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Unit 1- Mechanics
Module 1- Motion
Quantity
Unit
Abbreviation
Mass
Kilogram
kg
Length
Metre
Time
Second
Temperature
Kelvin
Electrical Current
Ampere
Amount of Substance
mole
mol
Module 1- Motion
Prefix
Name
Abbreviation
10-12
pico
10-9
nano
10-6
micro
10-3
milli
10-2
centi
103
kilo
106
mega
109
giga
1012
tera
Module 1- Motion
Scalar
Vector
Density
Displacement
Temperature
Velocity
Pressure
Acceleration
Potential Difference
Force
Frequency
Impulse
Wavelength
Momentum
Power
Electric Current
Magnetic Field
Electric Field
Module 1- Motion
Fcos
Fsin
Module 1- Motion
-Definitions in kinematics
Speed is distance per unit time.
Displacement is distance
moved in a stated direction.
Acceleration is the rate of
change of velocity.
Average speed =
Average acceleration =
Instantaneous speed is the speed at a given instant of time (it is the gradient
of the graph of displacement against the against time at that instant)
Module 1- Motion
-Graphs of Motion
Displacement/ Time graphs:
A straight line indicates constant velocity
The gradient of a straight line gives the velocity
The gradient at any point is the velocity, and this is called
instantaneous velocity
Velocity/ Time graphs:
The gradient represents acceleration
The area beneath a velocity/ time graph represents the
displacement
Module 1- Motion
-Equations of Motion
Symbol
Quantity
Alternative Quantity
SI Unit
Distance Moved
Displacement
Metre
Second
m s-2
Acceleration
m s-1
Time interval
m s-1
v2= u2 + 2as
s=(
:
)
2
s = ut + at2
s = vt - at2
Module 1- Motion
-Free Fall
An object undergoing free fall on the Earth has an acceleration of g =
9.81 m s-2. Acceleration is a vector quantity- and g acts vertically
downward.
Remember, when answering questions on free fall, make sure you deal
with the horizontal and vertical components separately, and watch out for
negative values.
Module 1- Motion
-Measurement of g
Below is a diagram on the trap door and electromagnet method for
determining g.
There will be a degree of uncertainty
in this experiment because:
1. If the electromagnets current is too
strong there will be a delay in
releasing the ball after the current is
switched off and the clock is
triggered.
2. If the distance of fall is too large, or
the ball is too small, air resistance
might have a noticeable effect on its
speed.
3. You need you make sure you
measure from the bottom of the ball
when it is held by the electromagnet.
One Newton is the force that causes a mass of one kilogram to have an
acceleration of one metre per second every second.
Terminal Velocity:
This is when the drag (upwards) becomes equal to the weight of the object
(downwards) so the resultant force is zero, so it is travelling at a constant velocity.
This is called terminal velocity.
-Equilibrium
The triangle of forces:
Here are some examples of triangular forces:
3N
2.8N
4N
R= 5.7N
4N
R=5N
4N
B
A+B=C
C+D=E
A+B+D=E A
4N
5N
5N
R=1.4N
D
E resultant A+B+D
Resultant
(almost)
zero
-Centre of Gravity
Whenever mass is used, the position of the weight of the object has to be
considered. For all objects there is a point where the entire weight of the object
can be considered to act as a single force, and this is called the centre of gravity
of an object. Although the weight of an object does not act through just the centre
of gravity, it does simply calculations.
-Turning Forces
This is needed when doing things like designing building, to make sure it
can support itself and will not collapse.
Loading forces are usually vertically downwards, and need to be
balanced by vertically upward support forces. We need to establish
equilibrium when working with forces that are parallel.
-Turning Forces
Terms associated with Turning Forces:
Couple- A couple occurs when two forces are equal and
opposite to each other, but are not in a straight line. No
linear acceleration can be produced, as the upward and
downward forces cancel. The resultant of theses forces is
zero, however they can produce rotation.
Torque- This can be applied to a couple and describes a
turning effect of the couple. The formula for torque is:
-Turning Forces
Moment of force = Fx
X
Moment of a force:
The moment of a force is the turning effect of a single
force shown to the right. Moments are also measured
in Newton metres. The principle of moments states
that: For a body in rotational equilibrium, the sum of the
clockwise moments equals the sum of the
anticlockwise moments. (CW=ACW).
F
F
P
X
The moment of a force is
the force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance
from the stated point.
-Density
0.176
Concrete
2400
Oxygen
1.33
Iron
7870
Air
1.29
Copper
8930
Ethanol
789
Silver
10500
Olive oil
920
Gold
19300
Water
1000
Platinum
21500
Mercury
13600
Osmium
22500
Aluminium
2710
-Pressure
Pressure =
, and the SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa). 1 pascal represents
Pressure is defined as
force per unit area.
Eg) An oil tanker has a total mass of 400 000 tonnes (ship + oil). It has a width of
40m and a length of 500m.
Force upward = Weight downward = mg = 400 000 000 kg x 9.81m s-2= 3.92 x 109N.
Upward force due to water = pressure x area of base of ship, so
3.92 x 109 = hpg x 40 x 500
p = density of sea water = 1030 kg m-3.
h= distance from the bottom of the ship to the surface, so
h=
3.92109
1030 9.81 40 500
= 19.4m
Braking Distance/m at
15m/s (k.e. = 135000J)
Braking Distance/m at
30m/s (k.e. = 540000J)
100
1350
5400
1000
135
540
10 000
13.5
54.0
100 000
1.35
5.4
1 000 000
0.135
0.54
If you double the speed, the kinetic energy quadruples. So, for every given braking
force, the braking distance is always four times larger when the car is travelling at
twice the speed.
Eg) A car of mass 1000kg has brakes that are 75% efficient. It is travelling at 40ms-1
and its daylight and the road is dry. The driver takes 0.25 seconds to respond to an
incident that requires an emergency stop. Whats the shortest possible distance for
stopping?
75
-Car Safety
You can stop a moving vehicle with less braking force if you increase the braking
distance, because kinetic energy = braking force x breaking distance. This becomes
more relative when thinking of someone involved in a car crash. In a crash, you want
to reduce the force, and you can do this by increasing the crash time, or the distance
your body moves in a crash. A good car does this with crumple zones, seat belts and
airbags.
Crumple zones: These are meant to collapse during a
collision (usually the front end). The crumple zones slightly
decrease collision speed, which increases the collision
time, so the average force you endure is less.
-Car Safety
Airbags: These work well with seatbelts, as they should
be fully inflated when you hit them, which they most likely
wont be without the aid of seatbelts. Airbags are
designed to inflate in 0.05 s, and deflate in 0.3s, which is
sufficient to slow you down. An airbag consists of three
parts:
A flexible nylon bag that is folded into the steering
wheel or dashboard
A sensor know as an accelerometer. When the front
end of the spring is suddenly stopped, the mass on
the end of the spring continues to move forward and
makes contact with a switch, starting a chemical
reaction. This occurs when the acceleration is
around -10g, an acceleration that only occurs during
an incident.
An inflation system in which a spark ignites a violent
chemical reaction in which nitrogen gas is produced (it
may sometimes be air, but usually Nitrogen gas)
-Car Safety
Global Positioning System (GPS): A GPS in cars enable you to know
where you are on the worlds surface within a distance of about 1m,
using satellites orbiting Earth at the height of about 20 000km. At any
one point, there will always be at least four satellites available for any
GPS receiver. The system relies on accurately measuring time
differences between the arrival of signals sent simultaneously from
several satellites, and on the precise position of these satellites. The
satellites clocks are synchronised with clocks on the ground and are
accurate to one second in 100 million years.
-Car Safety
Global Positioning System (GPS): The method used for determining the position
of the GPS receiver in a car is called trilateration. If satellite A sends out a signal
and it arrives after a known time ay the GPS receiver then, given the speed of travel
of electromagnetic radiation, the distance of the receiver from the satellite can be
found. We now repeat this for the other satellites, which gives your current location;
where all the spheres meet! The in-car computer then plots this position on its map,
and can guide the car along a suitable route to the requested destination. Although
trilateration only needs 3 satellites, GPS systems actually use at least four
satellites.
You are
here
25
Force required =
= 84.5N
A simpler way is to use the vertical component of the distance moved along the
slope:
Work done = 200N x 4.26m x cos65o
= 360J
o
65 is the angle between the force and the distance moved. In other words:
Work done = force x distance moved in the direction of the force
= F d cos
Where d is the distance travelled and is the angle between the force and the
direction of travel.
1.8m
25o
200N
Falling objects: An object of mass m, falling from rest, loses gravitational potential
energy. From the principle of conservation of energy, it gains an exactly equivilant
amount of kinetic energy as a result of the work being done on it by gravity, so:
1
Mgh = 2 , where v is its speed and h is the distance fell, m cancels to give:
2
2gh = v2 or v= 2
100J s-1 x 3600s = 360 000 J. Electrical energy is sold to domestic users in units
called kilowatt- hours (kWh), which is equivalent to the use of 1000 W of power for
an hour.
Eg) 1kWh could be supplied to a 100W lamp over 10 hours.
1kWh = 1000J s-1 x 3600s = 3 600 000 J. Today one kWh of energy costs about
15p.
Rate
Example of rate
Time
Total
Example of total
Speed
80 km h-1
4h
Distance
320km
Power
3 kW
200s
Energy
600kJ
Current
25 mA
1000s
Charge
25C
Efficiency
Efficiency is expressed as:
Efficiency =
100%
Device
Energy Input
Energy Output
Typical
Efficiency (%)
Electrical motor
Electrical
Kinetic/ Potential
85
Solar cell
Light
Electrical
10
Rechargeable battery
Electrical
Electrical
30
Electric radiator
Electrical
Internal
100
Power station
Nuclear
Electrical
40
Car (petrol)
Chemical
Kinetic/ Potential
45
Car (diesel)
Chemical
Kinetic/ Potential
55
Steam engine
Chemical
Kinetic/ Potential
Sankey Diagrams
Useful output
energy
Input energy
Deformation of materials
The word elastic can be applied to a collision. In an elastic collision no kinetic energy
is lost. This can only happen when there is no permanent distortion of the objects
colliding, because if there is permanent distortion some energy must have been used
to create the distortion. Collisions which are not elastic collisions are not usually called
plastic collisions but inelastic collisions.
A stretch can be Elastic or Plastic
Elastic
If a deformation is elastic, the material returns to
its original shape once the forces are removed.
1) When the material is put under tension, the
atoms of the materials are pulled apart from
one another.
2) Atoms can move small distances relative to
their equilibrium positions, without actually
changing position in the material.
3) Once the load is removed, the atoms return
to their equilibrium distance apart.
For a metal, elastic deformation happens as long
as Hookes law is obeyed.
Plastic
If a deformation is plastic, the
material is permanently
stretched.
1) Some atoms in the material
move position relative to one
another.
2) When the load it removed, the
atoms dont return to their
original position.
Deformation of materials
Tensile and compressive forces
Forces that stretch objects like wires, springs and rubber bands are called tensile
forces, because they cause tension in the object. Therefore, for there to be tension in
a fixed stretched wire, there must be equal and opposite forces on it at either end.
With a spring, it is possible to reduce its length by squeezing it, and in this instance
the forces applied are called compressive forces. Unless the spring is accelerating,
equal and opposite forces must be applied.
Once the elastic limit has been passed,
the stretch becomes permanent.
Hookes Law
Hookes Law- the extension of
an elastic body is proportional
to the force that causes it.
The equation is F= kx,
where F is the force causing extension x, and k is known as the force constant
(stiffness constant). The force constant is expressed in newton's per metre. k tells us
how much force is required per unit of extension.
Eg) A k of 6N mm-1 means it takes 6N to cause an extension of 1mm. Note that the
force constant can only be used when the material is undergoing elastic deformation.
When deformation become plastic, the force per unit extension is no longer constant.
Graphs- When extension is plotted on the x-axis, the area beneath the line is equal to
the work required to stretch the wire.
Work done = area of triangle = Fx
And since F=kx
1
Work done = 2
2
In the case of elastic deformations, the elastic potential energy E equals the work
done, giving:
1
1
E = = 2 .
2
Hookes Law
Energy stored in plastic deformation:
The graph shown below could be produced by stretching a copper wire beyond its
elastic limit. The work done stretching the wire is given by the area A + B. If the tension
is then reduced to zero, the wire behaves elastically, contracting to a permanent
extension x. As the tension is reduced, energy equivalent to area B is released from
the wire. The net result of the wire having work A + B done on it, but only releasing
energy B, is that the wire becomes hot to the touch.
Youngs modulus
Stress and Strain:
Stress is force per unit cross-section area, therefore is
Stress is force per unit
expressed in the SI Unit newton per square metre. N m-2. cross-sectional area.
This unit is called pascal (Pa), which is also used to
quantify pressure.
Strain is extension per
unit length.
Strain is extension per unit length. As a result, strain
does not have a unit, since it is length divided by length;
sometimes it is quoted as a percentage. A strain of 2% is
the same as a strain of 0.02 and implies that a material
has extended 2cm for each metre of its original length.
Youngs modulus
Stress on a material causes strain. How much strain is caused depends on how
stiff it is. A stiff material, such as cast iron, will not alter its shape much when a
stress is applied to it, but a relatively small stress will cause a substantial strain in
a soft material, such as clay.
Young's Modulus is the ratio between stress and strain, measured in pascals
(Pa). The formulae is as follows:
stress
Young Modulus (E) =
strain
force
area
extension
length
force length
area extension
Categories of materials
Material variety:
There are many materials now, all with different strengths and weaknesses.
Some of the properties materials may have are: Ductility, brittleness, stiffness,
density, elasticity, plasticity, toughness, fatigue resistance, conductivity, and fire
resistance.
The properties of individual material types can be illustrated clearly by sketching
graphs of stress against strain.
Ductile- materials that have a large plastic region (therefore they can be drawn
into a wire); for example, copper. The strain on a ductile material may be around
50%
Brittle- A material that distorts very little even when subject to a large stress and
does not exhibit any plastic deformation; for example, concrete.
Polymeric material- A material made of many smaller molecules bonded
together, often making tangled long chains. These materials often exhibit very
large strains (e.g. 300%) for example rubber.
Stress (Nm-2)
Yield point
The material suddenly starts to stretch
without any extra load. The yield point is
the stress at which a large amount of
plastic deformation takes place with a
constant or reduced load.
Limit of Proportionality
Stops obeying Hookes
Law but would still return
to original shape
Strain
Elastic Limit
Starts behaving plastically, and would no
longer return to original shape once the stress
was removed.
Stress (Nm-2)
Material
fractures
Strain
Polythene
Rubber
Unloading
Strain
Rubber returns to its original length
when the load is removed- it behaves
elastically.
Stress (Nm-2)
Stress (Nm-2)
Loading
Loading
Unloading
Strain
Polythene behaves plastically- it has
been stretched to a new shape. It is a
ductile material.
DEFINITIONS
Acceleration (a)- the rate of change of velocity, measured in metres per second
squared (m s-2); a vector quantity
Sample- definition