The distance scale

Original: Michael Balogh, Univ. Waterloo

Modified by H.L. Malasan for internal use

Apparent magnitudes
The magnitude system expresses fluxes in a given
waveband X, on a relative, logarithmic scale:
f

m X mref 2.5 log

f
ref

Note the negative sign means brighter objects have

lower magnitudes
Scale is chosen so that a factor 100 in brightness
corresponds to 5 magnitudes (historical)

The magnitude scale

f

m X mref 2.5 log

f
ref

One common system is to measure relative to Vega

By definition, Vega has m=0 in all bands. Note this does not mean Vega is equally
bright at all wavelengths!
Setting mref=0 in the equation above gives:

mX 2.5 log f 2.5 log fVega, X

2.5 log f m0, X

Colour is defined as the relative flux between two different

wavebands, usually written as a difference in magnitudes

Apparent magnitudes
The faintest (deepest) telescope image
taken so far is the Hubble Ultra-Deep
Field. At m=29, this reaches more than
1 billion times fainter than what we can
see with the naked eye.

m X mref 2.5 log

f
ref

Object

Apparent
mag

Sun

-26.5

Full moon

-12.5

Venus

-4.0

Jupiter

-3.0

Sirius

-1.4

Polaris

2.0

Eye limit

6.0

Pluto

15.0

Reasonable telescope limit (8-m

telescope, 4 hour integration)

28

Deepest image ever taken

(Hubble UDF)

29

10( 296) / 2.5 1046 / 5 109

Imagine a hypothetical source which has a constant flux of

10 Jy at all frequencies. What is its magnitude in the U
band? In the V and K bands?
Band Central
BandwidthFlux of Vega
name Wavelength (mm)
(Jy)
(mm)
U
B
V
R
I
J
H
K

0.37
0.45
0.55
0.66
0.81
1.25
1.65
2.20

0.066
0.094
0.088
0.14
0.15
0.21
0.31
0.39

1780
4000
3600
3060
2420
1570
1020
636

mX 2.5 log f 2.5 log fVega, X

2.5 log f m0, X

What is the B-V colour of a source that has a flux

proportional to l-4?

Band Central
BandwidthFlux of Vega
name Wavelength (mm)
(Jy)
(mm)
U
B
V
R
I
J
H
K

0.37
0.45
0.55
0.66
0.81
1.25
1.65
2.20

0.066
0.094
0.088
0.14
0.15
0.21
0.31
0.39

1780
4000
3600
3060
2420
1570
1020
636

mX 2.5 log f 2.5 log fVega, X

2.5 log f m0, X

Absolute magnitudes
It is also useful to have a measurement of intrinsic brightness that is
independent of distance
F

L
4r 2

Absolute Magnitude (M) is therefore defined to be the magnitude a star

would have if it were at an arbitrary distance D0=10pc:
10 pc

m M 5 log
Dstar

(note the zeropoints have cancelled)

D
5 log star 5
pc

The value of m-M is known as the distance modulus.

Example
Calculate the apparent magnitude of the Sun (absolute
magnitude M=4.76) at a distance of 1 Mpc (10 6 pc)

Dstar
m M 5 log
5

pc
Recall that the deepest
exposures taken reach m=29
The nearest large galaxy to us is
Andromeda (M31), at a distance of
about 1 Mpc
Detecting stars like our Sun in
other galaxies is therefore very
difficult (generally impossible at
the moment).

The colour-magnitude diagram

Precise parallax
measurements allow us to
plot a colour-magnitude
diagram for nearby stars.
The HertzsprungRussel (1914) diagram
proved to be the key
that unlocked the
secrets of stellar
evolution
Colour is independent
of distance, since it is
a ratio of fluxes:
f red 4r 2 Lred Lred

f blue 4r 2 Lblue Lblue

Absolute magnitude
(y-axis) requires
measurement of flux
and distance

Types of stars

Intrinsically faint stars are more

common than luminous stars

Main sequence fitting

NGC2437

Stellar clusters:
Consist of many, densely packed stars
For distant clusters, it is a very good approximation that all the
constituent stars are the same distance from us.
Typical clusters have sizes ~1 pc; so for clusters >10 pc away this
assumption introduces a 10% error.

Therefore, we can plot a colour-magnitude diagram using only the

apparent magnitude on the y-axis, and recognizable structure appears.

Main sequence fitting

Nearby stars (parallax)

distant cluster (apparent magnitudes)

We can take advantage of the structure in the HR diagram to determine

distances to stellar clusters
Colour is independent of distance, so the vertical offset of the main
sequence gives you the distance modulus m-M

Main sequence fitting

Example: NGC2437:
At a colour of B-V=1.0 mag, the main sequence absolute magnitude is 6.8.
In NGC2437, at the same colour, V=17.5. Thus the distance modulus is:

DM V M V
10.7
5 log d 5

This gives a distance of 1.4 kpc to NGC2437, reasonably close to the accepted distance of 1.8 kpc.

Break

Variable stars

The images above show the same star field at two different times. One
of the stars in the field has changed brightness relative to the other stars
can you see which one?

Variable stars

The images above show the same star field at two different times. One
of the stars in the field has changed brightness relative to the other stars
can you see which one?

Variable stars
Many stars show fluctuations in
their brightness with time.
These variations can be
characterized by their light curve
a plot of their magnitude as a
function of time

Variable stars

Certain intrinsically variable stars show a

remarkably strong correlation between
their pulsation period and average
luminosity

Modern calibration of the

Cepheid P-L relation in the
Magellanic clouds, yields:

M I 2.96(log P 1) 4.9
Where the period P is measured in days, and the
magnitude is measured in the I band.

Instability strip
Classical Cepheids are not the
only type of pulsating variable
star, however
There is a narrow strip in the HR
diagram where many variable
stars lie
Cepheids are the brightest
variable stars; however they are
also very rare

Cepheids
W Virginis
RR Lyrae

Pulsating white
dwarfs

RR Lyrae Stars
RR Lyrae stars (absolute magnitudes M=+0.6) are much
fainter than Cepheids; but have the advantage that they
almost all have the same luminosity and are more
common. They are easily identified by their much
shorter periods
Period (days)

Absolute Magnitude

Schematic
representation

Log (Period)

RR Lyrae variables
RR Lyrae stars have average absolute magnitudes
M=+0.6. How bright are these stars in Andromeda?

Summary: the distance ladder

1. Find parallax distances to the nearest stars

Dedicated satellites are now providing these precise

measurements for thousands of stars
Plot stellar absolute magnitudes as a function of colour

2. Measure fluxes and colours of stars in distant clusters

Compare with colour-magnitude diagram of nearby stars (step 1)

and use main-sequence fitting method to compute distances
Identify any variable stars in these clusters. Calibrate a periodluminosity relation for these variables

3. Measure the periods of bright variable stars in remote

parts of the Galaxy, and even in other galaxies

Use the period-luminosity relation from step 2 to determine the

distance

Note how an error in step 1 follows through all subsequent

steps!

Spectroscopy

In 1814, Joseph Fraunhofer catalogued

475 sharp, dark lines in the solar spectrum.
Discovered but misinterpreted in
1804 by William Wollaston
Spectrum was obtained by passing
sunlight through a prism

Example: the solar spectrum

What elements are present in the Sun?

Solar spectrum

Example: the solar spectrum

What elements are present in the Sun?

Balmer lines (Hydrogen)

Example: the solar spectrum

What elements are present in the Sun?

NaD

Example: the solar spectrum

What elements are present in the Sun?

Ca H+K

Example: the solar spectrum

So: the Sun is mostly calcium, iron and sodium?? No! Not quite that simple

Solar spectrum

Stellar spectra

Increasing temperature

Stellar spectra show interesting trends as a function of temperature:

Spectral classification
Stars can be classified according to the relative strength of
their spectral features:
There are seven main classes, in order of decreasing
temperature they are: O B A F G K M
For alternative mneumonics to the traditional O be a fine girl kiss
me, see here

Each class is subdivided more finely from 0-9. So a B2 star is

hotter than a B9 which is hotter than a A0
Additional classes are R, N, S which are red, cool supergiant
stars with different chemical compositions

Characteristics of spectral classes

Spectral
Type

Colour

Temperature Main characteristics

(K)

Example

Blue-white

>25000

10 Lacertra

Blue-white

11000-25000

Strong HeII absorption (sometimes

emission); strong UV continuum
HeI absorption, weak Balmer lines

White

7500-11000

Strongest Balmer lines (A0)

Sirius

Yellow-white 6000-7500

CaII lines strengthen

Procyon

Yellow

5000-6000

Solar-type spectra

Sun

Orange

3500-5000

Strong metal lines

Arcturus

Red

<3500

Molecular lines (e.g. TiO)

Betelgeuse

Rigel

Luminosity

The HR diagram revisited

Spectral Class
A
F
G

Henry Norris original diagram, showing stellar luminosity as a

function of spectral class.

The original HR diagram

The main sequence is clearly visible

A modern colour-magnitude
diagram