CE 601

C
601: Soil
S l Composition,
C
Structure & Classification

Earth and its Interior

8-35 km crust

% byy weight
g in crust
M

IC

IC = Inner Core
OC = Outer Core
M = Mantle
C = Crust

OC

O = 49.2
Si = 25.7
Al = 7.5
Fe = 4.7
Ca = 3.4
Na = 2.6
K = 2.4
Mg = 1.9
other = 2.6

82.4%

12500 km dia

Physical Properties at
Inner Core & Crust of the Earth

Inner Core

Crust

Temperature

~ 25000C

~ 250C

Pressure

~ 4 million
atmospheres

1 atmospheres

Density

~13.5 g/cc

~1.5 g/cc

Soil Formation: Rock Cycles

(http://www.uen.org/utahlink/activities/uploads/104
74_a_cycle.gif)

TypesofRock

Igneous

Formedbycoolingofmolten
magma(lava)

Sedimentary

Metamorphic

Formedbygradualdeposition,andin
layers

Formedbyalterationofigneous&
sedimentaryrocksby
pressure/temperature

e.g.,Limestone,Shale

e.g.,Granite

e.g.,Marble

Parent Rock
ParentRock

Residualsoil

Transportedsoil
~weatheredandtransported
faraway

~insituweathering
(byphysical&chemical
agents)ofparentrock

(bywind,waterandice)

Soil Formation: Bowens Reaction

Series

More stable
Higher weathering
resistance
Main mineral
constituent in Sands

Stages: Formation of Soil from Rock

Weathering

Physical weathering
Unloading

e.g. uplift, erosion, or change in

fluid pressure.

Thermal

expansion and
contraction

Alternate
Crystal
C t l

action

growth,
th iincluding
l di ffrostt

Organic
e.g.

wetting and drying

activity

the growth of plant roots.

Chemical weathering
Hydrolysis
H d l i

is the reaction with water

will

not continue in the static

water.

involves

alumina

solubility of silica and

Chelation
Involves

the complexing and

removal of metal ions .

Cation

exchange

Oxidation

and reduction.

Carbonation
is

the combination of carbonate ions

such as the reaction with CO2

Weathering:

Effects of Climate, Topography, Parent

Material, Time & Biotic Factors

Wet climate and good drainage; both accelerate weathering

For a given amount of rainfall, chemical weathering rate is higher in
warmer climates
Water table influences weathering by determining the depth to
which air is available
Type of rainfall:

short, intense rainfall erosion;

light, prolonged rainfall leaching

Topograpghy: important factor in determining rates of erosion, rates

of soil accumulation
Steep topography: encourages mechanical weathering
Vegetation affects rate of erosion
Organic compound aid weathering

Residual Soils

Soil formed by in-situ

weathering
g
The top layer of rock is
decomposed into residual soils
due to the warm climate and
abundant rainfall .
Depth of profile varies
depending on climate, parent
material,
t i l d
drainage
i
conditions,
diti
water table
Engineering properties of
residual soils are different with
those of transported soils

Transported Soils
Transported
p
by:
y

Soil Deposit:
p

River (running water)

Alluvial

Lake (fresh water)

Lacustrine

Sea (salt water)

Marine

Wind

Aeolian

Ice

Glacial

Effects of Method of Transportation

on Soil formation
Water

Air

Size

Major
ajo reduction
educt o
through solution,
little abrasion in
suspended load

Co s de ab e Considerable
Considerable
Co s de ab e Co
Considerable
s de ab e
reduction
grinding and impact
impact

Shape and
roundness

Rounding of sand High degree

and gravel
of rounding

Angular
particles

Angular
non-spherical
particles

Surface
texture

Smooth polished, Impact

shiny particles of produces
sand
frosted
surfaces
Considerable
Considerable
sorting
sorting
(progressive)

Striated
surfaces

Striated
surfaces

Very little
sorting

No sorting

Sorting

Ice

Gravity

Organisms
Minor
o
abrasion from
direct organic
transportation

Limited
sorting

Different Soils Formed by the

Method of Transportation
1) Loess: Loose deposit of wind-blown silt
2) Tuff: Fine grained Slightly cemented volcanic ash
3) Bentonite: Chemically weathered volcanic ash
4) Glacial Till: Mixture of boulders, gravel, sand, silt and clay
(usually called as boulder clay)

5) Varved
V
d Clay:
Cl
Alternate thin layers of silt and clay
6) Marl: Fine grained marine soil
7) Gumbo: Sticky, Plastic, dark colored clay

Different Soils Formed by the

Method of Transportation
8)

Peat: Highly Organic soil, good for vegetation

9)

Muck: Mixture of fine grained inorganic soil and decomposed

organic matter (imperfect drainage)

10) Humus: Organic amorphous soil (consisting of partly

decomposed vegetative matter)

11) Hard Pan: Extremely hard cohesive soil

12) Colluvial Soil: Accumulation
A
l ti off rock
k debris
d b i att the
th b
base off rock.
k
Its position results mainly from the effect of gravity force acting on
the rock fragments

13) Mine Tailings: Silt sized material (waste from extraction of

minerals from natural rock)

Regional Soil Deposits of India

Soils of India can be broadly divided into the
following groups:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Marine deposits
Lateritic soils
Black cotton soils
Alluvial soils
Desert soils
Boulder deposits

Soil Map of India

Regional Soil Deposits of India

a) Marine deposits:

V
Very
soft
ft clay,
l
may contain
t i organic
i matters
tt
Low shear strength and low compressibility
Found all along the coast in tidal plains of India

b) Lateritic soils:

Decomposition
p
of rock, removal of bases & silica
Shear strength depends on the stage of weathering
Kerala, Karnataka, Maharash., Orissa & Bengal
(Total area covers around 1,00,000 sq. km)

Regional Soil Deposits of India

c) Black cotton soils:
C
Contains
i M
Montmorillonite
ill i clay,
l
responsible
ibl ffor
excessive swelling and shrinking
Shear strength depends on volume change in soil
Maharashtra, MP, UP, AP, Karnataka, & TN
(Total area covers around 3,00,000 sq. km)

d) Alluvial soils:

Contains alternating layers of sand, silt and clay

Prone to liquefaction under earthquake shocks
Extends from Assam (East) to Punjab (West)

Regional Soil Deposits of India

e) Desert soils:
Non plastic uniformly graded fine sand
Strength depends upon the permeability of soil
Large Part of Rajasthan (covers 5,00,000 sq. km)

f)

Boulder deposits:

Contains
C
t i alternating
lt
ti llayers off sand,
d silt
ilt and
d clay
l
Strength cant be measured in the lab due to its big
size soil particles, shear box tests are performed in
the field for obtaining its strength
Sub-Himalayan region of HP and Uttaranchal

Soil Groups Based on its Particle Size

Clay minerals
Non-Clay
Non
Clay minerals

Cohesive
soils

Granular soils or
Cohesion less soils

Clay

Silt

0.002

Fine

0.075

Sand

Medium Coarse

0.425

2.0

Fine

4.75

Gravel
20

Coarse

Cobble
80

Boulder
300

Grain size (mm) (IS code)

Fine grain
soils

Coarse grain
soils
20

10

General Characteristics of Soils

Soil Characteristics
Grain size

Gravel, Sand
Granular, Coarse-grained,
pparticles can be seen
through naked eyes

Silt
Fine-grained, can
not see individual
particles

Clay
Fine-grained, can
not see individual
particles

Plasticity and Cohesion

Non-plastic, Cohesion less

Slightly or no
plasticity, Cohesion
Less important

Plastic, Cohesive

Effect of grain size

Important
distribution (Sieve analysis)

Unimportant

Effect of water (Atterberg

limits)

Unimportant (except for

loose saturated soils under
dynamic loadings)

Important

Very important

Permeability and Drainage

Pervious, Freely draining

Less pervious

Almost impervious

Compressibility

Low

Medium

High

Shear Strength

Depends on relative
density (generally high)

Intermediate

Depends on
consistency
(generally poor)

Grain Size Distribution

Coefficient of Uniformity

Cu

D60
D30

For Gravel:
Cu < 4 Poorly graded
Cu > 4 Well graded
or Gap graded

Poorly Graded
Well Graded

Gap
Graded

For Sand:
Cu < 6 Poorly graded
Cu > 6 Well graded
or Gap graded
Coefficient of Curvature

Cc

D30 2
D60 D10

1 < Cc <3
Well graded

11

Grain Size Distribution Curve

Gravel:

Sand:

Soil Texture

Particle size, shape and size distribution

Particle size distribution

Coarse-textured (Gravel
(Gravel, Sand)
Fine-textured (Silt, Clay)
Visibility by the naked eye (0.05mm is the approx
limit)
Sieve/Mechanical analysis or Gradation Test
Hydrometer
y
analysis
y for smaller than .05 to .075 mm
(#200 US Standard sieve)

Particle size distribution curves

Well graded
Poorly graded

Cu

D60
D10

Cc

D302
D60 D10

12

Effect of Particle size

Particle Assemblage: Void Ratio

Typical

Simple cubic (SC), e = 0.91,

values

Contract

Cubic-tetrahedral (CT), e = 0.65,

Dilate

Volume

change tendency

Strength

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

13

Relative Density
Dr
1.0
0.8

Void
ratio
(e)

0.6
0.4
0.2

emax
Dr = 0%

e
0%<Dr <100%

emax e
emax emin

IS 2720 (Part
(P XIV) 1983
1983:
emin (max density): Vibrating in mould under
some surcharge load
emax (min density): Pouring in a mould
through
funnel from ht of 2.5 cm.

emin
Dr = 100%

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

Atterberg Limits

The presence of water in fine-grained soils can significantly affect associated

engineering behavior, so we need a reference index to clarify the effects.

In percentage

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

14

Typical Values of Atterberg Limits

(Mitchell, 1993)

Indices
Plasticity index PI
For describing
g the range
g of
water content over which a soil
was plastic

Liquidity index LI
For scaling
g the natural water
content of a soil sample to the
Limits.
w PL w PL

PI
LL PL
w is the water content
LI

PI LL PL
Liquid State

Plastic State

Semisolid State

LI >1

(C), viscous liquid if sheared

Liquid
q
Limit,, LL

PI

0<LI<1 (B), plastic solid if sheared

Plastic Limit, PL

LI <0

(A), brittle fracture if sheared

Shrinkage Limit, SL
Solid State

15

Plasticity Chart
L

Sensitivity
Strength (undisturbed )
Strength
g (disturbed)
Unconfined shear strength

St

w > LL
Clay
particle
Water

16

Activity
Both the type and amount of
clay in soils will affect the
Atterberg limits. This index is
aimed to separate them.
them

PI
A
% clay fraction ( weight )
clay fraction : 0.002 mm

Normal

clays: 0.75 < A < 1.25

Inactive

clays: A <0.75

Active
High
Hi h

clays: A > 1.25

activity:
ti it

large volume

wetted

Large
Very

Mitchell, 1993

change when

shrinkage when dried

reactive (chemically)

Thixotropy

Loses strength when remolded; Gains strength while at rest

Remolding produces a structure that is compatible with the

mechanical
h i l process; th
thatt structure
t t
iis nott necessarily
il compatible
tibl
with environment (composition of pore solution)

Structure re-adjusts when left undisturbed

34

17

Relationship Between Soil Composition

and Engineering Properties

Mineralogy does strongly affect the size and shape of particles in

soil. For cohesive soils, knowledge of composition is helpful in
predicting and/or explaining unusual or adverse behavior.

Halloysite very low dry density

Montmorillonite highly expansive

Illite quick clays

However, composition alone can not predict the engineering

properties of most cohesive soils because of the following
complicating factors

Variation in particle size of the same mineral (e.g. quartz can be stone size to silt
size)

Cementing agents (e.g. CaCO3, Al/Fe oxides, organic matter)

Soils are usually mixture of several minerals

Effect of pore fluid composition and its interaction with the minerals.

18

An Atom
Nucleus: contains protons,
neutrons and other particles

Diameter of atom
about 1 A0
Electron Shells

Clay: Basic Structural Unit

Clay minerals are made of two distinct structural units.
hydroxyl or
oxygen

oxygen

aluminium or
magnesium

silicon

0.26 nm

Silicon tetrahedron

0.29 nm

Aluminium Octahedron

19

Different Clay Minerals

Different combinations of tetrahedral and
octahedral
t h d l sheets
h t form
f
diff
differentt clay
l minerals:
i
l
1:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., kaolinite, halloysite):

Different Clay Minerals

Different combinations of tetrahedral and
octahedral
t h d l sheets
h t form
f
diff
differentt clay
l minerals:
i
l
2:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., montmorillonite, illite)

20

Tetrahedral & Octahedral Sheets

For simplicity, lets represent silica tetrahedral sheet by:
Si

and alumina octahedral sheet by:

Al

Kaolinite
Al
Typically 70100 layers

Si
Al
Si

joined by strong H-bond

no easy separation

7.2 A

Al
Si
Al
Si

(OH)8Al4Si4O10

21

Illite

Si
Al

joined by K+ ions

fit into the hexagonal

holes in Si-sheet

Si
Si
Al

9.6 A

Si
Si
Al
Si

Montmorillonite
also called smectite; expands on contact with water
Si
Al
Si
Si

easily separated
by water
joined by weak
van der Waals bond

Al

9.6 A

Si
Si
Al
Si

A highly reactive (expansive) clay

(OH)4Al4Si8O20.nH2O

22

Others
Chlorite
A 2:1:1 (???) mineral.
Si

Al

Al or Mg

Vermiculite
y; 2 interlayers
y
of water
montmorillonite family;

Attapulgite
chain structure (no sheets); needle-like appearance

Clays
The

size of clay
particles are approx
2
m.
yp
pp

Clay

particles are like plates or needles.

Plate-like or Flaky Shape

Clays

are plastic; However, Silts, sands and

gravels are non-plastic.

23

Clay Microfabric
edge-to-face contact

Flocculated

face-to-face contact

Dispersed

Clay Microfabric
Electrochemical environment (i.e., pH, acidity,
temperature, cations
i
present in
i the
h water)) d
during
i the
h
time of sedimentation influence clay fabric
significantly.
Clay particles tend to align perpendicular to the
pp
on them.
load applied

24

Clay Mineralogy

Clay fraction, clay size particles

Particle size < 2
m ((.002 mm))
Clay minerals
Kaolinite, Illite, Montmorillonite (Smectite)
- negatively charged, large surface areas
Non-clay minerals
- e.g. finely ground quartz, feldspar or mica of "clay" size

Implication of the clay particle surface being negatively

charged double layer
Exchangeable ions
- Li+<Na+<H+<K+<NH4+<<Mg++<Ca++<<Al+++
- Valance, Size of Hydrated cation, Concentration

Thickness of double layer decreases when replaced by higher valence

cation - higher potential to have flocculated structure
When double layer is larger swelling and shrinking potential is
larger

25

Clay Mineralogy

Soils containing clay minerals tend to be cohesive and plastic.

Given the existence of a double layer, clay minerals have an affinity
for water and hence has a potential for swelling (e.g. during wet
season) and shrinking (e.g. during dry season). Smectites such as
Montmorillonite have the highest potential, Kaolinite has the
lowest.
Generally, a flocculated soil has higher strength, lower
p
y and higher
g
p
permeability
y compared
p
to a noncompressibility
flocculated soil.
Sands and gravels (cohesionless ) :
Relative density can be used to compare the same soil. However, the
fabric may be different for a given relative density and hence the
behaviour.

Identification of Clay Mineral

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
to

identify the geometric arrangement of particles

X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

to

identify the molecular structure and minerals

present

Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

to

identify the minerals present

26

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

plate-like
plate
like
structure

X-ray Diffraction Technique

Braggs law:
n = 2d.sin
= wave length of Xrays (1.5406 A0)
n = whole number
corresponds to the
order of reflection
(for first order of
reflection, n=1)

X-rays penetrate to a depth of several million of

atomic layers (depth up to 30-50 m), and the
method can tell the microfabric of the sample
up to a certain depth below topmost layer of the
sample.

d = spacing between
atomic p
planes (for
(
e.g. spacing between
001 planes = 7.13 A0)

27

Atomic planes in unit cell of clay crystal

(a) Basal planes

(002) plane
(001) plane

(b) Prism planes

(010)
plane

(110) plane

(020)
plane

Arrangement of atoms in a unit cell of

Kaolin clay
(001) plane
(010)
plane
(001) plane

Face

(001) plane

Face
(001) plane
(001) plane

(010) plane

Unit cell of Kaolin Clay and its

position in clays platelet
(Carroll 1970)

Edge

(001) plane

Stacking of unit layers of Kaolin clay

along the a and b axes
(Brindley 1951)

28

XRD pattern of Kaolin clay

Basal Peaks
(001, 002)

Prism Peaks
(020, 110)

Prism Peaks
(130, 202)
Basal Peaks
(003, 004)

2 (degrees)

Soil Classification Systems

Group
p symbols:
y
G - gravel
S - sand
M - silt
C - clay
O - organic silts and clay
Pt - peat and highly
organic soils
H - high plasticity
L - low plasticity
W - well graded
P - poorly graded

Plasticity Chart

29

Casagrandes PI-LL Chart

60

U-line

Plasticity Index

50

A-line
40

illite

30

kaolinite

20

halloysite
10

chlorite

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Liquid Limit

30

Specific Surface
surface area per unit mass (m2/g)
smaller the grain, higher the specific surface
e.g., soil grain with specific gravity of 2.7

1 mm cube

10 mm cube
spec. surface = 222.2 mm2/g

spec. surface = 2222.2 mm2/g

Isomorphous Substitution
substitution of Si4+ and Al3+ by other lower valence
((e.g.,
g , Mg
g2+) cations
results in charge imbalance (net negative)
positively charged edges
+
+
+

+
_

_
_
_ _ _
_ _ _

+
_

_
_

_
_

+_
_ _

_
_

negatively charged faces

_
_

Clay Particle with Net negative Charge

The clay particle derives

its net negative charge
from the isomorphous
substitution and broken
bonds at the boundaries.

31

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

known as exchangeable cations
capacity to attract cations from the water (i.e., measure of
the net negative charge of the clay particle)
measured in meq/100g (net negative charge per 100 g of clay)
milliequivalents
The replacement power is greater for higher valence and
larger cations.
Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ >> NH4+ > K+ > H+ > Na+ > Li+

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

C ti E
Cation
Exchange
h
Capacity
C
it (CEC)
(CEC):
The negatively charged clay particles can attract cations from the water.
These cations can be freely exchanged with other cations present in the
water. For example Al3+ can replace Ca2+ and Ca2+ can replace Mg2+.

32

A Comparison
Mineral

Specific ssurface
rface
2
(m /g)
10-20

C.E.C
C
EC
(meq/100g)
3-10

80-100

20-30

M t
Montmorillonite
ill it

800

80 120
80-120

Chlorite

80

20-30

Kaolinite
Illite

Cation Concentration in Water

cation concentration drops with distance from clay particle

clay particle

+
+
+
+

+
+ - +
+
+
+
+
+
+ - - +
+
+
+
- + +
+
+
+ - + + +
+ + - +
+ - + +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

cations

+
+
+
+
+
+ + +
+
+
+
+ +
+
+ + + + +
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

double layer

+
+
+

free water

66

33

Conceptual aspects behind the variation in

microfabric of clay using Double layer theory
Diffuse layer

Dispersed
Microfabric

Monovalent
Cation (Na+)

Cation

Clay
particle
with (-)
charge
on face

Diffuse
Double
layer

++

++

++

Flocculated
Microfabric

Divalent
Cation
(Ca++)

Clay particle in
aqueous medium
++

++

Dispersed Microfabric:
L( )

Clay + Na+

Electric potential ( )

Flocculated Microfabric:
L( )

Clay + Ca++

Electric potential ( )

Electric potential and microfabric of clay

The presence of a surface charge and a diffused layer of adsorbed cations around
a particle results in an electrical potential, which varies with distance from the
particle surface. Electrostatic repulsion occurs when the electrical double layers
of the particles overlap, achieving stability. Thickness of double layer (L) is the
distance between particle surface (x =0) and the double layer surface (x = L). Zeta
potential (Z) is the electric potential at x=L.
X=L

X=0

Surface potential ( 0 )

0 Surface charge density (q )

q Concentration and valency of Cation
Z t potential
Zeta
t ti l for
f dispersed
di
d microfabric
i f b i off Kaolin
K li clay
l = - 48.7
48 7 mV
V

++

Zeta potential for flocculated microfabric of Kaolin clay = - 44.4 mV

Dispersed microfabric:
Clay + Na+
Z( )

Inter-particle repulsion ( )

Dispersed orientation

Inter-particle repulsion ( )

Flocculated orientation

Flocculated microfabric:
Clay + Ca++

Z( )

34

Adsorbed Water
A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a skin
1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick
more viscous than free water
adsorbed water
-

35

Particle Size
Sand
d

210 m

160 m
75 m

Silt

60 m
10 m
2 m

Clay

2 m

Particle Shapes
Angular

Subangular

Subrounded

Rounded

Wellrounded

Is
it
sufficient

36

Particle Morphology and Texture

Sphericity and Roundedness

Sphericity =
Diameter of a sphere of equal volume of particle
Diameter of a sphere circumscribing the particle

Roundedness
Avg radius of curvature of corners and edges
Radius of maximum inscribing sphere

37

Sphericity and
Roundedness

Effect of
Roundedness

Sphericity going down

Yond (1973)

Santamarina and Cho

(1973)

38

Crushing of Particles Under Stress

Thank You

39