0. sup (u. ) ()].
It can be verified that the intervals \u, v\a, a. E (0, 1] uniquely determine a
regular fuzzy number lu, ; I of which they are -levels, and that the map
d: J{R) J ( R ) - v J (R)defined by rf(, u ) : = \u, v\ is a fuzzy metric (9.2)
on J (R).
It is also shown in [28] that \u + z, v + z\ = \u, v\ and \uz, i;zl<
< 10, I IM, I for all u, , Cf ((R), but in general the equality
10, u v\ = \u, v\ fails (and therefore a fuzzy metric cannot be defined by
means of a "fuzzy norm")
14. On hyperspaces of fuzzy sets
Since we cannot consider the construction of hyperspaces of fuzzy sets in
detail in this survey (this would require both a considerable amount of space
and the introduction of new notions), we shall try to give the reader a
certain intuitive idea of hyperspaces of fuzzy sets, constructions which aside
from a theoretical interest for fuzzy topology itself may be used in
applications.
14.1. The hyperspace of fuzzy sets of a uniform space: Lowen's approach
[98], [99].
Let X be a uniform (topological) space; Lowen defines [95] two fuzzy
uniformities on the hyperspace Ix of fuzzy subsets of X, the so-called global
fuzzy uniformity %s and the horizontal fuzzy uniformity %h; we have
%g C %,, We put I* : = (/*, %g), /' : = (/* \ {0}, %,).
On the hyperspace 2X of non-empty subsets of X, considered as a
subspace of Ix, the fuzzy uniformities %e and %h induce the classical
Hausdorff-Bourbaki uniformity ([14], English ed., p. 172). Convergence in
the space Ix is determined by the topology of X, characterizing by the same
token a "horizontal" convergence of fuzzy sets; convergence in the
hyperspace Ix is determined by both the topology of X and the topology of
/, characterizing by the same token the "global" convergence of fuzzy sets.
170
A.P. Shostak
Both in Ix and in If the lower parts of the graphs of fuzzy sets influence
the convergence less than the upper parts do. Therefore the two uniformities
forms a sufficiently fine device for describing the proximity and convergence
relations between fuzzy sets whose lower parts are either inaccurately
defined or not defined at all, which may prove to be useful in certain
applications (see, for example, [23], [81]).
If / : X -* is a uniformly continuous map between uniform spaces, then
the maps / : Ix -* 1%, / : -^/ ~* Ij (0-6) are uniformly continuous as well (in
the sense of [95]) and therefore continuous.
Let () be the subspace of If formed by all U G Ix that are upper
semicontinuous. A uniform space X is compact (precompact) if and only if
the fuzzy uniform space () is compact (7.3) (respectively precompact
[104]). The uniform space ( ()), where is the uniform analogue of
the functor (2.4) (see [95]), is isomorphic to a closed subspace of the
hyperspace 2Xxl endowed with the Hausdorff-Bourbaki uniformity (the
corresponding isomorphism sends each G Ix to its endograph
{(*, t): t < ()} e 2*x') [80], [81].
The fuzzy space If is not topologically generated, whatever the initial
space X may be. Also, the subspace \ of Ix formed by those G Ix for
which sup M(x) = a is not topologically generated for any a G (0, 1 ].
Lowen stresses that the existence of natural and important (laminated) fuzzy
spaces such as Ix and I*h that are not topologically generated (and therefore
cannot be studied by means of ordinary topological methods) is evidence of
the need for a general theory of fuzzy topological spaces.
14.2. Other structures on the hyperspace of fuzzy sets of a metric space X.
Kloeden [80] defines a pseudometric on Ix as the Hausdorff distance
between endographs of the corresponding fuzzy sets. A similar pseudometric
on Ix was considered by Goetschel and Voxman [38], [39]. Heilpern [46]
made use of a pseudometric on Ix in which the distance between fuzzy sets
is defined as the supremum of the Hausdorff distances between their -levels
over all G (0, 1]. Kaleva and Seikhala [63] define convergence of a
sequence of fuzzy sets (Mn) C Ix to G Ix as convergence for each
a G (0, 1] of the corresponding -level sequences (M~^l[a., 1]) to M~ [OL, 1]
in the Hausdorff pseudometric on the space 2X.
A comparative analysis of these approaches in the case ' = " is
performed in [62].
1
15. Another view of the subject of fuzzy topology and certain

categorical aspects of it
In the preceding sections, as a rule, we have considered fuzzy topological
spaces in the classical [169], [16] sense, that is, fuzziness has been treated
as the possibility for characteristic functions to take values in the interval /.
171
The general case of L-fuzzy topological spaces, where L is a fuzzy lattice,

has been considered occasionally and for illustrative purposes only. We
stress, however, that although properties of Z-fuzzy spaces may depend
heavily on concrete properties of the lattice L, and their study sometimes
meets additional serious technical difficulties, the theory of ,-fuzzy spaces
for an arbitrary (fixed) fuzzy lattice is based as a whole on the same ideas
as the "classical" theory presented above, and in this sense it can be viewed
as a direct generalization of the latter.
An entirely different view of the subject and problematics of fuzzy
topology arises if we consider Z-fuzzy spaces for various fuzzy lattices L
simultaneously. This view of the subject of fuzzy topology, the idea of
which goes back to Hutton's papers [56], [57], has been developed
successfully by Rodabaugh [125], [128], Eklund and Gahler [25], [28],
and the author [145], [154]. (Similar ideas are contained in T. Kubiak's
dissertation (unpublished).)
In this section, following the papers [145], [154] (based on the
fundamental ideas of Hutton [56]), we shall define the category GFT (the
so-called general category of fuzzy topological spaces), discuss certain
specific properties of it, and show how all the categories of fuzzy topology
described above may be identified with relevant subcategories of it. In
15.5-15.8 we shall dwell on the category of Hutton fuzzy spaces and
try to illustrate by an example of it the specific features of the topological
theory that arises.
15.1. The category GFT [145], [154].
Let Lat be the category whose objects are fuzzy lattices (0.3) and whose
morphisms are maps : 1^ -* L2 preserving the supremum, infimum, 0, 1,
and involution. (The category Latp opposite to Lat [43] is exactly the
category FuzLat defined by Hutton [56], see also [27].) The objects of
the category GFT are triples (X, L. if) where X is a set, L is a fuzzy lattice,
x
and 0: L -* L is an I-fuzzy topology (1.4) on X. We declare the
morphisms of GFT to be those pairs (/, ): (, Lx, 3) -> ('2, L2, 2) that
are morphisms in the category Set X Lat01' (that is, / : -> 2 is a settheoretic map and '1 : L2 -* L1 is a morphism in Lat) and, moreover, such
1
1
7
y
that #"j ( ' = /) > " (<f ()) for each A G 7 a kind of continuity
condition! (Following the terminology of Eklund and Gahler [28], we may
say that Set Latp is declared to be the ground category for GFT. In
contrast, for the categories Top, CFT, FT, CFT(L), LCFT(L), and so on,
the ground category is the category Set\) If (/,, ): (-,, Lx, 3) -- (X2, L2, <f2 )
and (/s, 2 ): ( 2 , L2, iT.2)->- (X3, L^f3)
are morphisms in GFT, then their
composition is defined as (/2 ft, 2 cp^: (X,, Lx, ?,) -*- ( Z 3 , Z 3 , $"3). As
identity morphisms we take pairs of the form (idx, id L ): (X. L,f) ->-
172
A.P. Shostak
15.2. Product in GFT [145], [154].

We shall illustrate the features of the viewpoint presented above of the
subject of fuzzy topology, as well as the specific character of the problems
arising, by an example of the product in GFT.
Let , be sets, L, fuzzy lattices, 8: KY ->- a A^-fuzzy topology on
Y, and (/ ): (X, L) -* (Y, K) a morphism in Set Lafp. The weakest
Z-fuzzy topology if on X making (/, ): (X, L. f) -*- (Y. K, S) a morphism
in GFT is called initial for the pair (/, ). It is not difficult to verify that
it can be defined by if (U) : = V i^a ~ & ((/) " 1 : a GE K+), U G Lx,
a
where F : = {<f oNi
: EE K , 8 (N) > a}. Now let {(Yy,Ly, #\); 6 }
be a family of fuzzy spaces and {(/, ): (7, ) ->- (, Ly) : y Gr } a

family of morphisms in Set X Lafv. The weakest Z-fuzzy topology eT on
making all (fy, ) continuous is called initial for that family. It is easily
verified that 3~ = sup SFy (1.6), where 3~y is the ,-fuzzy topology on X
initial for (fy, ).

Turning to the definition of the product in GFT, we first recall the
operation of fuzzy lattice product introduced by Hutton [56]. Let
{Ly: } be a family of fuzzy lattices. The elements of the lattice
L = (g> Ly are declared to be subsets a d II {Ly: y } ( stands for the
product in Set) such that 1) if t G a and s < t, then s G a (for j , / , +
the inequality s < t means that sy < in L 7 for each G ) and 2) if
7 C , and b - Uby C a, then /3 = (/?7) G a, where 0 = sup by. By
means of the relation a < *> C 6, where a, J e i , the set Z, is made into
a lattice; finally, putting i c :== {x: (Vy ( b)(3y e? T)(xy < ,/)}, we can view
as a fuzzy lattice. (For example, if Ly = 2zv, where Zy is a set, then
<g) Z Y ss 2 nz v.) The equality ,1 (<Ye) = {s e : sY, < ^ J determines a
map ^ : L Yi ->- Z. Hutton demonstrates that the operation Y Z Y defined in
such a way together with the projections 7 : - is a product in ''.
We consider now a family {(^Y, Z Y , ^ ) : } of fuzzy spaces and put
X:= LI Xy, Z : = g) Ly.
Let 5~ be an Z-fuzzy topology on X initial for the
family {(py, ): (', ) ->- (XY, , <^"); GE }, where py : X -* Xy are

projection maps and iry : L -* Ly are defined as above. Then the fuzzy
space (X. L, if) is the product of the family of fuzzy spaces
{(Xy, Ly, ):} in GFT.
We call the reader's attention to the fact that every statement about the
product in GFT contains information which is entirely different from that
contained in a similar statement about the product either in FT{L) (1.4) or
in any other category from 1. One of the reasons is that a lattice changes
under the product operation in GFT (which seems natural if one remembers
that the ground category for GFT is Set X Latop rather than Set as, for
example, in the case of FT(L)). Moreover, as Eklund [25] established, the
lattice Z Y , where Ly = for all G , Irl > 2, is isomorphic to if and
173
only if L = 2. Hence it follows, in particular, that for ordinary topological

spaces and only for them the ordinary product coincides with that in GFT
(and, therefore, with the product in any subcategory), which is one of the
manifestations of the "invariance" of general topology in fuzzy topology!
In conclusion we remark that the category GFT has equalizers (see, for
example, [43]), which means, together with the presence of products in it,
the completeness of GFT.
15.3. Certain subcategories of GFT.
We denote by GCFT the full subcategory of GFT formed by all Chang
Z-fuzzy spaces (1.2), by GLFT the full subcategory of GFT formed by all
laminated Z-fuzzy spaces (1.3), by GOFT the full subcategory of GFT
formed by all Z-fuzzy spaces, where runs over orthocomplemented lattices,
and by GFT(L), where is a fixed fuzzy lattice, the full subcategory of
GFT formed by Z-fuzzy spaces. An obvious meaning is assigned to the
notation GLCFT, GOCFT, GCFT{L), GLFT(L), and so on.
It is easily observed that GCFT is naturally isomorphic to the category
Fuzz introduced by Rodabaugh [125]. The category GCFT is an epireflexive
and epicoreflexive [154] subcategory of GFT. The category GLFT is
epicoreflexive but not reflexive in GFT [154]. (To verify that GLFT is not
reflexive in GFT, it suffices to note that the product of infinitely many
copies of the space (X, L, if), where L 2 and if (M) = 1 <H- = const,
is not in GLFT.) Similarly, GLCFT is epicoreflexive but not reflexive in
GCFT. Eklund [25] has shown that GOCFT is epireflexive in GCFT (hence
in GFT as well), while no subcategory of GCFT not containing Top can be
reflexive in GCFT.
We call the reader's attention to the fact that the category GFT(L) is not,
in general, isomorphic to FT(L). (It follows from Rodabaugh's results that
the two categories are isomorphic only if the only endomorphism : L -* L
in Lafv is the identity map. This condition is satisfied by L 2, and one
can show that both categories are isomorphic to Top.) We note also that
the product is absent in GFT(L) for L 2, unlike in FT{L).
To identify categories of the form FT(L) with the corresponding
subcategories in GFT, we denote by GFT{L, ), where L is a fuzzy lattice
and : L -* L is a morphism in Laf1', the subcategory of GFT(L) having the
same objects as GFT(L) and morphisms of the form (/, ), with = " for
a given and some IN. It is easy to check that the category FT(L) can
be identified with the category GFT(L, d), the category CFT(L) of Chang
,-fuzzy spaces (1.1) with GCFT(L, id), the category CLFT(L) of laminated
Chang Z-fuzzy spaces (1.2) with GCLFT(L, id), and so forth.
15.4. Hutton fuzzy spaces.
Let be a fuzzy lattice and (X, r) a Chang Z-fuzzy space (1.1). It is not
difficult to note that in this case X:=LK is a fuzzy lattice as well, and r
forms a subset in ! invariant under taking supremums and finite infimums,
174
A.P. Shostak
and containing 0 and 1. This simple observation enabled Hutton [56] to

distinguish a category >, which was later called the category of Hutton, or
pointless, fuzzy topological spaces. (Similar ideas can be traced in Erceg's
paper [32].)
The objects of are pairs (, ), where X is a fuzzy lattice and r is a
subset in X invariant under taking supremums and finite infimums and
containing 0 and 1; the role of morphisms /: (X1, ,) -> (X^, .,) in .) is
played by maps /"': X% -> Xx preserving sup, inf, involution, 0, 1, and such
that f~\V) e Tj for all V r 2 .
By assigning to a Hutton space {%. ) the L-fuzzy Chang space (*, , ),
where * is a one-point set, an isomorphism is established between the
category S? and the full (epireflexive [26]) subcategory >' of GCFT whose
objects are of the form (* : L. ), where L is a fuzzy lattice and is the
Chang Z-fuzzy topology on * ([125]).
It is not difficult to understand that the category of Hutton spaces S
contains (up to an isomorphism) the category Top as a full subcategory; it
suffices to assign the Hutton space (2X, T) to any topological space (X, T).
We stress here that although both the notion of a Hutton space (the
category ) and the notion of an Z-fuzzy Chang space (the category CFT(L))
generalize the notion of a topological space (the category Top), the purposes
and the ideological basis of these generalizations are diametrically opposite
from the point of view of "classical" topology. The main goal of Hutton is
to study "that part of topology which relates to the lattice theory" [56],
and in order to realize it Hutton ignores points and considers sets as
elements of a lattice and replaces the set-theoretic operations by the lattice
supremum, infimum, and involution operations. On the other hand, in the
theory of Z-fuzzy spaces the notion of a point extends to the notion of an
Z-fuzzy point (in the spirit of 3.1) (and, either explicitly or implicitly,
influences the corresponding theory heavily). We note in this connection
Eklund's paper [26], in which the possibility of "extracting the maximal
point part" of a Hutton space (, ) is studied, that is, representing it in the
x
form (X, L, r), where X zz L and in addition L is not representable as
z
L ^ K for any fuzzy lattice and a set Z, \Z\ > 2.
In conclusion we remark that the use of structure relations only in lattices
X and d X, without appealing to points, makes the theory of Hutton
spaces closer to the theory of locales ([60], [120]), and others). The
connection between the two theories has been studied by Rodabaugh (in
preprints).
15.5. On subspaces of Hutton spaces and fuzzy subspaces of ,-fuzzy spaces.
Let (, ) be a Hutton space and let a s i , For every u E ^ w e put

ua:= (u /\ a)\/(a /\ ac) and let Xa: = {ua: u e X}. Restricting the V and
operations from to a and assigning to each ua E Xa an element
175
u*: = ul /\ a (=(i/ c ) 0 )e , we get a fuzzy lattice Xa with an involution

un ->- w*. In this case TO: = {UU: u e } is a fuzzy topology on Xa, and hence
(52Q, ) is a Hutton fuzzy space. (Xa, ) is called a subspace of the Hutton
space (, ) [32].
In the case S = LA' and a C X the subspace (,2!, ) of the Hutton space
(, ) is isomorphic to the subspace (a, ra) (1.7) of the Chang ,-fuzzy space
(X, r); on the other hand, the notion of a subspace of a category in
makes it possible to speak about a fuzzy subspace (a, ) of the Chang
,-fuzzy space (X, r) based on an Z-fuzzy subset a Lx (cf. 1.7).
We now consider the basic topological properties in the categories in
question. Pretending neither to completeness nor to representativeness, we
restrict ourselves here to the Hausdorff, compactness, and connectedness
properties in the category ) of Hutton spaces. The choice of the category
is not accidental: on the one hand, by replacing the space (Lx, ) e Ob ()
by the space (X, L, r) Ob(GCFT) the notions we have introduced are
extended to GCFT and, furthermore, to GFT, and on the other hand, the
category enables us to understand both the specific character due to the
use of different lattices and the ideology of the "pointless" approach.
15.6. Separation in ).
Clearly, when defining the Hausdorff property and other lower separation
axioms for Hutton spaces the ideas of the approaches described in 5 are
inapplicable, for in spite of their diversity each of them appeals to points.
In [57] a "pointless" scheme for separation axioms has been worked out;
we shall present part of it here.
A Hutton space (, ) is called a T0-space if X is the closure of the subset
U TC (where TC: = {UC: U e= }) with respect to arbitrary supremums and
infimums; (, ) is called an R0-space if r is contained in the closure of r c
with respect to arbitrary supremums; (, ) is called an Rrspace if every
u r can be represented in the form
" = V { uab: b e= Ba) = { "at,-- b e Ba},

a
where uah ; (, ) is called a T^-space (T2-space) if it is simultaneously

an Ro- and 7O-space (respectively an / ? r and r o -space). We remark that
these definitions induce the corresponding standard definitions of separation
axioms on Top considered as a subcategory of (15.4).
All the properties considered above are multiplicative (naturally, in the
sense of the definition of a product in or, equivalently, in GFT). A space
(, ) is Hausdorff if and only if the diagonal is closed in .
Nevertheless, the authors have failed to characterize the Hausdorff property
by means of the uniqueness of the limit (in one sense or other) of fuzzy
filters [57].
176
A.P. Shostak
15.7. Compactness in >

Let {, ) be a Hutton space. An element e X is said to be compact if
for each % d such that a <; \/ CW there is a finite subset %0 Cl % such that
a <; \y #,0. A Hutton space (.!, ) is called compact [56] if all a r c are
compact.
It is easy to note that if (X, r) is a Chang L-fuzzy space and the Hutton
space (Lx, r) is compact, then (, ) is compact as well (7.1); the converse
is not valid in general.
A product ((, 3\., ) of a family of Hutton spaces {(iv, ): e } is
compact if and only if all {Zy, TY) are compact [56]. However, the category
Comp ) of compact Hutton spaces is reflexive neither in nor in GCFT
(a similarly defined category Comp GCFT (and even the category Comp
GOCFT) is not reflexive in GCFT either) [25], which rules out the possibility
of constructing an adeuqate compactification theory in these categories
(cf. 7.9).
15.8. Connectedness in ;p.
A Hutton space {, ) is called connected if = {0, 1} It is shown in
[56] that a product ( 5y, ) of a family of Hutton spaces {(Xy, ): }
is connected if and only if all the factors are.
Conclusion: some reflections on the role and significance of fuzzy topology
Although fuzzy topology has already existed for two decades and there
are no fewer than six hundred publications in this area, arguments about the
"legality" of this branch of pure mathematics, and on its role and significance,
are still raging. We make an attempt to express our main reflections in this
connection.
1. Throughout the whole of our, survey we have tried to convince the
reader that fuzzy topology, like any branch of pure mathematics is supposed
to, has a quite definite subject of investigation, enjoys its own development
dynamics and a certain inner harmony.
2. There are interesting and rather important mathematical constructions
due to fuzzy topology in essence (that is, they have arisen in the framework
of fuzzy topology and their study requires the involvement of the apparatus
of fuzzy topology). Examples of such constructions have been considered
in 10-14.
3. Throughout the whole of our work we have intended to trace at all
levels a connection between fuzzy topology on the one hand and general
topology and some other branches of mathematics on the other. Certain
aspects of such a connection are made explicit by those functors and
constructions considered in 2, 11, 12, 14.
4. Fuzzy topology has a certain philosophical significance. In particular,
it provides us with a fresh look at numerous facts of general topology,
177
and at the role of classical two-valued logic in general topology. Since we

cannot dwell on this question (of which an investigation was undertaken by
Rodabaughin preprints, see also [129]), we suggest that the reader should
look, for example, either at the classical Tychonoff theorem on a product of
compacta from the viewpoint of "fuzzy Tychonoff theorems" (7.1-7.5;
15.7) or at the compactification problem for topological spaces from the
viewpoint of compactifications in fuzzy topology (7.9, 7.10, 15.7). It is also
useful to look at the subject and problematics of general topology as a
whole from the viewpoint of the theory presented in 15.
5. The notions and methods of fuzzy topology prove useful in some cases
in posing questions and solving problems of classical mathematics. For
example, in [103] Lowen consideres a certain family of fuzzy topologies on
a metric space [X, d) and demonstrates how the study of this family by the
methods and in the framework of fuzzy topology enables us to obtain useful
(particularly for approximation theory) information on the space (X, d)
itself. Examples of using fuzzy topology in the ordinary "crisp" mathematics
can also be found in [129], [80], [102], and others.
6. When speaking about the use of fuzzy topology ideas, methods, and
results in applied problems, one should note that as yet it has an occasional
and rather superficial character. Among the works in which fuzzy topology
is used to some extent, we mention a note by Ponsard [116] (a discussion
of the application of fuzzy metrics to economics problems), papers by
TopenCarov and Stoeva ([156] and others) (fuzzy topological automata)
and the investigations of Averkin and Tarasov [2] and Logvinenko (attempts
to model the perception process by means of fuzzy topology). We hope
that our survey will promote further popularization of fuzzy topology and,
possibly, an expansion of the so far very meagre list of its applications to
applied problems.
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Translated by V. Pestoff
Latvian State University

Received by the Editors 28 February 1989

Two Decades of Fuzzy Topology

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Uspekhi Mat.

Nauk 44:6 (1989), 99-147

Russian Math. Surveys 44:6(1989), 125-186

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas,

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

verify that for L = 2 these operations reduce to the ordinary set-theoretic

orthocomplemented lattice, then clearly the complementation in Lx is an

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

so on (see [ 169], [41], [ 161], and others).

[24]). It is evident that for ordinary subsets A and of a set X, ii A C

Fuzzy topological spaces: the basic categories of fuzzy topology

1.1. Fuzzy topological spaces: Chang's approach.

As we noted earlier, the first definition of a fuzzy topological space is due

A map / : X -* between fuzzy topological spaces (, ) and (, ) is

containing (0.7) a fuzzy set G Ix is called the closure of M, and the

= for every , G I (see, for example [ 161 ]; cf. [29]).

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

1.3. Laminated fuzzy topological spaces: Lowen's approach.

In this connection the inequality f (U) > , where a G (0, 1 ], is treated as

& (U)< Sf (fU)) for every U G I .

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

0- (U) = V [SO. ) : e L }, where

Let {{Xy, 3~y): } be a family of Z-fuzzy spaces. The product of this

,-fuzzy topology on X which is initial for the family of all projections

generally speaking, homeomorphic to the space Xy<t. A necessary condition

3 A: LA L is a fuzzy topology on A defined by

= sup {<r (y): v = /*, y

cd(/) = sup sup (tHV)V

It is easy to show that

Clearly, the condition cd(/) = 0 means precisely the continuity of/. If

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

Top as a subcategory of CFT:

the natural inclusion functor

2.2. Embedding Top into LCFT: the functor : Top -* LCFT.

for an arbitrary family of fuzzy spaces {Xy: }.

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

relation of belonging due to Wong [166] seem inadequatefor a criticism of

A fuzzy point is a minimal object neither with respect to EE nor with

3.3. Local characterization of the closure and closedness of fuzzy sets.

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

lim = inf {adh f : $' <= $m (f)}

if adh / (,f) > / (adh t f) for every filter f in I or, equivalently, if

(3) for arbitrary I G X , GE fx, and > 0, there is a family

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

a fuzzy space of being a neighbourhood space is characterized internally as

For each constant : / we have /\ = f\ a (see also the example at

have %x %x = Xx . an<3 so (X r) is a non-neighbourhood

b > 0 and a = b for either a = 1 or b = 0;

Let (, r ) be a fuzzy space. For each pair (i, j) e

the Hausdorffness (i, j)-spectrum as the set Hj(X) formed by pairs (, y) I2

laminated, then H\ (X) = H[ (Xa).

(In the general case the equality need

generalizes the topological notion of closedness in an entirely different

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

Properties of the boundary of the spectrum HJ(X) are investigated in [59].

5.5. Separation of fuzzy points: the approaches of Adnadjevic and Sarkar.

6. Normality and complete regularity type properties

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

6.3. Complete regularity.

Two decades of fuzzy topology: basic ideas, notions, and results

(* -1") (that is, C(X, E) is the set of continuous maps

7. Compactness in fuzzy topology

For L = 2 this definition turns into the ordinary definition of compactness