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Editors
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Founding Editors
Jan Best, Najade Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Nanny de Vries, Najade Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Editorial oard
Ernst van Alphen, Museum Boymans van Beuningen, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Inge Boer, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Carole Boyce Davies, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
Rajeswari Sunder Rajan, Nehru Memorial Museum aud Library, New Delhi, India
Saskia Wieringa, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, The Netherlands
Advisory Board
Barbara Brookes, University of Otago, Otago, Nevr Zealand
Joceline Clemencia, Cultural Institute Independence, Willemstad, Curagao
Irene Dlling, University of Potsdam, Berlin, FRG
Lillian Faderman, Californian State University, Fresno, CA, USA
Rehana Ghadially, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India
Ifurla Gruodis, Gender Studies, University of Vilnius, Vilnius, Lithuania
Judith Hallett, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
Magda Karabelova, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
Marilyn Katz, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT, USA
Annette Kuhn, Rhein. Friedr. Wilhelms University, Bonn, FRG
Julia Leslie, University of London, London, UK
elma Leydesdorfi Universiry of ,A,msterdam, Amsterdam The Netherlands
,lulie Marcus, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NS\M, Australia
Yvonne Mokgoro, Braamfontein, South Africa
Nakanyike Musisi, University of Toronto, Toronto, ONT, Canada
Ivelanie Nolan, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
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Vol.5 No.
The Cadats
Saharan Blach Christians'
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
Kada ben Abdellah, accompanied by his wife Fatima bent Ahmed ben
Salem, tribe of Timimoun (Ksar2Deldoul-Marcinat) is authorised to go
to Ghardaa to work there for the person called Zohra .
It
reads,
B0
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
xeavtil
.Djelfa ^
Mo*occo ,AH_A^^ry;*f'
C
Z
-t
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"'n'-t"t" rt-'-t;to'nno"tP.*n'
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oo'"u
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^G R E AT
u'.o,.
ALGERIA
" B4
tloEMni'r
'ln-Salah
ASSKRErrt
'Tamanrasset
RA
.At
.sor.tr
BN
Tom
o)
o)
Gao
SOOkm
['ct
The
Cadats 81
Ghardaa
The word Sahara is derived from the Arabic word "Sahra" which means desert, empty
aea.
independence in1962.
7
Algeria became a French colony in 1830.
82
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
around the palm garden oasis. Kada is, according to his own statements,
a free Black,e the son of a maraboutlo whose mausoleum still attracts
barely express herself other than in zenati, the language of her origins.
Near the oasis of Timimoun, in this landscape of massive dunes and
stony hamadas,ll Kada and Fatima were born in about 1,885 and 1892
respectively. Their dates of birth are registered by the French administration that calculates these approximately by referring to local memories
of peculiar circumstances. Were they born in the year of the falling star?
Was this the year of truffles? Nobody knows exactly. It is certain that
they were both born before the conquest of In-Salah in 1899, a decisive
moment in the oppression of the Sahara by the French army. The
8
The
colonisation therefore
will
Cadats 83
El Golea
El Golea, reached as early as 1859 by the French Duveyrier expedition, in 1906 displays its palm tree gardens and its towering cypresses
under a crumbling Berber fortress. This elderly ksar, called El Menia
("the impregnable" in Arab) gave its name to the oasis in its golden age.
The French occupied it in 1873 and renamed it El Golea ("the fortress").13
It is built on a hill. The eye of the attentive pedestrian stumbles over the
traces of fossilised shells and stone tools dating back to greener and
13
of crystallised gypsum.
Algeria gave it back its name El Menia after the decolonisation.
-'Ro.",
84
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
Ksar El Menia ("the impregnable") that gave its name to the oasis.
foreground a Muslim cemetery. Pieter Kersten copydght 1993.
In
the
When the caravar coming from Timimoun and bound for Ghardaa
comes to El Golea, Henriette Zohra,Kada and Fatima decide to stop there
for some time because they need to rest and find the financial means to
a white Catholic Arab and
two black Muslim Berbers illustrates what the Sahara is about: an area of
contact and of transition between White and Black Africa. El Golea is
also the place where Henriette Zohra meets Layani, called "Laagta", a
native Jew running a coffee bar. This encounter marks the beginning of
a friendship and solidarity that, beyond the rupture accompanying Algerian independence, lasts until today between the families, now sheltered
in France. The presence of the local French Command - set up in 1891
and with Captain Lamy as its first post commander - should permit
Henriette Zohra to open a pub for soldiers, like in Ghardaa. Layani
donates some bottles of absinthe. Their dreams do not come true. The
clientele is scarce. There is only poverty. Is it providence? The Catholic
Church has since L897 a local mission, consisting of two priests and a
brother. The superior, Father Richard, aware of the presence in the oasis
of a Catholic Arab reduced to misery, intervenes. He helps the trio. He
hires Kada, who then has the opportunity to devote himself to do what he
knows best: gardening. Kada takes care of the mission's orchard and
learns French. From garden to church, there is only a small step' Pushedby
Henriette Zohra, their adoptive mother, Kada and Fatima decide to become Catholics. The catechisation will last four years, applying the strict
rules adopted by the missionaries. Kada is taught to read and write in French.
The
Cadats 85
known
as
Idem,
1.
86
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
children, the rape of al1 persons that sanction here the French authority." (Foucauld, Charles de,
"La grande question est celle de l'esclavage", Lettre Mgr. Gurin, 28 June 1902, in Denise &
Robert Barrat (1958), Charles de Foucauld et la fraternit, Collection Maitres spirituels,
Editions du Seuil-Paris, 124-125.
The
Cadats 87
throughout her life, would tell people that her hand had shaken the one
of her "dear de Foucauld". It is striking that she would remember such a
petty fact. For her de Foucauld was everything. He gave meaning to her
life. For de Foucauld, Fatima was nothing. She was not worthy enough
in his eyes for him to hand her the money to make clothes and food. She
was not an equal. Father Richard was his equal. Black Christians to him
all looked alike. They were not individuals but instruments of his
mission. All her life Fatima put de Foucauld on a pedestal. She did not
realise that her work made his beatification possible. Between my
grandmother as a black woman and de Foucauld as a white man there was
no real communication. He built his reputation on the erasure of people
like her.
The New French Citizens
1914: World War I begins. The mobilised missionaries leave for the
front line. Church and garden are placed in the charge of Pierre Cadat.
After the war, Pierre remains in the service of the fathers as a horticulturist. He has his own house in an enclave of the orchard of the mission.
L92t:Pieteaccepts a better position as chief-gardener of El Gol ea. 1923:
Pierre chooses to take on French nationality and he is admitted on
Saturday the 27thof October t923 "to enjoy the rights of a French Citizen
by application of articles 1 and 4 of the Senatus-Consult of July 1-4,
1.865".17 The decree is signed Alexandre Millerand, President of the
French Republic. The patronymic evolution of the family illustrates the
double religious and juridical adventure of Pierre and Marie, this black
couple in colonial Algeria. My grandfather
- although baptised - is still
officially registered under his Muslim surname (see note 3). He has since
1910 the statute of "Christian Muslim Indigenous" [sic]. His family name
will
be changed when he becomes a French ciiizen. The French administration on one hand transmutes his Arabic first name into a French name
and on the other hand eliminates the Muslim patronymic names. The
Arab first name Kada becomes the French family name Cadat.18 A new
French citizenis born: Pierre Charles Flix Cadat. This name henceforth
will be carried by the following generations. It is mine today. From Kada
the
1?
The Senatus-consult of 1865 makes the "native Muslims" French subjects submilted to
Muslim law. Do they want to enjoy civil rights? They may ask for them, although in daily
practice the administration does hamper the procedure. "Native Muslims" who are accepted, are
then submitted to the civil andpolitical laws of France. This implies loss of their special Muslim
status and denial of their religion.
18
My grandmother's name, Fatima bent Ahmed ben Salem, becomes "Anne Marie
Madeleine Vincent" in 1966.
BB
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
father, has still a lively memory of the first time he met with uncle
Boudjema and his wife and his son Hamel. They spoke exclusively in
Berber. Pierre built houses for the brothers at the ksar of Badriane and
bought them gardens. They remained Muslim and their converted brother
always respected their faith. On the eve of the Second World War, my
grandparents had a family of fourteen children, half of them boys, half of
them girls. Lucie is the oldest daughter. She is bqrn in 1907. Her sisters
Marie-Thrse, Frangoise, Bathilde, Marie-Jeanne, Marie-Clmence and
Madeleine are born between 1.91.2 and 1927 . Jean-Baptiste (1910) is the
eldest son. His brothers Louis, Gabriel, Robert, Joseph, Michel and Flix
are born between l-91-5 and 1936. My father's brothers each have half a
dozen children. The first grandchildren have been born. In thirty years the
black El Golea family has grown from a single married couple to a clan
of fifty people and will expand very quickly. The eldest sons of Boudjema,
Hamel, and Mhamed and his daughters, Acha and Messaouda, grew up
in the company of my father. Thanks to their uncle, the nephews, Hamel
and IMhamed went to the school of the White Fathers. Were they ever
of Algerian
Independence hinders any vague desires. In any case, the education they
received allowed their upward social mobility. Mhamed became the
renamed El Menia after Independdirector of the airport of El Golea
and Hamel was in charge of the department of fuel at the same
ence
airport.
World War
I remember it as though it were today the day that all our children [the
male conscripts] left from El Golea and Saint Joseph lksar near El
Golea where Catholics lived]. There was a big farewell party in the
garden of the White Fathers of El Golea, near the house of my father.
Big trucks took all the people, families, all young people, on their way
to the front line, on the Rhine and the Danube and all. I remember it as
1-1
years old.le
Interview with Joseph Cadat, audio recording from January 10, 1994, personal archives.
The
Cadats 89
ters of Pierre and of Marie]. Good, she was busy making bread or
couscous with that stuff. The men were at the frontline, and the people
desperate with hunger. The Father asked her: "But, is this all that you
have?" She says: "this is all that they gave us." "How is that?", says
Father Lusson,"allthe men went to the frontline for France and this is
all that France give to you?" He jumps on his bicycle and he goes right
away to the military annexe. "But my captain, listen to me, what does
this mean? All our men, they are over there in France in daily danger
and here their children are starving. You give them a kilo ofgrain. Ifyou
do not immediately take care of this, I'11 telephone the General Gover'nor in Algiers right away." And after this everyone gets all they need.
After the intervention ofFather Lusson everyone had a right to clothing,
to bread, just like the Europeans, because we were also French.2o
Pierre Cadat retires in1945, at the age of sixty. The Cadats grow up, get
married, enlarge their gardens, set themselves up in the oasis and
construct their life and their community in'the Sahara. It is the period in
which the Algerian nationalist Muslim movement develops and claims,
more and more strongly, first reformation, next autonomy, and at last
independence and the departure of the French. But for the Cadats, this is
a confused politics that only concerns the North. The Sahara is another
world in their eyes, in their experience. In this universe limited to the
gardens, to the desert and to faith, they have no political interest. They
do not care about the ongoing National Liberation Movement of Hadj
Messali and of Ferhat Abbas, about the National Liberation Front of Ben
Bella and Krim Belkacem or about the Algerian National Movement.
Interview with sister Marie-Clmence Cadat, audio recording from January 10, 1994,
personal archives.
90
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
from a rough, proud and poor chouanne (ethnic Breton) farmer aristoccultivated its fields
racy that
according to the family'S oral tradition
bearing the sword. Denise supports the struggle for the independence of
C al
21
Grall, Xavier (1991), "Ngritude", in Bernard Guillemot, Les vents m'ont dit. Quimper
ligrammes, Quimper, 97.
22
Interview with Denise Cadat, recorded December 27 , 1994, personal archives.
The
Cadats
9L
hectare experimental agricultural station. This farm is situated at Hassiel-Gara (ksar near El Golea) where I pass the first )rears of my life. Joseph
experiments on a small scale with what will later be developed on a huge
scale in the Northwest of the Oranais Sahara at Emballa (region of An
Sefra). He is a specialist in the knowledge of thephoenix dactylifera, the
palm tree that produces the delicious date that is called deglet-nour,
which means "light's finger". The experimental station becomes internationally known. Joseph will show many heads of state around during
official visits to the Sahara, from de Gaulle to N'Krumah.
92
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
This is the horror of the mixed, the aversion of the racial melting pot
sprinkled with the colonial speech of teratological notions. This is
colonial literature. The eurocentrist superiority feeling is not absent in the
social sciences. Robert Capot-Rey,2a professor of anthropology at the
writes
he personally knows the Cadat family
University of Algiers
populations
in L953 about the Algerian oasis: "Isolated in the middle of
of other races, the Europeans dominate those locals thanks to their energy
that is not diminished by heredity of fatalism and misery."2s And again:
"In the eyes of the Blacks, Arabs and Berbers, all these men [young St.
Cyriens; ageing road menders] of our race are also bosses. In this
hierarchy that establishes itself spontaneously within a corporation,
survival depends on the energy of some individuals, there was a peremptory justification for the presence of the French."26
And the colonised? Arabs and white Berbers see the Blacks as beings
from slave descent. The progressive abolition of slavery gives a special
form to the opposition of black and white. An anonymous priest notes
acutely in 194L: "Their Negroes, their former slaves have in fact only
contempt for them [the Arabs]. They help them only if Arabs help them.
If Arabs insult them, they insult them back. The proud Arab that, this
evening at the market, squatted in a corner with other nomads speaks
despisingly about Negroes, suddenly becomes very polite in drinking tea
with the black who gives him something to eat when he is hungry. There,
in small company, he calls Miloud his brother and Acha his sister."27
During the French colonisation the black and French Catholics and
mulattos from El Golea were assigned a peculiar position. The white
Arabs of the oasis consider them as inferior on a racial level. Nevertheless, at the same time, they are situated generally, as opposed to Arabs,
on a superior level in the local economic and social hierarchy. This is
because of their double political and religious status as French citizens
2a
26ldem,20l.
27
Anonymous IPar un missionnaire] (1941), Petites Monographies Sahariennes, Collection Rachid-Alger, 21.
The
Cadats 93
Family portrait (1960): in my grandparents' courtyard. From left to right, adults: Fatima
Cadat, my granny; Denise Bricaud, my mother; Pierre Cadat, my granddad; Joseph Cadat, my
traditions they are considered as junior partners and are therefore neve
fully recognised by those to whose world they belong.
Saharan Childhood
I was born in France, on the air force base of Luxeuil-les-Bains where
one of my maternal uncles, a career military man, is posted. My name
indicates my double origin: Berber and Breton. I am 15 days old when I
94
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
born.
My first memory goes back to the luminous and burning years spent
in Hassi-el-Gara. My family lives there, isolated from El Golea by five
kilometres of track. My younger years pass there in serenity. During the
day, my mother teaches us to read and write. I practice the alphabet every
afternoon sitting at our garden table, an old, small, yellow, painted, metal
table. I practice writing. The hand of iny mother leads mine firmly. The
violet ink dirties my thumb and my index finger. At the end of the day,
the heat diminishes and the homework is over. I go along with Boubaker,
the gardener, on his round of the orchards and the animals. The ordered
palm tree gardens, planted tree after troe by my father, seem huge to me.
They shelter the vegetable gardens. The beans grow to the height of a
person there. We are in the midst of the Sahara, away from the oasis. Here,
nevertheless, thanks to the artesian well dug for ground water, fruit and
vegetables proliferate. I like quenching my thirst with fresh crystal water
drawn from the guerba (Algerian canteen made of goatskin). Sometimes
the brutal sirocco pervades everything, all night long. I remain inside,
safe. The acetylene lamp whistles and emits a faint odour. At last, I fall
asleep. In the morning, the wind suspends its sandy whirlwinds and with
my sisters Anne-Galle and Marie-Christine, I play in the courtyard with
the small dunes formed during the night. Generally, the air of the desert
keeps its absolute serenity. In the evening, the whole family gathers on
the house's clean terrace with those high walls whitewashed with lime.
The nocturnal canvas of the Saharan sky satisfies my gaze. There are
quiet noises climbing from the palm tree garden close by. We doze off.
On Sundays, there is mass in the small church of the oasis. I pray with
fervour even if I do not understand anything of the traditional Latin.
Always, I ask my mother, during he Kyrie Eleison: "Say mom, why do
the hedgehogs laugh?" (In French theGreekKyrie Eleison, a holy prayer,
sounds vaguely like "the hedgehogs laugh"). After the mass, this is the
time of strolls. We go to the desert. We often visit an old crumbling house
some kilometres away from the oasis, of which the enclosure wall always
intrigues me. A huge dinosaur has been painted here almost invisible,
buried under a climbing sand dune. My mother explained to me that it was
the house of colonel Augiras,z8 who retired here, and who died in 1958.
28
of Amsterdam
The
Cadats 95
In his home, he had built a Saharan museum that my parents often visited.
My mother knew how to tell me about Augiras, stories that excited my
young imagination. For instance, he had brought back monkeys from subSaharan Africa. These had cruelly injured his black servant Papagou
a friend of my uncle Jean Cadat, who was in charge of the monkeys but
doing a bad job. After walks, in the evening, the whole family meets in
the gardens of my El Golea granddad. The adults talk, mostly in an Arab
dialect.
Algeria
I was hardly aware of the ongoing Algerian war. It was not very
visible in the S ahara and I was too young. I remembe r v aguely a fe ll a gh a2s
killed in action. My child's memory retained the pictures - a darkbody
without understanding it. My parents
wrapped up in white rags
explained it to me later. The corpse lay stretched out on El Golea's centtal
sqrare. French soldiers had exposed it publicly as a warning. The good
Father Cougoula went
FranEois Augiras is twenty years old when he stays with his uncle at
the post El Golea in the aftermath of the Second World War. FranEois Augiras undergoes a
homosexual experience there, an initiation of which he gives an account in his essentially
autobiographicalwork Le vieillard et I'enfan published in 1954 by Editions de Minuit under
the pseudonym of Abdallah Chaamba. The text of the original edition is sprinkled with details
assciated with the story of Cadat: the Black Christians of the oasis, the French schoolteachers,
the monkeys, the total eclipse of the moon on December 15, 1948 which one remembers vividly
in my family, the tomb of Father de Foucauld.
2e
Algerian partisan.
a"glOr* ff880-1958).
96
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
The
Cadats 97
Evian agreements. The French black Christians of the Sahara, still there,
will vote "yes" for Independence, along with the Muslims. They have the
hope to remain although they feel betrayed by General de Gaulle. De
Gaulle asserted that the status of the Sahara would not change. My father
remembers the General's passage at El Golea. De Gaulle attended the
mass on Sunday. He was so tall that he had to bend over in order to get
into the church. By his very presence, he seemed to affirm, as far as the
black Christians ofthe oasis were concerned, the assurance ofthe specific
characer of their Sahara, forever French.
attacked. As he sat in the sun in front of his house, as was his habit,
chatting with some Arab friends, a man rose. He thundered: "Perform the
shaada3o or I kill you". Without waiting for response, he hit my grandfather violently. Things rapidly worsen: the new regime decides to
expropriate the gardens of Pierre and of his children. Most of the Cadats
decide to leave their country for France. Their decision is final, despite
the fact that they feel awful about it. They fear for their physical and
spiritual integrity.
30
98
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
turbines, ready to take off. Alongside the runway, the beautiful and
venomous flowerbeds of laurel. The dazzlingsun exacerbates their heavy
scent. Around me, the people are sad. All of them except the children. I
am seven years old. Seeing the aeroplane leave is exciting and nevertheless
The
Saint Joseph, the Cathedral of the Desert. Pieter Kersten copyright L993
,s.:
,{l
Cadats 99
100
Brieuc-Yves Cadar
one I played marbles with. I do not see the DC-10 anymore. It has
disappeared, with the sonorous beating of wings into the fata morgana of
the Northern horizon. It is done.
ous crises, from the arrogant act of exploding French atornic bombs in the
Sahara to the nationalisation of France's national belongings. And then
one day, it's over. At this time, my father holds a post at Ouargla at a few
hundred kilometres from the Tunisian border. We live in a beautiful white
villa built by Pouillon, our last Algerian home. After the Algerian State
decides to nationalise the oil industry, France terminates the technical cooperation agreements. We leave. My father takes a post at Montpellier,
in southern France. This is the summer of 1971. and I am thirteen years
old.
31
The
Cadats 10L
From left to right: myself, Dewi Pieter Erwan, my son, and Marije Joanne van Mierlo,
Dewi's mother and my partner (1997).
tion white Arab and Berber) against racism and for equality. This
movement was first successful in emphasising the right to be different.
However this political position produced a boomerang effect. The growing racist National Front, the party of ex-OAS Jean-Marie Le Pen argued
that autochthonous people of "French stock" had also the right to be
different ("Own folk first") and that the best way for "races" to stay
different was, at the modest end, to segregate, and at the extreme end, to
send migrants "back home". As for me I shifted away from a particularist
to a universalist position. I helped to set up and develop the French "black
andwhite" anti-racist organisation "sOs-Racism hands off mybuddy".
102
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
My grandather:
Berber
a) Sahara
b) Franc
(1 965)
Pier Cadat
(1 1885-1S70)
Black
(Hartani)
a) Ber(Zenati)
b) Arab (dialect)
c) French
a) lslam
b) Catholicism
(1910)
(1e06)
a) Muslim
lndigenous
b) Christian
Muslim
lndigenous
(1e10)
c) French
(1
ather:
Cadt
(1e28)
My
Joseph
,,!4y!-f-nitii:'Denise
":,
Braud
a) Sahara
b) France
(1e71)
,,)rFlA,.
b)
Sahara
(re22)
(1954)
c) Fhnce
(1e71)
Myself:
Brieuc-Yves
Cadat
(195S)
a)
b)
My
My
BerberFench
,,t,
,uriBi,.-t9n,ri lgmte,r,r
Sahara
France
(1971)
,l;:i t
,,:
"''."
Catholicism
b) Frnch
BerberBreton
Mestizo a) French
b)
Dutch
(1987)
a) Catholicism French
b) Alheism
(1974)
) Nethrlands
(1 e87)
partner
Nethsrlands
son:
Cadat
Netherlands
Dewi
(1995)
923)
Agnogthism
Dutch
French &
Dutch
The
Cadats 103
Bibliography
Anonymous (by a missionary) $9a\, Petites Monographies Sahariennes, Collection
Rachid-Alger.
Augiras,FranEois (1979),Levoyagedesmorts,)ditionsFataMorgana-Paris.,
Chaamba") (1985),Le vieillard et l'enfant (new edition), Les Editions
-- de("Abdatlah
Minuit-Paris.
Bazin, Ren (1921), Charles de Foucauld, explorateur du Maroc, ermite du dsert,
ditions Plon-Paris.
Barrat, Denise & Robert (1958), Charles de Foucauld et la fraternit, Collection Matres
Spirituels, Editions du Seuil-Paris.
Bulletn Trimestriel des Amitis Charles de Foucauld.
32
On the identity of bicultural children in Amsterdam see Marije van Mierlo (1998),
"Biculturele mensen in Amsterdam. Een ambivalente identiteit", in I. van Eerd & B. Hermes
(eds.), Pturifurm Amsterd.am, Vossiuspers AUP-Amsterdam, 139-158.
104
Brieuc-Yves Cadat
Cadat, Brieuc-Yves (1995), "Brieuc-Yves Cadat ou les mystres d'un Breton de l'Atlas
noir de peau...", in Eric Fottorino,Mille etun soleils. Paroles du Maghreb en France,
Editions Stock-Paris, 380, 156-166.
(1997), "Les Cadats, chrtiens noirs du Saharu", Migrations Socit 9.53 (Septem-
--
ber-October), CIEMI-Paris.
Cadat, Louis (L984), Rsum historique de la famille Pierre et Marie Cadat, personal
archives (31 December).
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