Introduction to Steel Design

1.1

Steel Structures

Engineers have designed a variety of structures for a range of purposes, ex. Buildings
(residential, commercial, industrial and institutional), Bridges, Tanks and Silos, Cranes,
Towers (transmission, water, lighting), Offshore and Mining structures, Machines and
Vehicles. Most of these structures are constructed in steel since it is one of the very efficient
construction materials (see Figure 1.1). However, steel is also used with other materials
(concrete foundations, masonry walls and composite construction). Steel has high strength
and stiffness with low self-weight, good ductility, allows easy and faster fabrication and
erection and is relatively cheap.

(a) Bridges

(b) Buildings

(c) Towers

(d) Towers

Figure 1.1 Examples of Steel Structures

Although structures are usually three-dimensional, they are essentially made of onedimensional (beams and columns) and two-dimensional members (frames, plates). They are
usually designed based on idealised simple structural forms and assuming that the members
behave independently to each other. Structural members are classified as tension or

1-1

compression members, beams, beam-columns or torsion members or plates depending on how

they carry the forces in the structure. These members can be connected together using various
methods such as pins, rivets, bolts and welds and connectors such as gusset plates and cleats.
1.2 Engineering Design Process
The structural engineers main task is to design the structure according to the design brief and
associated Australian standard and statutory requirements so that the structure will perform
satisfactorily during its intended design life. The structure must satisfy the requirements of
safety (strength and serviceability), economy (lowest cost), functionality, aesthetics and
environment. For this purpose, the structural engineer must have a good understanding of the
following:
Structural Design Principles
Behaviour of Structures under Load
Structural Analysis (Load paths, Structural Idealisation and Modelling)
Detail Design
Properties of Construction Materials
Fire protection and corrosion required
Methods of Construction (fabrication and erection)
Operating and Maintenance Costs
The structural engineer must work as a member of a team consisting of architects, service
engineers, and contractors to arrive at the best design solution.
Engineering Design Process includes the following phases:
1. Investigation
2. Conceptual Design (structural system)
3. Preliminary Design (load evaluation and approximate sizing of main members)
4. Final Design (load paths, structural idealisation and analyses)
5. Documentation (drawings, specifications and quantities)
6. Tendering
7. Construction (fabrication, transport and erection)
Note: 2 to 4 are core design activities
Design process involves Understanding the problem and clients requirements, trial
solution, improving the trial solution and determining the member sizes and details.
Depending on the structure being designed, different emphasis will be required, for example,
tall buildings versus bridges versus simple industrial and commercial buildings. This subject
mainly deals with the analysis and design tasks of individual members and simple structures.
They include evaluation of relevant loads, appropriate idealisation of structure (both members
and connections), use of appropriate methods of analysis (first order/second order elastic
analysis, stability and advanced analyses), and design of members with adequate capacities.
Note that the cost associated with the analysis and design tasks is only 30 to 40% of the
overall cost. The designer should always consider methods of minimising the cost of
fabrication and erection. However, the importance of the analysis and design tasks should
never be overlooked as it can lead to structural failures (see Figure 1.2).

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Figure 1.2 Examples of Structural Failures

1.3 Standards and Codes of Practice
The Standards and Codes of Practice set down minimum criteria for structural adequacy to
enable safe and efficient design of structures (safety versus acceptable level of risk).
Information needed for design (analysis methods, loads, limits, performance requirements,
etc.) are available in the appropriate statutory/regulatory authority documents, for example,
Building Code of Australia. It then refers to relevant deemed to comply standards such as
AS1170 Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Loading codes), AS 4100, AS 4600 and AS 2327 (Design codes),
and AS 3678, 3679, 1163, 1554, 1252, 1111 (Material quality codes).
1.4 Materials
Structural steels are alloys of iron with small controlled quantities of other elements such as
carbon (<0.25%), manganese (<1.5%), chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, niobium and
copper. These elements control grain size and thus the properties of steel. Higher carbon
content gives greater strength and hardness, but ductility and fracture toughness are reduced.
Similarly inclusion of copper gives corrosion resistance. An important property such as
weldability depends on the carbon equivalent (CE) with low CE values (<0.2%) giving good
weldability. The methods of steel production involving rolling, forming, cooling rates,
quenching and tempering will also affect the microstructure and thus steel properties.
(a)

750

(b)

750

Grade 400

600

600

Stress Mpa

Stress Mpa

Grade 350

Grade 250

450

300

450

350

250
300
yielding

150

150

strain hardening

0.2

0.1

0.3

0.006
0.002
(0.2%)

Strain

Figure 1.3 Tensile Stress-Strain Curves

1-3

Strain

0.012

For design purposes, the strength and ductility characteristics of steel must be known. The
relevant data in the form of stress-strain curves are usually obtained from standard tensile
tests (see Figure 1.3). The following terms are needed to understand the stress-strain curves:
elastic limit, elastic range, plastic range, Youngs modulus of elasticity (E), yield stress fy (or
0.2% proof stress), ultimate tensile strength fu, strain hardening and fracture.
The yield stress fy, the ultimate tensile strength fu and the Modulus of Elasticity E are the
important parameters used in steel design. The most important parameter fy varies with
chemical composition (mainly carbon and manganese content), method of manufacture
(rolling, forming, quenching and tempering, cooling rates) and amount of working during the
rolling process used. Thinner plates with greater amount of working have higher yield stresses
than thicker plates. The yield stress determined from standard tensile tests is assumed to be
the same for compression (only 5% difference). For pure shear case, the yield stress is fy /3,
which is taken into account in the relevant design rules. The yield stress fy is used in the
design of steel elements for all design actions including tension, compression, bending and
shear. For combined stress states, yielding cannot be determined easily and is based on failure
theories such as von Mises failure criterion.
In design, the following properties are considered the same for all grades of steel: Modulus of
elasticity E = 200,000 MPa, Shear modulus G = 80,000 MPa, Poissons ratio = 0.25,
Density = 7850 kg/m3, Coefficient of thermal expansion 11.7 x 10-6/C. However, note that
these properties change significantly at higher temperatures (about 45% loss in fy, 35%
reduction in E and 29% increase in thermal expansion at 500C). This can be a problem for
structures required to operate at higher temperatures and those subjected to fire. Other
relevant mechanical properties are fatigue strength, creep strength, bend radius, hardness and
impact properties. Measured yield and ultimate stresses cannot be used directly in design
with current capacity reduction factors given in the code (defined later).
Steel is an efficient structural material that is available with a wide range of properties and
chemical compositions to suit various requirements of the industry. The suitability of a given
grade of steel depends on its strength properties, weldability, ductility at the specified service
temperature, low cost-to-strength ratio and availability in the required sizes and shapes.
All structural steels are required to comply with appropriate standards:
Structural steel hot-rolled plates, floor plates and slabs : AS3678
Structural steel hot-rolled bars and sections and welded sections : AS3679 Parts 1 and 2
Structural steel hollow sections: AS1163
Structural and pressure vessel steel (quenched and tempered plates): AS3597
There are many grades of steel, namely G250, G300, G350, G450, etc. Their minimum
strength properties (fy, fu) are given in Table 2.1 of AS 4100 and BHP section data handbook
or AISC Design Capacity Tables. The design yield stress fy varies with both grade and
thickness whereas design tensile strength fu depends only on Grade.
1.5 Steel Sections
The basic elements of steel structures are plates and standard sections from which other
sections can be made (see Figure 1.4 for the range of sections possible). However, the use of
basic elements is recommended for economical reasons. Available standard sections are:

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Hot-rolled Sections: Universal Beams (UB), Universal Columns (UC), Parallel/Taper

Flange Channels (PFC/TFC), Equal/Unequal Angles (EA/UA)
Standard Welded Sections in the form of 3-plate I-sections: Welded Beams (WB), Welded
Columns (WC)
Cold-formed structural steel hollow sections: Circular Hollow Sections (CHS), Square
Hollow Sections (SHS), Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)

Steel Sections
Figure 1.4Structural
Structural
Steel Sections

1.6 Scope of Design Codes

AS 4100 specifies the minimum requirements for Design, Fabrication, Erection and
Modification of Steelwork in structures (buildings, wharves and cranes; also to roadway,
railway and pedestrian bridges together with AUSROADS bridge codes) according to Limit
Sates design Method. It excludes the following:
Steel elements less than 3 mm thick
Steel elements with design yield stress fy exceeding 450 MPa (except for plastic design,
steels with greater yield stress can be used, but the design yield stress fy has to be limited
to 450 MPa)
Cold-formed members except the tubular sections (RHS, SHS and CHS) complying with
AS1163 use AS4600, the cold-formed steel structures code
Composite steel-concrete members use AS2327, the composite structures code
AS 4100 allows the use of unidentified steels (which do not comply with AS 1163, AS 3678,
AS 3679, AS 1594) provided reduced values of 170 and 300 MPa are used for design yield
stress fy and design tensile strength fu, respectively.
The design codes must be considered as a design aid written based on practice and research
acceptable at the time of writing. Engineers often have to use their experience and judgement
beyond the design codes in completing their designs.
1.7 Design Actions
AS 1170 (2002) uses the term Actions instead of Loads, so that the design actions can

1-5

include both loads acting on a structure (direct actions) and deformations imposed on a
structure (indirect actions). Both loads and deformations can cause stresses in a structure
being designed and therefore there is a need include both in the design. The design action
evaluation forms the most important input to the design process. Accurate evaluation of
design actions is critical as otherwise it leads to either unsafe or overdesigned structures (both
unacceptable). Structural Design Action (Loading) codes AS 1170 Parts 1 to 4 provide the
design actions based on tests and statistical analyses. Design actions to be considered are:
Permanent Action (constant magnitude and position over time, mainly self weight) G
Imposed Action (variable action produced by intended usage and external environment) Q
Wind Action W
Earthquake Action E
Snow Action
Temperature Induced Loads T
Construction Loads C
Other
For specialised cases such as cranes in industrial buildings, bridges and lattice towers and
masts, the relevant standards must be used, for example, AusRoads for bridge loading.
Since design actions vary significantly, and the fact the design action (loading) codes only
provide a nominal load, a Load Factor is used with each design load/action above to allow for
possible variation (often to take into account overloading). The basic design actions do occur
simultaneously and hence appropriate combinations need to be considered by the designer
(for example permanent and wind actions). Some of the above actions (wind and earthquake
actions) can be dynamic loads that can be replaced by static load equivalents for static
structures. In other cases, effects of dynamic loads must be considered using appropriate
dynamic analyses.
1.8 Design Philosophy
The objective of design is to define a structure capable of remaining fit for the intended use
throughout its design life without the need for costly maintenance. This implies that the
structure must remain stable, safe and serviceable under all design actions and their
combinations that can be reasonably expected during its design life. For this purpose various
criteria for fitness are needed. In the past, an allowable/working stress method was used, but
the current steel design standard AS 4100 is based on the Limit States Design method. The
new method allows for the variations in load and material strength distributions, construction
practices and design approximations using statistical/probabilistic principles, and thus enables
a more accurate assessment of the performance of structures. It is now being used for all the
major construction materials worldwide (concrete, timber, aluminium, masonry). It must be
noted that the new design method does not guarantee complete safety, but allows the
designers to ensure the probability of reaching a limit state is very low. The limit states design
method includes the following limit states:
Strength Limit State
Serviceability Limit State
Stability Limit State
Fatigue Limit State
Fire Limit State
Brittle Fracture Limit State
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Structures can be designed using a simple design method based on pinned joints and bracing
to provide sway stability, a continuous design method based on full moment resisting joints, a
semi-continuous design method or an experimental verification method.
Definition of a Limit State: When a structure or a part of a structure is rendered unfit for use
it reaches a Limit state. In this state it ceases to perform one of the functions or to satisfy the
conditions for which it was designed. Appropriate structural systems such as triangulated
bracing, moment-resisting joints, shear walls or staircase/lift cores should be used to provide
resistance to horizontal forces.
Design actions and their appropriate combinations should be considered so that the maximum
design action effects are determined and designed for. The basic combinations for strength
limit state are:

1.35 G
1.2 G + 1.5 Q *
1.2 G + 1.5 l Q

1.2 G + Wu + c Q
0.9 G + Wu
*

* - common combinations

G + Eu + c Q (earthquake action)
1.2 G + Su + c Q (snow action)

where the three factors, short-term factor s, long-term factor l and the combination factor
c are given in Table 4.1 of AS 1170.0. These factors are reproduced here in Table 1.1. In
this section, the terms dead load and live load are used instead of permanent action (G)
and imposed action (Q).

Table 1.1 Short-term, Long-term and Combination Factors

Imposed action
Distributed action
Floors: Residential and domestic
Floors: Offices or Parking or Retail
Floors: Storage
Floors: Other
Roofs: used for Floor type activities
All other roofs
Concentrated Action
Floors
Floors of domestic housing
Roofs used for floor type activities
All other roofs or Balustrades
Long-term installed machinery

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s,

0.7
0.7
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.7

0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.0

0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.0

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

0.6
0.4
0.6
0.0
1.0

0.4
0.4
0.4
0.0
1.2

General design requirement according to ultimate limit state design method is

Design Action Effect Ed Design Capacity Rd (
R)
where
Ed is a design action effect such as an axial tension or compression force or a moment
obtained from structural analysis based on Factored Actions (to allow for possible
overloading)
Rd is the corresponding design capacity (tensile, compressive or bending strength)
obtained from AS 4100
Rd = R, where R is the nominal design capacity and is a capacity reduction factor
depending on the type of member and action (Table 3.4 in AS 4100). It allows for the
variability in strength and the possible understrength. It is
0.9 for tension, compression and bending members
0.8 for bolted connections
0.6 and 0.8 for GP (General Purpose) and SP (Structural Purpose) category welded
connections, but for complete butt welds: 0.6 and 0.9
In the past, an allowable stress method was used in which a single factor was used to cover all
unknowns. A single factor of safety was used to reduce the member strength to compare with
stresses at working load levels. The new limit states method includes a partial safety factor
(factor of ignorance??) for each unknown (load, material strength etc). The combined use of
load factors and a capacity reduction factor have to take into account the following:
Load factors: Uncertainty in expected loads/actions
Accuracy of calculated design action effects (modelling and analysis)
Capacity reduction factor:
Variability of material strength, defects
Deviations in section properties of manufactured sections
Variation in accuracy of the fabricated components
Quality of workmanship (fabrication and erection processes)
Possibility of deterioration due to corrosion and other causes
Human error has not been included in the above, and is expected to be checked using the
quality assurance procedures used in the design offices and construction sites.
In the Serviceability Limit State, deflection, vibration, bolt slip and corrosion are checked
against acceptable limit values under the appropriate design actions and their combinations.
Appropriate combinations of one or more of the following actions with short-term or longterm factors should be considered.
G
s Q
1 Q
Ws
Es
where the short term (s) and long term (1) factors are given in Table 4.1 of AS 1170.0
(Table 1.1 in this section).
Appendix B of AS 4100 gives a list of suggested limits for deflections. Maximum deflections
calculated from first order elastic analyses of the structure and its components under relevant
load cases should not exceed these limits. Some of these limits for maximum deflection are

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given in Table 1.2. For structures supporting machinery, cranes, and other such cases, smaller
deflection limits need to be used. Table C1 in AS 1170.0 also gives specific deflection limits
for a range of different structural elements and loads.
Table 1.2 Deflection Limits
Structural Member
Beam supporting masonry partitions (Vertical
deflection after addition of partition)
All beams (Total vertical deflection)
Cantilever supporting masonry partitions (Vertical
deflection after addition of partition)
All cantilevers (Total vertical deflection)
Portal frame rafters (Vertical deflection)

Portal frame columns in industrial buildings

(Horizontal deflection due to wind loads at eaves
level)

Deflection Limit
Span/500
Span/250
Length/250
Span/125
Span/360 for Dead Load
Span/240 for Live Load
Span/150 for Wind Load
Column height/150 or frame
spacing b/200 for metal claddings
and without partitions
Column height/240 for masonry
walls supported by steelwork

Structural design should eliminate vibration problems caused by wind and earthquake loads,
machinery and vehicular or pedestrian traffic. With increasing use of flexible structures,
design for vibration is becoming more important. Wind loading can cause flexible high-rise
buildings to vibrate in either cross-wind or along wind direction. Long span structures are
prone to aerodynamic excitation. Resonance occurs when the period of loading coincides with
the natural period of the structure. The structural designers must attempt to eliminate these
problems or devices must be installed to reduce their effects, for ex. damping devices.
In some structural connections, slip during service is to be avoided and for which appropriate
friction-type bolted connections should be used. Depending on the structural use, maintenance
and climatic conditions, steelwork should be given appropriate corrosion protection. Metallic
(galvanizing) or non-metallic (paint systems) protective coatings can be used for this purpose.
In the Stability Limit State, the structure as a whole must be designed to provide stability
against overturning and sway that can be caused by horizontal loading due to wind and
earthquake actions and by structural frame imperfections. The combinations for the stability
limit state are:
0.9 G
1.35 G
1.2 G + 1.5 Q
1.2 G + Wu + c Q
G + Eu + c Q
1.2 G + Su + c Q (snow action)
In structures subject to a large number of load fluctuations (crane girders, structural members
supporting heavy vibrating machinery, railway bridges, offshore structures and usually not for
1-9

buildings), fatigue cracks can form and their growth can lead to structural failures at
loads/stresses well below those corresponding to static yielding (ie. no plastic deformations).
In such cases, the Fatigue Limit State must be used. It is an ultimate limit state, but if the
fatigue cracking is repairable, it is considered as a serviceability limit state. Fatigue tests of
members and joints provide the required data including the endurance limits and the
relationships between fatigue life and service stress range for design against fatigue. Welded
joints often suffer from fatigue cracking and their details must be specified carefully to
eliminate fatigue problems. The relationships between fatigue life and stress range are
available for different weld details and are used in the design of welded joints against fatigue.
Other types of joints should also be designed to minimise stress concentrations and thus
fatigue problems. Section 11 of AS 4100 gives the details of the design method for fatigue.
Both the strength and stiffness of steel (yield stress and Youngs modulus) decrease rapidly at
elevated temperature. Therefore steel structural design must consider the Fire Limit State. In
fire design, the main aims are to prevent premature collapse so that evacuation of occupants is
possible, and also rapid fire spread so that damage to adjoining structures is avoided.
Protection of steelwork, the so-called passive approach, is often considered as the only
method of providing fire protection. Active approach of using monitoring and automatic
extinction equipment (sprinklers), improved methods for evacuation and reducing fire spread,
venting methods to reduce smoke and heat and others can considerably reduce the need for
passive fire protection. For many types of steel buildings, fire assessment has shown that fire
protection is not required, for example open car parks. As for other design load cases, fire
load should be evaluated first for a given steel structure. This should be followed by fire
performance of the structure, based on which a decision should be made regarding any fire
protection/insulation requirement. Section 12 of AS 4100 presents detailed procedures for
checking the fire resistance of steel structures and to provide necessary fire protection. The
building regulations give the required fire resistance level (FRL - 30 mins, 1 hour, 2 hour or 4
hours) depending on the class of structure. Section 12 of AS 4100 uses an approach based on
calculations and fire tests to determine the period of structural adequacy (PSA) using the
limiting temperature of steel that depends on the load ratio (actual design action/member
design capacity at room temperature). If the period of structural adequacy is greater than the
fire resistance level, the fire performance of member is considered adequate. A
comprehensive assessment of the fire performance of steel structures is possible using
advanced methods and research is continuing in this area.
Brittle fracture can occur suddenly in the tensile stress regions of a steel structure at low
temperatures, and can propagate very rapidly leading to structural collapse. It can occur at
low stress levels (even at 25% of yield stress) with little prior deformation and warning. It
depends on the minimum service temperature, steel grade and thickness, type of detail and
stress/strain levels. The use of steel with adequate notch toughness will eliminate brittle
fracture. Section 10 of AS 4100 gives the details of the design method for brittle fracture. The
design method is simple in which the limiting maximum thickness for a given grade of steel is
chosen based on the design service temperature. This allows the steel to operate in its notchductile temperature range, eliminating the possibility of brittle fracture.
In addition to the above limit states, structural integrity and robustness are also important
considerations to prevent disasters as a result of accidental or deliberate damages/blasts/
impacts etc.

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1.9 Design Process Simply Explained

Step 1: Decide on the structural layout for the building
Step 2: Determine the design actions and their combinations with appropriate load
factors
Step 3: Structural analysis to determine the design action effects such as maximum bending
moment M*, axial tension or compression force N* and shear force V*
Step 4: For the chosen member, determine the design capacity = capacity reduction factor x
nominal capacity R based on AS 4100 rules
Step 5: If Design Action Effect M* or N* or V * Design Capacity R, then design is ok.
Otherwise choose another member size and repeat the process
Step 6: Similarly, check other appropriate limit states
Step 7: Produce design drawings: They should include the following:
DESIGN DATA:
applicable design standards used, the nominal loads, the corrosion
protection and fire resistance level if applicable, the steel grades used.
DESIGN DETAILS: the size and designation of each member, the size and categories of the
bolts and welds used in the connections, the sizes of the connection components, the locations
and details of planned joints, connections and splices, any constraint on construction assumed
in the design, the camber of any members.
Further details on this lecture topic can be obtained from Chapters 1 to 3 of Gorenc et al.s
(1996) book, relevant Australian Standards and Australian Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC) publications.
1.10 Design Aids
1.
2.
3.
4.

HB2.2: Structural Engineering Handbook for Students (2002), Standards Australia

AS 4100 (1998) Steel Structures Code and Commentary (see HB2.2), Standards Australia
AS 1170 Parts 1, 2 and 4: Loading Codes (see HB2.2), Standards Australia
Australian Steel Institute (ASI) (1999) Design Capacity Tables for Structural Steel, Third
Edition, Volume 1: Open Sections and Volume 2: Hollow Sections
5. Gorenc, B. Tinyou, R. and Syam, A. (1996) Steel Designers Handbook, University of
New South Wales Press, 6th Edition, Sydney
6. Bradford, M.A., Bridge, R.Q. and Trahair, N.S. (1997) Worked Examples for Steel
Structures, Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 3rd Edition, Sydney
7. QUT Study Notes on Steel Structures CEB318 Structural Engineering 2
8. One Steel Product Data: www.onesteel.com
9. ASI Technical Books: www.steel.org.au
10. Limsteel computer program: www.civil.usyd.edu.au/case/limsteel.php
11. Aaron Yuans Java computer program on the Internet:
http://www.bee.qut.edu.au/people/yuan/beam.html

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TUTORIAL PROBLEMS ON LIMIT STATES DESIGN

Question 1
In steel design
a) What are the limit states? Give details
b) Whats the difference between allowable stress method and limit states design method?
c) What are the main design actions and combinations for ultimate limit state?
d) What are the factors used in limit states design? How are they incorporated in the design
process?
e) State the capacity reduction factors for the following: member in bending, bolt in shear
and complete penetration butt weld GP category
Question 2
A simply supported single span beam supports a non-trafficable roof. It is subjected to a G of
10 kN/m , Q of 15 kN/m and Wu of -25 kN/m and 18 kN/m and Ws of - 14.4 kN/m and 10.4
kN/m. State the load combination and values which require consideration when assessing the
member for strength and serviceability limit states.
(34.5, -16 kN/m; 10.5, -14.4 kN/m)
Question 3
An industrial building consisting of steel portal frames at 6 m spacing is to be designed.
Figure 1 shows the steel frame. From the appropriate dead loads, live loads, and wind loads,
the moments in the frame have been calculated as shown on the figure. Use the appropriate
load factors to determine the limit state design moments M* for the following. Assume
trafficable roof conditions.
1) column members;
(59.10, -70.70 kNm)
2) roof rafters;
(59.10, -70.65 kNm)
3) connections of rafter to columns; (59.10, -70.65 kNm)
4) foundation design.
(57.15, 70.70 kNm)

Figure 1.

Steel Gable frame in an Industrial Building for Question 3

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Question 4
Determine the approximate maximum LIVE LOAD deflection of the continuous steel beam
shown in Figure 2. If the live load deflection limit is span/500, is a 410UB59.7 section (Ix =
216 x 106 mm4) suitable? Suggest a suitable section if it is not. E = 200,000 MPa (assume
that the beam supports a storage floor)
Hint: From the Text book by Timoshenko Appendix G-2 Cases 1 and 7,
simple beam deflection = 5*q*L4/(384*E*I)
for UDL case
= M0*L2/(15.6*E*I)
for End Moment case

LL=30kN/m

8m
A

8m

DL=20kN/m
LL=30kN/m

8m

MD+L = -320kNm

Figure 2.

BMD FOR
(DL+LL)

Continuous Steel Beam for Question 4

Note. DL = Dead Load. LL = Live Load D+L = Dead and Live Load
BMD for DL+LL = Bending moment diagram for combined dead and live loads
(16 mm<18.81 mm for 410UB59.7 not suitable)
(Require 460UB67.1)

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