Pure Mathematics For Sixth Forms Vol.1

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY
F.
PRESS
GERRISH
PURE MATHEMATICS
This two-volume text-book on Pure Mathematics has been designed to cover the whole of
the mathematics required for Part I of the
London B.Sc. General Degree and
for any first-
year degree courses containing subsidiary pure

mathematics. It is the only book of its kind
addressed primarily
student.
It
the General Degree

most of the Pure Mathe-
to
also covers
matics required by the recently introduced
Diploma
Mathematics of the Mathematical
in
Association,
This book does not assume a complete mastery
work, and much of
of earlier
the pure mathematics

school
pupils
it is
suitable for
required by
preparing
for
grammar
scholarships
in
Natural Sciences, as well as for the mathematics

specialists,
However, though
aimed to supply a
students at these
real
levels,
Mr
cram book
goes a
little
lias
he has treated
subject in a serious fashion and this
sense a
Gerrish
need of examination
book
for examinations.
is
his
in
no
Thus he
beyond the requirements of the
examination syllabus.
By a natural division the subject-matter

conveniently into
two volumes which,
falls
despite
occasional cross-references , can be used inde-
pendently as separate text-books

I.
Calculus and differential equations, with appli-
cations to topics such as areas,
centres of gravity,
moments of
arc-lengths,
inertia,
and
geometry of plane curves,

II.
Algebra and convergence, trigonometry and
coordinate geometry of
sions, in
when
which
calculus
two and three dimenmethods are
illustrated
instructive.
Finally
the
book contains
many
sets
of
'exercises for the reader', often with hints for

solution.
Each chapter includes a Miscellaneous
Exercise for revision purposes.

also provided.
Answers are
8EDGLEY PARK COLLEGE

-K^
a_
1*
FER.
NAME
This boob
is
due for return on or before the
last
date
shown above.
8EDGLEV PARK COLLEGE.

PRE8TWICH,
MANCHE8TER.
PURE MATHEMATICS
VOLUME
Uniform with
VOLUME
(his
Volume
nt ALGEBRA, TRIGONOMETRY
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
PURE
MATHEMATICS
A UNIVERSITY AND
COLLEGE COURSE
BY
F.
GERRISH,
VOLUME
M.A.
CALCULUS
1
+
1
\
S
w
w
CAMBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1960
PUBLISHED BY
THE SYNDICS OF THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
13outloy House, 200 Eustoti
American Branch: 32 East 57th
Road, London, N.W.

Stroflt,
New York
22,
N.Y.
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1960
Printed in Great Britain at the Univernity Pf688t Cambridge

{Brooke Gruiditey, University Printer)
CONTENTS
page xv
General Preface
Preface to Volume
xvii
References and Abbreviations
xix
Chapter 1. Review of Some Facts, Definitions

and Methods
1.1
Numbers, variables and functions

1.11
Numbers,
p. 1
1,13 Functions, p. 3.
1.2
1.14
and variables,
The function \x], p. 5
1.12 Constanta
p. 3,
Simple inequalities
1,21 Fundamental results,
and bar monks means, p. 8
p. 6.
1.22 Arithmetic, geometric,
10
Exercise 1(a)
1.3
Quadratic functions and quadratic inequalities

1.31 Sign of a quadra tic function, p. 11.
inequality, p. 14
14
1.5
15
Graphs
1.41, 1-42
1.32 Cauchy's
Exercise 1(b)
1.4
Examples,
pp. 15, 19
Exercise 1(e)
1 J>
Types of function
20
1.52 Classification by
1.51 Classification by structure, p. 20.
properties, p. 22. 1.53 Inadequacy of graphical representation,
p.
1.6
27
Exercise 1(d)
29
Plane curves
30
1,61
Parametric equations,
p. 30.
1.62 Polar coordinates, p. 31
1.63 Polar equation of a curve, p. 32
34
Exercise 1(e)
Miscellaneous Exercise
1 (/)
35
CONTENTS
Vi
Chapter
2.1
page 38
some examples from previous work
Limits:
2.11 dt/fdx, p. 38.
examples, p, 39.
2.2
Continuous Functions
Limits,
2.
2.12 em x/x, p. 38.

2,15 Tangent, p. 40
The general idea of a
2.13, 2.14
38
Other
40
limit
2.21 Informal definition;, p. 40.
2.22 Formal
2.3
Some
general properties of limits
2.4
Otlier
ways
2.5
Limits
2.6
Continuity
definition, p. 41
41
in which a function can behave
when x
-> oo,
43
x -> - oo
45
45
2.61 Definition, of continuous function', p. 45, 2.62 Some

properties of continuous functions, p. 47. 2.63 Examples of
some continuous functions, p. 47. 2.64 Removable discon1
tinuities, p. 48.
2.65 Another property of continuous func-
tions, p. 48
50
Exercise 2(a)
2.7
Functions of n: some important limits

2,71 Sequences, p. 50. 2.72 a", p. 52.
1}... (m
2.74 a"/ti!, p. 54. 2.75
m(m
2.76 Further examples, p. 55.
p. 54.
p.
n+
ln\,m
2.77 Monotonic funct ions,
55
Exercise 2(6)
58
Miscellaneous Exercise 2(c)
58
Chapter
3.1
50
2,73 a n ,%, p. 53.

constant,
l)a n
3.
The Derivative. Some Applications
The derivative of a function of one

3. 12
3,11 Definitions, p, 60,
60
60
variable
A derivable function is continuous,
p. 61
3.2
The
62
rules of derivation
Hum, product, quotient function of a function

;
3.3
inverse functions
Derivatives of some well -known functions

3,31 x w
The
circular functions, p. 66.
3.32
p.
inverse circular functions, p, 66
3.4
155.
Implicit functions
65
3.33
The
and functions defined parametrically
07
a function defined implicitly, p. 67.

3.42 Derivative of a function defined parametrically, p. 68
3.41 Derivative of
Exercise 3(a)
68
CONTENTS
3.5
Vll
page 70
Derivatives of second and higher orders

3.51 Notation, p. 70.
>
1, p. 71.
3.52 Implications of the existonce of

3.53 Examples, p. 71
73
Exercise 3{&)
3.6
Increasing and decreasing functions
maxima and
7^
minima
3.61 Function increasing or decreasing at a point, p. 74,
3.62 Definition of 'maximum', 'minimum', p. 74. 3.63 If f{x)
there,
is derivable at a. maximum or minimum, then f'{&)
3,64 'Change of sign' test, p. 77. 3,65 'Second

derivative* test, p. 77. 3.66 Examples, p. 78
p. 76.
3.7
80
Points of inflexion of a curve

3.71 Definition and determination, p. 80.
3.8
A theorem
3.81
3.72
Summary, p.
81
81
suggested geometrically
The mean
and
3.82 J {x) =
3,83 Function increasing or decreasing
f
value theorem, p. 81.
constancy oif{x), p. 82.

throughout an interval, p. 83
3.9
Exercise 3 (c)
8*
Small changes. Differentials
85
3.91 Small changes, p. 85. 3.92 Differentials, p. 87,

3.93 Differentiate functions, p. 89
Exercise
87
3(c)
Miscellaneous Exercise 3
Chapter
4.1
4.
90
(e)
Integration
93
(A) Methods of integration. The logarithmic, exponential

and hyperbolic functions
93
The
93
process inverse to derivation
The problem, p. 93. 4.12 Some standard integrals, p. 94.

Some properties of indefinite integrala, p. 94. 4,14 Areas,
95".
4.15 Definite integrals; some properties, p. 96.
4.11
4.13
p.
4.16 Criticism, p. 98
99
Exercise 4{a)
4.2
Some
general methods of integration
100
4.21 Integration by substitution (change of variable), p. 100.

4.22 Definite integrals by substitution, p. 102. 4.23 Integration
by parts, p. 105. 4.24 Reduction formulae, p. 107. 4.25 Definite
integrals
by parts and
reduction, p.
OS
Exercise 4(6)
104
Exercise 4(c)
1 9
CONTENTS
Vlii
4.3
The logarithmic function
page 109
4.31 The integral dxj%, p. 109. 4.32 Investigation of ${t),

p, 110, 4.33 An application to integration, p. 114
114
Exercise 4(d)
4.4
The exponential and hyperbolic

4.41
116
functions
The exponential
function, p. Ilfi, 4.42 Logarithmic

4.43 The logarithmic inequality. Some
derivation, p. 120.
important limits (log xjx,
log
x, a3/ e % (l
+ as/w),
Euler's
constant y), p. 121. 4.44 The hyperbolic functions, p. 125.

4.45 The inverse hyperbolic functions, p. .130
119
Exercise 4(e)
Exercise 4(f)
124
Exercise 4(g)
128
Exercise 4(A)
132
(B) Systematic integration
134
of standard integrals
4.5
Revised
4.6
Integration of rational functions
list
134
130
4.61 Preliminary considerations, p. 136. 4.62 Digression On

partial fractions, p. 136. 4.63 Summary, p. 141.
4.64
for
4.7
${Ax + B)dx/[a* + bx + c),
${Ax+B)dxj(x*+bx-\-c) T',
4.65 Reduction formula
p. 142.
p.
144
Exercise 4(i)
141
Exercise 4(j)
If
Integration of some algebraical functions
145
4.71 Linear irrationalities, p. 145, 4.72 Quadra lie irrationalities, p. 146.

4,73 \{Ax + B) dxi^(ax l -f 6a? + c), p. 147.
4.74 fdxf(x - k) J(asc* +bx + c) f p. 149. 4.75 ^{ax* + bx+c) dxt

a trigonometric or hyperbolic
p. 149. 4.76 Direct use of

substitution, p. 150
150
Exercise 4(h)
4.8
Integration of
some transcendental functions
LSI
K ational fn net ions of s in x, cos x p 151. 4 82 Cir cular

functions of multiple angles, p. 164. 4.83 Hyperbolic functions
analogous results, p. 155. 4.84 jainm & cos" x dx by reduction
formula, p. 158. 4.85 Integrals involving other transcendental
functions, p. 162
4.81
Exercise 4(1)
156
Exercise 4(m)
163
CONTENTS
4.9
page 164
Generalised integrals
4.91
Tho problem,
first kind'), p. 165-
second kind'),
p. 169.
4,92 Infinite range ('integrals of the

4.93 Discontinuous integrand ('integrals of
p. 164.
p. 167.
4.94
4,95 Integration
by
The
parts
and
171
Miscellaneous Exercise 4(o)
173
5.
Differential Equations
177
Construction of differential equations

5.11 Elimination of parameters
5.12 Definitions, p. 178.
5.2
f{x)dx = $(b) <j>{a)

Ja
by (substitution, p, 170
relation
Exercise 4(n)
Chapter
5.1
IX
5.13
from a function,
Some
177
p. 177.
general conclusions, p. 179
Exercise 5(a)
178
First-order equations
180
One variable missing, p. ISO, 5.22 Equations whose

variables are separable, p. ISO. 5.23 Homogeneous equations,
p. 182. 5.24 liquations reducible to homogeneous type, p. 18!?.
5,21
5.25 Linear equations of first order, p. 183. 5,26 Equations

reducible to linear form, p. 187. 5.27 Clairaut's equation, p, 189
5.3
Exercise 5(6)
181
Exercise 5(c)
185
Exercise 5(d)
189
Second-order equations
100
5.31 Some simple special types, p. 190. 5,32 Linear secondorder equations, p. 192. 5,33 Linear second-order equations
with constant coefficients, p. 194. 5.34 Particular solution,
in the ease of constant coefficients, p. 199
Exercise 5(e)
Exercise 5
5.4
192
(/)
198
Exercise 5(g)
201
The operator
calculation of
p. 202,
5.43 Calculation of p.s,
Exercise 6
5.5
201
p.s.
5.41 Algebraic properties of -D, p. 201.
5.42 Shift theorem,
by symbolic methods,
p.
203
(h)
208
Simultaneous linear first-order equations with constant

coefficients
Exercise 5(i)
209
211
CONTENTS
X
5.6
Some
linear second-order equations with variable

page, 211
coefficients
5.61 Killer's 'homogeneous' equation, p. 211. 5.62 liemarks

on tho use of equivalent operators, p. 212. 5.63 Solution of
other equations by a given substitution, p. 213. 5.64 General
case: one integral belonging to the c.r. known, p. 215
Exercise 5
5.7
Some
210
{j)

p,
217
geometrical applications
5.72 Orthogonal families of curves,
218
Exercise 5(h)
219
Miscellaneous Exercise 5 (l)
220
Chapter 0. Some Theorems

Calculus
6.1
Two
6.2
Rolle's
03?
the Differential
223
properties of continuous functions
223
224
theorem
6.23 Application to algebraic equations, p. 225
6.3
Lagrange's
mean
226
value theorem
6.31 Linear approximation
to f(x), p. 227.
6,33 Alternative
versions of the theorem, p. 228
229
Exercise 6(a)
6.4
The second mean value theorem

6.41 An algebraic lemma, p, 230. 6.42
230
Quadratic approximation
tof(x), p. 230
6.5
Theorems of Taylor and Maclaurin
231
6.51 Approximation to f{x) by a polynomial of degree n, p, 231..

6.52 Maelaurin'a form of the theorem, p. 232, 6.53 Closeness
of the polynomial approximation, p. 233. 6,54 Other
expressions for the remainder term, p. 234
6.6
Calculation of some nth derivatives
236
Elementary functions, p. 236. 6-62 Theorem of Leibniz

on the nth derivative of a product, p. 237. 6.63 Maclaurin
coefficients from a recurrence relation, p. 239
6.61
Exercise 6(6)
240
CONTENTS
6.7
Xi
Further applications of the mean value theorems
page 241
Turning points; concavity, inflexions, p. 241,

6.72 Closeness of contact of two curves, p. 243.
6.73 Approximate solution of equations by Newton's method,
6.71
p.
244
247
Exercise 6(c)
mean
248
value theorem
6.8
Cauchy'a
6.9
'Indeterminate forms': l'Hospital's rules
249
Exercise 6 (d)
252
Chapter
7.1
7.
252
(e)
Integration as a Summation Process
Theory of the
255
255
definite integral
7.11 'Area under a curve', p. 256. 7.12 The lower and upper
sums, p. 257. 7.13 Definite integral defined arithmetically, p. 258.
7,14 Properties; existence of an indefinite integral, p. 259
7.2
Definite integral as the limit of a single

7.22
7.23
Some
summation
definite integrals calculated as limiting sums, p. 262.

in a definite integral, p. 265
Formula for change of variable
266
Exercise 7 {a)
7.3
Approximate calculation of
7.32 Trapezium rule, p. 266.
definite integrals
266
7.33 Simpson's rule, p. 267
269
Exercise 7 (6)
7.4
262
269
Further areas
7.42 Area between two curves,
7.41 Sign of an area, p. 269.

p. 269, 7.43 Area of certain closed curves, p. 270.
7.44 Generalised areas, p. 270. 7,45 Area of a sector (polar
coordinates), p. 271. 7.46 Area of a sector (parametric
formula), p. 272
7.5
7.6
Volume of a
solid of
known
cross-section
273
Exercise 7 (c)
275
Length of a curve
276
7,61 Definition, and sign conventions, p. 276, 7.62 Cartesian

formulae for arc-length, p. 276. 7.63 Polar formulae for arclengbh, p. 278.
7.7
7.64 Derivative of s, p. 279
Exercise 7{d)
279
Area of a surface of revolution
280
7,71
Area of a conical
p. 281
surface, p. 280.
7.72 General definition,
CONTENTS
Xii
7.8
The theorems
Centroids.
of
Pappus
page 282
7,81 Contro of mass, centroid, p. 282. 7.82 Summary of

well -known results, p. 283. 7.83 Theorems of Pappus, p. 284
7.9
Exercise 7(e)
286
Moments
287
of inertia
7,92 Examples, p, 287.

p. 287.
of parallel axes, p. 290. 7,94 Theorem of
perpendicular axes (lor a lamina), p, 291- 7.95 Routh'srule,
7.91
Dynamical introduction,
7.93
Theorem
p.
292
292
Exercise 7 (/)
chapter
8.1
8.
293
(g)
fuethee geometrical applications
of the Calculus
296
Relations involving arc-length
296
Sign conventions, p. 206. 8. 1 2 Differential relations

(cartesiancoordinat.es), p. 297. 8.13 Intrinsic equation, p. 208.
8.14 Differential relations (polar coordinates), p. 300
8.11
8.2
Exercise 8(a)
300
Exercise 8(5)
303
(p, r)
304
equation
8.22 {p, r) equation from polar
8.23 Polar equation from (p, r) equation,
8.21 Definition, p. 304.
equation, p, 304.
p.
83
305
Exercise 8{c)
306
Curvature
307
8.31 Definitions, p, 307.
8,32
Formulae
for
k or p,
p. 308
312
Exercise 8 (of)
8.4
Circle
and centre of curvature
8.41 Osculating circle, p. 313.

p.
8.5
313
8.42 "Newton's formula for p,
316
Exercise 8 (e)
318
Envelope of a family of curves
318
and detonnination of the envelope, p. 318.

8.52 Examples, p. 320. 8.53 The evolute of a curve, p. 323.
8.54 Arc of the evoluto, p. 324
8.51 Definition
Exercise 8{/)
326
Miscellaneous Exercise 8(g)
326
CONTENTS
Chapter
9.1
Functions of Several Variables
9.
page 329
329
Introduction
9.11 Functions, limits, continuity, p. 329,
functional notation, p. 330
9.2
Sail
Economy
9.12
in
330
Partial derivatives
9,22 Other notations, p. 331.
9.23 Geometrical meaning of du/dx, dujdy, p- 331. 9,24 Partial
derivatives of second and higher orders, p. 332. 9.25 Partial
differential equations, p. 335
Exercise 9
9.3
The
337
{a)
total variation of u(x, y).
Small changes
338
9.31 Total variation, p. 338. 9-32 Definition of different iable

function of (ar, y) ', p. 339. 9.33 Small changes, p. 340
9.4
Exercise 9(6)
341
Extensions of 'function of a function'
34-2
two functions of*, p. 342, 9.42 Total

application to implicit functions, p. 343.
9.43 Function of two functions of (, i}), p, 344. 9.44 Further
examples (1) Eider's theorem on homogeneous functions;
dHtjdy* = 0; (3) the wavo
(2) Laplace's equation dht/dx^ +
9.41 Function of
derivative
equation dhjjdx*
9.5
= (1/c 3
dhjjdt*, p.
348
Exercise 9{o)
346
Exercise 9
351
(d)
352
Differentials
9.51 Definition, p. 352. 9,52 Principle of equating differ etitial
coefficients, p. 352. 9.53 Invariant of the expression for the
353
differential, p.
9.6
354
Further implicit functions

9.61 Differentiation of equations, p. 354.
functions defined implicitly, p. 354
35"
Exercise 9(e)
see an do
1.1
9.62 Derivatives of
Exercise 9 (/ )
Akswebs to Volume
Index to Volume
35<
(1
xxi
XV
GENERAL PREFACE
This two -volume text-book on Pure Mathematics lias been designed
to cover completely the requirements of the revised regulations for the
Uni versity of London. It presents

a serious treatment of the subject, written to fill a gap which has long
been evident at this level. The author believes that there is no other
book addressed primarily to the General Degree student which covers
the ground with the same self-contained completeness and thoroughB.Sc. General Degree (Part I) of the
ness, while also indicating the
way
to further progress.
On
the
'
any examination is from above

so
that
those students who do not
constructed
been
book
has
the
f
principle that the correct approach to
intend to take the subject Mathematics in Part II of their degree

course will find included some useful matter a little beyond the
proscribed syllabus (which throughout has been interpreted as an
examination schedule rather than a teaching programme); while

those who continue with Mathematics will have had sound preparation. As it is the author's experience that many students who begin
a degree course have received hasty and inadequate training,
work has not been assumed.
a,
com-
plete knowledge of previous
Although written for the purpose just mentioned, this book will
meet the needs of those taking any course of first-year degree work in
which Pure Mathematics is studied, whether at University or Technical College. For example, most of the Pure Mathematics required
for a one-year ancillary subject to the
London
Special Degrees in
is included, and also that for the first of the

two years work ancillary to Special Statistics. The relevant matter
for Part I {and some of Part II) of the B.Se. Engineering Degree is
covered. The book provides an introduction to the first year of an
Honours Degree in Mathematics at most British universities, and
would serve as a basis for the work of the mathematical specialist in
Physics, Chemistry, etc,

1
the
Grammar
School.
Much
of the material
is
suitable for pupils
preparing for scholarships in Natural Sciences.
By a natural division the subject-matter falls conveniently into two

volumes which, despite occasional cross-r eferen ces can be used
independently as separate text-books on Calculus (Vol. I) and on
Algebra, Trigonometry and Coordinate Geometry (Vol. II). According
to the plan of study chosen, the contents may be dealt with in turn,
,
GENERAL PREFACE
up
two or even three courses of reading in Calculus,

Algebra-Trigonometry and Geometry taken concurrently. Throughout
it has been borne in mind that many students necessarily work without
much direct supervision, and it is hoped that those of even moderate
ability will be able to use this book alone.
A representative selection, of worked examples, with explanatory
remarks, has been included as an essential part of the text, together
or else split
with
many
into
sets of 'exercises for the reader' spread
throughout each
chapter and carefully graded from easy applications of the bookwork

to 'starred problems (often with hints for solution) slightly above the
'
ultimate standard required. In a normal use of the book there will
not be time or need to work through every 'ordinary' problem in

each set; but some teachers welcome a wide selection. To each chapter
is
appended a Miscellaneous Exercise, both backward- and forward-
looking in scope, for revision purposes. Answers are provided at the
end of each volume. It should be clear that, although practice in

solving problems is an important part of the student's training, in no
sense is this a cram-book giving drill in examination tricks. However,
those
who
are pressed for time (as so
many
part-time and evening
students in the Technical Colleges unfortunately are)
postpone the sections in small print and
all
may have
'starred' matter for
to
later reading.
Most of the problems of 'examination type* have been taken from

by the University of London, and I am grateful to the Senate for permission to use these questions. Others have
been collected over a number of years from a variety of unrecorded
(and hence unacknowledged) sources, while a few are home-made.
It is too optimistic to expect that a book of this size will be completely free from typographical errors, or the Answers from mathematical ones, despite numerous proof readings. I shall be grateful if
readers will bring to my notice any such corrections or other sugFinal Degree papers set
gestions for possible improvements.

Finally, I
the
way
thank the
staff of
in which they have
the Cambridge University Press for
met
my
requirements, and for the ex-
cellence of their printing work.
F.
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

TEH TECHNICAL COLLEGE
KINGSTON -UPON -TH AMISS
GERRISH
xvii
PREFACE TO VOLUME
This volume deals with Calculus and some of its applications to topics
like areas and arc-lengths, centroids and moments of inertia, and the
geometry of plane curves.
which assembles ideas of

use in the sequel, should help the reader to decide what he is expected
to know from previous work. In the past he has probably regarded
The
discursive introductory Chapter
1,
Mathematics as a collection of techniques for solving 'problems';

now he has to be persuaded that there is a deeper aspect of the subject
a system of thought as well as a process of action. Although appreciation of the need for rigour comes only gradually, yet the ideas presented in Chapter 2 are fundamental to a genuine understanding of
Calculus. The third chapter employs these ideas in a re-examination of
the process (here called derivation) of finding the derivative of a
function, and many familiar results are systematically proved from
the definitions without appeal to graphical appearances.

The remaining chapters in this volume need not be read in numerical
order.
For example, the early part of Chapter
on partial derivatives
the rest of it can be read whenever required.

long chapter on integration is necessary
the
Part
(A)
of
only
Further,
in order to start differential equations (Chapter 5), and Part (B) can
may well follow Chapter 3
be taken later as revision.

In treating linear differential equations with constant coefficients,
method for finding the complementary function has been
direct
a
given as an alternative to the usual 'trial exponentials'; complex
on the symbolic
use of D for calculating a particular solution. However, the customary
numbers are
easily avoided until the formal section
methods can be employed without inconvenience by teachers who

prefer them. It may be felt, particularly by those who favour use of
not considered in
this book), that too much has been said about symbolic D\ but the
author's teaching experience does not confirm this.
The early parts of Chapters 6 and 7 will undoubtedly be found
the
now
fashionable Laplace transform (which
is
but they contain important matters which will repay careful

study. Chapter 6 leads up to Taylor's theorem, a result so often merely
stated with the remark that a proof is beyond the reader's range; the
difficult,
present treatment
may
dispel
this
illusion.
(The corresponding
PREFACE TO VOLUME
XVili
infinite series finds its
natural place in
Volume
II.)
Chapter
opens
with a descriptive introduction to Rieraann's theory of the definite

integral.
but
it is
No
rigorous approach can be
made
in a
hook of
this kind,
essential for the student to understand definite integration
as a limiting
summation of contributions from elements, and
foe
able
to use it thus.
Chapter 8 continues the geometrical applications, and concludes

with a discussion of curvature and 'envelopes' more comprehensive
f
than
is
usual at this level.
xix
REFERENCES AND ABBREVIATIONS

In a decimal reference such as 12.73(2),
12 denotes
12.7 denotes
12.73 denotes
12.73(2) denotes
(ii)
4.64 ex,
3
Ex. 12
(ii)
(6),
no. 6
wo
12),
section,
sub-section,
part.
refers to equation
(ii)
ex
chapter (Ch.
(ii)
in the
same
section.
refers to
worked example
(ii)
in the same section.
refers to
worked example
(ii)
in sub-section 4.64.
refers to
problem number 6 in Exercise 12
means
with respect
(6).
to.
matter in small type {other than 'ordinary' worked

examples) and in starred worked examples is subsidiary, and may be
omitted at a first reading if time is short.
In the
text,
'
In an exercise
refers to
n0t 6
a 'starred' problem
problem number 6 in the same Exercise

either
depends on matter in small type

in the text, or on ideas in a
or
is
later chapter;
above the general standard of

difficulty,
matter in
[...]
matter in
a hint for the solution of a problem,

is
explanatory comment.
REVIEW OF SOME FACTS,

DEFINITIONS AND METHODS
1.1
Numbers,
1.11
Numbers
variables
and functions
When we speak of a 'number', our meaning depends on the stage

which we have reached in the study of mathematics. In early arithmetic we are concerned with the 'natural numbers' 1,2,3,..., together with the number 0; later we deal with fractions or 'rational
numbers', and learn
how
to express a given fraction as a decimal
and conversely. When the need has
(either terminating or recurring)
arisen in algebra,
we meet
'signed numbers' like +2,
5, f
However, we soon find that these types of number are not adequate
for all mathematical purposes. For example, the theorem of Pythagoras shows that a right-angled isosceles triangle whose equal sides
are of unit length has hypotenuse of length x units, where x %
2. It
easy to prove (see below) that x cannot be a rational number; so

that, in particular, it cannot be expressed as a decimal which terminates or recurs. The length of the hypotenuse therefore corresponds
is
to a
'
new kind of number, which

number
irrational
is
denoted by
*J2
and
called
an
'
Suppose that the number x satisfying x 2 = 2 were rational; then it could be

written in the form x = pjq where p, q are natural numbers. Without loss of
generality we may assume that the fraction pjq is already in its lowest terms,
i.e. that p and q have no common factor. Then
p 2 /q 2 = 2, so that p % = 2q z and
hence p % is even (i.e. divisible by 2). Therefore p must be even, say p = 2r. Thus
4r 2 = 2q % q 2 = 2r z and by the same argument, q must be even, say q = 2s.
This shows that p, q have the common factor 2, contradicting the hypothesis.
Hence x cannot be expressed in the form pjq, i.e. it is not a rational number.
,
numbers geometrically. Take a line (for

convenience drawn 'horizontally across the page) and a point on it.
It
is
helpful to represent
'
Starting from O, there are
along the
line; let
two
directions in
us agree (as in
all
which we could proceed
graphical work) to take the right-
hand one as positive. Choose a point / on this part, and let 01 be taken
as the unit of length. Then all rational numbers can be represented
uniquely by points of the line. Our remarks above about
<J2 can now
I
GPM I
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
be expressed as follows:
we
if
and lay
[1.11
construct a right-angled triangle with
hypotenuse along the line in fig. 1,

with one end at 0, then the other end will not fall on any point of the
line which has already been labelled with a rational number. In other
words, although every rational number can be represented by a point
sides of length 01,
off its
of the line, not every point on the line corresponds to a rational number.
To complete the correspondence between points and numbers we have
to admit irrational
numbers
(i.e.
those that are not rational).
o
1
-3
-2
/
h-H
ifl
-1
Fig. 1
number' includes all numbers like *j2,%/5, ...

which arise from the need to solve equations like x 2 = 2,
x z = 5,
whose solutions cannot be expressed rationally. However,
it includes more than these the number it, met at an early stage as the
length of the circumference of a circle with unit diameter, and accepted
on trust, is an example of an irrational number which is not a surd
(this can be proved, but not easily) others will be met in this book.
In practice the existence of irrational numbers causes no difficulty if
The term
'irrational
(called surds)
. . .
as near to them as we please by

means of rational numbers. For example, the square root process can
we are able to obtain approximations
be used to express ^2 approximately as a decimal to as many places

as required experiments with circular ob j ects show that n lies between
;
3-14
and
and later
3-15,
theoretical
work enables us
(12.74) to obtain
a decimal approximation as accurate as we please. It is easy to see that

between any two rational numbers there lies another rational number,
and therefore
infinitely
many rational numbers; and it can be shown
(but not here) that between

irrational one.
Thus the
any two
rational
numbers
lies also
an
packed
in-
'rational points' of the line are
definitely closely, yet 'between'
any two of these
lies
an
'irrational
point'.
number mentioned above are included under the

number ;f so that by 'number' we may mean
(i) integers (the numbers 0, +1, 2, ...);
(ii) rational numbers (those which can be expressed in the form p/q
where p, q are integers and q 4= 0; the integers are included, since any
All the sorts of
title real
integer p can be written p\ 1 )

t
The reason
for this curious
name
will
appear in 13.12.
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.12]
(iii)
irrational
AND METHODS
numbers (these consist of all the real numbers which
are not rational, e.g. ^2, $5, 3
- ^6, n).
We shall not attempt to discuss further the concept of
'
real number
a matter for a book on the foundations of mathematics. Here we shall

be concerned with developing the subject from approximately the
stage which the reader has attained prior to beginning General Degree
we continue to use numbers with the confidence which we

have shown in the past, noting the types of number mentioned in
(i)-(iii) above (especially the need for type (iii)), to which we shall refer
work. So
in the sequel.
1.12 Constants
and
variables
In algebra, letters are used to denote unspecified numbers. When

using them we learn to think of some (called constants) as representing
the same number throughout the work, while others (called variables)
many numbers (possibly in

some limited range). In some contexts the variables may be restricted
are regarded as successively representing
to take integral values only, or rational values only; in others they may
range over the real numbers.

All the values of x for which a ^ x ^ b form what is called a closed
interval. It would be represented in fig. 1 by the segment between a
and
b,
end-points included.
obtain the open interval a
When
<x<
the end-points are excluded,
we
b.
1.13 Functions
Throughout mathematical work we meet the situation of one

For example, in the kinematics of straight line motion, the distance moved may depend on the
time in a graph of y against x, the ordinate y depends on the abscissa x
the volume of a gas depends on the pressure to which it is subjected.
In all cases we understand that, when a definite value for one variable
is assigned, then one or more definite values for the other are determined. We do not imply that every assignment of the first variable
must give rise to a value of the other; thus there is no pressure which
will produce a negative volume. The choice may therefore be revariable being dependent on another.
stricted to those values for
which the variable to be calculated has
a meaning.
The variable whose value we choose to .select is called the independent variable, and the one whose value or values are determined
thereby is called the dependent variable. The relation is expressed by
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
saying that the dependent variable
is
AND METHODS
[1.13
a function of the independent
the independent and y the dependent variable, the

reader will know that we write this general relationship as y = f(x).
variable. If
is
Thus f(x) denotes some (unspecified) variable whose value depends

on that of x, much in the way that x denotes some (unspecified)
number. When we need to consider more than one function of x in the
same piece of work, we naturally use different functional symbols
such as
g(x), F(x),
<fi(x),
etc.
Although elementary work
concerned with functions of one
is
independent variable, yet many examples arise in which several

independent variables are present. For instance, the volume of a right
circular cone
if x,y,z,
write
...
depends on both the radius and the height. In general,

and u depends on them, we
are independent variables
u = f(x, y, z,
. .
.)
to express this functional relationship.
In elementary work the relationship between dependent and independent variables is almost always expressed by a mathematical
formula (valid perhaps over a limited range). However, the general
concept of 'function'
necessary
is
is
wider than that of 'formula';
all
that
is
a rule to relate the two variables. Thus one could define
y as a function of x as follows:
if x is
prime, then y
Further, a function
e.g.
0; if
is
not prime, then y
may need more than one formula to
the function whose graph
defined as
if
shown
is
x >
in
x <
or if
fig.
1+x
if
-1 ^x ^
l-x
if
< <
1.
specify
it;
2 would have to be
0,
1.
4 y
l
-l1
Fig. 2
In this book we shall be concerned only with functions expressible by

one or more mathematical formulae.
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.14]
1.14
The function
The symbol
AND METHODS
|jc|
called the modulus, absolute value, or numerical
\x\,
value of x, denotes the value of x regardless of sign.

[x
Its
if
graph
is
if
shown
x ^
0,
x ^
0.
in
fig. 3.
Thus
i
The
properties
\
xv\
x \-\y\
and
(y
Fig. 3
o)
\y\
are easily verified.
The important
result
+y\ <
\%\
(i)
\y\
(sometimes called the triangle inequality, for a reason which will be
can also be verified from the above definition. f For

both x and y are positive, each side reduces to x + y; if both are
negative, each side is xy;\ix,y have opposite signs, say x <
clear in 13.33)
if
and?/ >
0, then \x + y\ < \x\ + \y\.

By writing x y instead of x, it follows from
\{x-y)
+ y\ <
\%-y\ >
so
\x-y\
that
+ \y\,
H -\y\.
By interchanging x and y, and noting that

\*-y\
(i)
\y
x\ =
\x
y\,we get
> |y|-M-
These two results can be combined to give
\x-y\>\\x\-\y\\.
y in
Replacing y by
(ii)
(ii)
and noting that y\ =

|
\y\
gives
\*+y\ > \M-\y\\Finally,
by applying
|a;
and there are
(i)
twice
we have
+ 2/ + z| <
\x\
similar extensions for

t
+ \y\ + \z\;
any number of variables.
A neater proof is given in
1.21, ex. (iv).
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
6
1.2
Simple inequalities
1.21
Fundamental
AND METHODS
[1.2
results
In elementary mathematics much prominence is given to equations,

but in more advanced work inequalities (statements that one number
greater of less than another) become of increasing importance.
is
Some have
been given in
just
manipulating inequalities;
1.14.
many
We state here some principles for
of these are analogous to those for
equations, but there are important distinctions which should be

noticed.
The relation a >

that a b
is
6 (a is greater than 6) is equivalent to the
positive.
>a
either that b
We
or that
can interpret a b + x for any number x. ('We can add
subtract the same number on both sides of an inequality.') For
>
If a >
given for
I.
(a
similar ones can be formulated for
b,
then a + x
+ x) (b + x) = a b =
Corollary.
to the other
positive
number because a >
or
b.
term can be transferred from one side of an inequality

its sign is changed.
provided that
For example, if a + b > c + d, then subtraction of b from both sides

gives a > c + d b.
II. If a > b, then ax < bx according as x % 0.
For ax bx (a b)x which is positive if x is positive, and is
negative if x is negative.
Corollary 11(a). Ifa>b> 0, then Ija < 1/6.

Take x = 1/ab in II.
Corollary 11(6). If ar >br > Qfor r = 1, 2, ...,n,
a1 a2
('Inequalities
between
...an
positive
>
6 1 6 2 ...6 n
then
numbers can be
multiplied.')
For,
successive applications of II give
a1 ai aa
...an
>
b x a % a z ...an
>
b x b % a z ...an
>
...
>
6 1 6 2 ...6 W
Corollary 11(c). If a > b > 0, then a n ^ b n according as n ^

(where n is rational, and apla denotes the positive qth root of av in the
case when n is the fraction p\q with q even).
Proof. If n is a positive integer, the result follows from Corollary
II (6) by putting ar = a, b r = b for each r.
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.21]
n is a positive rational number pjq, then we have a > b

a1/a (b 1/a ) p
If n is a negative rational number pjq, then since 1/6 > 1/a by
Corollary II (a), we can apply the above to this inequality with index
If
llq
lla
for
+p/q to give the result.

The above corollaries may be false if some or all of the numbers are
negative. This is easily verified by numerical examples.
III. If a > b and c > d, then a + c > b + d. ('Inequalities can be
added.') For
(a
+ c) (b + d) =
{a
b) + (c d) =
positive number.
Observe that
(a) inequalities
a ob-d; for
cannot be subtracted: a
(a
>
and
> d do not imply
c) (b-d) = (a~b)~{c-d),
which
may
be
negative;
a > b and c > d do not necessarily

3, c = 2, d = 1.
inequalities cannot be divided:
(b)
imply a/c >
bid; e.g.
take a
4,
Examples
(i)
If a
< b+c and a, b, c are positive, prove

a
1+a
We have
+6
b
1+a
(ii)
If av a 2
. .
b+c
1+b + c
b+c
+b+c
b+c
b
1
n are positive
1+c
+ c'
1+a
>
!+_>!+
,
+b+c
+ r+ <-+:
+
b
numbers whose sum
1+c"
is s, then
(l+a1 )(l+a 2 )...(l+a n )> 1+a.

For
hence
(l+a1 )(l + a 2 =
+ (ax + a 2 +ax a 2 > l + (a1 +a 2 );

(l+a1 )(l+a2 )(l+a3 > {1 + (a1 + a2 )}(l +a3 > l+(a1 +a2 + a3
1
as in the previous step; and so on.

In particular, taking ax = a2 = ...
(1
+a) n >
+ na
= an =
(a
>
0,
a,
we
obtain
= positive
a result sometimes called Bernoulli's inequality.
integer),
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
8
With
(iii)
the notation of ex.
(l-a 1 )(l-o 2 )...(l-o w <

)
so
ar <
),
Prove that
(iv)
\x
\x\
\x\
-\y\
sS \y\.
(\x\ + \y\)
+
Therefore
1.22 Arithmetic, geometric,
<
+ \y\*
x
\
For
(tja
G=
\{a + b),
a, b,
with
0,
only
a + b-2j{ab) p
Since
with
a,
write
J(ab),
geometric,
when a =
0,
H=
where equality occurs only
0,
^b) 2 ^
\x\
and harmonic means
Then A,G, H are called the arithmetic,

of a and b. We shall prove that
A^
+ \y\.
x+y
Given two positive numbers
A=
\x\.
denote positive numbers.
this section all letters
(1)
immediately that
(1.14) it follows
Similarly
these,
(ii).
+ y\ ^
definition of
Adding
1,
1/(1 +ar and the result follows from ex.
From the
In
T+s'
(l-ar )(l+ar = 1-a2 <
For
[1.22
(ii),
i.e.
b;
and harmonic means
if
b.
hence
A^
0.
jH is the arithmetic mean of 1 \a and 1/6, the preceding result

by 1 \a, 1 \b shows that > H.
b replaced
Examples
If a,
b, c
are not all equal, prove that

(i)
(ii)
Since
not
a2 + 6 2 + c2
2(a
>
+6 +c
3
3
)
bc + ca + ab;
>
bc(b
+ c) + ca(c + a) + ab(a + b).
ft
+ c ^ 26c, etc., result (i) follows by adding. The relation is >
because in at least one of the three separate inequalities the relation is
certainly
>
Alternatively,
a 2 + b 2 + c 2 -bc-ca-ab
Also 6 2 + c 2 be
be,
Adding the three such
so b 3
+ c3 ^
results gives
%{(b-c)* + (c-a) 2
6c(6
(ii),
+ (a-b) 2 } >
0.
+ c) on multiplying both sides by b + c.

with > for the same reason as before.
More
(2)
+an
and
is still
^{a x a 2
true that
a n)
A^
jg
their arithmetic
mean
their geometric mean.
*s
G, with equality occurring only
=
This
generally, if av a2 , ...,an are all positive,
a
a
A = + 2+
It
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.22]
a2
...
an
when
the 'theorem of the means'; the following proof was given
it
by
Cauchy.
By
direct calculation,
<(^PJ
if
Applying this type of result twice,
with
occurring in the
second place
ax + a2
if
first
Similarly, if
all a's
is
a power of
4
1
we can prove
2,
...an
o 1 +g a +...+gn
<
^
is
step
by
step that,
(i)
not a power of 2, then it lies between two consecutive powers

~1
< n < 2 m Put k = (a 1 + a 2 + ... +an )/n, and apply (i) to
of 2, say 2 m
the numbers a x a 2
,
<,,
...
i.e.
an
m
n together with the 2 n
k^ < fa +
glg2
...
gm
<
^4.
numbers
+ --+g. + (--)*r .
a' +
<^ =
(
giving
are equal,
a1 a2
If n
a x a 2 a z a <
have
unless
= a 2 and a z = a4 and in the

Hence, unless a x = a2 = az = a4 we
place if a x
a3 + aA
^ + - +a")",
Jc:
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
10
[1.22
Examples
(iii) Prove 9a 2 6 2 c 2 <(bc + ca + ab) (a 4 + b* + c 4 */ a, b,
By the theorem of the means applied to be, ca, ab,
c are not all equal.
${bc
+ ca+ab) >
By the same theorem applied to a4

(a4 + 6
^{bc.ca.ab)
ft
^(a2 6 2ca ).
c4 ,
4
,
+c >
4
^(a4 & 4c4 ).
Multiplying, the result follows.
>
If
= 3 and x > 0, find the greatest value of x3y*.

and y > 0, we can apply the theorem to the five positive numbers
If 2x + 5y
(iv)
%x, \x, \x, %y, %y, getting
unless fx
and y >
V**)MfyW<i(2a> + f&) = f
which case < is replaced by = Hence, provided that x >
%y, in
the greatest value of
0,
(fa;)
(!)
(f)
is (f) 5 ,
(fy)
>
(f)
and that of xPy 2
is
3 /(5 .2).
set of values as when y > 0. Hence

< 0,
the required greatest value is 3 8 /(5 7 .2). It occurs when \x %y; this together
with 2x + 5y = 3 gives x = j^, y =
If x
and y
x 3y % takes the same
Exercise 1(a)
Find
what values of x
for
-2 <
(i)
2x+l
<
x-2
(n)
1;
<
2-x
x-B
2 If a, 6 are unequal positive numbers, prove the following:

-2
3
2
(i) a a > a
-3 (a dp 1). [Consider left-hand side minus right-hand
side.]
The two
> am b n + an b m
a m+n + b m+n
(ii)
a x ,a 2
sets
ar
m<
< M (r =
o.
1, 2,
. .
m and n being positive integers.
...,a n ; b lf b 2 , ...,&
.,
of positive numbers are such that
Prove that
n).
a a
2+ -" +a "
m< ^+"
<M m< J/
b
b
/\b b
...+b
1
4 If
If a
5
ex.
<
>
r s w,
prove r(n +
r)
3*
...a \
;"n
...bj
and deduce that
n,
and n is a positive integer, prove (1 a) n <
<M.
(n!) 2
1/(1
> nn
+na). [Use
1.21,
(iii).]
In
nos. 6, 7,
6 If
<
[Method of
7 If s
no.
<
alt a 2
<
1.21, ex.
1,
(r
prove
.,
d n are positive numbers whose sum is s.

1,2, ...,w), prove (1 a x ) (1 a 2 ) ...
(1
an)
> 1 s.
(ii).]
(1
+ ax
(1
+ a2
(*
+ an) <
L 1 - 21 .
6.]
8 Prove
and
ar
a4 + &4
(a
>
2a 2& 2
+&
2 2
)
a 4 + 6 4 + c4 + d*
+ (c + d
2
2 2
)
>
4a&cd,
2(ab + cd)\
ex
>
(iii);
u86
'
+b +c >
6 c
be
ca
+ c) 2 >
10
(i)
(ii)
b+c
If a
12
(i)
+c
+a
ab
+ a a+b
If a,
b, c
> and 6 >
0,
>
(b
abc(a + b + c).
+b+c
+ c a) (c + a b) (a + b c).
prove that the least value of ax + bjx for x
If x, y are positive,
and m, n are
xm n
+ y)
m+n
>
is
mmn n
If p, q are positive integers, prove
apply
5s
(p + q) p+a
G to the m numbers a;/m together with the n numbers yjn.~\
13 If w, x, y, z are all positive and w + x + y+z = 1, prove wxyz z

and find the values of w, x, y, z for which equality is obtained.
14 Find the greatest positive value of x 2y zz*

(i)
[(i)
2 <J(ab).
positive integers, prove
(m + ri) m + n
sin^d cos 2 0
(i),
%( a
11
are the sides of a triangle, prove that
(x
[For
+ c) < i(6 + c).]

+ z) (z + cc) (a? + 2/) > Sxyz, where x, y, z are positive,
(i/
(ii)
Abe, so 6c/(6
Prove
abe
11
2 2
T1
9 Prove
[(b
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.3]
Also prove
Consider
a1
x^z
a2
x* + y* + z*
(ii)
1;
x*
s$
1/1728
when
+ 2y 3 + Bz 3 =
1.
a9
and take
\x %
a3
a4
a6
&/
2
,
a,
...
Jz
2
.]
*15 Prove that the length of the shortest line which can be drawn to bisect
the area of triangle ABC is *J(2bc) sin %A, where A is the smallest angle.
.
1.3
Quadratic functions and quadratic inequalities
1.31 Sign of a quadratic function
We
consider the quadratic function y = ax 2 + bx + c. The reader

will be familiar with the general method of solving the corresponding
quadratic equation
by 'completing the
CMC 2
+ ox + c
and will know how the sign of & 2 -4ac

decides the nature of the roots. The expression 6 2 - 4ac is called the
discriminant of the quadratic equation and also of the quadratic
square',
function.
(a)
If b 2
where a <
>
/?,
4ac, the equation
and hence
y
has distinct roots, say a and
/?
a(x a)(x /!).
Thus y will be positive for some values of x, zero for x = a and x fi,
and negative for others. For example, if a > 0, then y > for those
12
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
AND METHODS
[1.31
values of x which give the factors the same sign, viz. x
and y <
when the
Similar results
have opposite
can be stated when a < 0.
factors
Therefore y is zero when x

all other values of x.
= b/2a, and
signs,
i.e.
< a or x > ft;

when a < x < /?.
has the same sign as a for
(c)
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.31]
If b 2
<
lac,
13
then
x 2 + -x + a
a
AY
2a)
_ii2
b\ 2
lac-b 2
la
on completing the square, so

(/
Both terms
in the outer bracket are positive, the first being zero
when x b/2a; hence the

positive. Therefore
contents of this bracket are always
y has the same sign as a for
all values of x.
a<0
Fig. 6
If the quadratic expression ax 2 + bx + c

it is
said to be positive definite.

if
a >
and
62
<
is
positive for all values of
The work under
4ac, then
(c)
shows that
ax 2 + bx + cis positive
definite.
The two conditions imply c > 0, since a and b 2 are positive. Similarly
the two conditions c > 0, b 2 < lac imply a > 0. Hence the two sets
of conditions are equivalent. Conversely,
if
ax 2 + bx + cis positive
For since ax 2 + bx + c >
definite,
then a
>
0, b
<
lac,
and
>
0.
for all values of x, the equation
ax 2 + bx + c
has no roots; hence b 2 < lac. When x = 0, the hypothesis gives

These conditions imply a > 0, as above.
If the expression ax2 + bx + c
is
negative for
all
values of x,
it is
>
0.
said
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
14
[1.32
to be negative definite. The reader should show that equivalent necessary

and sufficient conditions for negative definiteness are
a <
0,
<
b2
4ac
b2
or
<
kac, c
<
0.
1.32 Cauchy's inequality

If we are given two sets a x , a 2 , ...,a n b v b 2 ...,& each of
necessarily positive), we shall prove that
;
(a 1 b 1 + a 2 b 2
+ ...+a n b n
= a =
2
&1
<
+ (a 2 x + 6 2 2 +
For all x, y ^ 0; and we can have y =
ar x + br = for each r 1,2, ...,n, i.e. if
(a 1 x + 6J 2
Oi
It
only
if
there
(iii)
is
an x such that
_ _^
is then easily verified that the two sides of (ii) are equal.
Excluding this case, we have (after expanding the brackets in
rearranging) that for

(al
+ al + ...+al)x* + 2(a 1 b 1 + ...+a n b n )x + (bl + ...+bl) >
L31
'
4(0! &!
(iii)
and
all x,
this quadratic expression is positive definite.
i.e.
+ (a n x + 6) 2
. . .
(not
an
...
in which case there is = instead of

Consider the expression
n numbers
<{a\ + a\+...+al){b\ + b\+... + bl)
2
)
ax
unless
+ ...+ a n b n )* <
4(o
0;
Hence by the converse
result
+ ...+<)(& + ...+&),
which gives the result stated.
Exercise 1(b)
Find for what values

1
2x
-7x + 3.
4a;
+ 4a;+l.
of x the following expressions are positive.
2
5
7 (aj-l)"(3-).
2-x-Bx 2
(x
+ 2) (x*- 1).
8 x 3 -2x* -x +
3x*-2x + 5.
6 (x9
3.
1)
(x- 2) {x- 3).
^~
(+l)(a; + 4)
what values of x the function x 6x + 7 lies between 1.

Find the greatest value of 4 + 2x Sx 2 and the least value of 2a; 2 3x + 1.
12 Use equation (i) of 1.31 to prove that (i) if a > 0, then y has a least value,
viz. (4ac 2 )/4a; (ii) if a < 0, then y has a greatest value, viz. (4ac 6 2 )/4a;
2
10 Find for
11
(iii)
13
in either case this value
is
attained
when
a;
= b/2a.
Prove that the quadratic equation

(a 2
always has roots.
+ & 2 )a 2 + 2(a 2 + & 2 + c 2 )a; + (& 2 + c 2 =

)
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.4]
14 If a
>
>
0,
prove that x[x a)
AND METHODS
15
\{x b) has roots for any A. Can these
roots ever be equal?
Find the values of A
15
for
5a;
is
which the expression
+ 8a; + 14 + A(a;2 + 10a + 7)
a perfect square. Hence find constants A, B, C, D, p, q such that
5a;
+ 8a; +14 = A{x-pY + B{x-qY and
x2 +
10a;
+ 7 = C(x-p) z + D{x-q)*.
16 Prove (a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) 2 < (a + b + c) (a 3 + 6 3 + c3 ) when a, b, c are not

[Apply Cauchy's inequality to the sets a*,
c*; a*, 6*, c*.]
*17
'If Z 2
+m
+ n2 =
andZ' 2 + m' 2 + w' 2
1,
prove
all
equal.
- 1 < ll'+mm' + nn' <
1.
Graphs
1.4
To
fix ideas in
a problem
it is
frequently helpful to sketch a graph
of the function concerned; thus in 1.31

illustrate
we used
sketch-graphs to
the behaviour of a quadratic function. The reader will
already be familiar with the general forms of graphs representing
such simple functions as x 2 x3 1 \x and the trigonometric functions.

In this section we propose to illustrate some considerations which are
,
useful in graph-sketching.
Examples
1.41
(i)
Sketch the graph of
x
z*+l'
There
0,
is one value of y for each value of x. Since y

the graph cuts the axes only at the origin.
when and only when
-i
Fig. 7
If we change the signs of both x and y, the equation is essentially unaltered;

hence the graph is 'symmetrical about the origin O '.
When x is large, y = x/x z = 1/a;, and this becomes small when x increases.
If a; is large and positive, y is small and positive, so that the graph approaches
Ox from above. Similarly, when x is large and negative, the graph approaches
Ox from
below.
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
16
AND METHODS
[1.41
It can be shown that the value of y is never numerically greater than

For by considering 1/y and applying the theorem of the means, we have when
x > that
= x+-
3*
lxx-\ =
\
2,
x)
with = only when x = 1/x, i.e. x = 1. Hence

< \, and = \ when = 1.
When # < 0, the symmetry about O shows that y > \, with y = \ only when
x = 1. The graph therefore lies between the lines y = \.
2/
(ii)
ce
xl
Sketch the graph of
x2
There is one value of y for each value of x except x = 2 there is no point
on the graph corresponding to x = 2.
The graph cuts the ?/-axis where x = 0, and then y = \. It cuts the a;-axis
where y = 0, and then a; = 1.
:
Fig. 8
When x has values near to 2 but just less than 2, the denominator is small and
negative, and the numerator is positive; hence y is large and negative. Similarly,
when x is just greater than 2, y is large and positive. This indicates the behaviour
= 2.
When x is large, y =
near the line x
x/x
and
yl=
9
Thus
for
x large and
positive,
x-1
1
-.
1 =
x-2
x-2
y 1
is
negative, y 1 is small but negative.

y = 1 as shown (fig. 8).
(iii)
small but positive; and for x large and

therefore approaches the line
The graph
x
Sketch the graph of
There is one value of y for each x except x

corresponding to these values. Writing
=+
x
(x-l)(x+l)'
the graph has no points
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.41]
we see that when x is
just less
than
AND METHODS
17
+ 1,
number near +
(small negative
=
when x
large negative
number) (number near + 2)
number.
+ 1, y is large and positive. The neighbourhood of x = 1 can be discussed similarly.

If we now apply considerations illustrated in exs. (i), (ii), we obtain fig. 9.
Similarly,
is
just greater than
Fig. 9
Remarks
the lines x = 2 and y = 1 are each approached indefinitely
curve, yet are never crossed or even reached. They are called
asymptotes^ of the curve. In ex. (i) the te-axis is an asymptote; for although the
curve does actually cross it at O, it also approaches Ox indefinitely closely
(without meeting it) as x becomes large (positive or negative). Similarly, in
(a)
In ex.
(ii),
by the
closely
= 1 and Ox are
asymptotes. The essential property of an

recede along it, the curve approaches it indefinitely
closely yet never reaches it; whether the curve may cross the asymptote at a
'finite' point is immaterial.
(/?) The graph in ex. (i) illustrates that the function can take values only in
the interval ^ < y s$ \, whatever value x may have. Those in exs. (ii), (iii)
show that the function can take any value whatever, with the exception of
y = 1 in ex. (ii). We may enquire whether these properties could have been
discovered without first sketching the graphs.
ex.
the lines x
(iii)
asymptote
(iv)
is
Find
that, as
we
the range of possible values of
Sx 2 + 2
2x 2 -2x + l'
and use
If &
this
is
information
to assist
in sketching the graph.
a possible value, then the equation
_
~
Sx 2 + 2
2x z -2x+l'
f See 18.12(2) for a general definition.

2
GPM I
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
18
(2ft - 3) x 2 - 2kx + (k - 2) =
i.e.
must have roots
>
'6 2
4ft
i.e.
ft
>
i.e.
ft
>
4(2ft-3)(ft-2),
$s 2ft 2
-Ik + 6,
-7ft + 6
0,
Hence, applying the condition
(possibly coincident).!
lac''
[1.41
(ft-l)(fc-6).
This product will be zero if ft = 1 or 6, and will be negative if and only if the
factors ft 1, ft 6 have opposite signs, i.e. if ft > 1 and ft < 6. Hence we must
have 1 ^ ft
6, so the expression can take all values between 1 and 6 inclusive.
When ft = 1 or 6, the above quadratic equation satisfies the condition
'6 2 = 4ac' for equal roots; the root is then x = b/2a\ i.e.
l
- 2ft
X
When
ft
1,
and the
ft
~2(2ft-3)
= 1; and when
when x =
attained
ft
6,
least value 1
2ft-3*
f Hence the
when x = 1.
.
greatest value 6
is
y.
y \\
-i
Of
-*
Fig. 10
To sketch
the graph of
92.0
^
OX
-f"
2x*-2x+l'
from the above work that the graph lies entirely between the lines
and touches these at the points ( 1, 1), (f 6) respectively; these
are the turning-points on the curve.
The curve cuts Oy where x = 0, and then y = 2. It does not cut Ox since
we
y
see
first
l,
3# 2 + 2
>
6,
for all x. Since
2x 2 -2x+l
2{x-l) 2 + \>0
for all
the denominator can never be zero, and hence there

value of x.
When x is large,
== 3o? 2 /2a; 2
^
^
2x
a;,
one value of y for each
A closer approximation is
3a; 2
2
is
3a;
-2x ~ 2(x-iy
which shows that when x is large and positive, then y > f and that when x is
large and negative, then y < f Hence the graph approaches the horizontal
asymptote y = f from above when x is large positive, and from below when
x is large negative. It cuts y = f where x = J; see footnote f below. We can
;
now
sketch the curve.
ft = I the equation is not quadratic, but becomes

value of the function when x = 4.
t If
3a; J = 0.
Thus f
is
the
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.42]
19
The preceding examples illustrate the steps to be taken before sketching the
graph of a function of the type (ax 2 + bx + c)j(Ax 2 + Bx + C):
(a) Find where (if at all) the graph cuts Ox and Oy.
(b) Find how the graph behaves when x is large (positive and negative), and
how it approaches the horizontal asymptote also whether it cuts this asymptote
(c) If the denominator has factors, there will be asymptotes parallel to Oy
through the points which make the denominator zero. Find how the graph
behaves when x approaches such points from both left and right.
(d) Find the possible range of values of y, and where the curve reaches the
extreme positions (if any) these are the turning points.
;
1.42 Further examples
The functions in the preceding examples were 'algebraic fractions', and the
steps (a)-(d) just indicated can be taken before sketching the graph of any such
function, even when the denominator is not linear
or quadratic.
now consider some simple funcyA
We
tions involving root extractions.
(i)
<]x.
Since this equation can be written x = y 2 we

can sketch the graph just as we would for y = x 2
but with the roles of x, y interchanged; i.e. we
regard a; as a function of y. See fig. 11.
,
(ii)
= J{l-x 2 ).
If we write this free of the root sign as y 2 = 1 x 2 ,

or better as x 2 + y 2 = 1, we see that the equation
is the condition for the point (x,y) to lie at unit
Fig. 11
distance from the origin. The graph is therefore
the circle with centre O and radius 1.
In each of these examples we have assumed that both the positive and
negative square roots are possible values of y. If we interpret y/x to mean
'the positive square root of x\ then only the upper half of each graph would
be required.
Exercise 1(c)
Sketch the graphs of the following functions.
2 x3
13
4 1/x 2
1/x.
x+1
x + -.
X
l)(x-2)
x-2'
10 fa.
(x-l)(x-2)
(x-l)(x-2)
12
11
1
14
2
V(* -i)
16 Prove that (x - 2)/{(x -
15
V(i-* 2
(x - 3)}
can take any value. Sketch the graph.

17 Show that (x 2 -2x + 4)j(x 2 + 2x + 4) lies between and 3. Sketch the
1)
graph.
18 Prove that {(x- 5) (5x- 13)}/{(2a;- 7) (4- 11)} has no values between 1
4, and sketch the graph.
and
2-2
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
20
[1.5
Find the possible range of values of (x+ l)/(x 1 and sketch the graph.
x 2 ) j(ax 2 + bx + c) can take any value if b 2 > (a + c) a
( 1
2
21 Prove that (x + 2x + c)/(x 2 + x + 3c) can take any value if < c < 1.
22 Show that {(x a)(x b)}j(x c) takes any value if c lies between a and b.
*23 Prove that the maximum and minimum values of
2
19
20 Prove that
ax 2 + bx + c
Ax 2 + Bx + G
are the values of k (if any) for which ax 2 + bx + c k(Ax + Bx + C) is a perfect
square. [This is the condition for the line y = k to touch the curve.]
2
2
*24 If a
c, prove that (ax + bx + c)/(cx + bx + a) can take any value if
b 2 > (a + c) 2 [This implies b 2 > 4ac; use the conditions for positive definiteness.]
2
=(=
Show
be two values between which it cannot lie if

4ac < 6 2 < (a + c) 2 , and two values between which it must lie if b 2 < 4ac. [This
implies (a + c) 2 > 6 2 .]
also that there will
Types of function
1.5
by
1.51 Classification
structure
(1) Functions can be classified according to the manner in which

they are formed. If we start with a variable x and write down its
2
positive integral powers x = 1
x n and then combine
x3
,
. .
any constant multiples of these by addition or subtraction, we obtain

a polynomial function of x (in short, a polynomial in x) of degree n.
2
3
4
3
3a; 2# + fx + 5, 2x + ax + bx + 1 are polynomials in x of
Thus
degrees
If
we
4,
3 respectively, the latter having a, b as literal coefficients.
divide one polynomial in x
by another polynomial
in x,
we
an algebraic
obtain a rationalfunction ofx (i.e. a 'ratio of polynomials

fraction).
Thus
+V
are rational functions of
'
Zx , + 5x + ^j 2
x'
2x + ln
Notice that the term 'rational' makes no
reference to the coefficients of powers of x in the function
these can
be any sort of number. The rules of algebra show that rational functions of x are generated by applying to x and numbers the operations
of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division in any finite
combination.
Similar considerations apply for polynomial and rational functions
of several independent variables. For example,

variables, then Sx
(x
+ 3y)l(6x
(2)
Consider
2xsy+5y3
now
is
is
if
a rational function of x and
the equation
y are independent
a polynomial in x
3a;
and
y,
and
y.
2x3y + 5y3 =
0.
This can be
regarded as a cubic equation in y whose coefficients are functions of a;.
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.51]
21
y as a function of x; for when a numerical value
It will determine
is
we
obtain an ordinary cubic for y which determines at

least onef numerical value of y. We say that the equation defines y as
assigned to x,
an
we were
implicit function of x. If
to solve the equation for y in
a; by a mathematical formula (which in fact is possible,

although not easy) we should have the same function y expressed as
terms of
an
of x.
explicit function
All the above types of function can be included under the heading
algebraic; that is, they can all be defined (explicitly or implicitly) by
polynomial equations in y whose coefficients are polynomials in x.
For example, the rational function y

(implicitly)
is
by
easily obtained explicitly
equation x 2 + y 2
1 ^ x ^
for
x/(x 2 + 1) can be defined
by the polynomial equation

x 2y x + y=
and
1;
0,
solving for y.
Similarly, the
y = + ^/(l x 2
graph by actually
defines the (two-valued) function
in 1.42, ex.
(ii)
we sketched
its
using the defining equation instead of the explicit expression for
On the other hand,
y.
the equation
y
defines y as a function of x
any formula involving
xy+l =
which cannot be obtained
explicitly
by
roots, powers, sums, differences, products or
quotients (this fact can be proved, but we shall not do so in this book).
This sort of example shows that consideration of implicit functions
will
be necessary.
We may
obtained,
wonder how information about the last function can be

and in particular how its graph can be sketched. It happens
in this case that the defining equation can easily be solved explicitly
for
x in terms of v:
= V +1
y
we choose values for y and calculate the corresponding

we shall be able to plot a graph of x considered as a function
see Ex. 1 (d), no. 10. A much simpler example of this method was
Hence,
ones for
ofy;
if
a;,
given in 1.42, ex.
(i).
In general, a polynomial equation in x and y can be regarded in two

ways: (a) as a polynomial equation in y whose coefficients are polynomials in x, which defines y as an algebraic function f(x) of x; or
f We shall prove later that every cubic equation has at
have two or three roots.
least one root,
and may
(b)
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
22
[1.52
as a polynomial equation in x
in y,
whose coefficients are polynomials

which defines x as an algebraic function g(y) of y. The two
functions f(x), g(x) so obtained"]" are called inverses of each other.
Our
method above amounts to sketching the inverse function
graphical
of y when this is easily done. Consideration of inverse functions

thus seen to be useful.
(3)
Any
function which
is
not 'algebraic' in the above sense
called a transcendental function. It can be
proved (but not in
is
is
this
book) that log 10 a;, sin a? and the other trigonometrical functions are
and we
of this type;
(like
shall
meet others
later.
the examples just given) or implicit
defined
by xy =
sin y)
and as
They too may be

(e.g.
is
the function y of x
in the case of algebraic functions, they
can be associated in inverse pairs: thus 10x
and smx/x
explicit
is
the inverse of log 10 ic,
that of the implicit function y given
by xy =
sin?/.
numbers are
classified similarly: those such as

^5, *J2 + 3*J5,
that can be obtained as roots of polynomial equations in one
variable x with integer coefficients are called algebraic numbers; all others
(and this can be proved to include n) are transcendental numbers.
Irrational
^(2
+ ^3),
...
1.52 Classification
by properties
A different sort of classification (which may cut across the one just
given) can be
made by considering general properties which functions
may possess.
(1)
Oddness, evenness. Iff(x) is defined for pairs of equal and opposite

x, and f( x) =f(x), then f(x) is an even function: it is unby changing the sign of x throughout. The graph of y = f(x)
values of
altered
is
therefore symmetrical about the i/-axis

Similarly, if f(
is
x) =
f(x), then f(x)
'symmetrical about the origin'
For example,
sin a;,
tan
a;
a;
+ 3# 2 2,
is
(e.g. fig.
(e.g. fig.
12
(a)).
an odd function.
12
Its
graph
(6)).
cos x, tan 2 x are even; Xs + 5x, Xs /(#* +1),
are odd. Functions like x z + x 2 +
4:X,
3 sin a; + 2 cos a;, in
which some terms are even and others odd, are neither odd nor even;
also see Ex. 1 (d), no. 3.
(2) Periodicity.
If there
is
a positive
number p such that
f(x+p)=f(x)
t It is immaterial whether
discussed. The relation between
we write g(x) or g(y) when the functions are being

them is that if y =f(x), then x = g(y), and conversely.
1.52]
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
AND METHODS
23
and if p is the smallest such number, then f(x) is periodic,

with period p. Thus the period of sin a;, cos a;, isf 2n; of tana;, cot x is n;
for all x,
and of sin nx
is
2njn.
The graph of a
periodic function consists of an
X
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12
y*
'
~ 2n
E
d
\B
I
-7T
P-
'
7T
2n
3n
= cos x
Fig. 13
arc of a curve repeated infinitely often in both directions of the

a;-axis. Thus the graph of y = cos a; (fig. 13) consists of the curve
ABCDE, which represents the function for
<x<
2n, repeated over
subsequent intervals of 2n in both directions of Ox.

f The proof that 2n
given in this book.
is
in fact the smallest
number p
is difficult,
and
will
not be
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
24
It is
known that
[1.52
no periodic function can be rational (unless, trivially, it

no periodic function can be algebraic. Such a function must
(a)
is constant); (b)
therefore be transcendental.
Many-valuedness. If
(3)
different possible values of f(x) corre-
spond to a general value ofx, then/(ic)
is
an n-valued function.
Examples
(!)
= ir;
3x + 4
single-valued because there is just one value of y corresponding to each value

of x except x = f (for which y is not defined).
2
(ii) The function y defined implicitly by x 2 +
y = 9 is two-valued because
there are two values of y for each x when 3 < x < 3, even though there is
only one when x = 3 and y is not denned when x > 3 or x < 3. (All this
follows because we can find y explicitly as ^/(9 x 2 ).)
3
2
(iii) The equation
y 6y + 1 ly = x gives three values of y for some values
of x; e.g. if x = 6, the equation can be written (2/ 1) (2/ 2) (2/ 3) = 0, so that
y = 1, 2 or 3 when x = 6. Hence y is a three-valued function of x.
Graphically, a line parallel to Oy will cut the curve (if at all) in (i) one, (ii) two,
(iii) three points, in general.
is
The
inverse circular functions.
1 ^ x < 1, then the equation cosy = x defines y (implicitly) as a

function of x, written y = Cos _1 #. Since x = cosy, the graph (fig. 14) can be
obtained from that ofy = cos x by interchanging the axes of x and y, and then
line parallel to Oy cuts
reversing the sense of Ox to restore right-handedness.
the graph (if at all) infinitely often. Thus y is infinitely many -valued.
When x is given, let y a be the smallest positive angle for which cos y = x;
a is acute if x > (fig. 15 (a)), obtuse if x < (fig. 15 (6)). It is called the principal value of Cos -1 a;, and is written cos -1 a;. Thus (using radian measure)
^ cos -1 a; < 77.
and one
All other angles having their cosine equal to x are bounded by
of the rays OP, OP' (figs. 15 (a), (&)). Those bounded by OP can be expressed as
(iv) If
OX
27T
according as
by OP' as
+ a,
4zr
+ a,
6n + oc,
we add complete
2n a,
47T
or
...
a 2n,
a 4tt,
positive or negative revolutions to a;
a,
or
...
2n cc,
All these are given by the expression 2mr

negative,
or zero). Hence -1,
&
Cos
itf cc,
a, where n
= 2nn
is
and those
....
any integer
(positive,
cos -1 x.
Each value of n determines a branch of the many-valued function Cos -1 a;.

The principal branch is shown thickened in fig. 14.
(v) For 1 ^ x < 1, sin y = x similarly defines a many- valued function
y = Sin -1 a;. The graph (fig. 16) is obtained from that of y = sin a; as described
in
(iv).
the principal value sin -1 x is the smallest acute angle y

or negative) for which sin?/ = x; thus \tj ^ sin -1 x < \tj.
Given
x,
= /? (positive
1.52]
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
Fig. 16
AND METHODS
Fig. 17
25
FACTS, DEFINITONS
26
Any other angle whose sine is x is one

In+ft,
27T+J3,
AND METHODS
[1.52
of either
...
or
-2n+fi,
...
or
nfi,
-4tt+/?,
....
which are included in 2mn + /?,

or
Snfi,
nfi,
2n/3,
which are included in (2m + l)nfi. These two expressions can be combined
into
mm +
(
1)"/?.
Hence
= nn + (l)n sin -1 x.
-1
x
vi) For any value oix, tan y = x defines a many -valued function y = Tan
whose graph, obtained from that ofy tana;, is shown in fig. 18. The principal
Sin
-1
Fig. 19
Fig. 18
value tan -1 x
tan y
is
x; thus
the smallest acute angle y = y (positive or negative) for which

\n < tan -1 x < \u. All angles whose tangent is x are given by
nn + y; hence
Tan -1 x = nn+ tan -1 x.

,
In Ch. 2 we shall consider functions which have the property of

continuity,
and
in Ch. 3 those that are derivable.
Homogeneous polynomials and functions.

Turning now to functions of more than one variable, we may
enquire whether there is a useful extension of the idea of 'degree of
a polynomial in x for polynomials in two variables x, y (which consist
of the sum of a number of terms like axv y*, where a is a constant).
The expression axp y9 is said to have total degree p + q in (x, y).
A polynomial each of whose terms has the same total degree n is
(4)
'
said to be homogeneous of degree n.
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.53]
These definitions extend in the obvious

variables. Thus the polynomials
way
27
to cases of three or
more
x 2 + xy + 2y2
x-y + z,
2x* + Zx2y 2 - 5xy 2z
are each homogeneous in their variables, with degrees
2, 1,
4 respec-
tively.
Iff( x V) *s a homogeneous polynomial of degree n, then

>
f(te,ty)
t"f(x,y)
77
for all values of x, y, t.

Proof. Each term off{x, y) is of the form axpy^, where p + q = n and
a is a constant. The corresponding term of f(tx, ty) is therefore of the
form
a(tx) p {tyY
tv+vaxvyv
naxv y*.
Hence t n is a factor of/(te, ty), and the other factor is clearly f(x, y).
The theorem generalises obviously for more than two variables. It
can be used to extend the concept of homogeneity to functions other
than polynomials.
Definition. If/(te, ty)
function
is
f(x, y) for all values of x, y,
defined, then f[x,y)
is
for
which the
said to be homogeneous of degree
in (x,y).
For example, the functions
~ V*
x of
xy
+ y2
V
,
x*5 + x?y 2
y{x*-y*
+ 2z% tanf-)
*
'
are each homogeneous in their variables, with degrees
\yj
1,
- 2,
, 0,
respectively.
In 10.22 we
shall consider functions
having the property of sym-
metry or of skewness.
1.53 Inadequacy of graphical representation
We may
enquire whether a graphical representation of a given

always possible,
Consider first the function
function
(i)
is
_ x 2 -9
~ x-3'
Provided that x 4= 3, this can be simplified to give y = x + 3; but the

not the same as the given function because the first is not
defined when x = 3 (it takes the meaningless form 0/0), while the
second is defined for all values of x, and in particular has the value 6
latter is

FACTS, DEFINITIONS
28
when x =
AND METHODS
[1.53
The graph of the given function would have no point
3.
= 3; but for all other values of x, however near

would be the same as that of y x + 3. Thus the graph would
be the line y = x + 3 with the single point
V
(3, 6) omitted; and this situation cannot
/
corresponding to x
to
3, it
be represented adequately in a diagram.

(ii)
A more
complicated example
the function y of x defined
Its
is
by the rule:
when
is rational,
when
is irrational.
/-3
'graph' would consist of an in-
3
Fig. 20
packed row of points

along the #-axis y = 0, and another such row along the line y 1,
neither row making up a complete 'continuous' line. No adequate
diagram can be given, yet a formula can be obtained to give y explicitly
in terms of x: see Ex. 2 (c), no. 12.
definitely closely
Fig. 21
(iii)
Finally, consider the function
for all values of except x
between
cuts
Ox
inclusive, the
0.
sin(l/a;),
which
is
defined
Since the sine of any angle always lies
graph
at points for which Ijx
lies
between the
nn, where
is
lines
any integer
1.
It
(positive
where x = ljnn. Similarly, it meets the line y = 1

l/(2w + |)7r and y = - 1 where x = lj(2n ^)n. The curve
where x
oscillates between these lines, and does so more and more rapidly as x
becomes closer to zero. The curve does not cut Ox for x > 1 In or for
x < Ijn; and when x becomes large, \\x and hence also sin(l/a;)
becomes small. Hence the #-axis is an asymptote. The deficiency in
the graph (of which only the part for x positive is shown in fig. 21
or negative),
i.e.
the rest
is
easily supplied since the function is odd) is that it cannot
indicate clearly the behaviour of the function near x
0.
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.53]
29
These illustrations should convince the reader that, although

graphical representation of a function
usually helpful,
is
has
it
its
and that any systematic study of the properties of
limitations,
functions cannot be based on graphical appearances only.
Exercise 1(d)
1 Classify the following functions as (a) odd, even, or neither; (6) periodic
or not, and state the period if it exists.
(i)
(v)
(ix)
sin a;;
a;
V(l-*
2 If an
cos 2x;
(ii)
+ cos(l/a;);
(vi) sin
(x)
);
is
a;
defined at x
sin a;;
+x
x + smx;
(iv)
cos x + tan 2 x;
(vii)
xj(l-x*);
odd function/(a;)
defined for
(iii)
2
(a; );
(viii)
\x\;
(xii)
tan" 1 a;.
(xi)
J(l
show that it must be zero there.
0,
);
values of x, verify that 0(x) =f(x) +f(x) is even

and that i/r{x) =f(x) f( x) is odd. Deduce that f(x) can be expressed as the
sum of an odd and an even function of x.
Iff(x)
is
all
4 Verify that the product of two even or of two odd functions is even; but
that of an even and an odd function is odd. State corresponding results for sums.
*5 Construct polynomial equations in x, y which are satisfied
by the following
algebraic functions y.
i-\
(i)
x+Jx;
i
(u)
i/
V(*+V*);
M
,---x
,.
iv
J(x+1) Jx
//
6 Pick out from the following functions those which are homogeneous in
and state the degree in each such case.
their variables,
(i)
(iv)
xt-Zx^ + Sxy*;
(ii)
1/V(3a^);
V)
x 3 + 3x 2y + Sxy + y 3 ;
(iii)
I +1+1+1
a;
y*
z2
J{x* + y*-z*) ;
(vi)sin(^;
\x/
(vii) ta,n(xy).
7 (i) Prove that every homogeneous function of degree n in (x, y) can be written
in the form x ng{yjx). [Take t = 1/x in the definition in 1.52(4); write
9(yM =f(hy/x).]
(ii)
of degree
Conversely, verify that every function of the form x ng(y/x) is homogeneous

n in (x, y). [Replace x, y by tx, ty in the function.]
8 If f(x, y), g{x,y) are homogeneous of degree m,
be said about:
(i)f(x, y) g{x, y); (ii)f(x, y)/g(x, y);
(iii)
respectively,
fix, y)
what can
g(x, y) ?
*9 If f(u, v) is homogeneous of degree n in (u, v), and each of u, v is a homogeneous function of degree
in (x,y), prove that when/(w, v) is expressed in
terms of x and y, it is homogeneous of degree mn in (x, y). [Let/(w, v) become
<f>(x,y); then <f>(tx,ty) =f(t m u,t m v) = (t m ) nf(u,v) = t mn $(x,y).]
10 Sketch the graph of the implicit function y defined

finding the inverse function x.
by y5 xy+
by
first
11
Consider the behaviour near x
why those in
(i)
arsina:;
(ii), (iii)
of the following functions,
cannot be fully represented by a graph.
(ii)
a;sin(l/a;);
(iii)
sin (!/#).
and explain
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
30
1.6
AND METHODS
[1.6
Plane curves
1.61 Parametric equations
In
1.5
possess
we have illustrated various properties which a function may
by means of sketch-graphs. Given two graduated coordinate
axes Ox, Oy, each such property of a function can be interpreted as

a geometrical property of a curve in the plane xOy.
By plane
coordinates
curve
we mean
the set of points in the plane xOy whose
some equation F(x, y) =
0. This equation can

be thought of as determining y (implicitly) as a function y =f(x) ofx;
or, if more convenient,
function x = g(y) ofy.
It may be possible to discover functions <fi(t), \Jr(t) of a third variable
t which are such that
l
(i)
x = <}>$), y = ir{t)
(x, y)
satisfy
equation F(x, y) = for all values of t (or, at any rate,

some range). Geometrically this means that the point whose
coordinates are <f>{t), i/r(t) will lie on the curve for all relevant values of t.
As t varies, this point will trace out the curve (or part of the curve, since
there may also be points of the curve not expressible in the form (i)).
will satisfy the
for all
in
We therefore say that equations

F(x,y)
0,
and
call
(i)
are parametric equations of the curve
the parameter. If each value of
gives just one
point on the curve, and if also every point of the curve can be obtained
from
(i)
by giving t just one suitable value, then equations (i) are called
a proper parametric representation of the curve. If rational functions
can be found, the curve
is said to be unicursal.
have used such a representation for some
simple kinds of curve; e.g. x = at 2 y = 2at are proper parametric
equations of the parabola y 2 = 4ax (see 16.12); and x a cost,
y = a sin t properly represent the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 Sometimes the
<j>(t), i/r(t)
The reader
will already
parametric equations arise naturally.
Example
The cycloid
The path of a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls without slipping
along a fixed straight line is a plane curve called a cycloid.
Let the circle of centre C and radius a roll along Ox, and let the tracing point
P start from O, so that the circle begins by touching Ox at O. Let the coordinates
of P be (x, y) when the circle has turned through an angle d. Since no slipping
as shown, we have
occurs, arc JVP = ON. After constructing
PK
x = OM = ON-PK = arc NP- PC sin d = a0-asin0,
y = MP = NC-KC = a-acos0.
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.62]
AND METHODS
31
Parametric equations of the cycloid are therefore
From
the definition
we
identical arches all lying
a(6 sin#),
cos#).
a(l
see that the cycloid is composed of an infinity of

above Ox, having height 2a (the diameter of the
G
j
/ l\
Q
Fig. 22
generating circle) and base of length 2na (the circumference of this circle).
The parametric equations confirm all this. An (x, y) -equation for the cycloid
could be obtained by eliminating 6; but it is
much less simple and less useful than the
parametric representation.
Sometimes (e.g. in the dynamics of the

pendulum) we require the equations
of the curve when placed base upwards (fig. 23).
The reader may verify that they are
cycloidal
Fig. 23
= a(6+8m0), y =
a(l-coad).
1.62 Polar coordinates
Although in elementary work the position of a point

specified
by coordinates!
this is not the only
(x, y)
P in a plane is
referred to perpendicular axes Ox, Oy,
way available.
If
is
a fixed point (the pole) and
OX is a fixed line (the initial line), we may join OP and consider the
angle POX = (measured positively in the counterclockwise sense from
OX, as in trigonometry) and the distance OP =
(fig.
24).
Then to any
unique point P in the plane;

but, unless we make some restrictions, a given point P will be specified
by many different pairs. For example, (c,oc), (c,a, + 2n), ( c,a + 7r)
give the same point, where in the last case we locate the point by first
given pair of numbers
(r,
6) corresponds a
OP through angle cc + tt, and then measuring off a

from O in the sense from P towards O.
to be positive and 6 to lie in the range 7r<6^n,
turning the radius

distance c along
it
If we restrict r
t Called cartesian coordinates after Descartes
who
introduced their use in 1637.
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
32
then the numbers
[1.63
6 corresponding to a given point are unique.f In
r,
certain applications (e.g. to
complex numbers, Ch.
to have these limitations, but in geometry
it is
leave r
and 6 unrestricted. In either case we call
of P; r
is
the radius
13) it is desirable
usually convenient to
{r,
6) polar coordinates
the vectorial angle.
vector,
Fig. 24
Fig. 25
is taken for pole and Ox for initial line (and this is

// the origin
usually done, without comment), the relations between the cartesian
and polar coordinates of the same point

x
Hence
r cos 6,
P are seen
(fig.
25) to
r sin 6.
be
(ii)
polar coordinates are given, these formulae determine x, y
if
uniquely.
Conversely,
when x, y
r==
are given,
^X
we have
+ y 2^
= Tan -! V
>
(iii)
This last formula will not determine 6 uniquely, even if the restrictions
are imposed, for
it
gives two distinct values of 6 in the range
it <
we should require
6 < n;
the one for which

cos 6 sin 6:1
:
x:y:r.
(iv)
1.63 Polar equation of a curve
relation F(r, 6)
between polar coordinates corresponds to
some curve in the plane, and is called the polar equation of the curve.
As in the case of cartesian equations, it can be thought of in the form
r
r
= f(6)
= $(t),
or 6
g(r)
when
convenient, or even parametrically as
f(t).
^ 6 < 2n, or any range covering an interval of 2n, would serve

f The range
equally well for our purpose.
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
1.63]
AND METHODS
33
We now illustrate by a few examples how a curve can be sketched

from
its
polar equation. First observe that
= is unaffected when 6 is replaced by

6, the curve is symmetrical about Ox (for if (r v #2 lies on the curve,
so does {r x dj));
(b) if F(r, 6) =
is unaffected when 6 is replaced by tt 6, the curve
(a) if
the equation F(r, 6)
symmetrical about Oy;

(c) the locus r = c is a
is
circle
a 'half-line or ray through

'
with centre
and radius
c;
=a
is
O making angle a with Ox.
Examples
(i) The cardioid. Given a fixed point O on a fixed circle of diameter a, draw
any chord OP' and produce it to P so that P'P = a. The locus of P as P' varies
on the circle is called a cardioid (fig. 26). Since
the polar equation
is
= OP = OP' + P'P = a cos 6 + a,

r = a( 1 + cos 6).
The equation shows that

(a)
the curve
(b)
as 6 increases from
as 6 increases from
(c)
is
symmetrical about Ox;

to
\tt
\tt,
to
tt,
r decreases
r decreases
from 2a to a;
from a to 0.
Fig. 26
Fig. 27
More generally, if we take P'P =

a limacon, whose polar equation is
r
c>
a,
(ii)
Sketch the limacon r
c in
\a(l
0. If c
<
a, r
can take negative values;
+ 2 cos
symmetrical about Ox. As d increases from through the values

\ti,
to tt, r decreases from %a through a, \a, to - a. To plot the last point, we
It
ftt,
P is
= a cos 6 + c.
then r is always greater than

we illustrate with the case c = a.
If
the above definition, the locus of
is
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
34
[1.63
face along Ox and rotate through angle tt counterclockwise, then mark off a
distance \a in the opposite sense, i.e. actually in the direction Ox. The curve is
completed by using the symmetry about Ox (fig. 27). It is seen to have a loop,
with a 'double point' at 0. The 'cusp' at
of the cardioid (the case c = a)
can be thought of as a loop which has shrunk to a point.
(iii)
The lemniscate
+ y2 2 =
(x 2
a 2 (x 2 y 2 ).
The given equation is unchanged by writing x instead of a;, or y instead

of y. The curve is therefore symmetrical about Ox and Oy. To sketch it, first
transform to polar coordinates by putting x = rcosd, y = rsin#:
a 2 (r 2 cos 2 0-r 2 sin 2 0),
r2
a 2 cos 2d.
i.e.
(r 2 ) 2
The polar equation shows that

as 6 increases from to \tt, r decreases from a to 0;
as 6 increases from Jtt to fit, cos 26 <
and so no part of the curve
in the region between the lines 6 = \ir, 6 = |7T;
(c) as 6 increases from fxr to n, r increases from
to a.
use symmetry about Ox to complete the curve (fig. 28).
(a)
(b)
lies
We
Exercise 1(e)
1
(ii)
When the graph of y = f(x) is given, how

= cf(x); (iii) y = f(x + c) be deduced?
are parametric equations of the circle x 2 + y 2

given by these equations?
3
(i)
y =f(x) + c;
^
1
2 Verify that
can those of
2at
a 2 Is every point of the

.
circle
tx cuts the curve x z + y z = axy at the origin and the

+ Z3 )). Hence write down parametric equations for
Prove that the line y
point
(at j(l
+tz ),
at 2 /(I
this curve.
4 A circle of radius a rolls along Ox without slipping. Prove that parametric

equations of the locus of the mid-point of a given radius are x = a(d J sin 6),
y = a(l cos 6), and sketch the curve (a trochoid).
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
Transform
AND METHODS
35
the following equations into polar coordinates.
5 x 2 ~y 2
a2
6 xy
8 Transform the equation r
7 (x 2 + y 2 ) 3
c2 .
a 2xy(x 2 -y 2 ).
a sin 26 into cartesian coordinates.
Sketch the curves given by the following polar equations. (Label the results
retain them for future use.) Negative values of r are allowed.
= acos0.
r = asin20.
r = asec# + &
= ad.
14 r = acos30.
(a > 0, b > 0).
9 r
13
16
10 r
17 Answer the questions in no.

18
11
r6
12 r 2
a.
15 rcos<9
and
a2 sin20.
= aeos 26.
graph r =f(6).
for the polar
A circle of radius a rolls without slipping on the outside of an equal fixed
with centre O. Show that a point P on the circumference of the rolling

has coordinates x = a(2cos#-cos20), y = a(2sin0-sin20), the origin
being O, Ox the line through the original position A on the fixed circle of the
tracing point P, and the 6 angle turned through by the the line of centres.
By taking A for pole and Ox as initial line, show that the locus has polar
equation r = 2a(l~ cos 6), and hence sketch the curve.
circle
circle
Miscellaneous Exercise 1(f)

1
+ a 2 + ...+a n = s,"prove l/a x + l/a 2 + ... + l/a n ^ n 2 /s.

If s n = 1 + +
... + l/n, prove that for n 5* 2,
If a 1
n + 1 s n+1
[Apply
3
A > G to f
(n + l)/n
f f
< (n+ l) 1/"
and to
<-n +
l.
their reciprocals.]
Prove
i(n+ 1) >
(i)
> (n+1)^"-
w!
(hi)
[Apply
(i)
(iii)
Jn\;
(ii)
(nl) 3
<
(ii)
l 3,
n"{|(w+
2
1)} ;
1).
A > G to
l,2,...,n;
l/( 1
2), 1/(2
3),
. .
.,
l/{n(n +
...,ra 3 ;
1)}.]
+ bti and t^ x, where a, 6, x, y are all positive, prove that

y Ss 2 V(a6). [_x 3yft 3 = a/t + bt > 2 V(a&) by the theorem of the means.]
5 Prove ab ^ {i(a + b)} 2 and deduce that abed ^ {(a + b + c + d)}\ with
equality only when a = 6 = c =
By giving a suitable value in terms of a, 6, c,
prove abc
(i(a + 6 + c)} 3
4 If a; 3?/
at 2
<Z.
eZ
*6 Prove
(a 1 b 1 c1
+ a 2 b i c i + ...+a n b n c n )*<
(a 2 +
...
+a 2
7 Find necessary and

all
values of x.
is
(6
+ ... + &) (c*+ ... +c 2
).
sufficient conditions for aa; + bx + c to be positive for

By expressing a;* - Sx 3 + 32x 2 - 64x + 48 in the form
2
(x 2 + Ax+fi) 2 -p,
show it
not negative for any value of x.
AND METHODS
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
36
Investigate the range of values
and sketch
x 2 -Zx-l
the
graph of
3x 2 -2x + 1
+ 8x+10
9
8'
x*-6x +
x*-8x-2
x 2 -2x + 3
2
2
can take all values if 1 < c ^
1 1 Prove that (cx + 3x 4) /(c + 3x 4x
12 Find the values of x for which (x 2 -x- 2)j(x 2 - 2) < 2.
13 Find the ranges of x for which (4a; 2 + 6x + l)/(x 2 + 3x + 2) > 4.
a;2+ 2
+6
14 Writing
(o*0)
/(a; =
x2 + 1
prove that there are two numbers such that/(x) is of the form
7a; 2
'
'
7.
A;
A;
(Ax + B) 2
D(x 2 +1)'
If these
numbers are k x k 2
,
<
(k t
k 2 ), prove
{{l-kr )x + a} 2
Prove also that ( 1 k t ) ( 1 k 2 ) = a 2 and deduce that for all x, k x < f(x) ^ k 2
Sketch the curve y = f(x) when a > 0, indicating its position with respect
to the lines y = 1, y = k x y = k 2
15 Show that for all k 4= 0, the line y = k meets the curve
.
y(x 3) (x+ 1) = a# + 6
between 3a and a.
Sketch the curve when (i) a = 3, b = 7; (ii) a =
if 6 lies
16 If (gkc + foe + c) + (a'x + b'x + c')

expressible as a rational function of y.
2
y^l =
"
if
a i/
+ 3,
7.
find the condition for
0,
x to be
^t
(B<A
if K < 0, then
a) 2
(a;
> 0, then <x ^y ^ fi; (ii)

y ^ a or y > fi.
a function of the form (Ax 2 + Bx + C)/(px 2 + qx + r) which has
= 5, a = 1, 6 = 2, = 2, conturning-points {a, a), (&,/?). Taking a = 2,
prove that
(i)
Deduce that y
struct the
if
is
example
in no. 10.
18 If u = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c, a 4=

two applications of 'completing the square' that
1,
ab-h2
u =-Jax + hy + g) 2 + --[y +
,
A=
where
and ab-h 2
4= 0,
show by
af-gh\ 2
)
abc + 2fgh a/ 2 bg 2 ch 2
Hence show that sufficient conditions for u to be positive for all x, y are
a > 0, ab h 2 > 0, A > 0. (Given that a, ab h2 are non-zero, these conditions
are also necessary.)
If ab h 2 = 0, show that sufficient conditions are a > 0, afgh 0, ac > g 2
.
19 If a
4= 0,
ab h 2
4= 0,
A=
in no. 18,
show that u
is
of the form
-{X 2 + (ab-h 2 Y 2 },
)
and deduce that u can be resolved

Write down conditions
into linear factors if A =

and ab h 2
u to be a perfect square.
sufficient for
<
0.
FACTS, DEFINITIONS
AND METHODS
37
circle of radius a rolls without slipping on the outside of a fixed circle

20
of radius 3a and centre 0. Taking
for origin and Ox along the initial position
of the line of centres, show that the coordinates of the point
of the rolling
circle
which was
initially
where 6
on the
fixed circle are
a(4 cos 6 cos 40),
is the angle turned through

(an epicycloid).
by the
a(4 sin 6 sin 40),

line of centres.
Sketch the curve
21 Answer the question in no. 20 when the small circle rolls inside the large
one. (The curve generated is a hypocycloid.)
38
CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
LIMITS.
Limits:
2.1
some examples from previous work
= f(x),
2.11 Given a function y
early
work
in Calculus
is
concerned
with the following process.

(a)
Let 8x denote any change (positive or negative) in the value

y. This change
of x, and let 8y be the corresponding change caused in

8y
is
calculated from the functional relationship y
= f(x), and will in
general depend on both 8x and x.

(b) Write down and simplify the ratio 8yj8x (which in general also
depends on 8x and x).
(c) Letting
8x approach zero, see whether the ratio 8yj8x
approaches a definite value (in general a function of x). If this is the
case, we call this value the derivative ofy with respect to x, and denote
it
by any one
of the symbols
fx
using whichever
is
Dx y,
By,
most convenient
We express the property in

when 8x tends
y',
to zero,
(c)
f'(x),
f{x),
for our purpose.
by saying that
8y/8x tends to dyjdx
and write
We also call dy[dx the limit of 8y/8x when 8x tends to zero,
lim-.
dx
and write
(ii)
sx-+o8x
The statements
2.12
(i), (ii)
are equivalent.
well-known limit
is
that of smx/x
when x ->
(angles here
being in radian measure). If sin re and the other trigonometrical ratios

are defined in the usual way by means of a right-angled triangle, and
it is
made about
area of a circular sector,

proved in any book on elementary trigonometry or calculus that
certain assumptions are
sin a;
<x <
tana;
the
when
'
'
< x <
\n.
(iii)
LIMITS.
2.13]
39
It follows that
1
<
x
<
sin#
when
<x<
In.
(iv)
v
cosa;
'
When x decreases towards zero (or, as we may say, approaches

through positive values conveniently written x-+0 + ), cos a; increases towards 1, and so 1/cosa; decreases towards 1. Hence x/sina;
1, by (iv). This will also be true when x approaches zero through negative values (x->0-) because x/sinx is
an even function of x. We conclude that
also decreases towards
x
>
when
x ->
in
sin a;
i.e.
any manner;
in the limit-notation,
Urn t~~ =
aôsmx
1.
(v)'
v
Notice that in the above statements nothing is said about

(a) whether or not xjainx actually takes the value 1 for some value
of
a;;
or
whether or not x/sinx has a value when we put x = 0.

In fact for (6), a/sin x is not defined when x = 0, being of the form 0/0.
For (a), the inequality (iv) shows that a;/sina; > 1 however small and
(b)
x may be (and hence also for small negative x, since ar/sina;

is no value of a; for which xjs.mx = 1, and we say that
the limit 1 is unattained. The statement (v) means that when x becomes
close to 0, x/ainx becomes close to 1, and that we can make x/sina;
as close as we please to 1 for all values of x sufficiently near to 0.
positive
is
even): there
2.13 Another example
which
is
is
given by the function (1.53,
not defined when x
_ x*-9
~ x-S'
3.
(i))
For any other value of x, however
we have y = x + 3; and when x -> 3, we see that y -> 6. Yet

no value of y when x = 3, nor is there any value of x which
close to 3,
there
is
makes y =
6.
On the other hand, there are many functions whose limit is also
an actual value of the function. For example, if y = 3*2 then when
x -> 2 we see that y -> 12; and y = 12 when we put x = 2. Such functions (for which the limit is attained) form an important class which
2.14
will
be discussed in
2.6.
2.15
LIMITS.
40
well-known geometrical example of a limit
is
[2.2
the tangent
a curve at a point P, denned as the position to which a chord

approaches when Q approaches P along
to
PQ
the curve. If the curve has an angle at P,

'
'
as in
fig.
29,
then the chord
PQ approaches
different positions according to
approaches
P from
case there
is
whether
and in this
no 'tangent at P' in the
left or right,
ordinary sense.
2.2
The general idea of a
limit
2.21 Informal definition

Fig. 29
The idea pervading the preceding
ex-
amples is expressible as follows.

If the values off(x) can be made as close as we please to the number I
by making x sufficiently
approaches or tends
to
close to the
number
or converges to the limit
We write either
j(x) ->
when
,
lim f(x)
or
a,
I
then we say that f(x)

when x tends to a.
x -> a
I,
but of course no sort of mixture of these two statements.
Remarks
By
x tends to a' we understand that x must be

side, i.e. through values less than a
(x->a) and also through values greater than a (x -> a + ). Iff(x) can
be made arbitrarily close to I only when x->a+ or only when
x->a then I would not be the limit off(x) in the sense envisaged.
(It was for this reason that we mentioned what happens when x ->
"(a)
the words
allowed to approach a from either
'
'
in the case of a/sin a; (2.12) before writing

(/?)
down
the statement
(v).)
We do not imply that f(x) must approach steadily down to the
I (as does #/sina: towards 1) or steadily up to it (as for sin xjx);

when x is close to a, f(x) may take values some of which are greater
when x -> 0, although
and some less than I. For example, x sin 1/x)
and is negative for
this function is positive for some values of a: near
others (cf. Ex. 1 (d), no. 11 (ii)). The essential requirement is that the
difference between f(x) and I can be made as (numerically) small as
we please.
limit
LIMITS.
2.22]
Moreover,
(y)
small as
it is
not enough that
we please for some
(but not
we can make
all)
41
this difference as
values of x sufficiently near a.
Thus from 1.53, (hi) the function sin 1 jx) is zero for all values x = 1 jnn
where n is an integer (positive or negative, however large), and is as
small as we please if we consider values of x sufficiently close to these;
but this function does not have as limit when x -> because it does
not remain close to for all small x. In fact, the function oscillates in
value between + 1, and does not approach a limit when x -> 0.
(8) As in 2.12, no mention is made off (a), because the function may
not even be defined when x = a. Hence when we speak of 'all values
of x sufficiently close to a', we mean all x in some small interval
a 7j< x<a + 7j excluding a itself; this is conveniently written
(
<
We call such values of
a;
\x
a\ <
tj.
a neighbourhood of a. Clearly a number a has

one corresponding to each choice of tj.
infinitely many neighbourhoods,
2.22
Formal
We
more
definition
now
express the requirements of our informal definition
precisely.
Suppose we are given some positive number e as our

I; then we must be able to make
can
'standard of closeness' of f(x) to
e < f(x) l<e

x sufficiently close to a. That is, we must be able to
some positive number tj such that the above condition is satisfied
all x for which
< \x a\ < tj. Our final definition of 'limit' is
for all values of
give
for
accordingly as follows.
I when x tends to a if, given any positive number
however small, we can find a corresponding positive number rj
f(x) tends to the limit

e
such that
\f(x)
1\
<
for all
x for which
<
\x
a\ <
tj.
Remark. As a simple though useful deduction we have: iff(x)

x in some neighbourhood of a, where k is constant, then
1c
for all
lim f(x)
k.
x->a
Some general properties of limits

We now prove, directly from the definition
2.3
perties of limits
just given,
some pro-
which would be expected on intuitive grounds. The
results of 1.14 are required.
LIMITS.
42
Iff(x) ->
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
a and
&/(#) -> kcc
f(x)
g(x) ->
wAen
/?
where k
[2.3
-> a, then
a;
is constant)
+ g(x)-+<*+fi;
f(x)g(x)-**P\
l//() -> 1 /a provided that a
(v) f{x)jg(x) ->
4= 0;
provided that
a,/ft
/? 4= 0.
Our hypotheses are that

am/ number e x > 0, however
Proofs.
(a)
to
small, corresponds
a number
7j x
such that
|/(#)
(b)
a| <
number
to any
for all
ex
e2
>
0,
a;
for
<
which
\x
a\ <
n^,
however small, corresponds a number n 2
such that
\g(x)
In
small,
fi\ <
for
<
which
a\ <
\x
we have to prove that, given any number

we can find a number n such that
(i)
\kf(x )
Now
for all
e2
<
|&/(a;)- ka\
and we can choose

\kf(x)
fr au<
fr
\k(f(x)-a)\
<
\k\e1
which
<
<
whenever
Taking n = 7j x we have result

For (ii), we have
,
!(/(*)+?(*))
<
whenever
>
0,
a\ <
however
v.
\f(x)-a\
|&|
e x in the first place so that
ka.\ <
\x
n%
[a?
ex
\k\
\x
aj <
<
e.
a\ <
vx
',
Then
nx
(i).
-(+0| =
<|/(*)-a|
<
ex
+ ez
+ |fif(*)-^|
whenever < \x a\ < the smaller of v v tj 2

and to be the smaller of n v n 2 then
We can choose ex = e2
<
\f(x)
+ g(x) a fi\ <
whenever
<
\x
a\ <
w,
and this proves (ii).

For (iii) we write
\f(x)g(x)-ap\
(/(*)-) {g^)-fi)+a(g(x)-fi)+fi(f(x)-a)\
|
< \f(x) - a| |g(s) - p\ +

< eiGa+lalea+l^le!
.
\cc\
- /?| +
|/(z)
- a|
LIMITS.
2.4]
43
whenever
< \x-a\ <rj, where rj is the smaller of ij v w 2
choose e x and e2 so that \a\ e2 < ê, |/?| e x <
and also ex e 2 <
.
<
|/(#)sr(#)-a/?|
and
a*
|/(*)|
dition.
ot-f{x)
!/(*)- *|
f{x)
af(x)
M-l/(*)|
0,
Now
when
+ (f(x)-a)\ >
\a
< |a a| < y lf and

Hence
1
f(x)
proving
ex
<
<
rj,
ex
\cc\
f(x)
'_1
f{x)
< \
|a|
ex
under the same con-
<
\x
a\ <
rj
x.
so that then
\<x\,
>
ex
when
can also choose
requirement
|a|-|/(a;)-a|
also |/(#)-a|
|a|(|a|- ei
We can choose ex <\
We
e;
can
then
follows.
(iii)
If
< [a-a| <
whenever
We
\a\
e1 >$\a\, and
<
e if this is
not already implied by the
above; so that
<
<
whenever
\x
a\ <
tj 1}
(iv).
Result
(v) follows
from
(iii)
and
(iv)
a and
since f(x)
l/g{x)
if/?*0.
Other ways in which a function can behave
2.4
in 2.3, (iv), then the hypothesis means that/(x) is as

(1) If a =
small as we please for all x sufficiently near a. Hence 1 ff(x) will become
numerically large
x
is
large
and
positive.
for all values of
however
that
when x->a. For example,
small (positive or negative), x 2
is
\x\
big,
<
is
x 2 then when
;
small and positive, and so Ijx 2
In fact we can make 1/x 2 as large as we please
x sufficiently close to
shall have Ijx 2 >
given any positive number
K if x
we
1/JK.
let f(x)
We say that
<
\\K,
1/x 2 tends to infinity
i.e.
for all
x such
when x tends
to
0,
and write
-= -> oo
Graphically, the curve y

(1.41,
Remark (a)).
when
x ->
0.
1/x 2 has the line
for
an asymptote
LIMITS.
44
In the general
case, the
[2.4
statement
when
f(x) -> oo
x -> a
means that, given any positive number

however large, a corresponding number tj can be found so that f(x) >
for all x for which
< [a? aj < 7j. Graphically, the line x = a is an asymptote of the
curve y =f(x).
Similarly,
...
j(x) -> oo
17
means
when
x->a
any negative number K however large, n can be

that/(x) < K for all x for which
< \x a\ < rj.
that, given
found so
The function 1/x is large and positive when x is small and

positive, and can be made as large as we please for all such x sufficiently
small. However, if x is small and negative, the function is large and
negative. All we can assert in this case is that
(2)
oo
when
and
- -> oo
x
when
x ->
In 1.53, (iii) we saw that sin (1/x) takes all values between + 1 in
any interval however small which encloses the value x = 0. Since 1 \x
can be made as numerically large as we please for all x sufficiently
small, it follows that the function (1/x) sin (1/x) can take any value
however large, whether positive or negative. However, this function
does not remain large for all values of x near 0; e.g. it is zero when
x = I /nn (n being an integer). The condition (1/x) sin (1/x) > K is not
satisfied for all
infinity
when x
sufficiently
->
near
(nor even
0,
so the function does not tend to
when x ->
or x ->
similarly it
does not tend to minus infinity.
We say that sin (1/x) oscillates finitely (between + 1

x -> 0,
(3)
and that
We
and
1)
when
(1/x) sin (1/x) oscillates infinitely.
also say that 1/x 2
1/x, (1/x) sin (1/x) are
unbounded near
because they can take arbitrarily large values in this neighbour-
hood. The function sin ( 1 /x)
is
said to be bounded near x
+ 1 and 1)
because it
for all small x

between two fixed numbers (namely
(and indeed for all x). Similarly, the terms 'bounded' or 'unbounded'
can be applied to the behaviour of a function in the neighbourhood
of any number x = a.
Any function which has a limit when x -> a is certainly bounded near
x = a; this follows directly from the definition of 'limit'.
lies
LIMITS.
2.5]
If a function
is
bounded
interval, it is said to
in the neighbourhood of every x in
be bounded in
45
some
For example, sin (1/x)

and the functions in 1.41, (i) and (iv), are bounded for all x; that in
(ii) is bounded in every interval which excludes the number
2, but is
unbounded near x = 2.
Limits
2.5
when x
- oo,
this interval.
-> oo
If x becomes large and positive, the function Ijx becomes small

and positive; it can be made as small as we please for all x sufficiently
large. Similarly,
as
we
please for
smxfx can be made as small (positive or negative)

all x sufficiently large. We say that ljx and sinx/x
when x tends
tend to
to infinity.
when x -> oo if, given any positive number e however small,

a positive number N can be found so that \f(x)-l\ < e for all x for
which x > N. We write Km f(x) = I.
f(x) ->
Similar definitions can be given for 'f(x)-+l

l
f(x )
00
when x
oo
',
etc.
when x-> oo',
The reader should formulate them
for
himself.
Continuity
2.6
2.61 Definition of * continuous function'
The intuitive idea of a 'continuous curve' is that of a graph with

no breaks ('missing points') in it, so that it could be drawn without
raising the pencil from the paper. We should naturally say that the
function represented by this curve is a 'continuous function'. Thus
the curves and functions in 1.41, (i), (iv) and 1.53, (iii) are 'continuous'; but that in 1.41, (ii) is 'discontinuous' at x = 2, that in
1.41, (iii) at x = + 1, - 1, and that in 1.53, (i) has a different sort of
'discontinuity' at x = 3.
Taking these notions as a temporary basis, we observe first that
'continuity' is a property of each point of the curve rather than of a
complete piece of it: the curve in fig. 31 is continuous at most points,
but not at x = a x or x = a 2 while that in fig. 30 is 'continuous' even
'
'
at a point like
Q where
the direction of the curve changes abruptly
(cf. 2.15).
fig. 30 is the graph of y = f(x), we now list some properties of
which must be associated with the point P at which x = a and
If
f(x)
the curve
is
'continuous'.
LIMITS.
46
(a) f(x)
broken
must be
defined at
[2.61
a (otherwise the curve would be
there).
must be defined in the neighbourhood of a (same reason).

(c) When x -> a and when x -> a + we must have/(x) -/().
Fig. 30 suggests other properties which we should expect a 'con(b)
f(x)
tinuous' function to possess; one of these will be mentioned in 2.65,
and others later (6.1) when they are needed, but (a)-(c) above are
sufficient on which to base a precise definition of 'continuity at a
point'.
Definition. f(x) is continuous at
x a
if lim f(x)
= f(a).
x->a
IP
S.
\/\
^/
y=/()
Fig. 30
y
j
Fig. 31
We can paraphrase this by saying that 'limits coincide with values '.
Using the formal definition of 'limit' given in 2.22, the definition
above can be restated as follows.
f(x) is continuous at x = a if, given any positive number e however
small, there is a corresponding number ij such that
\f(x)f(a)\
If we write x
\f(a
<
= a + h, we
+ h)f(a)\ <
for all
\x
a\ <
n.
can present these inequalities in the form

for all
Less precisely, by writing y

be expressed as
dy-+0
x for which
when
h for which
= f(x) and h =
Sx ->
0,
or
Sx,
lim 8y
&e--0
\h\
<
n.
the condition can
0.
(i)
LIMITS.
2.62]
Iff(x)
continuous at each point for which a
is
f(x) is continuous in the open interval
a < x
<x<
b,
47
we say that
<b
Remark. To define continuity in the closed interval a < x ^ 6 in

a difficulty about the ends x = a, x = b has to be surmounted,
this way,
because the function
may
when x -+ a + and that f(x)
f( x )
2.62
Some
(1)
< a or for x > b. In

we can require is that
when x->b-.
not be defined for x
order to keep within the interval, the most

->/(&)
The sum,
and quotient of continuous functions
difference, product,
is also a continuous function, provided that in the last case the denominator
is
non-zero at the point considered.
The
immediately from the definition of 'continuity

and the theorems on limits in 2.3.
results follow
at a point'
continuous function of another continuous function is

continuous.
(2)
itself
We are given that

u=
and that
g(x) -> g(a)
f( u )^-f(b)
when
x-+a,
when
u->b.
We have to prove that
when
f(Q{x)) ->f(g{a))
Given
>
0,
there corresponds a
\f(
Taking 8 as the
u )-f(b)\ <
x -> a.
number 8 such that

\u~b\ <
whenever
8.
V in the second hypothesis, there corresponds a
number tj such that

\u
Hence
b\ <
\f(g(x)) -f(g(a))\
and the
whenever
<
ja;
a] <
whenever
rj.
\x-a\<7],
result follows.
2.63 Examples of
some continuous
functions
n
(1) x isa continuous function for all values of x when nisa positive
integer; the same is true except at x =
when nisa negative integer.
The function f(x) = x is certainly continuous everywhere. Hence
by 2.62
1)
the product x.x.x ...x(n factors) is continuous everywhere.
LIMITS.
48
Hence, again by
2.62 (1); the quotient ljxn
except where the denominator

It follows
(a) all
continuous everywhere
0.
polynomials are continuous everywhere;

functions are continuous everywhere except at the
make
points which
the
denominator equal
to zero.
sin x, cos x are continuous everywhere.
(2),
For
+ h) sin x =
sin (x
Hence, given
Therefore sin x
By 2
62
except
is
it
|2cos(a; +
^)sin^|
+ ^)| ^
<
2|sin-|A(
since
|cos(a;
<
\h\
since
|sin|^|
<
<
e.
%\h\.
we have
e,
|sin (x
i.e.
is
zero, viz. at
by repeated applications of 2.62 (1) that
all rational
(b)
is
[2.64
+ h) sinx\ <e whenever
continuous for any
x.
\h\
A similar proof holds for cos x.
follows that tan x is continuous except where cos x
when x =
(k
+ ^)n where k is any integer
0,
(positive, negative,
or zero).
2.64
Removable
discontinuities
In certain cases lim f(x)
We
not defined.
The new function
a.
'
while f(a)
I,
we may define
by means of two formulae)
:
is
a by 'com-
f(a) to
is
be
I.
then con-
For example, we can write
smaj
i;
continuous at x
/(0)
is
and be equal to
of the function
(defined
fix)
JX
'
then/(#)
exist
can 'remove the discontinuity' at x
pleting the definition
tinuous at x
may
when
=}=
0,
0.
make the function tana;

into a continuous function at x = \ir\ for when x -> \n + tan x -> oo,
and when x - \ir tan x -> + oo. Thus tan x does not approach any
limit when x -> \tt. The same remark applies to sin (1/a:) when x -> 0;
On
the other hand, no such attempt will
see 1.53,
(iii).
2.65 Another property of continuous functions

If A,
are points corresponding to x
curve y=f{x), with
below and
a,
on a continuous
above Ox, then geometrical
LIMITS.
2.65J
49
must cut Ox somewhere (possibly

and B. We give a formal statement.
Iff( a ) andf(b) have opposite signs, then there is at least one number
between a and bfor which /() = 0.
This result can in fact be deduced from
intuition asserts that the curve
more than once) between
the definition in 2.61 with the help of

some deeper theorems on 'bounds' of a
function.
We
assume it because a
would deflect us too far
shall
rigorous proof
from the course in view.

If
we apply
the result to the con-
tinuous function g(x)
= f(x) - c, we
de-
Fig. 32
duce the
Corollary. If f{a) <
< f(b), then
between a and bfor which /()
there is at least one value
c.
Fig. 33
Fig. 34
This can be expressed also as follows when x varies from a to b, the

continuous function f(x) takes every value between {a) and f(b) at least
:
f
The reader should illustrate by a sketch.
The converse result, that 'if f(x) takes every value between /(a)
once.
and/(6) as x varies from a to

as
fig.
b,
then/fa?) is continuous,' is clearly false,
33 shows.
GPM I
LIMITS.
50
[2.7
The result is in general false for a function which is discontinuous

< x < b: in fig. 34, the function takes no values between a, /?
in a
as x varies from a to
6.
Exercise 2(a)
Find
the following limits if they exist; if they
state the behaviour of the
do not,
function.
1
when x
xa
ax
/v.2
-> a.
_i_
X3 X2 + X
hen
(i)
-+ 1;
(ii)
oo;
ÎZ^L when x
a? a
sin
a.
3a;
_ tan x sin x
7
sin 3 *
tan
2:
11
when
1-cosa;
*2
13 xBin -
(iv)
-+ 0.
-Wa+aOvA 1 -*)} when x -* -
sin 2*
cos -1 *
8 -7~
V( 1 a;2 )
when x -+ 0.
rt
when g
when
12 ajsin*
_^ Q
(i) tc
-> 0;
cos x
10
0.
a;
when
a?
-> 0.
sinoa;
x -*-oo;
whena;-0.
(iii)
(ii) a;
-> 00.
14 cos i
when x
-> 1.
when x ->
when
when
0.
(i) a;
-> 0;
0;
(i)
(ii)
(ii)
00.
-> 00.
a;
15
11
-sin- when
sec
17
(a?
-
(i)
-<;
(ii)
+ &) sec x when h

-
x->0.
sin 2 pa; sin 2 go;

-
16
when x
-> 0.
-> 0.
tan (a; + /&)-- tan a;

8
m( + *) + Bin( 8 -^-2ain a
fr
h2
at x =
19 J//(x) = *sin(l/x) {x # 0),/(0) = 0, prove thatf(x) is continuous
(and therefore for all values of x by 2.62 (1)). Verify that the graph of/(a;) lies
Sketch the
in the angles between the lines y = x which contain the a;-axis.
graph.
every20 If/(s) = * 2 sin(l/a;) (x =j= 0),/(0) = 0, prove that /(a) is continuous
graph.
where, and sketch the
2.7
Functions of n: some important limits
2.71 Sequences
Although we have considered functions of a continuous variable x

which can range over all values for which the function is denned, we
integral
shall also need to consider functions f(n) where n takes only
'
'
values.
integers
LIMITS.
2.711
51
For example, f(n) may denote 'the sum of the first n positive
and is defined only when n is a positive integer.
'
(a). If f(n) is a one- valued function of n which is defined

for all positive integers n,f(n) is called a sequence, and its values
Definition
/U)>
/(2),
are called terms of the sequence.
greater than
...
/(3),
Even
if f(n) is
some fixed positive integer m,
defined only for
it is still
all
called a sequence.
Thus n 2 an sin {nl(n- 2)} are sequences, the latter being defined
for all n > 2; but tan \mt is not a sequence because it is undefined for
odd values of n however large.
Remark (a). A sequence is not completely specified when its first
few terms are given. For example, although the simplest sequence
,
beginning with
is
16
9,
4,
1,
n2 + (n - 1) {n - 2) (n - 3) {n - 4) <f>(n)
n2 yet
,
(where 0(w) is an arbitrary sequence denned for all n ^ 1) begins in

the same way. Sometimes even the simplest sequence is not obvious
thus
'
'
1,
3,
5,
could be continued as 9, 11, 13, 15, ... or as 11, 13, 17, 19, ... according
to whether it is interpreted as the 'arithmetical progression' 2n~ 1,
or as the sequence of odd prime numbers.
If f(w) has a meaning when n is not a positive integer, we may regard
the terms of the sequence as the values of a function/(a;) when x takes
positive integral values; e.g. sin2rar could be thought of as the value
of sin 2nx when x = n. On the other hand, some functions are defined
only for positive integral values of the variable;
a:!
is
an example.
We shall need to know the behaviour of certain sequences when n

becomes
large.
Definition
Accordingly
(b).
we give
the general
The statements
lim/(w)
f(n) ->
when
I,
-> oo
each mean that, given any positive number e however small, there
corresponds a positive number
(which need not be an integer)
such that
-
\f(n)
1\
<
for all
n>
N.
LIMITS.
52
The terms
Remark (/?).
If there
is
infinity', 'oscillate'
when n -> oo. The reader should
formulate precise definitions like those in
f(n),
minus
'tends to infinity', 'tends to
are similarly defined for a sequence
[2.72
2.4.
a function/(a;) corresponding to the sequence
the fact that lim/(w)
does not imply that f(x) approaches a
n>co
limit.
For example, lim sin 2nn
because sin 2nn
for all in-
n->oo
tegers n, but sin

is
2nx
.j.
between +
oscillates
true.
]j
m y^ _ ^
ij
However, the converse
m y^) =
\%
n> oo
x> oo
For if \f(x) l\ can be made as small as we please for all numbers

x > N, then it will certainly be so for all integers > N.
We now consider some important sequences which will be required
later.
2.72 a"
< a <
First suppose
1.
Then
a > a 2 > a3 >
na n < a + a 2 +
and hence
...
...
+a n =
> an
a n +i
<
1a
by summing the geometrical progression. Therefore

an <
n(l-a)'
side can be made as small as we please for

Consequently a n -> when n -> oo.
and the right-hand

sufficiently large.
If
1 <
shows that
then a n =
a <
|<z|
0,
all
< \a\ < 1 and the above argument

and therefore an -> 0, when n -> oo. If a = 0,
and the limit is still zero. Hence
then we have
n -> 0,
for all n,
-l<a<l,
if
lima" =
0.
->
If a
>
1,
(1.21, ex.
then a
= 1 +6
(ii)),
Since nb can be
an
made
where
(1
>
0.
By
Bernoulli's inequality
+ 6)n > 1+n ^
as large as
we please
for all
sufficiently large,
so can a n Therefore
.
if
a >
1,
a n ->oc
when
n->oo.
LIMITS.
2.73]
If a
< 1, the preceding shows that an
even values of
n,
and
is
and negative
large
is
53
and positive for

odd values, when
large
for
oscillates infinitely when a < 1.

= 1, then a n = 1 for all n, and so the limit when n -> oo is 1.
If a = - 1 then aw is +1 for even w and - 1 for odd n. Thus a n
n -> oo. Hence a n

If a
oscillates finitely
2.73
If
(between +1,
1) when n -> oo.
a//i
-1 < a <
1,
then a n ->
by
when n > oo. If a = 1, then a =

zero when n->oo. Therefore
-1 ^ a<
if
and hence
l)/w, and
2.72,
(
then
1,
lim
n>oo
If a
>
1,
then a
+ 6 where
f(n+l)
>
0.
certainly an jn
this also tends to
0.
tl
Writing /(w)
an [n,
=
7Sr î a ^n: (1+6)
>
n{l
if
+ 6) >
(n
1) (1
w >
Hence
and
for
+ lb),
+ 6,
i.e.
say,
\nb >
+ 6,
2+6
^ = iV,
say.
w > N, we have
an+1
n+ 1
so
>
^(
When n -> oo,
(1
If a
+ ^>^=2( 1 + i &
+ |6) w -> oo by
if
for
a>
2.72;
a**
^ ao
1,
2
)
>->^(l + i&)^.
hencef
when n -> oo.
< - 1, a n /n oscillates infinitely because it takes positive values
n even, negative values for n odd, and by the preceding case these
can be made as numerically large as we please.

t
An
alternative proof
is
given in the last part of ex.
(vi),
12.52,
LIMITS.
54
[2.74
2.74 a n \n\
>
First suppose a
0,
and choose
N>
a
a a
a11
ss
2a; then for
n > N,
T'2"'N-l'N"'n
n\
a
a a
l'2'"'iV-l
\n-N+l
Since
(\)
If a
<
case. If
n ->
when n->co,
0,
this expression also tends to zero.
|an /w!|
= |a|
then an \n\ =
then
0,
TC
/n! -
for all n.
for all values of
2.75 wi(m
If
1)
...
(m /i + 1) an /nl,
when n - oo by the preceding

Hence
<*,
lim
a*
-*-<
0.
m constant
m is a positive integer, then the function is zero for all n ^ m +
1.
Ignoring this simple case, write

f{n)
Tf
If
a
a #=0,
17
m(m1)
-i
... (m-n+l)
'o.
'J
v
.
rrt-n
-a = -
w+1
/()
m+l\
/
1
and we can make the modulus of this as

all n sufficiently large.
If
\a\
<
then clearly
1,
\f(n+l)lf(n)\ less than (1
then for n >
+ \a\)
k
< k <
1,
1)|
<
fc
then k n ->
$\
$(l
1,
n > N,
\a\
as
we
please for
and we can make
say. Writing
\a$,
|/(7i-2)|
when
close to
+ \a\) <
for all
N we have
<
Since
<
\a\
a,
71+1/
ti
<
-> oo
...
<
tr-"\f(N)\.
and so
also
|/(ti)|
- 0.
Hence
4*
if
- t1 < a <
1,
m(m-l) ...(m-n
+ l) a n = A
r
hm
0.
i
n->co
We
shall
1 <a<
\f(n)\ -> oo
1,
not need to consider values of a outside the range

but a similar argument would show that if |a| > 1, then
when n -> oo.
LIMITS.
2.76]
55

Prove thai for any
(i)
a> 0,Km$a=
1.
n-*co
If a
>
1,
then #a
>
1 (1.21,
Then
made as
when n -> oo.
Since a/n can be
tfa
1 -
flb
= 1 + 6,
so that 6
>
0.
+ 6) n > 1 + no > no
(1.21, ex. (ii)). Hence 6 < a/n, and so
a
by Bernoulli's inequality
Corollary 11(c)); let

(l
0<.tfa-l<-.
n
small as we please for
all
sufficiently large,
hence
If
< a < 1, then 1/a > 1, and so by the preceding case with I fa instead
of o we have 1/tfa -+ 1 when n -v oo, i.e. Jâ
1.
If a = 1, then
= 1 for all n.
The function is not denned for all n if a < 0, and is zero for all n if a = 0.
The required result has thus been established.
If
(ii)
1 <
<
1,
prove *Aa limwra n
0/or any fixed integer
r.
-*
If r is negative, the result is evident from 2.72; the particular case r = 1

appeared in 2.73. We may assume 0<o< 1 in the following (cf. 2.72).
If r is a positive integer, let 6 denote the positive (r + l)th root of a, so that
>
+ &n-i _
<
1-6'
na n/<r+1)
i.e.
Hence
nr+1a n <
and so
and
<
nra n <
this last expression tends to zero
l_ al/(r+l>*
1
(l_ al/(r+l))f+l'
1
n (l_ al/(r+l))r+l>
when n
-> co.
2.77 Monotonic functions

If f(n+ 1) > f(n) for all values of n, then/(n) is said to be a steadily
increasing function or to be monotonic increasing. If the property
n beyond a certain integer N, f(n) is monotonic

n > N.
two ways in which such a function can behave when n
holds only for
all
increasing for
There are
increases:
all
(i)
it
(ii)
it
(so
may increase indefinitely with n, i.e.f(n) oo when n -> oo; or

may remain less than some fixed number k, i.e. f(n) < h for
that the function
is
bounded, 2.4
(3)).
LIMITS.
56
[2.77
In case (ii) it can be shown that f(n) approaches some limit I when
n->co, where I < k. Although a strict proof of this assertion cannot
be given in this book, the reader may convince himself of its truth by
the following geometrical illustration.
L
1
-i
P3
Fig. 35
Let the values
OPx OP2
,
points
be represented by lengths
along a fixed line OX. Since the
f(n),
f(l), f(2),
...
measured off
OPn
P move steadily to the right, then either
,
...
(i)
they will eventually
pass beyond any point whatever which one cares to select on the line;
some point K of the line which they can never pass.

Clearly any point to the right of K will have the same property; but
a point to the left of K may or may not. The assertion is that there is
some point L of the line, either to the left of K or coinciding with K,
to which the P's approach indefinitely closely, i.e. such that the length
or
(ii)
there will be
Pn L is as small as we please, for all sufficiently large values of n.

It should
may
be noticed that although f(n) < k for all n > N, we

= k. For example, 1 1/n < 1 for all n, but
yet have lim/(w)
1/n ->
< k
when n->co. Hence we must
allow
^ k and not merely
in general.
Similarly, if f(n + 1)
< f(n)
for all
(or
perhaps only for
all
n > N),
n > N).
then f(n) is said to be monotonia decreasing (perhaps for

n->co, either f(n) ->oo; or f(n) > k' for some constant
When
k'
where V ^ k'
results stated above are important because they enable us to
decide whether a monotonic function has a limit without our first
needing to know what that limit must 6e.f If the definition (6) in 2.71
and in
The
this
event f(n)
V,
were to be used to show directly that
Mm f(n) = we must know

I,
at
n->oo
the start; and this
is
not always the oase
(see ex.
(ii)
below). Rather,
we can define a number by the property of being the limit of a bounded

monotonic function, as in ex.
(ii)
and
4.43
(8).
Examples
(i)
Discuss lima" when a
>
0. (Cf. 2.72.)
n->-co
Taking/(n)
f
a",
The
then/(n+
first will
1)
af(n).
be basic in convergence
tests: see 12.32(5).
LIMITS.
2.77]
If a
>
1,
then/(ra)
some
infinity or to
function
is
relation
a" -> oo w&en
steadily increasing for all n, and so it either tends to

I. If f(n) -> I, then I > 1 (since /(l) = a > 1 and the
and
lim f(n +
1)
lim{a/(n)}
57
limit
increasing),
I
The
is
al is impossible because
-> oo.
>
alim/(n)
and
>
al.
Hence
1.
w?ên a
If < a < 1, then/(w) is steadily decreasing for all n, and so either/(n) -

or/(n)
V, where as before we find V = aZ', so V = 0. Thus wAm
a" -> wAen n -> oo.
*(ii)
<
Prove &af ( 1
+ l/n) n has a limit when n
oo.
1,
oo
<a<
1,
Galling this limit e, show that
e *S 3.
(This example
been
>
may
be postponed until the binomial theorem
(12.1)
has
revised.)
We first prove that, for all positive integers n,
The
(r
+ l)th term in the expansion of (1 + l(n) n is

n(n-l)...(n-r+l)
which
is
'nr
r!
1/
2\
1\ /
1
(for r
1, 2,
n)
/
1
^\ -n)\ -n)-[ -^r)'
(a)
positive because each factor is positive. Similarly, the (r+ l)th term
+ l/(n + 1)) B+1 is (for r = 1, 2, . ., n + 1)
in the expansion of (l
(b)
which is positive. Each factor in
(b) which involves n is greater than the corresponding factor in (a).

Hence, apart from the first terms (which are both 1), the expansion of
(l + l/(n+ l)) n+1 is greater term-by-term than the expansion of (1 + l/n) n and
;
the (n + 2)th term of the first, to which there is no corresponding term of the
second, is positive. Hence the required inequality follows; it shows that
n
(1 + l/n) is a monotonic increasing function of n.
When n = 2, the function has the value 2; so for all n > 2, we have
21 < (l + l/ra) n
The expression (a) shows that the (r + l)th term in (1 + l/n) n is less than 1/r!,
and hence
.
111
2!
n!
< 1+ + + + ...+
,
1!
Since n!
=1.2.3...n>1.2.2...2 = 2"- 1
if
3!
n>
2,
therefore
= 1 + {1 (|)"}/(1 J) on summing the

1
g.p.,
LIMITS.
58
[2.77
We have now shown that (1 + l[n) n is an increasing function which remains

less
than 3 for
<
all n.
Hence
+ l/ra) n tends to a limit, say e, when n
(1
-+ oo,
and
4, is
very
e s 3.
The number
e,
which we
shall
important in mathematics and
meet by a
different
approach in Ch.
its applications.
Exercise 2(b)
when n
State the behaviour of the following functions

1
n + (-l).
4 n{ i
oo.
2 {n + (-l) }/n.
rt
+ (-!)}.
n{2 + ( -!)}
+ (-l) n
n{l + (-2)}.
l
sinn7T
n 2 + (-l)"w.
8 sin^wr.
sin n
sin n
12 -+cosrwr.
11
10
Calculate the limits of the following functions

1
13
+ 2 + 3 + .+n
16
n 2 jcos
rr
-(n 2 -l)sin-.
n
n
3w
17
, 19
15
14
..
+ (~ 2 )"
3 n + 2"
3+5+
-> oo.
+ (2n+l)
-z
- cos
^|
where a >
lg #( a n + &n\
..
when n
where 6
0, 6
>
is
constant.
0.
<=+>:.
n n+l
20 Discuss the behaviour of nra n where r is a fixed positive integer and \a\ > 1.
for any a, however
oo. [By 2.74, a"/w! ->
21 Prove that ^j(n\) -+ oo when ra
large; so n! > a" for all n sufficiently large. Alternatively, use Ex. 1 (a), no. 4.]
*22
(i)
Iff(n)
is
monotonic increasing or decreasing, prove that

,
o(n)
/(l)+/(2) + ...+/(n)
=
has the same property.

If f(n) increases and has limit I, prove that g(n) tends to a limit
can be said iff(n) decreases and has limit 11
(ii)
What
I.
Miscellaneous Exercise 2(c)

1
lim
Prove
[Use the result
2 If n
that
>
= (1
= 1 + a where a >
1)
r=
+o;+ic 2 +
then
> %n(n
1,
+ a) n
n+1 + na: B + 2
*-(n+l)a;
-
...
+a;f" 1
-a;),
0.
<
/
/
>y
a;
1.]
Use the binomial theorem to prove
a2 and hence show that
<
î(n+l).
2
-.
n 1
LIMITS.
Deduce that limî
1,
and
lim$(nf ) where
state the value of
n-*-<x>
59
r is
a fixed
->oo
integer.
For convenience we write f(n) = u n in nos. 3-7.

*3 The values of w are denned for n = 1, 2, 3,
in succession by the
rence formula u n+1 = (w+a/ B ). Assuming a > 0, prove that
. . .
recur-
 Ja;

u n > Ja, then u n+1 >
and also u n+1 0, then
(hi) u n > ^Ja for all n > 2, and u is monotonic decreasing;
n
(iv) u n -+ ja when n - oo.
What is the conclusion when ut < 0?
*4 Solve no. 3 by showing that
(i)
if
(ii)
if
W+V
W n+1 + Va
given that 4w n+2 - 5u n+1 + u n =

By writing the relation in the form
*5 It
w2 =
is
4.
prove that u n+1 u n

prove limw n = 3.
a/
n>
for all
Un+2-Un+l = l{u n+1 -U n ),

= 3(J) n_1 Hence express u n
1,
and that w x
as a function of n,
7,
and
7l--00
6 If u n
>
and lim (w n+1 /w) >
1,
prove u
-*>
oo
when n
- oo.
[Method of
n-*-oo
2.73.]
7 Iflim(w n+1 /w n )
where
-1 <I<
1,
prove limw
n->-co
Obtain results from nos.
10
6,
(a constant).
.
n ra n
0.
[Method of 2.75.]
n-*-oa
^.
7 by taking u n to be the following functions.
m(m 1) ... (m-n+ 1)

-
a"
(a,
m constant).
constant).
(a, r
Find the behaviour of u = (x 2 + 2y) j(y* - 2x) when x and y both tend to
(i) along the line y = mx; (ii) along the curve x*
+ y 3 = xy. [Use the parametric
equations x = t/(l + t*), y = t z /{l + t3 ) (Ex. 1 (e), no. 3) to express u in terms of t,
and observe that both x and y tend to when t -> 0, + oo, or oo.]
*11
*12 If m (x)
<fi
limfcos (ra!7ra;)} 2n , prove that

-*<
and
lim
is 1 if
<j>
m {x)
which
is
a;
is
is
<j>
m {x)
is
always
if x is irrational,
rational provided that

is sufficiently large. Hence show that
if x is irrational and 1 if x is rational. Write down a function
y
when x is rational and
when x is
irrational.
60
THE DERIVATIVE. SOME APPLICATIONS

The
3.1
derivative of a function of
one variable
3.11 Definitions
Let f(x) be a one-valued function defined at and near x a. Then

we can put 8x = h, and express the
corresponding change 8y caused by changing x from a to a + h as
in the process described in 2.11
8y=f(a + h)-f(a),
The
f(a + h)-f(a)
8y
8x
so that
(i)
h
can
definition given in 2.11
now be formulated more precisely as
follows.
If the ratio
(i)
tends to a limit
when h ->
called the derivative of f(x) at
is
a,
function f(x) is said to be derivable &tx =
in
and
we
a + h in
this limit
written f'{a).
The
a a+h
Fig. 37
Fig. 36
is
a.
a a+h
Writing x
any manner,
(i),
0' is equivalent to
so that
x-+a\
obtain another form of the definition:
f( )f(
JX
hm JX
xa
x-*a
The reader
will
know
'
a ')
Jl
= f'(a).
\
that the derivative f'(a)
(ii)
is
interpreted
geometrically as the gradient of the tangent to the curve y
the point (a,f(aj)
see
fig.
36.
= f(x)
at
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.12]
APPLICATIONS
61
If the function f(x) were not one-valued, the difference f(a + h)f(a) may
approach a limit other than zero when h - (fig. 37), so that the ratio (i) would
not tend to a limit. To deal with a many-valued function we must consider its
branches separately.
between a and b, we say that f(x) is

a < x < 6. We also say that/'(#) exists
for a < x <b, and call f'(x) the derived function off(x). Other notations
have been mentioned in 2.11, the chief ones being dyjdx and y'
Remark. If f(x) is defined only for a ^ x < b, there is no derivative
at x = a or at x b because h cannot tend to zero in any manner
without a + h or b + h passing outside the range of definition of f(x).
If f(x) has a derivative for all x
derivable in the (open) interval
Given/(ce), the process of calculating f'(x)
with respect
to
x (abbreviated to 'wo
depend on the function
called derivation oif(x)
is
The
a;').
details of this process
itself.
Examples
Iff(x)
(i)
where c
c,
hm
Remark in
For
0.
= ,.0
lim- =
c-c
Km
h
A-+0
see the
is constant, then f'(x)
f(x
JK '
J- + h)-f(x)
'
A
limO
0:
hÔ
h-yOK
h-+Q
2.22.
We are not yet justified in asserting the converse of this result; see 3.82.
Iff(x)
(ii)
..
lim
x, then f'{x)
f(x + h)-f(x)
JK '
'
h->-0
lim
2.3,
3.12
and
(i),
(x
= hm
limc
cf'(x).
this last expression
1.
For
/(^+fe)-/(^)
c]hn
h-*o
= lim 1 =
limft-H)"
f(*+ h )-f( x )
h
h-*o
is cf'(x).
A derivable function is continuous
If f(x)
is
derivable at
x=
a,
then
n+K-m ^
We
+ h)-x
~
=
A->0
qf(g+ft)-o/(tt)
h->o
For
1.
If cis constant, d{cf(x)}/dx
(iii)
by
when
can therefore write
&^)_ / (a)+9>
.
where n (in general depending on both h and

h - 0. Hence
f(a + h) -f(a)
h{f'(a)
+ ?/}->
a) tends to zero
when
h ->
0,
when
APPLICATIONS
THE DERIVATIVE.
62
[3.2
Kmf(a + h)=f(a)
i.e.
ft->0
which shows that f(x)
The converse of
is
continuous at x
a.
this result is false, as the following
examples
show.
Examples
5 is continuous at x =
(i) f(x) =
+ oo when h -> + and to oo when h
which tends to
but {f(h) -f(0)}/h =
- Hencef(x) is not derivable at x = 0.
0,
(ii)
f(x)
a?
is
continuous at x
0;
but
so that this ratio does not approach a limit when h ->

not derivable at x = 0.
(iii)
is
Let f(x)
continuous at x
zsin (1/as),
0;
a;
0,
and/(0)
->
Then
is
(Ex. 2(a), no. 19)f(x)
hsm(l/h)
Bin(ljh),
0.
Consequently/^)
but
f(h)-f(0)
and when h
0.
this oscillates
between
Hence f(x)
1.
is
not derivable at
0.
In
all
these examples the functions fail to be derivable at a single
point (the origin); but continuous functions of x have been constructed which do not possess a derivative for any value of x. It should
now be
clear that derivability of
a function requires much more than
its continuity.
We also remark that, even if f'(x) exists everywhere, it may not be

a continuous function of x.
3.2
The
An example is given in Ex.
3 (a), no. 39.
rules of derivation
The following rules should be familiar to the reader from early work
in Calculus, but we formulate and prove them here for completeness.
Let u, v be functions of x which are derivable at x = a. Then
(1) the sum y = u + v is derivable, and has derivative u' + v'\
(2) the
product y
uv
is derivable,
and has
derivative vu'
+ uv';
and
(3) if v #=
derivative (vu'
when x
uv')jv
2
.
a, the quotient
u/v
is derivable,
and has
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.2]
63
A change 8x in x from a to a + 8x causes changes #t*,
Proofs.
and these
it,
APPLICATIONS
in turn cause a change Sy in y, given
8y
(1)
(2)
(u + 8u + v + 8v)-{u + v)
(u + 8u) {v + 8v)
8u + 8v;
-uv ~v8u + u8v + 8u8v;
v8u u8v
= u + 8u u
v + 8v
v
8y
(3)
8v in
by
'
v(v + 8v)
where we assume in (3) that the change 8x is such that v + 8v #= 0; by

continuity of v and the hypothesis that v #= when x - a, this will be
the case for
all 8x sufficiently small.

Divide both sides by 8x, and then let 8x ->
x=
at
a,
8u/8x
u'
Hence 8y/Sx tends
and
to a limit,
u'W,
(1)
0.
and by
given by
8v\8x
v',
and
m*'"*
vu' + wf,
(2)
Since u, v are derivable
3.12 8u
(3)
8v -> 0.
'
Function of a function. Suppose y = /(#) and x = 0(f); then

can express y directly in terms of t as y = f(<f>(t)) = g(t), say.
(4)
V 0(0
xo =
*s
derivable at
$K*o)>
Proof. Since
and
if f(x) is derivable at
w prove
that g(t) is derivable att
#=
is
<j>(t)
derivable at
write
=x
we
where
and
then as in 3.12
we can
8x
where
77
(depending in general on
8x
Similarly, as
y =f(x)
is
and
{f(t
<ft)
tends to
when
8t -> 0; so
+ v }8t.
derivable at x
=#
(i)
^ = {/'W + ^7i}^
(ii)
where 9/ x (in general a function of xQ and 8x) tends to when 8x -

and hence certainly rj x -> when & -> 0, by equation (i).f
From
(i)
and
(ii),
=
t
is
^ is undefined if
now
significant
0,
5a;
even
0;
if Sx,
+ to}
but
(cf.
given by
a,
we may then define rj x = 0. Equation (ii)

happens to be zero for some values of St.
2.64)
(i),
'
APPLICATIONS
THE DERIVATIVE.
64
| = {f'(x
so that
^f'(x
Hence
0'( o )
exists
and
+ Vi)
(*o)
is/'(a;
+ V}
when
)<f>'(t )
[3.2
St
->
0.
) <f>'(t ).
The reader may wonder why we give this elaborate proof instead of the usual
one in the elementary books, which goes as follows:
By
properties of fractions,
8y
St
~8x
8x
X
~Si'
(3.12 and 2.61,

Letting 8t-+0, then also 8x -+
theorem about products (2.3, (iii)), we have
dy
dy
dx
dt
dx
dt
(i))
and
so,
using the limit
This proof fails if a; is a function of t such that Sx vanishes infinitely

times in the neighbourhood of t i.e. as 8t -> 0. For example,
many
*
is
derivable at
and
0,
^ (<) ~^ (0) =
= W) =
0'(O)
^sin(l/<)
(*<>),
\0
(*
0)
0; for
when
<sin (lit) -*
(Ex. 2
(a),
no. 19).
However, there
is
no interval including
8x
vanishes infinitely
${8t)-$(0)
throughout which 8x
skl
4= 0;
for
many times in any interval - T <
St
<
T, however small
may be.
(5)
The
Inverse functions.
inverse x
We
a given function
g(y) of
= f(x) was defined in 1.51 (2).

= x with f'(xQ =# 0, and that g(y) is continuous
Then g(y) is derivable aty = y and
y = f(x
y
x
suppose that /(a;)
is derivable at
=y
where
).
g'ivo)
Proof.
at
As
t>
/'(*<>)'
in 3.12,
ox
=f'(x
Provided th&tf'(x
+n
ri
=1=
where
0, this
when
w->0
8x-+0.
gives
8x
*y
f'M+v
(iii)
the proviso will be satisfied for all rj sufficiently small,

and this will be the case for all 8x sufficiently small.
Asf'(x
4= 0,
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.3]
Since x
8y ->
0,
g(y) is continuous at
and consequently v -+
APPLICATIONS
y
^
i.e. gr'(i/ )
exists
and is
hence
0.
when
(2.61, (i)) 8x ->
Letting 8y -> in (iii),
\Jf'{xQ ).
some well-known
3.3
Derivatives of
3.31
The function xm
Case 1:
when 8y -+
65
functions
m is a positive integer n.
We have by summing the geometrical progression that

an-l + an-2Q + an-3^2 +
. . .
+ fcn-1
!-(?)"
= o-ix
if
1-*
a
a
Taking 6
x,
+ h) n xn
jr
= # + h, we get
-+
xn-l + xn-l +
71
Hence
Case 2:
+ (x + h) n ~2 X+...+ xn'x
(x + h) n
= nx
d
~x
h -+
-1
.
m ) = mxm~x
m is a positive integer.
when
(a;
m is a negative integer n.
y = xm =
x~n
ljxn ,
dy
dx
and so by the quotient
xn
nx
x^
= mxm ~ x
Case 3:
+xn-i when
(n terms)
11 - 1
.
rule
and Case
1,
= ~ nx_Hnl
m is a fraction pfq.
From y =
x^
we have ?/ = x?. Derive this relation wo x, using the

'function of a function' rule on the left-hand side, and Cases 1,2:
Q-1
qy
^.
= pxp -\
APPLICATIONS
THE DERIVATIVE.
66
dy
so
dx
= P xP
= v_x^
9-1
qy
q
= mx- 1
Conclusion.
..
= P xVl
HxPla) -a+1
For all rational values of m,
m)
-(x
dx K '
= mxm -
1
.
The function xm has not yet been defined

4.41 (6)
3.32
irrational; see
circular functions (angles in radians)
sin x,
8y
then
sin (x + h)
sin x =
2cos(a; + |A)sinA,
.siniA
8y
= 2cos(a; + iA) ^^coszxl

h
ox
.
so
17
Hence
^- sin x
dx
For y
dy
-r
dx
cos
tana;
The
when
h->0,
x.
^ cos * = - sin
Similarly,
3.33
for
(d).
The
If y
[3.32
x.
sina/cosa, the quotient rule gives
cosaj.cosa; sin#(
cos
5
2
sin#)
cos 2 x + sin2 x
cos a2 C
a;
sec2 x.
inverse circular functions
These functions and their graphs were discussed in 1.52(3),
exs.
(iv)-(vi).
(1)
Sin-1 a:. Since x
siay,
= cos v = J(lx
^
dy
2
).
-1
Assuming that we are considering one branch of Sin a; (say that
whose values he in the range nn \n ^ y 4, nn + \n) so that the
function is continuous, we have by 3.2 (5) that
dy^
dx
-V(i-*2 )'
THE DERIVATIVE.
APPLICATIONS
67
If we consider only the principal branch y = sin-1 x, then cos
y ^ 0,
3.4]
and we must choose the
positive sign of the square root:
t
1
x
(sin-*
*)
-7-
dx y
y
(2)
so on
V(l~*2 )'
'
Cos-1 a;. Since x
=+
cosy, dxjdy
-sin*/
= V(l - a2), and
any one branch
ay _
1
dx~ J(i- x zy
On the principal branch y = cos" 1 x, sin y ^
the negative sign:
0,
and hence we choose
^< C0S "'*) = -7(rriF)y = Tan-1 ^. From x =

Hence, on any one branch,
(3)
tan?/
we have
sec 2 ?/
= 1 +x2
and functions defined parametrically
Implicit functions
3.4
'
1+x2
dx
efc/<fo/
3.41 Derivative of a function defined implicitly
In all cases we shall assume that the given equation in x and

y
does in fact define y as an implicit function of x (see 1.51 (2)) and
that this function is derivable.! The method of finding dyjdx is
to derive both sides of the equation wo x, using the rules of 3.2 and
treating functions of y as 'functions of the (implicit) function'
y ofx.
Examples
(i)
If x n + y n
= an
then
nx-i + ny-^
dx
(ii)
If a sin mx + b cos ny
c,
If xs + 6x*y + 2y*
dy
am cos mx
dx
bnsinny
dy
0,
then
dx
(iii)
\y)
_
am
cos mx-bn am ny~ =
,
^
= -i-Y'
dx
and so
0,
so
then
5x* + 6iy . 3a 2 + Xs
^) + 2
5y*
(tXj
and
dx
^=
0,
CMC
5x*+lSx*y
6xa + 10y*
'
t Sufficient conditions can be given for existence

functions.
and
derivability of implicit
5-2
THE DERIVATIVE.
68
APPLICATIONS
[3.42
3.42 Derivative of a function defined parametrically
Given two functions x
${t),
y=
ijr{t),
we may
think of the
as leading to a relation F(x, y) =

defining y as an
implicit function of x. Assuming the existence and derivability of the
ehmination of
functions concerned,
we
require dyjdx;
can be found directly in
it
terms of t without performing the elimination, and it
is this form of the

which is particularly convenient in geometrical problems, where
result
the given equations are the parametric equations of a curve (see 1.61).
By
'function of a function'
dy
dt
dy
and so
andso
dy
dx
dx
dt
- dy l dx -
'
^' {t)
dx-dtlit-wr
Example
If x
a(d
sin 6)
and y
dy
dx
cos 6), find dyjdx.
a( 1
_
~
dy ldx
cot \d.
ddj dd
_
~
sin 6
a sii
a(l-c
cos0)
i
2 sin \d cos -J0

2 sin 2
This result gives the gradient at P of the cycloid (seel. 61, ex.). If!Fis the other
extremity of the diameter along
(fig. 22), then
NC
= \PGN = PTN,
P is cot PTN = tan TPK.
\0
and hence the gradient at

tangent at P. Since
TPN =
right-angle,
Therefore
PT
is the
PN is the normal at P.
Exercise 3(a)
1
Find from first principles the derivative of (i)
1/x;
(ii)
<Jx; (iii)
(iv) tana;.
Write down the derivatives of the following.
(i)
(i)
(a 3
-3) 10
sin" x;
(ii)
(ii)
V(a 2 + a; 2 );
sin mx;
(iii)
(iii)
1/(1 -a; 2 ) 4 .
sin" mx; (iv) tan" x.
= dsjdt and / = dv/dt, prove / = vdv/ds = ^d(v 2 )/ds.

Ifx = y 2 + 5y + 2, find dy/dx (i) in terms of y; (ii) in terms of x.
4 If v
5
6 Obtain the quotient rule (3.2 (3)) by applying the product rule to
(assuming that y so defined is derivable).
7 If u,
v,
u = vy
w are derivable functions of x, prove

d
du
dv
(uvw) = vw - + wu + uv
dx
dx
dx
dx
dto
.
8 If y =f(x), x = <f>{t), t F(u) are derivable functions, express the derivative of y wo u as a function of u.
APPLICATIONS
THE DERIVATIVE.
69
9 Deduce the derivative of cos a; from that of sin a: by using the relation
= sin (x + \n) and 'function of a function '.
cos x
10 Calculate d{amx)/dx
by writing 8y in the form
8y
,
sin ft
,.
and using
cosa;sinft sina;(l
lira
cosft)
cos
ft
lira
1,
0.
ft
ft
Treat cos a; similarly.

1 1 The following incorrect 'proof that d(sin x)/dx = cos x is sometimes given
by students:
'We have sin (x + ft) = sin x cos ft + cos x sin ft, and we know that when
ft
-> 0, cosft -> 1
and
sin (x + ft)
Criticise this
sinft -
sin x
ft;
hence sin(a;+ft)
and
cos a;
ft
-> sina:+ftcosa:, so
(sin(a;+ft)
sina;}/ft -> cosa;.'
argument.
Verify the following (x being in radians unless otherwise stated).
12
sec x = tan x sec

dx
14
d
cot x
dx
16
Deduce the
13
x.
d cosec x = cot x cosec x.

-
dx
cosec 2 x.
result of 3.33 (2)
from the relation cos -1 x + sin -1 x
\n.
Write down the derivatives of

17 sin-1 (5a;).
18 tan_1 (j-î)
19 a?sin- 1 a;+V(l
-s 2
21 cos" 1 -
>
if (i)
20 sin" 1 a
).
0;
(ii)
<
if
(i)
{Put x
'
>
0;
(ii)
= tan $6.]
a
<
0.
22 tan"1 -,
a
0.
2fy using the relations
sec -1 a;
cos -1
^-^
cosec -1 a?
sin -1
or otherwise, prove that
23
dx
xj(x*l)
sec-1 a; = +
d
24 cosec-1 a:
dx
25
cot"
dx
(a?
>
xj(x2 l)
1
l+a; 8
(x
1).
>
1).
^-^
cot -1 a;
\ti
tan -1
a;,
THE DERIVATIVE.
70
APPLICATIONS
[3.5
26 If u, v are derivable functions of x, prove

u\
vu' uv'
d
tan- - =
v]
u +v
dx\
I
Find dy/dxfrom each

27
30 If y
is
28
a function of
"
33 x
(!)'
x, write
w+y =
down
*>*y-
in terms of x, y, y' the derivative of
x.
Find dyjdx in terms

31
of the following equations.
x2y 3 wo
ct,y
3at
1+t 3
of the parameter from the following pairs of equations.
v
,y
,
= acos^,
32 x
c\t.
Bat
1
fcsin^.
+ t3
34 Find the equation of the tangent at the point (at 2 2at) on the curve
= ax, and interpret t geometrically. Also give the equation of the normal.
,
35 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve x = a cos 4 6, y = a sin4 6

at the point 6. Prove that the sum of its intercepts on Ox, Oy is always a.
*36 Prove the result of 3.31, Case
1,
by using the binomial expansion of (x + h) n
*37 Prove that lim(a"1 bm )/(a b)
= ma"-1
for all rational values of
m.
b-*a
[If
m = p/q, put a = x ,b = y
a
limit
If
= s,
9:
x p yp
lim
+
y x x*-y*
px v ~ x
qx*- 1
....
then
limit
b'-a*
(a-b)
lim
sa8 - 1
....]
a2*
a'b* I
*38 If f(x) = ctan- x (l/a;) {x 4= 0),/(0) = 0, prove that f(x)

= 0. Also prove that {f(h) f(0)}/h tends to + \n when h ->
when h -> , so that f'(x) does not exist at x = 0.
*39
a:
sin(l/z) (x
/'()
Also show that f\x)

x ->0.
3.5
2a;
4=
sin ( 1/*)
is not
0),/(0)
- cos
continuous at
+ and to \n
,
0, *fcow *7ia*
1/*) (x 4= 0)
continuous at x
Derivatives of second
is
and
/'(0)
0.
because cos(l/:r) oscillates
when
and higher orders
3.51 Notation
The
derivative of a derivable function y
= f(x)
will in general also
be a derivable function, and will possess a derivative which is denoted
%
and is
J& y
>
D% D* y
called the second derivative of
D2f{x)>
>
y wo
x.
"
{x)
'
V "'
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.52]
APPLICATIONS
71
may possess a derivative. In general, the result of

n repeated derivations of y = f(x) wo x is denoted by
Similarly d 2yjdx2
(n)
When
Dy,
tf \
(*)>
the independent variable (as
t is
mechanics), the
first
few derivatives
y,
y,
etc.
is
frequently the case in
wo t are written
y,
but this notation beyond third order becomes clumsy.
3.52 Implications of the existence of

If dny\dxn exists a,tx
a,
and
is
/<n)
(tf),
~
a, then dn ~hf\dxn x
continuous at x
n>
and near
d^hjjdx11 - 1 is
existence near a also), and it is
must
exist at
a; for the function
a (which implies its

continuous at x
a by 3.12. It follows in turn that the lower deri~
vatives dn ~hfjdxn 2
dyjdx and the function y itself all exist and
are continuous at and near x = a.
derivable at
3.53
(i)
Examples
If y
- (a coa kx + b Bin kx), prove
d 2y 2 dy
-2 + - +
dx
x dx
0.
In cases like this it is easier to work with products than with quotients;
therefore begin by writing the given equation as
xy
and derive both
sides
wo
= a cos kx + b sin kx,
wo x:
y+x
Derive again
we
dy
= ak sin kx + bk cos kx.

dx
x:
d2y\
dy (dy
d\
+\
+ xr-^\
~
dx \dx
dx2

'
= ak,2 cos kx bk2 sin kx,

,
'
-+
d2y
n
2
- = -k xy,
dy
from which the result follows.

This result, which is a relation between x,
y, dy/dx,
d 2y/dx 2
is
called a differ-
As it does not contain the constants a, b, it could be regarded as

the result of eliminating these constants from the given equation by use of the
derivatives of y. The converse problem (of finding the function y in terms of x
when the differential equation is given) is more difficult; some manageable
ential equation.
cases are discussed in Ch.
5.
THE DERIVATIVE.
72
If x
(ii)
cos 3
t,y
dy
dy Jdx
dx
^y =
=
Calculate
(iii)
h sin
t,
APPLICATIONS
find d yjdx in terms of t.

sir 2 t cos t
36 sin
3a cos
c 2 1 sin t
= j^
jdx
j
dt
~ sec2 ^( "~ ^ a cos2 * sm

^
d2y/dx 2 ifyis
3a
a3
aty
x 2 + ay + (ax + y 2 )-f
Derive both sides of (a)
0.
(a)
wo a;:
2{x a
[
(a).
tt^2 sec * * cosec
wo x:
i.e.
by using
defined implicitly by the equation
Xs + 3axy + y s
Derive both sides
[3.53
dt I dt
(dy}j
ax+y 2
\ax+y 2 /
After some calculation, this reduces to

2
xy* a 3xy + x*y + 3ax 2y 2

(ax + y 2 ) 2
3
3
_ oXy y + 3axy + x* a
2 2
(ax+y
from the given equation.
d 2y
^
dx 2
Hence
0.
The result is explained thus: the given equation can be written

(x + y
and the second bracket
a) (x2 + y 2 + a2 xy + ax + ay) =
0,
is
2
K(* - V? + (* + ) + (2/ + ) 2}.
which
is
is
zero.
isolated point
d 2y/dx 2
(iv)
is
y except x y a, when the expression

or x + y a = 0. The 'curve' consists of the
the straight line x + y = a. It is now clear why
positive for all values of
Hence
either
(
= y = a,
a, a) and
0.
Derivatives of the inverse function. Ify = f(x) has derivatives,

= g(y) which also has derivatives, express
an inverse function x
d 2x
dzx
dy
d 2y
d3y
and there
APPLICATIONS
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.53]
We have by
3.2 (5) that
Hence
dy2
dx
1
_ (dyy
dy
\dx)
dy\\dx/
dx
\dx)
dx\\dx)
_^y/(dy\
iX
73
dy
\dx)
dx 2 / \dx)
=
~
Similarly,
dy*
~dy[dx*\dx)
_{ d^y(dy\~ 3
dx [dx 2 \dxj
dx
dy
_{(dy\- d*y__ (dy\-* (d*y\*\

\\dxj dx3
\dx)
\dx2) f
3
(dyy*
\dx)
'
\dx2)
dx'dxfj \dx)
Exercise 3(b)
d yjdx for
Calculate
the following functions y.
x3
s2 + 4
4 cos 2 a;
7 If y
8 If y
{x+l)(x-2)
sin a;
sin a;.
"* 2
6 cos (m sin -1 x).
(x 4= 0).
= a cos mx + b sin mx, find d2y/dx2 in terms of y.

= xf<J{a 2 x 2 prove that
),
(a
x)
dx2
9 If y
Vl 1
tan -1
x,
-*x
dx
prove that
+2
o
*'>B *I=
10 Ify = tana;, prove that y' = 1+y 2 Derive this equation twice wo x, and
hence obtain the values of y', y", y"' when x = 0.
(i+
Write down expressions for the first five derivatives of the following functions, and
by inspection try to write down a formula for the nth derivative.
11
xm for
12 sinx.
* 16
(i)
m a positive integer;
13
(ii)
Prove that the nth derivative of

ftn !) {( 1
m not a positive integer;

14 {ax + b) m
cos a;.
l/( 1
- *)-- + (
a;2
- 1 )"
(iii)
m = 1.
15 sin (a* + 6).
is
+ a;)-"-!}.
17 If tt, v are functions of x, obtain d2 (uv)/dx 2 d3 (ttt>)/efc3 in terms of u, v and

their derivatives (supposed to exist). Can you write down di (uv)jdx i without
further calculation?
,
THE DERIVATIVE.
74
Find dyjdx and d 2y/dx 2 when y

18 y 2
is defined implicitly
19 x 3 + y*
4ax.
APPLICATIONS
Find dy/dx and d 2yjdx2 in terms
[3.6
by
*20 x 6 + y6
Saxy.
of the parameter
from
Sax V-
the following pairs of
equations.
21 x
23 x
at 2 ,
22 x
2at.
a(cos0 + 0sin0), y
25 Ify
sinnd and
a:
acos0, y
6sin0.
6(sin0-0cos0).
sin 0, find dy/rife
24 x
x(t),
y(t).
and d 2y/dx 2 and prove that

,
/
*26 Writing
a, b for y
2/72!, y"'/3l and
1/3 !) d3x/dy s , express bt a 2 in terms of t, a,
,
r, a, /?
for dx/dy, (1/21) d 2x/dy 2 ,
Some easy work on partial derivatives of first and second orders

now be done, e.g. 9.11-9.24 (1), and Ex. 9(a), nos. 1-4, 6, 7, 10,
could
12-15.
3.6
Increasing
and decreasing functions; maxima and minima
3.61 Function increasing or decreasing at a point

If f(x)
is
defined at
and near x =
and
a,
if f(x)
< f(a)
for all values
of x just less than
a, while f(x) > f(a) for all values of x just greater

than a, then we say that f(x) is increasing atx = a.A similar definition
can be stated for f{x) is decreasing at x = a'.
(
Iff (x) exists when x = a and f (a) >

Proof.
We have
where n ->
when h -+
>
0,thenf(x) is increasing at x
a.
Hence
for all h sufficiently small (positive

have
the
same sign as /'(a), i.e. it will be
+
positive; and so f(a + h) f(a) will have the same sign as h. Thus, if
h < then f(a + h) < f(a) and if h > 0, f(a + h) > f(a). Therefore f(x)
is increasing at x = a.
Similarly, iff'(a) < 0, thenf(x) is decreasing atx = a.
The converses may be false; e.g. f(x) xz is increasing at x =
according to the above definition, yet f'(0) = 0.
or negative), f'(a)
rj
0.
will
3.62 Definition of
(a) f(x)
has a
maximum', 'minimum'
maximum value &tx = a if f(a)
f(x) in the neighbourhood of a;
i.e. if for
is
the largest value of
some sufficiently small positive
number n we have
f(a)
> f(x)
for all
for
which
<
[re
aj <
v.
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.62]
(6)
f(x) has a
minimum value a,tx
f(x) in the neighbourhood of a;
/(a) <f(x)
for all
75
APPLICATIONS
= a iff{a) is the smallest value of
i.e. if
< \x-a\ <
x for which
maximum
ij.
minimum
value oif{x), then a is

called a turning point or extremum oif(x), and /(a) is called a turning
If x
(c)
a gives a
or
value.
Remarks
Although in definition (c) we used 'point' for 'value of a;', we
are not implying any dependence on graphical illustration; but the
language is convenient and suggestive.
neighbour(/?) Since the terms 'maximum', 'minimum' refer to a
the same
=
necessarily
is
not
value
maximum
point
x
a,
a
hood of a
(a)
'
'
'
'
as the greatest value of the function, because the latter
is
relative to
the values of the function over the whole range of x for which
A function may have several different maxima,
defined.
may
not possess a 'greatest value'. There
is
it is
and may or
a similar distinction
it is no contrabetween 'minimum
diction that a function may have a maximum value which is less than
a minimum value; e.g. see 3.66, ex. (i).
(y) If f(x) is defined only for a < x < b, then the end-points x = a,
=
x
b of this interval are excluded from the title 'maximum' or
value' and 'least value'. Further,
'minimum' because they have no 'neighbourhood'. They may of

course correspond to greatest or least values of the function.
The above definitions and remarks are given and illustrated graphically in most elementary courses on Calculus, and the following results
obtained from graphical considerations.
{A)
(B)
We find possible turning points x by solving/'(a;) = 0.

We test each root x = a (to see whether it actually
gives a
turning point, and also to distinguish between maxima and niinima)

either by considering the sign off'{x) as x increases through a,
by finding the sign of f(a).
or
our purpose in 3.63-3.65 to establish these results directly

from the definitions (a), (b) above, independently of graphical considerations. For subsequent illustration we observe that, according
It
is
to these definitions,
(i)
(ii)
x and x$ have a minimum at x = 0;

Xs has neither maximum nor minimum at x
4,
0.
THE DERIVATIVE. APPLICATIONS

For in each case /(0) = 0; in {i),f(x) > for x # 0, but in
76
f(x)
<
for
and f(x) >
x <
for
x >
[3.63
(ii) we have
The reader should confirm
0.
this graphically.
3.63 Iff(x) is derivable at a maximum or minimum, thenf'(x)
In the proof of this theorem (and later in 6.21)
we
there.
require the
following
Lemma. If<j){x) > for all xjust greater than a, and if'<fi(x) approaches
a number I when
+ then 1^0.
For if I < 0, then since <f>(x) can be made as close to I as we please
for all x sufficiently near to (and greater than) a, there would be such
values of x for which <f>(x) would be negative, contradicting that
xâ
> 0.
The necessity for allowing I =
<f>(x)
<j>{x)
is
by the
illustrated
case
= (x l)i when x -> 1 +
There are similar results when
<f>{x)
<
and
x->a+
or
a;
Proof of the theorem
Suppose x = a gives a minimum of f{x). Then f(x) f{a) >

x sufficiently near a. Hence
for
all
/(*)-/()
xa
From
>
when
x >
a.
the hypothesis, this fraction has the limit f'(a) when x -> a
(ii) of 3.11). Hence in particular it will
in any manner (see equation
approach the value

f'(a)
>
when x->a +
/'(a)
and
so
by the Lemma,
0.
Similarly, since
nf(
)
'
n,
xa
we may
let
conclusions,
x ->
a and
)
'
<
when
x <
conclude that f'(a)
we have f'{a) =
a,
0.
Combining the two
0.
A similar proof and result holds if x = a gives a maximum.

Remarks
(a) The converse of this theorem may be false: a root off (x)
may
not give either a maximum or a minimum. For example, if f{x) = x3
then /'(a;) = when x = 0, but x = is not a turning point.
(/?) Not all maxima or minima may be given by f'(x) = 0: they may
,
77
APPLICATIONS
occur where f(x) is not derivable. For example, if f{x) = x$, then/'(0)
does not exist (3.12, ex. (i)); yet x = gives a minimum.
minima are to
(y) In view of (a), (/?) we may say that maxima and
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.64]
be sought
the values of x for
among
A root oif'(x) =
'Change of sign'
3.64
If
(i)
(ii)
<
>
f'{x)
f'(x)
then x
is
for all x greater
a minimum point
(see 3.52). Since

a,
by
(i)
(iij/'fo)
any x 2
for
increasing at x2
Thus in a
andf'{a)
a,
0,
and sufficiently near to a, while

than and sufficiently near to a,
i.e.
off(x).
implies that /(#) is continuous at and near x
<
for
any xx less than and
decreasing at xx
f(x2 )
is
i.e.
Corollary
(ii)' f'(x) >
1.
sufficiently
i.e.
> f{a).
neighbourhood of a, f{a)
a gives a minimum of(x).
sufficiently small
value of f(x);
f{xx ) >f{a). Since

greater than and sufficiently near a, f{x) is
hence by 3.61 f(x)
>
f'{x 2 )
for all x less than
Proof. Hypothesis
near
is zero or non-existent.
test
and near x
f'(x) exists at
which f'{x)
called a stationary point oif(x).
is
Replacing condition
(ii)
is
the smallest
by
for all x less than and sufficiently near to a, and
f'{x) < d for all x greater than and sufficiently near to a,

we could prove that x = a gives a maximum off{x).
Corollary
2.
Iff'{x) does not change sign as
increases through a,
= a is not a turning point.

For if f'(x) > on both sides of a, then in some neighbourhood of
a we have f(x) < f(a) for x < a and f{x) > f(a) for x > a; i.e. in this
neighbourhood these are some values of f{x) greater and some less
than f{a). The definitions (a), (6) in 3.62 are not satisfied. Similar
remarks hold iff'{x) < on both sides of a.
An example is f{x) = x3 f\x) = 3z2 > on both sides of x = 0,
then x
which is therefore not a turning point.

3.65 'Second derivative' test
If
(i)
continuous atx
f'(x )
(ii)
f'(a)
(iii)
f{a)
exists
then
x=a
f{a) <
a,
0,
gives
and
is not zero,
a minimum of f(x)
if f"{a)
>
0,
and a maximum
if
0.
Proof. If f(a)
see that f'{x)
is
>
0,
then by 3.61 applied to the function f'(x)
increasing at x
a.
Since f'(a)
0, f'{x)
we
increases
THE DERIVATIVE.
78
APPLICATIONS
[3.66
through the value zero: in the neighbourhood of a we have f'(x) <

for x > a. Hence by 3.64, x = a gives a
for x < a and f'{x) >
minimum.
If f(a) <
then f'(x)
0,
increases through a,
i.e. it
is decreasing through the value zero as x

changes from positive to negative. By 3.64,
= a gives a maximum.
Remark. If /"(a) = 0, the test is indecisive,
Corollary
1,
for
may give a
= for both
or neither. For example, f"{0)

x1 and x3 but x = gives a minimum of x*, and is not a turning point
of x3 When this happens we must revert to the more fundamental
maximum, a minimum,
;
test
by 'change of sign'
3.66
(i)
(3.64).
Examples
f{x)
= x+-.
X
f'(x)
and
f'(x)
when
1.
Fig. 38
As f(x)
is
easily found,
we can
test these stationary points
by using
3.65.
We have
/'(*)=-,,
and so r(l)>0, /*(-l)<0.
Hence x - 1 gives a minimum value

minimum, viz./( 1) = 2.
oif(x), viz./(l)
2;
and x - -I gives a
APPLICATIONS
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.66]
The maximum
than the
is thus less
minimum
value. Further, f(x)
79
has no
greatest value because it can be made as large as we please by taking x sufficiently

large, or sufficiently small, and positive; similarly /(*) has no least value.
Cf.Ex.
1(a), no. 11.
(n)/( * x)
It
lBx2 -Sx+5
fa--lte + S-
can be verified that
{X)i
-28(te-2)(2s+l)
(6xi -16x + S) 2
'
except when 5#a 1 6x + 3 = 0, i.e. when x = $ or 3. For these values the function
when x = f or \.
itself is not defined. We have f'(x)
For testing these stationary points the 'change of sign' method of 3.64 is
obviously better, owing to the evident complexity of the expression for f{x).
Since the denominator of f'(x) is positive for all x except \ or 3, we need consider only the change of sign of the numerator.
11
'J
l
-i
o
I*
13
-l
Fig. 39
When x increases through $ ,f'(x) changes from positive to negative, so that

= gives a maximum value, viz. /(f) = 1. When x increases through
f'(x) changes from negative to positive; x-=\ gives a minim um value
a?
/(-*) = !
Again the maximum
is less
than the minimum; and the function has no
greatest or least value, because it can be made as numerically large as we please

by taking x sufficiently close to \ or 3.
This function could also be discussed by an algebraic treatment as in 1.41,
ex. (iv). Its graph, sketched by the methods of 1.41, is shown (not to scale)
in
fig. 39.
'
THE DERIVATIVE.
80
APPLICATIONS
[3.7
Points of inflexion of a curve
3.7
3.71 Definition
A point
and determination
of inflexion off(x)
a point where f'(x) exists and has a
is
turning value.
Geometrically, a point of inflexion of the curve y = f(x) is one at
which there is a tangent which has maximum or minimum gradient.
Applying 3.64 to the function f'(x), we get the following theorem.
If
(i)
(ii)
/"(#) exists at
then x
and near x
a,
andf{a) =
0,
f"{x) changes sign as x increases through a,
is
a point of inflexion
off(x).
For, under these conditions, /'(a)
is
a turning value off'(x).
Remarks
(a)
The change of sign off"(x)
is essential: roots
minimum. If f(x) = x*, then

f"{x) = lx% is zero when x = 0, but does not
exist when x < 0; thus x =
cannot be a point
x
gives a
of inflexion:
it is
a cusp in this example.
The gradient at a point of inflexion can

have any value, for f'(a) is not mentioned in
(/?)
the above theorem:
it is
either a
maximum
of f"{x)
not always give points of inflexion oif(x). For example,

then f(x) = 12a;2 is zero when x = 0, but
if f(x)
may
= x*,
or
minimum
f'(a)
0,
value of f'{x). If it happens that

then x = a is a point of stationary
Flg< 40
inflexion.
Examples
= 6x 6 25x* + 9.
60x*(Zx z -5). Hence f"(x) =
when x = or VISince f"(x) does not change sign as x increases through zero, x =
is not a
point of inflexion. (It is in fact a minimum, by using 3.64.)
f(x) changes from negative to positive as x increases through ^/f and from
positive to negative as x increases through ^/f Each therefore gives a point
of inflexion.
(i)
Find
the points of inflexion of f(x)
We find that f"(x) =
(ii) If f"{x) is continuous, an inflexion occurs between consecutive maxima

and minima.
For at a maximum x^f'^Xy) < 0; and at a minimum x2 ,f"(x 2 ) > 0. By the
continuity of f"(x), it must be zero for at least one point x3 between xx and x t
(2.65), and changes sign as x increases through x 3 Hence x 3 is a point of inflexion.
.
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.72]
APPLICATIONS
81
Summary
3.72
The
= f(x)
points of a continuous curve y
can be
classified as
follows.
^singular points
points of greatest
or least value (3.62,
does
not exist are
f'{x)
Remark
(y))
/maxima
to
to
+)
(from
turning points
(iff'(x)
Points of/
/'(*)
y=f(x)
where
changes sign)
=
\mimma
{stationary
(from
points) are
stationary inflexions!
general inflexions
/
/'<*)
(if
turning
points of f'(x))
(points of
increase or
decrease) are
ordinary points
3.8
A theorem suggested geometrically
3.81
The mean value theorem
Given a continuous curve AB, at every point of which there is a

(cf. 2.15), fig. 41 suggests that there is a point P on the curve
between A and B at which the tangent is parallel to the chord AB
tangent
(even
if
AB is itself tangential to the curve at A or B or both). There
may be several such points P (fig. 42). If the curve is not continuous
the result may clearly be false; e.g. fig. 43 shows the graph ofy = -ljx
for
which every tangent has positive gradient but the gradient of
AB is negative.
Let y =f(x) be the equation of the curve, and let A, B, P correspond to x = a, b, . Then we are supposing that/(z) is continuous for
a ^ x ^ 6, and that f'{x) exists for a < x < b. The property can then
be expressed as follows.
tff( x )
continuous for
then there is at host one
a^x ^b
number such
w>=m.
6
and
iff'{x) exists for
a < x <
that
(a<l<b)
GPM
b,
THE DERIVATIVE.
82
APPLICATIONS
[3.82
This result (the first mean value theorem) will be established without
appeal to a figure in Ch. 6. Meanwhile we assume it, and use it to
make the following important deductions.
Fig. 43
Fig. 42
a^x^b
and f'(x) = for all x in

^ x ^b.
Let x v x % be any two numbers such that a ^ x x < x 2 ^ b. Then by
3.82 // f(x) is continuous for

a < x <b, thenf(x) is constant for a
3.81 applied to the interval
for
some number between x1 and x2
/'()
0, this
shows
that/^)-/^) =
# x2
value for any pair of numbers xx

is
constant for a
This theorem
^x
is
i.e.
0,
between a and
6.
so that f(x) takes the
satisfying a
^x<
Since
same
6; i.e. f(x)
s$ b.
the converse of 3.11, ex.
(i).
The hypothesis that /'(a) is zero for a < x < b implies (3.12) that f(x)
continuous for a < x < b. If we do not include continuity at x = a and x =
the theorem may be false. For example, if
f(x)
then/'(a;)
=1
= 0for0<a;<
(0
<x<
1),
1(3.11, ex.
(i)),
/(0)
is
b,
= /(l),
but/() is not constant for
<x<
1.
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.83]
APPLICATIONS
83
Corollaey. // f(x) and g(x) are continuous for a x < 6 and

f\x) = g'(x)for a < x <b, thenf(x) g(x) is constant for a ^ x < 6.
This is proved by applying the theorem to <fi(x) =f(x) g(x). The
result, which can be worded 'if two continuous functions have the
same derivative then they differ by a constant is basic for integration (4.11).
3.83 Function increasing or decreasing throughout

Definitions,
(a)
The function
an
interval
f(x) is increasing in the interval
a < x f(x 2 ), then f(x) is decreasing in the
interval a ^ x < 6. (c) In either case f{x) is said to be monotonic in
a ^ x < b (cf. 2.77).
,
The definition (a) should be compared with that of 'function increasing at

a point' in 3.61. The fact that/(cc) is increasing at the point x does not necesfor
sarily imply that f{x) is increasing throughout some interval containing x
details and an example the reader may consult Hardy, Pure Mathematics
(7th-10th ed.), foot of p. 233, and p. 236, penultimate paragraph.
Further, iff(x) is known to be increasing at each point of a < x < b, one may
be tempted to conclude that f(x) is increasing in the interval a < x < b. Although
this is true, it is not obvious from the definitions (loc. cit., p. 208, ex. 19). We
now give a proof of this property, assuming that/'(a;) exists in a < x < b. The
:
converse property
//
(i)
(ii)
is
of course always true.
f(x) is continuous for

f'(x)
>
thenf(x) is increasing for a

If a
Proof.
*i
< x ^ x2
^ xx < x2
s$
b,
fM _ fM =
a ^ x ^ b,
< x < b,
x ^ b.
throughout a
then by 3.81 applied to the interval

(aj>
^ ff{0
{Xx<i<
Since
> 0, and/'() > by hypothesis (ii), hence f(x 2 ) >f(x 1 ).
The result follows.
Corollary 1. Replacing condition (ii) by
(ii)' f'(x) <
throughout a < x <b,
we can prove that f(x) decreases for a < x < 6.
Corollary 2. Iff'{x) > Ofor a < x 
for a < x ^ b.
For if a < x < b, then f{x) >f(a) > 0.
~~~~
Cobollaby
3.
Replacing condition
<x 
be undefined,
For the conditions of the theorem are satisfied by f(x)
in each of the intervals
a^x^k, k^x ^b (sincef'(x) is required to exist only for a < x < k,k < x < b).
6-2
THE DERIVATIVE.
84
APPLICATIONS
[3.83
Hence f(x) increases for a s% x < and for k < x < b and therefore for a ^ x < 6.
For example, f(x) = x z is increasing for all x, although /'(0) = 0.
The result can be extended to allow any finite number of points h where
f'{x) is not positive.
Examples
Iff(x)
(i)
Deduce
f(x)
is
>
2a;/7r /or
continuous, and
<x<
>
\tt,
if
f (a?) =
If
= 0, prove that f(x) increases for < x ^ \rt.

< x ^ ^tt, with equality only when x or \ir.
c/sina; (x 4= 0),/(0)
that sin a;
then cos a;
0,
sina;
a;cosa; =
cos a; (tan x x)
sin 2 x
>
and
sin 2 x
tana;
>
(cf.
2.12, inequality
(iii)),
so that
0. Hence f(x) is increasing for

<x
f'(x)
It follows that, if
then f(x)
<x<
sequently sin x
or when
2xjn. When x =
>
If
<x<
see Ex. 3
(ii)
(c),
\tt,
we now have 2x/n <
sin a;
< \tt.
< f(in), i.e. a;/sina; < \tt, and conx = \tt, the two sides are equal.
< x (cf. 2.12, inequality (iii)). Also
no. 19.
= a + b + x Z(abx)* for x
a + b 2 ^{ab), and deduce that for c > 0,
// a, b are positive constants andf(x)
that the least value off(x) is
a + b + c-3{abc)*
>
0,
prove
^ a + b-2j(ab)
with equality only when c = *J(ab).

If x > 0, f'(x) = 1 (ab)i aHL Hence f'(x) >
according as x ^ *J(ab).
Hence for < x < ^(ab), f(x) is decreasing; and for all x > j(ab), f(x) is increasing. The minimum at x = *J(ab) is therefore the least value of the function
for x ^ 0, and f(x) >f(J(ab)) for x >
unless x ^J{ab); i.e.
a + b + x- 3(abx)l
>a + b + J(ab) - 3{(a6)*}*
= a + b-2*J(ab).
a = 6 (1.22(1)), we
Since a + b 2y/(ab) >

unless
have a + b + c > 3(a6c)*
unless a = b = c. The example can be generalised to give a proof of the theorem
of the means (1.22(2)).
Exercise 3(c)
Find
the stationary points of the following functions,
them. Also find

1
2a;
any
and distinguish between
other points of inflexion in nos. 1-3, 6.
+ 3a; 2 -12a; + 7.
2 x & + 6x3
(x-l)(x-B)
9x
(a;-l) a '
5a;
+4
'
5 a cos x + b sin x (verify the results trigonometrically).
6 a cos 2 a; + 6 sin 2 a;, 6
>
>
0.
7 2 cos x + sin 2a;.
8 Show that (a? + 5) 2 (a; 8 10) has a minimum

turning points and its points of inflexion.
when x =
1.
Find
its
other
9 f(x) is defined by f(x) = 2a;(a;-l) if x > 1, f(x) = (a;- 1) (a;- 2) (a;- 3) if

1. Verify that f(x) andf'(x) are continuous for all values of x, and find the
turning points and inflexions off(x).
APPLICATIONS
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.9]
85
10 It is sometimes asserted that 'between two consecutive maxima of a

continuous function occurs a niinimum'. Show that this may not be true byconsidering the function f(x) in the interval 3n < x < Sit, where f(x) = cosx
< n),f(x) = 1 n < x < n).

= 4 cos 3 d 3 cos 6, we may put x = cos 6 and consider instead
3
<j>{x) = 4x 3x. Verify that <j>(x) has just two turning points, x =
but that
f(d) = cos 30 has infinitely many turning points, given by d = $nn for all in(x
11
n,
If f(6)
tegers n. Explain this apparent contradiction.
12
Show that
the stationary points on the curve xs + y a
Hence show that they are x =
0,
Bxy satisfy x %
y.
^2.
13 Post Office regulations require that the length plus girth of a parcel shall
not exceed 6 ft. Find the maximum volume if the cross-section is (i) rectangular
(ii)
circular.
AB, GD are cables of equal length. The strain which any section of AB
can stand varies as the cube of its distance from B, and the strain that any
section of CD can stand varies as the cube of its distance from D. The strain
that can be carried at A is four times that at G. The cables are now woven
together so that D coincides with A, and G with B. How far from B is the
weakest point of the composite cable?
14
15 A conical tent has a given volume. Find the ratio of height to diameter of
base for the area of canvas to be a minimum.
*16
Show
that y
(x %
2x + 4)/(x2 + 2x +
4:)
has three points of inflexion,

= x/{x 2 + 2x + 4).
on the line x + Zy = 5. [y 1 = 4f(x), where f(x)

The condition f(x) = is found to be x a -12x-S = 0, i.e.
which
lie
{x-2){x* + 2x + 4:)-\2x
The coordinates of the points of inflexion therefore
*-2 =
17 If f(x)
12/(tf)
0.
satisfy
-3(2,-1).]
when x
cos x 1 + %x 2 , prove that f'{x) >
cos a; > 1 \x2 . What happens when x = 0?
x + 0,
18 Using no. 17, show that sina; > x \x z when x > 0.
19 Extend the result of 3.83, ex. (i) to the interval \tt <S x
Hence prove that
^. _
sin x >
for
^ x ^ n.
for all
<
>
it.
0.
Deduce that
[Puty
= n x.']
value of x 2y 3 where x and y are positive and

method of 1.22, ex. (ii).)
21 lff(x) = xr 1 r(x 1) and r > 1, prove that for x > the least value of
and occurs when x = 1. Show that this is also true when r < 0. When
f(x) is
x > 0, x # 1, and r > 1 or r < 0, deduce the inequality xr 1 > r(x 1). Prove
a corresponding result when < r < 1.
20 Prove that the

+ = 1, is 2 2 3 /55
.
3.9
greatest
(Cf.
Small changes. Differentials
3.91 Small changes

If y
= f(x) is derivable at x =
a,
then as in 3.12,
;;
APPLICATIONS
THE DERIVATIVE.
86
[3.91
For small values of h we therefore have the
where 7) -> when h ->

approximation
0.
i.e.
/( + *)-/()
or (less precisely)
(")
4=
(J/U
(iii)
The approximation in (i) (iii) is in general correct 'to first order

h For tj is small when h is small, and so hr\ is small compared with h
but hrj may not be small compared with any power of h higher than
in
'
the
first:
see
Ex. 3
Referring to
By
fig.
no.
(d),
7.
PR =
36 of 3.11,
= PJRtan^ =
8x,
QR =
8y and
tan^ =
dyjdx.
The approximation is therefore equivalent to replacing the step RQ to the curve by the step RT to the
tangent; QT represents the error: cf. 6.42, Remark (/?).
Result (i) should be compared with that of 3.81 when b = a + h, viz.
(iii),
8y
JtT.
f(a + h)f(a)
J J
(a)
The
..
(a<<a + h).
.
=f(Z)
latter is exact, although the
(iv)
number is known only
to He
somewhere between a and a + h.

(b)
The approximation
while
a,
(iv)
(i)
assumes only that f(x) is derivable at

< x < a + h.
requires f(x) to be derivable for a
Examples
(i)
Calculate f(x)
= 6x-7,
f\x)
3a;
(ii)
(iii)
5.
Hence by
(ii)
above,
= /(2) + 0-015 x 5 = 6 + 0-075 =
f(x) = $x, a=
= ^. Hence
125,
/(126)
Then
1.
# g+^ #
6-075.
f'(x)
Jar*,
a small error Sb in
/(125)
5,
and
5 013
.
calculated from the formula S = \bc sin A. Find

S owing to (a) a small error 8A in A (measured in radians)
The area Sofa triangle is
the approximate error in

(b)
6,/'(2)
2*015.
Calculate ^126 approximately.
Take
/'(125)
7a; + 8 approximately when x =
and/(2)
/(2-015)
b.
(a)
8S
JO
A=
\bc cos
A 8A.
CLjCJL
(6)
8S
= ^-8b =
do
icBinASb.
(iv)
87
APPLICATIONS
suppose there were simultaneous errors 8b, 8c, 8A in b,c, A. The
THE DERIVATIVE.
3.92]
In ex.
(iii)
S is then, from first principles,

88 = U*> + $b) (c + 8c) Bin(A+8A)- \bc sin A
= %(b8c + c8b)sin A + \bccoaA8A
if we expand the brackets, use the approximations sin 8A = 8A and cos 8A =
error in
1,
and neglect all products of the expressions 8b, 8c, 8A.

The result shows that 8S is approximately what is obtained by adding together the approximate errors in S which would have been caused if the errors
8b, 8c, 8A had occurred separately. We return to this matter in 9.33.
Exercise 3(d)
1
Calculate tan 45 16' approximately.
[Use d{t&nx)/dx
= -^naeo^x,
x in
degrees.]
2 Give the approximate error in the volume of a sphere when calculated

from the formula V = %nra if the radius is in error by 8r.
~
3 Taking f(x) = xm , obtain the approximation (x + h) m = xm + mxm xh for
,
small h.
4 If 6 is a small angle in radians, prove tan (a + 6) = tan a + 6 sec 8 a.

5 If pv = RT where R is constant, find the approximate error in v due to
(i) a small error 8p in p only; (ii) small errors 8p, 8T in both p and T.
6 If y
= uv/w,
prove
y
[Consider
wy =
'
'
uv.]
*7 Find the function rj in 3.91 when f(x) is (i) x % ; (ii) x3 ; (iii) 1/x. Verify that
m does not when
is
ij/h tends to a limit when h -> 0, but that in general rj/h
a constant greater than 1; state the exceptional case in (ii).
3.92 Differentials
(1)
The symbol dyjdx
for the derivative, although of fractional
appearance, has been defined as a single indecomposable symbol to

represent lim dyjdx
and so
separated,
when
this limit exists.
The parts
far are meaningless alone.
dy,
dx cannot be
The most we have done
it in the 'operational'
towards splitting the symbol dyjdx is
form (djdx) y. We now define dy, dx separately, in such a way that the
to write
dy + dxis equal to the derivative of y wo x.

Ify= f(x) is derivable at x, then
quotient
Sy=f'(x)8x + vSx,
where
i\
is
(i)
a function of 8x (and usually also of x) which tends to zero

0. In 3.91 we deduced for small dx the approximation
when dx ->
8y=f\x)8x.
(ii)
88
[3.92
We now define dy by the equation

dy=f'(x)8x.
This equation also defines dx; for dx
we have f'(x) =
In this case
ex.
1 (3.11,
dx
and we may rewrite equation
(iii)
is
(iii)
dy when y
is
the function
so that
(ii)),
Sx
(iv)
more symmetrically as
dy=f'(x)dx.
shows that dx
(iv)
in general dy
4=
8y,
8y
and
in general
= dy.
dy = tan
8y
In
ijr.
(i)
dy + v8x
The approximation
#= 0.
7)
36 of 3.11,
fig.
PR = RT.
(v)
with the arbitrary increment 8x; but
is identical
because by
x.
PR =
Hence dy
is
dx
(vi)
(ii)
can thus be restated as
QR =
dx,
represented
8y, and by (v),

by the step to the
tangent.
On
is
dividing (v)
by
the quotient dy -t- dx.
two ways:
in
(a)
as
we see that dyjdx = f'(x), where here dyjdx

The symbol dyjdx can therefore be interpreted
dx,
Mm8yf8x\
(b)
as dy-i-dx.
No
confusion arises,
Sx->0
because the results are the same, namely, the derivative f'(x) of
V =/(*)
Definition,
dy is called the
differential of y,
and dx is the differential
of x.
In
(v), f'(x) is
the coefficient of the differential dx in the expression
Consequently, the derivative f'(x)

differential coefficient of y wo x.
for dy.
is
sometimes called the
In some books and examination papers the approximation (ii) is

is, differentials are confused with small
increments. By definition, relation (iii) and hence (v) are exact.
written dy =f'(x)dx; that
(2)
Invariance property. Suppose
now
that y =f(x) and x
are derivable functions; then
by
and so
= f'(x) <f>'(t) dt.
By
(v) applied to
dy
<f>{t),
dx
<f>'{t)
3.2 (4)
dt.
Hence we
dy =f'{x)dx.
still
have
<j>{t)
3.93]
89
Thus (v) is more general than it appears to be at first sight, for in

the argument leading to (v) x was the independent variable; we have
now shown that the same relation is true even when x is not the
independent variable in f(x), but is itself a function. We may summarise by saying that formulae in differentials are valid whether the
variable is independent or not. The technical convenience of differentials arises from this property, especially in geometrical applications of the calculus (Ch.
8).
Second-order differentials. Since d 2y/dx 2 (as defined in 3.51) is also a

composite symbol, we may enquire whether the part d 2y can be defined alone
in such a way that (Py-^-(dx) 2 = f"{x). It can, but we shall not do so here
because such 'second order' differentials lack the advantage which 'first
order' ones possess: there is no invariance property because in general
(3)
/dx\ 2
see Ex. 3
(e),
no. 22.
3.93 Differentiate functions

Definition.
The function y = f(x)
is differentiable
near x, and the increment 8y caused by changing

in the form
8y = A8x + e8x,
at
a;
if it is
defined at
and
xtox + Sx can be expressed

(vii)
where A is in general a function of x, but is independent of 8x, and e is in general

0.
a function of both x and 8x which tends to zero when Sx
In this case, (vii) gives 8y/8x = A + e. Letting 8x -> 0, the right-hand side
of this equation tends to A. Hence lim 8y/8x = A, so that the function f(x) is
and
derivable at x
f(x)
is
is its
differentiable at
derivative, f'(x).
a point, then
it is
We have therefore shown that, if
also derivable there.
if f(x) is derivable at x, then (i) holds, and equation (vii) is

with A =f'{x) and e = 1J. Hence f(x) is also differentiable at x.
It appears that, for the function /(x), the properties of being derivable and
of being differentiable are equivalent: one implies the other. It is thus customary to speak of differentiating f(x) wo x when we mean the process of calculating /'(a?), i.e. of deriving f(x). Strictly, to differentiate y =f(x) is to write
down the equation (v) for its differential dy; but (v) shows that we may pass
directly from differential to derivative on dividing by dx, and conversely, any
equation involving a derivative can be converted into one between differentials
Conversely,
satisfied
by multiplying by
dx.
In view of the equivalence of 'derivability' and 'differentiability', the

reader may wonder why the two concepts were introduced. When we consider
functions of more than one variable in Ch. 9 we shall define 'differentiable
function and differential in essentially the same manner as here, but we shall
'
'
'
find that 'derivability'
we
and
venience, which
is
no longer equivalent; and

by their great technical con-
'differentiability' are
shall justify the introduction of differentials
not so well illustrated by functions of a single variable.
90
Miscellaneous Exercise 3(e)

Calculate the derivative of
a;2 )* sin -1 a;.
cos
tan -1 (n tan x).
a + b cos x
4 sin -1 ,
b + a cos x
cos- 1 {2a;(l-a; 2 )i}.
6 tan" 1
sin -1
Show that each
(since).
(1
if
<
b.
^-.
1
a;
-1
2
x.
^/( 1 x ), and explain why the result is also the derivative of cos
2 8in-
/t
Sj
has derivative
of the functions
2tan-
ab
aJ
sin-f
ax
^>t-\
ab
a;) (a; 6)}.
Calculate the nth derivative of
x+
Prove
#3
10
-4
11
sina?sin3a;.
(a:-l)(a:-2)
the following properties of
12 If/(a;)
is
divisible
a polynomial f(x).
by (x a) m
then/'(a;)
Conversely, iff(x) is divisible by a; a

then in fact f(x) is divisible by (x a) m .
13
is
divisible
and /'(a;)
is
by
(a;
a) m_1
divisible
by
(a;
a) m_1
has at least one root between

14 If a, b are roots of f(x) = 0, then f'(x) =
a and 6 (Rolle's theorem for polynomials). [Suppose a, b to be conseewtfive roots.
Write f(x) = (a: a) m (x b) n g(x), where g(x) has the same sign for a < x ^ 6.
Verify that /'(a;) = (a: a) m_1 (a; 6) n_1 ^(a;) where ^(a), h(b) have opposite
signs, so that h(x) and therefore /'(a;) is zero for some x between a and 6.]
can lie between consecutive roots of

root of f(x) =
are consecutive roots of f\x) = 0, and if possible let
there be two roots a, b off(x) = between them. Use no. 17 to show there would
be a root x = c' off'{x) = between a, b, i.e. between a' and 6'.]
15
f'(x)
Not more than one
0.
[Suppose
a', b'
16 There is a root o f'(x)+Xf{x) =

between any pair of roots of f(x)
[Begin as in no. 14. Cf. Ex. 6 (a), no. 4.]
0.
Prove the following properties of a rational function h(x) =f(x)/g(x).

17 If g(x) has a factor (x a) m then the denominator of h'{x) (after h'(x) has
been reduced to its lowest terms) is divisible by {x a) m+1 but by no higher
power of x a.
,
18 A rational function whose denominator contains a first degree factor

x a cannot be the derivative of any rational function. In particular, 1/x is
not the derivative of a rational function.
19 If y
20 If y
=
=
(tan x + sec x) n , prove dyjdx

aa;sin(6/a;),
nyseox.
prove
-0
and
|* =
91
21 Transform the equation
into one in which
t is
the independent variable, where x
*22 Assuming that d y has been defined so that d y = f{x) (dx) 2 where
y = f(x) and x is the independent variable, show that if a; is a function of*, then
2
d2x
dP
and
d2y
so
in general.
=
If x =
= f(x) (dx) 2 +f'(x) d x

2
23 If y
cos (p sin -1 x), prove
24
tan0, y
If y
(l-a; 2 )^-a + ncosw0
y" xy' +p 2y
cos 0, prove that
and
(1
-x 2 )PiZx^- + (n 2 - 1)</ =
2
Taking n = 5, verify that the last equation

the form x* + ax2 + 6; and find a, b.
if
sin {(a;
y)
0.
aa;
da;
da;
26 Find dyjdx
0.
+ ^)g = 2(%-,)|.
and a;
sin n0/sin
f"(x) {dx) 2
prove
tanfcfl,
(l
25
x2
4=
is satisfied if
is
a polynomial of
}.
Investigate the turning points (if any) of
27
<
1+a?)a
a;) 8 *.
fit
30
CtX
28
(1
+6
+ ef
ca;
O COS iJ*
31
c+acosa;
a;(a;
sin(a;
29
+a 2 )-*-a;(a; 2 + & 2 )-*
+ a)
+ &)'
sin(a;
(6
> a),
32 If (a? 2/o) i3 a stationary point on the curve x*+y 3 9xy+ 1 = 0, prove

that at this point d 2y/dx 2 18/(27 a;8,). Prove also that the stationary points
are x = (27 3 ^78)*, and determine which is a maximum and which is a
minimum.
33 Prove that
8( \x
sin \x) > x sxa.x when x >
0.
[Use 3.83, Corollary
2.]
34 If sin a > 0, prove that a; sin a sin -1 (sin a; sin a) increases as x increases
from to $7T, a remaining constant. If < a ^ \ir and a is varied, show that
the expression takes its greatest possible value when x = \tt and a is the positive
acute angle such that cos a = 2/n.
35
= sin x + sin 2a; + J sin Zx, find the stationary points of f(x) in
Over what part of < x < n is f(x) (i) increasing; (ii) decreasing?
> for < x < n, and find where it attains its greatest value in
If f{x)
<x<
n.
Prove f(x)
this interval.
36 If f(x) = x*y0 axfiy where x > 0, y > 0, <z+fi =

and y is a parameter, prove that the greatest value off(x) is
x y. Deduce that xay^ < ax+fiy unless x = y.
and
< a < 1,
and occurs when
37 A horizontal ray of light from a source A meets the vertical plane surface
of a block of glass at P, and passes inside to a point B. If v lt v 2 are the speeds
92
before
and after entry, and a, ft are the angles of incidence and refraction show
that the passage from
A to B occurs in the least possible time if

sin a
vx
sin fi
v2
'
[Let
M,
N be the feet of perpendiculars from A, B to the surface; MP = x,
AM = a, BN = MN = c]
b,
right circular cone of height h, base radius r, and slant height I has a
38
constant volume V. Show that the combined area S of its base and curved
surface is a minimum when I Sr. [Express S in terms of V and the semivertical angle 6.]
39 Find the area of the largest rectangle which can be inscribed in the
x 2 /a 2 + y*/b 2 = I.
40 Prove that the length intercepted on the tangent to x 2 ja 2 + y 2 /b 2

the axes has one stationary value. Find it, and prove it is a minimum.
ellipse
by
93
INTEGRATION
Methods of integration. The logarithmic,
EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
(A)
4.1
The process
4.11
The problem
inverse to derivation
In Ch. 3 we considered the process of derivation: given a function

y =/(#), find dy/dx. We now turn to the inverse process: given /(#),
find a function y which is such that dy/dx = f(x).
We do not enter here into general considerations of whether the
problem always has a solution,
i.e.
whether a function y having the
required property exists; this will depend on f(x), as indicated in
y = <j>{x) is known to be a solution, then

be a solution for any choice of the constant c.
Further, every solution can then be written in this form; for if y = fr(x)
is another solution, then from <j>'{x) =f(x) and ijr'(x) =f(x) we have
However,
4.16(2).
<f>(x)
ijr'{x)
+c
if
will also
- <fi'(x) =
0,
so that
by the
corollary in 3.82,
ifr(x)
- <j>{x) =
c for
some constant c, i.e. \Jr{x) = <f>(x) + c.

The general solution y = <f>(x) + c is written
and
is
off(x)
an indefinite integral off(x) wo x, or a primitive function

wo x. In this expression the dx is not a differential, but in 4.21
called
we shall prove that it behaves like a differential when a substitution

is made for x (i.e. a change of variable), and that its inclusion in the
symbol is justified. At present,
J...
dx is to be regarded as a composite
sign for the operation of finding a function having the derivative

i.e.
by djdx. This inverse

and the function which replaces
the inverse of the operation symbolised
process
the dots
We
is
called integration
...
is
wo
x,
called the integrand.
understand always that x
which the integrand
is
continuous.
is confined to intervals
throughout
INTEGRATION
94
4.12
Some
For
standard integrals
we shall usually omit the arbitrary constant c in this

and in Answers to the Exercises. The results of 3.3 show that
brevity
chapter
f n 7
\x dx
jaec 2 xdx
xn+1
(1)
Some
jsiaxdx
sin x,
tajLX,
f,
Jvu- X*)
V rom ded
nJ^Y
jcosxdx
4.13
[4.12
dx
Jcosec
dx
=f=
1,
= coax,
a;cfa:
= cot
a;,
tan _1 a;,
sin -1 x
or
cos -1 x.
properties of indefinite integrals
If his constant, then
jkf(x)dx
kjf(x)dx.
have the same derivative kf(x) wo x (using 3.11,

ex. (hi) for the right-hand side), and hence differ by a constant at most.
As each integral implies the presence of an arbitrary constant, the
two sides have the same meaning. Similarly,
For both
sides
j(u + v) dx
(2)
because each side has derivative

(3)
= judx + jv dx,
u+v
(3.2 (1)).
//
jf(x)dx
(where a
4= 0,
<fi{x),
then
^f(ax + b)dx
^<f>(ax
+ b)
b are constants), because each side of the last equation
has derivative f{ax + b), by 3.2
(4).
shows that each of the standard integrals in 4.12 can

be generalised by replacing x by the linear function ax + b; (1) and (2)
show that if a given function can be split into sums or differences of
constant multiples of these standard forms, its integral is found by
integrating term-by -term ('integration by decomposition').
Property
(3)
INTEGRATION
4.14]
95
Examples
,. v
Cx 3 + 5x+l
f
(")
da;
~17\
r can ^ e decomposed by
*J(1
+x) <Jx
J{V(
,.
(iv)
1
'
(
y
v)
'
first
multiplying numerator and
J y/(l+X)+<JX
denominator by
(iii)
1\
f/
8
Jsin xdx
daj
f
I
a;
(l+a; 2 )
('rationalising the denominator'), giving
+ x) - V*} dx =
sin a; sin 3a;)
J"i(3
f/
II
dx
\.
ax =
J(
3 cos a; + i cos 3a;) + c.
dx
The results of Ex. 4 (a),
3a;
(2a;
+ 3) a
tan -1i x + c.
.
l+a;2/
J \x*
a
J 10 + 12a; + 4a;
dx
+ x)* - fx* + c.
f( 1
= itan~ 1 (2a; + 3) + c.
V
'
nos. 2, 3 are very useful.
4.14 Areas
An
elementary account of finding the area under a continuous
curve y = f(x) between the ordinates through x = a, x b (a < b)

proceeds as follows. (We suppose the part A B of the curve with which
we are concerned does not pass below
Ox.)
Fig. 44
PN is the ordinate through the point P(x, y) on the curve, the

AHNP is a function oix, say A{x). If Q is the point (x + 8x,y + 8y),
then area AHMQ is A + 8A, so that the strip PNMQ has area 8A,
If
area
which lies in value between the areas of the inner and outer rectangles
PNMB, SNMQ. Thus
8A
lies
between ySx and
(y
+ 8y) 8x,
INTEGRATION
96
S
When 8x ->
lies
by continuity
By
,
from which
When
of /
= /(#)
so that
and y + By (which tends to

definition, BA/Bx - dAjdx when
fixed)
is
hence
&4 jBx,
y), also
-> 0;
-4
jf( x ) dx
(f>(x)
+ c,
say.
PN coincides with AH, i.e. when x = a, the area AHNP is

=
Hence
zero.
between y and y + 8y.
then By ->
0,
lying between y (which

tends to y when 8x -> 0.
[4.15
<fi(a)
+ c,
(j>{a),
A=
<j)(x)
and
<f)(a).
To obtain the complete area, we make PN coincide with BK by putting

X
b:
area
To
AHKB =
<j>{b)
- 0(a).
we therefore
down an indefinite integral <fi(x) oif(x);
find its value when x = b, then when x = a, and subtract.
calculate the required area
(a)
(b)
write
This process
is
indicted
4.15 Definite integrals;
by the symbol
some
[0(#)]a-
properties
Although the difference <j>(b) <j>{a) arises in connection with areas,

can be considered independently as a number associated with the
function f(x) and two numbers a, b. It does not involve any arbitrary
it
constant of integration.
Definitions
(a) If f(x) is
a < x <
6,
continuous and
the symbol
f(x)
dx
if <j)'(x)
is
= f{x)
defined to
for all
mean
<fi(b)
x for which
<j>(a) and is
Ja
called the definite integral off(x)
wo x from a to
6.
(6) The numbers a, b are the limits of integration,^ and the interval
a ^ x ^ b is the range of integration.
f Here 'limit'
is
used in the sense of 'end', not in the technical sense of Ch.
2.
INTEGRATION
4.15]
97
Remarks
The
(a)
definition
P/(aO<fa
Ja
is
intended to apply even
when
= #6)-#0
<
and
a,
when f(x)
also
is
negative
in all or part of the range of integration, provided that the conditions

in (a) are satisfied throughout the range.
Although
(/?)
f f(x)
Ja
dx depends on the numbers
depend on the variable of integration
any other
a, b, it does not
which could be replaced by
x,
letter; e.g.
b
\
Ja
= m)?a =
[b
rb
so that
f(t)dt
f(x) dx,
Ja
f(t) dt
are the same symbol. This is not the case for
Ja
the corresponding indefinite integral, which
is
a function of the
variable of integration.
The following properties come immediately from the definition (a)
fa
f(x)dx
0.
(2)
f(x)dx
I
'
b
<3)
a and
f(x)dx
i
b.
Using
(4)
4.13,
we have
P kf(x) dx = k Cf(x) dx.

Ja
Ja
b
(5)
+ g{x)}dx=
Ja
Ja
For if fr(x)
y>(x)
{ {f(x)
= jg(x) dx,
+ y^(#)]a =
f(x)dx+(
g(x)dx.
Ja
then the left-hand side
<p{b)
+ xjr{b) <p(a) i/r(a) =
The reader should illustrate properties
l)-(5)
is
right-hand side.
by areas under sketch'
'
graphs.
7
GPMI
INTEGRATION
98
[4.16
Since the definite integral off(x) depends solely on the limits
we may replace
C
b (say)
a, b,
by a variable x and thereby obtain a function
f(t) dt
of x. (To avoid confusion, the variable of integration has been
Ja
altered
from x to
(6)
f(t)dt is
t:
see
Remark
above.)
(/?)
a continuous function of x for a ^ x <
&.
J*
For
f{t)dt
j
(f){x)
(j)(a), and
<j)'{x)
=f(x) for a ^ x ^ 6 by the
Ja
definition
Hence 0(#)
Thus
(a).
<x<
continuous for a
is
6 because it is
derivable (3.12).
/a;
/(0
(7)
a derivable function of x for a ^ x
*5
with derivative
<; 6,
Ja
/(*)
/*#
(8)
>
Iff(x)
for a
<x<
then
b,
f(t)dt is
an increasing function
Ja
< x ^ b.
For it has derivative f(x) which is
from 3.83, Corollary 2:
of x for a
(9)
Iff(x)
>0fora<x<b,
then
In particular,
positive; use 3.83.
P f(x)dx >
0.
Ja
(10)
Ifm
<f(x) <
M for a < x <
m(b-a) <
b,
{f(x)
m}dx=
m(6 a) <
i.e.
>
(4)
and
(5),
rb
f(x)
dx
Ja
Ja
(11) Iff(x)
then by
(9):
rb
rb
Similarly, writing
< M(b-a).
f f(x)dx
Ja
Replace f(x) by f(x) m in property
0<
then
mdx,
Ja
f{x)
f
Ja
dx.
M f(x) for/(#), we prove the other inequality.
g{x)for
a<
n
x
<
b,
then
rb
f{x)dx
>
Ja
Replace f(x) by /(#) -</(#) in
(9),
and use
g{x)dx.
Ja
(4), (5).
4.16 Criticism of 4.14, 4.15

(1) The discussion in 4.15 takes for granted that we understand what is
meant by 'the area under a curve'. More precisely we are assuming that, given
INTEGRATION
4.16]
99
is continuous for a ^ x < 6, there is associated with

the part of the plane bounded by the curve, the line Ox, and the lines
x = a, x b a definite number called its 'area'. Thus the work only suggests
what the formula for this area should be, when the term area under a curve
has been defined to agree as closely as possible with our intuitive ideas of area
as obtained from straight-line figures. The matter will be taken up in Ch. 7.
a function y =f(x) which
'
(2)
'
'
f(x) dx presupposes that, for all x for which a < x < b,

J a
indefinite integral <j>{x) off(x). If we cannot, then the symbol
Our definition of
we can
find an
might be meaningless. Also we have required/(a;) to be continuous for a < x < 6,
but later in this chapter we show how this restriction can be removed in certain
circumstances
(3)
In Ch.
(4.9).
we
shall
summation ;f such a
approach the definite integral as the limit of a certain
limit always exists for suitable classes of fungtions (e.g.
continuous ones). We then deduce that a solution y of dy/dx

continuous functions f(x) by proving that
y=
= f{x)
exists for
f(t)dt
Ja
We
such a solution.
should then be assured that an indefinite integral <f>(x)
off(x) exists, even if we cannot perform the inverse operation symbolised by
jf(x) dx to express this function in terms of those already known.
Meanwhile, we advance with the practical technique of finding a formula for
is
J*/(a;)
many
dx for as
types of function f(x) as possible.
Exercise 4(a)
Integrate by decomposition
2 cos 2 a.
5 cos's.
x
-7-,
sin 2 a?.
x*
4 tan 2 a;.
8
n
9
-.
1+ar
<rt
-.
10 sina;cos3a\
1+ic 2
V(l+a>)
1+x 2
l+x*
Write down the integrals of

11
(ax + b) n ,
4=
1.
12 cos(ac + 6).
1
13 sin(aa: + &).
15
16
5:
y(a z x 1 )
14
[In 14, 15 write x/a for
a* + x 2
in the standard integrals.]
(l+X*)(4:+X*)
By replacing xby a suitable linear function in the standard forms, integrate

17
-r-l
=.
x 2 + 6x + Q'
18
-r^
x* +
1
.
6x+l0'
19
t This is the origin of the sign
<J(2x-x 2 )'
J.
7-2
INTEGRATION
100
<
*20 Use 4.15(10) to prove 1-59
[4.2
<
3
\j(10 + x )dx
1-66.
J**
>
*21 If n
<
and
<
verify that
1,
joVa-*
*22 Use the inequality sin a;
<
dx
f*
<
0-5
J(l-x 2 < J(l-x in <
2 ")
<
and deduce
0-524.
< jx
(0
<
<J(ainx)dx
<
1-32.
J(sm.x)
1,
<
far)
to prove
fif
1<J
Some
4.2
general methods of integration
The purpose of these methods

another which
already
is
4.21 Integration
To
find jf(x) dx
by
known
we may proceed
c[x
g(t);
to reduce a given integral to
substitution (change of variable)
so that
Put x =
is
or can be found easily.
as follows. Let
= f^'
then by 'function of a function',
y =
Hence
jf{g(t)}g'(t)dt.
(i)
For a suitably chosen function g(t) it may happen that f{g(t)} g' (t)
is a simpler function of t than f(x) is of x, and may be recognised as a
standard form. We should then have y expressed as a function of t,
say y
i/r(t).
To
substitution x
g(t),
g'(t)dt.
restore the variable x,

g(t)
to get
we
should use the original
in terms of x.
shows that when we transform an integral by putting

substitute for x in the integrand, and replace dx by
The dx thus behaves like a differential (cf. 4.11).
Equation
x
(i)
we may
Examples
(i)
= $x(3x-2) 7 dx.
This could be calculated by direct expansion, followed by integration

term-by-term. The following is easier.
INTEGRATION
4.21]
Put
3a;
- 2, so that x =
2/
When
+ 2). Then
$(t
(<
i(i<
+ 2)<' =
9
101
+i
(<8
^< (4<+9)
8
)
+ 2<').
8
I ii(3-2)(12!r+l).
surds are involved, we usually choose a substitution which will

them or reduce them to a single term.
rationalise
(")
Put
dx
//
x-3 =
'
2
,
so that x
+ S. Then
dy
dx
~ = dy
^- =
d<
.*.
2/
da; dt
f*
_2*
=
+ 6* =
+3n
2*
<sJ(x-S)
2< 2
+ 6.
ff(^ + 9)
= f(*-3)*(aj + 6).
Alternatively, using the 'rule' at the
dx
JV(*-3)
(iii)
2
J*a:
Put t
end of
+3
2tdt
4.21,
r
(2
v
+ 6) <i< =
etc.
V(l+*3 )^.
1 + X3
so that
eft
3a; 2 da:.
\t*dt
The
%t*
integral
is
%(\+x*)*.
The 'rule' considerably reduces calculations in this example because some

of the factors in the integrand cancel out before the substitution is made for
x there. The reader should try it by the method of exs. (i), (ii).
The substitution t2 = 1 +x3 would also rationalise the surd and enable the
integral to be found. The one used was preferred because a; 2 is (apart from a
constant factor) the derivative of the expression 1 + x3 under the root sign.
The same method can be used for ^x n ~\ax n + b) m dx.
C
x2
Here the denominator prevents
direct integration. Putting
= 1 + x e would
dt
not help because this would give introducing surds.

6Jt<J(t-l)
2
Observe that x dx is almost the differential of x3 , and put t x3 :
I
integral
* dt
f -f
2
J 1 +t
= ftan" 1 * = itan" 1 (a3
Sometimes more than one substitution

which suggests the second.
is
needed: the
).
first
leads to a result
INTEGRATION
102
(v)
[4.22
dx
The reader should verify that putting

Put x- 1/t, so that dx = - (1/t 2 ) dt:
r
mtegraI
-J
x2 +
-(l!t 2 )dt
or
x2 +
does not help.
tdt
(wiwiwi = "J V(TW
u2 =
This suggests putting
integral
+ 12
so that
Cudu
udu =
f
tdt:
= \au = u
= -V(i+ 2 = -^V(^ 2 +i))
It is now clear that the single substitution x l/j(u 2 1) would have

reduced the integral directly.
Although the attempt to rationalise by the algebraic substitution t 2 = x 2 + 1
at the outset was useless, we remark that integrals involving *J(a 2 x 2 ) are often
reduced by a trigonometrical substitution. In this example put x = tan 6, so that
dx = sec 2 6dd:
C sec 2 Odd
integral
Now put t =
sin 6, dt
j tan2gsecg
fcos0
^dg.
7fl
cosddd:
xtegral
=
J
^=
= ~" V(* + U.
as before.
(vi)
JV( I-*")**-
is defined only for 1 < x ^ 1, so that an angle 6 between

\it always exists such that x = sin 6. This substitution is therefore legitimate,
and 6 = sin -1 * (principal value).
The integrand
Integral
J*cos0.cos0cZ0
ji( 1
= j cos 2 Odd
+ cos 26) dd =
(0 + J sin 26)
= \(6 + sin 6 cos 0)

= ^sm^x + x^l-x 2 )}.
4.22 Definite integrals by substitution
The method of substitution can also be used to evaluate definite

integrals.
For example, the
^(l-x^dx =
However,
result of ex. (vi) gives
[ftsm-^ + aVa-a*)}]} =
^(sin"1 1
- sin"1 0) =
unnecessary to change back to

Thus when x = sin 6, the values
when x = 0,1 are the same as the values of
for definite integrals it
is
the original variable of integration.

of
sm^x + xîl-x2
6 + \ sin 26
when 6 =
0, \n,
so that
[Em- + *V(1-* , )E=5

1
\tt.
+ 8*120]^**.
INTEGRATION
4.22]
103
In short, when we change the function by the substitution, we also

make a corresponding change in the range of integration. The work
is set out as follows.
Evaluate f
(vii)
*J(l
x 2 )dx.
Jo
Putting x
from
to
dx
Bind,
cosddd; and as x increases from
J{l-x*)dx=
=
(vm
x*J(x* +
saw in
integral. As x
Write
t
and
to t 2
sin20)]f
i(iTT-O)
(ua
reduces the
in.
l)
ex. (v) that the single substitution
<fi(x)
t
increases
where a
inclusive,
g(tx )
and
from
to
g(t2 ).
that g{t) steadily increases from
By equation
to
bast increases from
p. 100,
(i),
Jm*)}
so that
9'(t)
${g(t)}
jj(x) dx =
Then
l/ 2 ) decreases
= jf(x) dx, and suppose a <b. Let g(t) be a continuous

with a continuous derivative g'(t) in the range between
Suppose first
tx
[i(0 +
from 1 to ^/3, u
Thus, using the working of ex. (v),
function of
+ cos20)<*0
(l
dx
We
2/^/3.
6 increases
1,
Jo
Jo
f V3
....
cos0.cos0<20
Jo
to
Hence
\ti.
ftb)
dt
say,
f{t),
ft(t).
- <j>{a) =
<j>{g{t )}
2
- <f>{g{tx j\
= ^(y-î)=
f{gng\t)dt.
Jfi
Secondly, suppose g(t) steadily decreases from b to a as t increases

from t2 to tx then the above working is unchanged.
Remark. If we use the substitution x = g(t) to transform
;
tl
into
( f(x)dx
where
when x a
and
f{g{t)}g\t)dt,
t2
when x =
b,
must be taken to ensure that g(t) steadily changes from a to b as t

from tx to t2 otherwise g(t) is not a legitimate substitution for x,
a steadily changing variable. For example, by direct evaluation
care
varies
+ 1
_i
dx
l
+x
=
i
[tan-1 x]t\
\n
INTEGRATION
104
The
substitution x
ljt,
which gives
_ C+ 1 -dt
"J-il + * 2 ~
dx
J-il + *2
f+i
is
not legitimate because
+1
as
will
g(t)
t increases from 1
matter
[4.22
in
does not steadily vary from
1/t
to +1. Also see Ex. 4
be taken up again in
'
to
nos. 29, 30. This
(6),
7.23.
Exercise 4(b)
Integrate each of the following functions by use of
{x+l)(x-5)*.
(a
+ 3) 3
substitution.
.
'
4 * (1 -**>'
7 cos x sin8 a;.
8 tan3 x sec 2 a;.
V(* + 3
(EiTT)(4a 2 + 1) 3
'
)'
+ c4 )'
V( 1
10 \ 2
9 + 4a;
(,=-9,-,.
13
14
(a:
tc
1+a: 2
V( -l)'
20 cos3 x
<J{x(2-x)}
19
tan -1 a;
17
<i=2f.
x6
15
+ l) 3
xj(x*-l)'
V(9-4z 2 )'
12 (9+a;2 )-*.
(9-a: 2 )-*.
11
'
sin* a;.
[Rationalise the numerator.]
22
hj^)- p*-m
Evaluate the following definite integrals.

f2
23
f1
Ac
24
=r.
J_lV(* + 5)
26
<J(x*
f1
+ 2x->)dx.
25
Jo
a;
Jo
V( 1
- 2
sin a; cos 3 a; da;.
Jo
ri*
27
Jo 9 cos
Some
x + 25
dx
of the properties
7r-
sin
[Put
P* ff
28
tana;.]
cos a; cosec 5 a;cfa;.
w 4.15 will be required in the following.
*29 The substitution
r+l
a;*
applied to
cfcc
appears to give
+1
(Za:
p&dt = 0.
J*
What is the value of the integral? Apply the change of variable process correctly.
INTEGRATION
4.23]
105
rn
Show that
*30
By
31
= \n by using the substitution t =
cos 2 a; da;
Jo
putting x =
\ir
show that
t,
[in
a;
sin 2 x da;
tj
=
rin
f
cos 2 x dx
2 Jo
tin
hence evaluate
cos 2 a; da;.
and
a;cos 2 a;da;.
Jo
IT
fin
cos 2 x dx
2j
Jo
Deduce that
sin a;.
f*
I
a;aa;
y
7T
Jo
Jo
ra
C+a
*32 Prove
f(x) dx
{f(x)
r+a
r+a
f(x)dx
+/( - x)} dx. Deduce that
f(x)dx=
s:
Cn
XBsin a: ,
dx
Prove
,
cos 2 a;
Jo l+<
.
.j
4.23 Integration
sina;
(1)
Jo
-a
/(a a;) dx. Use
i ff 2 sua x
this result to
show that
Jo
Jo
_
*34
ra
f(x)dx.
[a
ra
I
f{x)dx
0; (6) iff(x) is even, then
J -a
*33 Prove
(a) iff(x) is odd, then
Jo
J -a
n*
+ 3 cos
+ cosa;
a;
aa;
57T
by parts
Just as integration by substitution
is
by
'function of a function' rule, so integration
product formula.
the analogue of the

parts
is
that of the
From
-v- (uv)
dx
vu
+uv
we have by integrating both sides wo x that

uv
= jvu'dx + juv'dx.
If one of the integrals on the right
found. Supposing jvu'dx
is
is
known, then the other can be
known, we
juv' dx
may write the formula as
uv jvu' dx.
(ii)
Examples
(i)
Jxcosxdx.
Take u
x, v'
cos a;; then u'
\,
sin a;.
Jx cosxdx = x sin x jam x

= x sin x + cos x.
ldx
INTEGRATION
106
[4.23
Had we taken u = cos x, v' x, the integral on the right would have
\x 2 sm.xdx, which is more complicated than the given integral.
2
(ii)
J*c
been
sin3a;efcc.
Take u = x 2
v'
sin
3a;;
then u'
2x, v
= \ cos 3a;.
jx 2 sin Bxdx = \x 2 cos 3a; j( x cos 3a;) dx

= ia; 2 cos Bx + Repeating the process on the
u'
1,
isin
3a;,
7
Ja;(3a;-2) da;
x, v'
last integral, take
\x sin 3a;
(iii)
3a;&e.
x, v'
cos 3a;; then
and
jx cos 3a; dx =
Take u
\x cos
(cf.
sin
4.21, ex.
= (Bx- 2) 7
Ja;(3a;
3a; da;
jJ sin 3a; da;
$x sin 3a; + 1 cos 3a;.
= -^(2 9a; 2
cos
3a;
+ fa; sin 3a;.
(i)).
then u'
1,
-gz{Bx- 2) 8
- 2) 7 da; = ^(Bx - 2) 8 - 8 dx
J^(3a; 2)
= i x{Bx-2)*-^{Bx-2)*
= ^x-2f{21x-{Bx-2)}
= sh(Bx-2)*{12x+ 1), as before.
(2)
Taking v
x in equation
(ii),
we get
ju dx = xu jxu' dx
= xu jxdu,
where we have used the formula (i) in 4.21 for change of variable, x
being supposed a function g(u) of u. Hence, if the integral of
g(u) wo u can be found, then so can the integral wo x of the function u
now
inverse to x.
(iv)
Jain
-1
Take u =
a; da;.
sin-1 a;, v'
1;
then u'
1/^/(1
jsin^xdx = x sin -1 x
=x
by using the
substitution
sin -1
x or x
2
x+
sin 0.
2
),
x.
a; )
2
)
INTEGRATION
4.24J
107
dx
1+W
2J\
-1
= Jx2 tan a; Jx + tan-1 x
= \{x 2 + 1 tan -1 x \x.
*
dx
Examples
when the integrand involves a

function whose derivative is algebraic, we can get
containing only algebraic functions by taking this
transcendental
a new integral
that
(v) indicate
(iv),
function as u.
4.24 Reduction formulae
an
If the given integral involves n,
then integration by
integer,
may
reduce the integral to one of similar form but involving a

smaller value of n. The relation between these integrals, known as a
reduction formula, can be used successively until we obtain an integral
parts
corresponding to n
integral
may
or
some other small
or
value,
and
this last
be known.
Example
Consider c
x n cos axdx, s n
is
a;
n sinaa;<a;,
where a
is
constant and
a positive integer.
In cn take u x n v'
,
cobox; then u'
xn
am ax
a
n
a
nx"' 1 , v
(1/a) sin era.
s,
Similarly,
x'.n-1
cos ax ^
a sin ax +
n-1
c,
.n-1
na;'
cos ax
n(w 1)
o2
INTEGRATION
108
This
is
[4.25
a reduction formula for c which reduces the value of n by two at each
application, until either

c
is
= j cos axdx
(if
is
even)
or
cx
=j
cos axdx
(if
is
odd)
reached; and these integrals are respectively (see Ex. 4 (c), no. 2 for the latter)
1
To
calculate
c5
-smax
- sin ax,
1
-
a2
cos ax.
fx5 cos xdx we should use the formula thus:
= j x & cos xdx = a; 6 sin a; + 5a;4 cos a; 20c s

= x5 sin x + 5x* cos x 20(a;3 sin x + 3a; 2 cos x 6cx
Xs sin x + 5a;4 cos x 20a;8 sin a; 60a; 2 cos x
+ 1 20(x sin x cos x)
= a;(a;4 - 20a; 2 + 120) sin x + 5(x4 -12x 2 - 24) cos x.
A similar reduction formula can be obtained for s n : see Ex.

Further examples will be met later in this chapter.
4.25 Definite integrals
4(c), no. 12.
by parts and reduction
The methods of integration by parts and by reduction form ula can

be applied to definite integrals. Thus if /'(#), g'(x) are continuous,
jj(x)g'(x)dx
[f(x)g(x)-jf'(x)g(x)dxj
a
b
= [f{x)gW\l-
\
Ja
f'(x)g(x)dx.
Examples
(i)
x cos x dx
[x sin a;]*"
Jo
smxdx
Jo
(%7T-0)-l-coax]*"
tt-(0+1)
= in-l.
(ii)
If c
ft*
a;"
cos ajefa;, then as in 4.24, example,
Jo
c
[a;
n sin a;
f*
+ na;" -1 cos a;]*' n(n 1
Jo
The case n =
(i7T )
1
n(n l)c_ 2
if
n>
1.
has just been considered in ex.
(i).
a;"
-2
cos x dx
INTEGRATION
4.3]
109
Exercise 4(c)
Use integration by parts
to calculate the, integral of the following functions.
xsiax.
a;
2 xcosax.
cos *.
6 x{l-x) n (n
a;
7 cos- 1 <c.
9 x sin 3a? cos x. [Convert the product into a sum.]
u=
sin 2 a;
= 1 - cos 2
a;,
v'
sin a;.] (Cf. 4.13, ex.
JO
for
sn
_1
C a;sin a;
V(l-^ 2
f
* 19
17
Use integration by parts to
a;
tan- 1 x dx.
and substitution.
r
"
(8in la; ) 2d:r '
* 20
cos 3 xdx.
Jo
require both integration by parts
calculate
fin
15
JO
The following may
Hence
JV* sin ax dx.
x*(l-x) n dx(n-l, -2, -3).
16
*21
(iii).)
sec -1 a;.

[it
[I*
a;sin5a:<fo.
13
14
* 2 sin \xdx.
sinar.
-2).
12 Obtain a reduction formula

fx 5 smxdx.
â
a;
10 sin3 *. [Put
*11
(c+l)(a;-5)
a;
-1
tan
* -1,
3
6
J^sin- 1 *^.
integrate
twice
wo
4.3
The logarithmic function
4.31
The
x.
integral fdx/x
Any systematic investigation of what functions can be integrated

must begin by considering the case n = - 1 of jxn dx, which was
excluded from the first entry in the list of standard integrals in 4.12.
We now take up this investigation.!
It is more convenient to begin with the definite integral
f'l
)-x d*
because
(i)
<
>>'
no arbitrary constant is involved; (ii) we can visualise this

= 1/x from x = 1 to x = t. We are
as the 'area' under the curve y
it
t If there is a function y for which dyjdx

cannot be a rational function.
1/a;,
then Ex.
3(e), no. 18
shows that
INTEGRATION
110
[4.32
taking for granted the existence of the integral (see 4.16 (2)); or equivalently, the existence of anumberwhich measures the 'area' (4.16 (1))
shown
We
case
in
45.
fig.
do not attempt to consider the

< because the integrand would
then be discontinuous in the range

The number 1 has been
t < x < 1.
chosen as the lower limit of integration
but any positive
for later convenience,
constant would do.
In view of 4.15, Remark (/?), the

definite integral under consideration is
a function of t only.
Fig. 45
We write
#) =
so that ${t) represents the 'area' shaded in

for
(i)
(*>0),
fig.
45,
and
is
not defined
^0.
4.32 Investigation of
We now
<f>(i)
obtain some properties of
<j){t)
which
will
supply enough
information for us to be able to identify the function.

(1)
is
I fx is
continuous (4.15
(2)
(i) we have 0(1) = 0.

positive throughout the range of integration,
From equation
Also, since
(6))
and increases
Functional law for
as
increases (4.15 (8)) for
(f>(t)
>
0.
<j>{t).
We shall prove that, for all rational values of n,

<j>(t
where in
Proof.
Putting x
= pjq(q even),
By definition,
=
zn ,
x varies from
nf(t),
(ii)
n denotes the positive qth root of IP.
~
we have dx = nzn x dz,
so that dxjx = ndz/z. Also, as

n
from
1 to t. Hence
steadily
to t , z varies
(j)(t
n)
= - 1, we have
nz = n z = n<p{t).
I
Taking n
Ji
=-
<j>{t).
(hi)
INTEGRATION
4.32J
111
Bounds for <f>(l + u).

and u
If x lies between 1 and 1 + u, where 1 +u >
lies between 1 and 1/(1 + u). Hence by 4.15 (10),
(3)
i.e.
- dx
x
lies
<j>{\
+ u)
lies
between u and
1
between
+u
#= 0,
then Ijx
u
u and -
(iv)
+u
The argument is easily followed by noticing that the shaded 'area'

46) lies in value between the areas of the small and large rectangles,
whose common base is u and whose respective heights are 1, 1/(1 + u)
(the values of y when x = 1, 1 + u).
Taking u = 1, then by (iv)
(fig.
<
0(2)
<
(v)
1.
Fig. 46
Fig. 47
(4) Range of values of <j>{x).

Given any x ^ 2, however large, we can find a positive integer n
such that 2 n ^ x < 2 n+1 Since <fi(t) increases with t (see (1)),
.
<P(x)
by
(ii)
and
(v).
the inequality
>
0(2),
710(2)
n -> oo (since 2n+1 >

> \n shows that <f>(x) -> oo. Thusf
When x -> oo,
<f>{x)
> \n
<j>{x)
-> oo
also will
when
x -> oo.
t Contrast Ex. 4(d), no. 20.
x),
and
(vi)
112
By
<j>{ljx)
equation
-> oo,
(iii), <j)(x)
by
-> oo
<j>(x)
<fi(x)
[4.32
ljx -> oo
when
with those of
results
x ->
(vii)
we have:
(1),
oo to + oo as x increases from
^(1) = 0, we can now sketch the
increases continuously from
Recalling from
that
(1)
form of the graph of y

(5)
The number
Since
<f>(x),
as in
fig.
to
+ oo.
general
47.
e.
continuous, steadily increases, and takes
<fi(x) is
and so
Hence
(vi).
Combining these
INTEGRATION
= (f>{\jx). When
all values,
it can take any given value just once. In particular, there is

a single value of x for which <j>{x) = 1. Calling this value e, we have
therefore
effectively defined it
by
re
#0 = ^=1.
(vhi)
The reader who has done any work on approximate integration may consider
the following way of estimating the numerical value of e. By using Simpson's
rule for 10 ordinates of the curve y = 1/x, equally spaced at intervals of 0-1,
we find (7.33, ex.) that
2
0(2)
=
J
Hence
x = 0-693.
= n<f>(2) = 0-693ra.
if n = 1/0-693 = 1-44. Thus <j>{x) =
x = 2"* = 2 1>5 = V8 == 2-8.
0(2")
We shall have 0(2") =
1 if
(Use of tables for 2 1 44 would give x = 2-71. In 6.53, example, we shall find the
value more accurately as 2-718282, and in 12.72 (1) it will be shown that e is an
'
irrational
number.)
(6) Identification
If x
ev ,
where y
of
<f>{x).
is rational,
</>{x)
we have by
<j){e
v)
y(j>{e)
(ii)
and
(viii)
that
y.
But if x = ey then also y = loge x by the definition of 'logarithm'.

Hence, whenever a; is a rational power of e,
,
(j>{x)
loge x
(x
>
(ix)
0).
A difficulty arises if x is not a rational power of
In this case logc x

is not defined; the elementary definition 'the logarithm of x to base e
is the power to which e must be raised to equal x' is meaningless
because irrational indices have not yet been defined. On the other
hand, <p(x) is defined for all x > 0. We may 'complete the definition'
e.
'
INTEGRATION
4.32]
113
of loge x when x is not a power of e by defining loge x to be <f>{x) then

;
(ix)
x > 0. The properties of logarithms proved in elementary

algebra are unchanged: (ii) is the index law; for the addition law, we
have by the substitution t = yu,
holds for
all
logc
(^),
[*dt
J
iT
[*
du
=
i/
loge x ~ loSel
loge -
Similarly,
we
On
log 10 a;.
get
--J
(4.15(3))
loge x + loSe V
hJ P)-
loge x - loge y.
If a; is a rational power of 10, say x

definition,
[Wdu
C*du
10y then
,
by the 'elementary
taking logarithms to base e and using

,
(ii),
= ?/loge 10,
loge a5
loge x
i.e.
the usual 'change of base' formula.
When x is not a power of 10,
this
formula can be used to define log 10 a;. In particular,

1
logl
e
_ loge e _ 1
-ioîo-iogc io-
Logarithms to base e are called natural, Napierian,^ or hyperbolic%

logarithms. In future we shall write logo; for loge a;; and when any
other base (such as 10) is used, we shall indicate this explicitly
(as log10 a;).
(7) Derivative of log x.
Since
we have by 4.15 (7)
that
<f>'(x)
Cx dt
l/x, i.e.
-(log*)=i.
X)
(8) j*i<fo.
From
equation
(x)
X = log x +
(x
>
(xi)
0).
t After Napier (1550-1617), the inventor of logarithms.

J Because associated with the 'area' under the hyperbola y
\jx.
INTEGRATION
114
If x
<
0,
= y;
put x
[4.33
then
= log( x) +
Cdx
so
We can combine (xi),
dx
log
The results
of
the gap in our
+c.
[c|
(xii)
conclude the enquiry begun in 4.31, so that
(xi), (xii)
list
(xi)'
0).
into the single equation
(xi)'
%
<
(x
of integrals
is filled.
We shall continue to omit the
arbitrary constant c for brevity.
An application to integration
We can generalise (xii) as follows.
4.33
= f{x),
du
f'(x)
then
J^cte = log
Hence
Thus any
If u
(xiii)
whose numerator is expressible

as a constant multiple of the derivative of the denominator can be
integrated. We usually omit the modulus in Answers to Exercises.
fraction, rational or not,
Example
Since
tana;
sin a;
cos a;
tana;eZa:
= j-^- (cosa;)J
= log |cosa;| =
cos a;,
log
|seca;|.
Exercise 4(d)
Write down the derivative of the following (use properties of logarithms
the expression before derivation whenever possible).
1
log (2a;).
5 log sin 2 a\
9
log a;
2 log (a;2 ).
to
simplify
log(l/a;).
4 log sin a;.
+x
log1 x
8 log log a;.
6 log cot a;.

10 (log a;) 2
/dx
x = log(a;
12 Find d (log10 x)jdx. [Use the formula for change of base.]
).
INTEGRATION
115
Obtain and simplify the derivative of
sina;
14 log (tan x + sec x).
13 logtan^x.
15 log;
sin a;
16 log (1
+ sin 2x) + 2 log {sec (In x)}.

maximum value of (log a;) /a;.
17 Find the
18 Prove that log a; {x l)/^Jx

that log a; < (x 1)/Jx for x > 1.
* 19
is
>
a decreasing function for x
Prove that the nth derivative of loga;
is
l) n_1 (n 1) l/x n
Deduce
1.
*20 The result (vi) of 4.32 is not obvious from a figure'. Verify that y = l/a
for x >
has a graph generally similar to that of y = 1/a; for x > 0; but that, if
'
111a;
x dt
then
i/r(
x)
-**
when x
-> oo.
Integrate the following.
21
3aT
22
x*
25
6a;
26
7.
1+a:4
33
-7
.
3a; 2
30 -
29 tan 3a;.
-7a; + 5
sin 2a:
and deduce
a;
OT
loga;
(m
4=
28
cota;.
tan*
.
32
a;
loga;
J"coseca;da;.
1), and
36 tan- 1 a;.
31
-12a; + 7
l+tana;
Using integration by parts, calculate

34
1+a;2
"
2 -a;
3a;
24
1-a;"
3 + 5cos 2 a;
sec 2 \x
r~,
tan %x'
"
_
27
23
1+a;'
37
the integral of
35 lqg(x llx ), x
deduce jlogxdx.
(a;
log a;) 2 .
38
a;
>
0.
tan2 a;.

Ci*
39
40
tan2artfe;.
J3
Jo
42
7-
43
dx.
Joi+x
45 If u n JV"(log a;)"
ci!a;
dx
41
+ 3a;
44
f \ogUx)dx.
Jl
where n
is
ft" coax
,
dx.
Jo 1+sina;
:
f a;log(l +x)dx.
Jo
a positive integer and m
+ 1,
obtain
the reduction formula
n
xm+1
{l0 X)n
U
U =
-m-ri
m-Vl *
t
Hence
calculate
a;
(loga;) 8 d!a;
i:
*46 If
simplify
C=
aC +
"***.
f
J acosio + osina;
and
and 6C aS. Hence
S=
da;
f
J acosa; + fesina;'
calculate
cos a; (fa;
'o
3 cos a; + 4 sin a;*

8-2
INTEGRATION
116
*47 Find numbers A,
fi
which
for
7 since + 4 cos a;
Hence
[4.4
A(sina;
+ 2cosaj)+/t(cosa; 2sino;).
f7sina: +
calculate
<
-z
^-r
J sin* + 2 cos x
dx.
4.4
The exponential and hyperbolic functions
4.41
The exponential function
by 4.32 (4) x increases continuously from oo

to oo. Thus,f to any given x corresponds
+
just one value of y, and this value is positive. Hence for all x there is
defined a function y which is the inverse of x = logy, it is written
y = ex and called the exponential function oix.
It obeys the usual laws of indices; this is clear when x is rational,
and is true when x is irrational: putting y x = ex * and y2 = ex *, so that
xx = log^ and x2 = logy 2 then
(1) If x
to
oo as
logy, then
y, increases from
xx + x2
ex i +x *
so
= yx y2
ex i
Similarly
(2) e? is
log yx + log y 2
-j-
ex *
logy
is
ex increases from
to
oo
when x
continuous for
Proof. Write
log(/
ex
all values
and
let ex+h
0,
1
t
(2) also
>-Lj,
y + k'
so
A;
by
J
for
oo to + oo.
increases from
but that
of x.
v+kdt
+ fc)-log?/ =
then by
if
= y + k. Then
When & >
eî.e35 *.
ex is positive for all x,
In particular we emphasise that

ex -
+ when x -> oo.
x
(3) c is
(6),
xx < x2 and y x y 2 are the

y x ^ y 2 would imply that
an increasing function of y. Thus
< y2
since
4.32
ex i~x *.
an increasing function of x:
corresponding values of ex then yx
xx ^ x2
ex i +x z
i-
by
log (yx y 2 )
>
7~} T =Z J v
0.
If /
4.15(10),
<
I'
< y + k we have
h>
y + k'
This assertion is based on the property stated in 2.65, Corollary.

already made it in 4.32(5) for the case x = 1.
f-
We
have
INTEGRATION
4.41]
When
1/*
>
h < 0, then also h <

from which
by
and ify + k<t<ywe have
(2),
l\y,
^>^ = m.
1*1 *r
J+*
Hence when h ->

(4)
of y
117
0, also
& ->
<
0; i.e.
is
continuous.
The graph of y = ex i.e. of # = log?/, can be obtained from that

logx by interchanging Ox, Oy and then reversing the direction
,
of Ox to restore right-handedness.
(5) Derivative
Ify
ex
x
of e
then from x
logy
we have
dy
dx
_
=
dx/dy
l/y,
and hence
(xiv)
y;
i.e.
(xv)
so that ex is
own derivative.
The corresponding result for integration
its
ex dx
is
ex .
(xvi)
Remarks
(a)
The property
only function which
(xv)
is
is characteristic
equal to
by starting from equation
its
(xiv),
of ex
i.e.
ex is essentially
own derivative. This
the
can be shown
which expresses the property
stated,
INTEGRATION
118
and solving
it
for
y in terms of
the equation
m is
where
x.
More
[4.41
generally,
we
will consider
~ = my,
To solve
wo y:
constant.
integrate both sides
and
write
this,
~
emx mc
as dxjdy
it
1.
1 Cdy
= logy +
mjy m
I] (my)
and
c,
= m(x c)
logy
hence
(xvii)
= A e
emx e~mc
00
,
where we have written A for the constant e_mc

interest
(/?) The law expressed by (xvii) is often called the compound
have
growth
We
called
function.
it
is
a
law, and any function obeying
therefore shown that every growth function is of the form Ae*
.
where A,
m are constants.
physical example is Newton's law of cooling: 'the rate of decrease of temperature of a body is proportional to the excess of this temperature above that
denotes the excess
(supposed constant) of the surrounding medium'. If
temperature, the law is expressed by dd/dt = led, where k is some positive
constant.
The function ax
Except for the case when a = e (see (1) above), ax has been defined
only when x is rational. Suppose now that a is any positive number,
and let x be any rational number pfq. (If q is even, there will be two
(6)
values
oiaPl*', let
y denote the positive value). Then by

logy
-log a
a;
4.32,
(ii),
log a,
(?
SO
exloea
We use this equation to define ax when x is irrational

ax
exloea
(a
>
(xviii)
0).
Then
(a)
(b)
ax > d for all x, by (2).

ax satisfies the usual index laws ax .av
ax .av
For
and, writing b
âx )y
(e
log a
ex 108 a e v
exloga
xloe a v
.
ax+v
x+y^ log a
e^
(ax ) v
ax+v
e(a;l/)loga
aF.
bv
yloeb
ev xloSa
'
= axv
'
INTEGRATION
4.41]
(c)
^d
For
Hence
119
a* log a.
(ax )
(e*
log a
)
also
(log a) ex log a
(log a) a*.
la^da;
log a'
(d)
We can now extend the formula d{xm )ldx =
m (x >
m_1 to irrational
0).
ft
(eîogx)
jf
em\ogx
rl
(a) =
For
x __
3.
<
>
function of a function
= xm x m
.
Exercise 4(e)
1
Sketch the graphs of
(i)
e~ x ;
= Ke^ + e - *);
(ii)
(iii)
\{e x e~ x ).
Write down the derivative of
e Zx .
e cos 3.
7 logfe*).
10
2*.
xe x
xx
11
e*
8 e
(x>
10 **.
e 8a! sin2a;.
e^ 10 *
2
.
0).
Write (fown the integral of

12 e 2 *.
13
16 e slna! cosa:.
x
14 Je
v
17 logfe 3 *
15
+ e~*
).

18
je x cosxdx.
e* sin x cos re da;.
19
J*
20
*21 Writing w n = x n eax dx, where n is a positive integer

constant, obtain the reduction formula
1
u n = -x
11
eax
Hence calculate fx* e
n _x .
m if emx satisfies
dx2
is
2x dx.
22 Find the constant
23 If y
n u
dx
a function of x, prove
d2
(d 2 y
dy
e x sin 2 xdx.
and a
is
a non-zero
INTEGRATION
120
[4.42
Write down the nth derivative of

eax .
24
25 xe x .
when y =
*27 Find dyjdx

r eax sin (bx
26 a*
eax smbx,
and express the
(a
>
0).
result in the
form
+ d). Hence write down an expression for the nth derivative of y.
28 Find constants p, q in terms of a and 6 so that
d
Hence
{eoa!
p sin bx + q cos 6a;)} =
e" x sin 6a\
calculate Jeoa! sin
29 Calculate Je * cos 6a; da; by integrating by parts twice.

30 Find the turning point and points of inflexion of y
= e~ x
*.
Sketch the
curve.
31 Find the values of x at the

of y = x 2 e~ x Sketch the curve.
maximum, minimum and
points of inflexion
What
32
is
the
maximum value of x n e~ x (n >
(x*
+ +
Xs
+-+
1+iC
2!
is
a decreasing function of x for x

ex
>
xn
2!
w!
> l + x + +...H
*34 If f(x) = xy x\ogx e v ~1 (x >

and deduce that for x > and x
-4 sin (log a;)
By writing x =
e',
+ \jn) n <
>
x n e~ x
e.
x n\
n\)
0),
when
>
0.
show that the greatest value of f(x)

-1
a^ < xlogx + e*- 1
4= e"
+ B cos (log x), where A, B are constants, prove that

dx2
*36
(1
Deduce that
0.
x*
is 0,
*35 If?/
3l
Prove that w" e -n
0)?
when x> n, and by putting x = n+ 1 deduce that

33 If n is a positive integer, prove that
dx
show that the equation
d
tfpt3 + Bx 2p!2 + x l = 24x 2
dx i
dx
becomes d3y/dt3
24e
2<
Hence express y
dx
(i)
as a function of t;
(ii)
as a function
of x.
4.42 Logarithmic derivation
The
rule for deriving a product y
First take logarithms:

=>
log y
uv can be proved as follows.
i
.
u + log v.
log
,
Then derive each side wo x, using the rule for function of a function
'
Ay
y dx
1
,,
Multiply
r J by
J w
*
dy
uv:
-frta;
1 du
u dx
v dx
du
dv
arc
dv
dx
'
INTEGRATION
4.43]
method is useful when deriving a continued product of

Thus if y = uvw,
similar
functions.
log y
Idy
du
Idv
udx
v dx
du
dx
dy
-fdx
Ex. 3 {a), no.
7.
log u + log v + log w,
y dx
and
Cf.
121
1 dw
wdx'
dv
dw
dx
dx
= vw-^r+wu^r + uv-z-.
Any function of the form
UjUz ...un
can be dealt with similarly.
Examples
(i)
eix x? cos x log sc.
logy
2* + 3 log a; + log cos x + log logs;.

1 eZy
dy
=e
= 2 +
sin
a;
cosa;
cos a; log a; 1
Although in 4.41
(6)
2-\
we have denned a x =
11
+ log
2s a; 3
dx
its derivative, in
a;
a; a;
tana: +
auog;
jga;)
e xloga
practice we usually derive this
and thereby written down

and similar functions involving
powers as follows.
(ii)
(iii)
(a
>
0).
logy
arloga,
>
0); cf.
ax
= xx
logy
(x
.'.
Ex.
.'.
*y
4.43
The logarithmic
'
'
^ = aa!logo
'
4(e), no. 11.

1
aloga;,
dy
dy
~^ = lo g a
dy
= loga;+
dx
inequality.
dy
1,
.*.
The logarithmic inequality.

Ifu=^0 and u > 1,
j- <log(l+u)<w.
(iv)
of 4.32, since
a;*(l
+loga;).
ctcc
Some important
(1)
This follows from statement
limits
INTEGRATION
122
(2)
^$JE
->
w/&ew
Put w = *Jx
in
a;
->
oo.
Then
(1).
if
log *Jx
so that
positive.
< Jxl <
yp in
(2).
Then when y
plogy
(log y)jyp ->
Hence
slower than
(4)
a;
a;
when
is
4= 1,
*Jx,
When x >
1,
(logx)/x
is
any fixed positive number.
-> oo, also
# -> oo, and so
\ogx
^
/->oo.
Thus
togra;
toncte
to
infinity
any positive power of x.
log a; -
a;
and
when x^-oo, where p
->
Write x
Put
x >
log# < *Jx and (logx)/x < 2/Jx.

Hence when x -> oo, (loga;)/a; -> 0.
(3)
[4.43
in
M>&ew
(2).
a;
->
When ?/ -> + then x -> 00 and

logy log a;
,
->o,
i.e.
2/log?/->0.
when x -> + wêre p is any fixed positive number.

(5) xp log a; -
Put x = \\yp in (2). When ?/ -> + then a; -> 00 and
,
plogy
logx
->o,
\\yp
i.e.
yp logy ->
(6)
->
0.
w/&en
co,
for any constant m.
by 4.41 (2). If m > 0, put p = 1/ra in (3),

This is obvious if m 4,
which shows that (logx)/xllm -> 0, and hence (log a;) m/a; -> 0, when
a; -> 00. Put a; = e y then when y-^00, also a; -> 00, and so
;
ir
ey
Thus
(7)
(k>gg) w
e35 fends to infinity faster
TAe exponential
a;
than any positive power of x.
limit.
+-
n)
e*,
/or aZZ
a;.
INTEGRATION
4.43]
If n
>
and
n+x >
0,
then by
(1)
123
with u
njx,
x
rc
+a
n/
On multiplying by n we get
<log
wa;
n+x
When n -> oo,
na;/(n
x\ n
<x
+-
n)
+ c) -> x, and hence

log(l + f)'
a;.
nj
Hence for
all
sufficiently large,
K)"=
Since ex
when n - oo.
where ->
and hence
x\
|H
is
-> ex
when
w - oo.
jb
1,
(1+-)
lim |1
n-> 00
+ + + ...+ logn
n
Write
f(n)
Then /(n)
decreases as
/(n+l)-/(n
Euler's constant.
+--logn.
n
for
=
+log- =
n+1
n+1
+
1
<
1,
+log
/
\
logr log(r
1)
inequalities of this type corresponding to r
so
<0
< ^
r 1
then add, we obtain

+ + ...+-
n + 1/
in (1)
down
(ii).
= l ++ J+
n increases,
e in alternative
by(l)with = -l/(n+l).
Now put u =
1), where r >
If we write
e.
sometimes taken as the definition of
presentations of the theory. Cf. 2.77, ex.
(8)
x+ -> ex
,
(3)), e
lim
This result
continuous (4.41
In particular, with
is
< logn < l + i + i + .-.H

- <f{n) <
1.
n^-r,
1
2, 3,
. . .
n,
and
INTEGRATION
124
[4.43
Hence when n -- oo, f(n) decreases but remains positive. Therefore by

some limit y, where < y < 1. Thus
2.77,
f(n) tends to
The number
can be proved to be
y, called Enter's constant,
approximate value
is
0*577,215,664,9
irrational; its
....
Exercise 4(/)
Find
the derivative of
(x+l)*(2x + 3)*
(3*-5) 3
V(l-* 2 )'
3
(a?-2)*(3a; + 2)*(2a: + 5)
5 e
xe x tanx.
2(x>0).
0.
12 If y*
/&e
e x sin x (log x) a .
> - 1).
> e).
(x + n) has the value
10 (log a?)* (x
e*,
1 ) (x
+ 2)
^ = &/ /log
2
prove
. . .
logarithmic inequality to prove the following (nos. 13-17).
13 log x
< n{$x- 1)
14 e*
15
<
16
x* e** sin 2a.
8 (1 +X) 1'* (x
Prove that the derivative of (x +
when x =
J7se
e ".
9 \ogx
11
if
for all x,
eU*
<
a;
>
0.
and
if
e*
>
<
1/(1
x)
ifx <l.
1.
lim^=i.
a.-j.icc-l
l0g(a;
17
lim
+ y~ l0ga;
18 Calculate lim
W* +
-.
*)
+ W>-V-****
[This limit
is
d(logx)fdx.]
ft->0
J
19 Prove lim
1.
[This limit
is
the value of ,d(e x )fdx
when x =
x->
use no. 14.]
20 Prove lim
C-*0
Assuming
I
a* 1
log a (a
>
0).
35
the exponential limit, write
2\~"
down the
1\"
limit
when n
-* oo of
(n
+ 2) n
0; or
INTEGRATION
4.44]
/
24 Prove limllH
*25 Iff{x)
>
and
1
1
l\
-J
is
125
[Use the logarithmic inequality as in 4.43 (7).]
e.
<
continuous for
log/(a;)<fo;
<
<
prove
1,
log
J**
J J*
by first considering the case when
|*
f(x)dx
1.
[In this case, log/(a;) </(#)
1,
Jo
so
x
log/(aj)
Jq
<
dx
J^/(aO dr
log
j J*
For the general case, when f /() dx

Jo
-4$swmm<7 Eider's
limit, calculate
c,
apply the special case to $(x)
= f(x) /c]
lim 0(n) tdien $(n) is
n->oo
1
*26
n+1 n + 2
I
1-
"'
*27
2n
H
being any
+ ...+
n n+1
pn p
*28
*29
qn+1
4.44
2n+l
2n + 2
I-
3n"
positive integer.
^ + ...+, p and g being positive integers, and p >

pn
qn + 2
q.
The hyperbolic functions
(1) Definitions
and simple properties.
In the broad sense, log x and ex and any function involving these
are 'hyperbolic' functions, because log a; is the measure of an 'area'
under the hyperbola y = l/x, and ex is the inverse function. However,
the
name
is
customarily used for two special functions which are
defined as follows:
chx =
%(ex
+ e~x
),
shx =
\{ex
- e~x
(i)
).
These, sometimes written cosh a;, sinha;, are called the hyperbolic
sine
and
hyperbolic cosine of x.
The name
from the fact that these functions bear a relation

= a2 resembling that between the trigonometric or circular functions sin x, cos x and the circle x2 + y 2 = a 2
For example, just as the point (acoad, asin#) lies on the circle for all
values of 6, so does the point (achu, ashu) he on the hyperbola for
arises
to the hyperbola x2 y2
all
u\ this follows because

ch. 2
u-shz u =
%(eu
by expanding. The hyperbolic
+ e~u 2 + \{eu -e~u 2 =

)
functions possess
many
other pro-
perties analogous to those of the trigonometric functions.
Thus
INTEGRATION
126
[4.44
from the definitions we verify that ch( x) = cha;

an even function like cos a; is), and sh( x) = sha;
directly
(so
that
cha; is
(so
that
sha; is odd).
The reason
for the similarity of behaviour will
be given
in 14.68.
By analogy with the remaining trigonometric functions, we define

,
1L
tha; (or
tanh x)x
sha;
-=
cotha;
cha;
cosecha;
secha;
cha;
sha;
tha?
cha;
sha;
All the properties of these functions can be deduced from their

definitions
by expressing the functions
in terms of powers of
e.
The
reader should verify the following results.

(i)
chO =
(ii)
1,
shO
0,
char,
(iv) sh( x) = sha;,
=
(vi) ch2 a; sh2 a; = 1,
tha;,
(v) th(
x)
2
2
(viii) cosech 2 x = coth 2 x 1

th x,
(vii) sech x = 1
(ix) ch(x + y) = cha; chy + ahx shy,
(x) sh (x + y) = sh x ch y + ch x sh y.
From these can be deduced the 'double angle' formulae, the
(iii)
ch( x)
mulae for converting sums into products,

metry; see Ex. 4 (g), nos. 2-15.
etc.,
for-
exactly as in trigono-
(2) Graphs ofshx, chx, thx.

Despite their structural similarity to the trigonometric functions,
we
shall
now
functions
(a)
is
chx -I =
so that ch x
(b)
x ->
see that the range of possible values of the hyperbolic
quite different. Observe that
cha; sha;
oo,
\{ex
-2 + e~x =
)
\{(>\*
- erk*)*> >
0,
for all x\
e~x
>
0,
so that cha;
>
sha; for all x;
but when
the difference tends to 0;
from the definitions, as x increases from oo to 0, ch x decreases

from +oo to 1, and sha; increases from oo to 0; while as x increases
from to + oo, cha; increases from 1 to + oo and sha; increases from
(c)
to
+ oo.
With
this guidance
and the
results (i)-(iv) above, the graphs of
cha; and sha; can be sketched (fig. 49).

For tha;, we have from the definitions that
INTEGRATION
4.44]
127
As x increases from - oo to +00, e 2* increases from to + 00, so that

thx increases from 1 to +1, and remains between these numbers
for all x. Also thO = 0, and th(-a;) = -tha;, so that the graph is
symmetrical about the origin
(fig.
50).
Fig. 49
(3) Derivatives
From
Fig. 50
and
integrals.
the definitions,
d
cha;
dx
= \ ^L (ex + e~x =
)
2dx
\{ex -e~x )
sha;,
d^
dx
d_
dx
and
th
/sna:\
ch 2 a; sh2 a;
ch 2 a;
dx \chay
coth x
similarly
dx
The corresponding integrals
jahxdx =
Jsech2 xdx
tha;
johxdx =
Jcosech2 xdx
dx
sha;
cha;
similarly
sech 2 a;,
are:
(cha;)
cha;
Jthajda;
log cha;;
coth a; da;
log
sha;,
= coth x.
d_
Since
= cosech2 x.
cha;,
th x,
ch2 a;
'
|sha;|.
INTEGRATION
128
[4.44
and hyperbolic functions.

and Ex. 4(gr), nos. 2-15 with the
Relation between formulae for circular
(4)
Comparison of the results of
(1)
corresponding trigonometrical formulae will verify the following rule,

which can be used as an aid to memory for obtaining hyperbolic
formulae quickly.
Osborn's rule.
general
angles
In any formula connecting the circular functions

and not depending on properties of periodicity
of
or
each circular function by the corresponding hyperbolic
limits, replace
function and change the sign of every product (or implied product) of
two sines.
Thus from
tan x + tan y
_
*
"=
we may
J infer that
tan x tan y
th (x
+ y)
v
s
th x th y
r.
l+tha;th/
the sign in the denominator being changed because

tana;
is
an implied product of two
The
sin
(tt
tanw
cos x cos y
sines.
rule excludes the application to periodicity properties, e.g.
x) =
sin a;;
and to
special angles, e.g.

.
sm (x + \n) =
.
and
sin x sin y
also to limits, e.g. d{cosx)\dx
(sin x
+ cos x)
J
= - since. A complete
justification
of the rule will be given in 14.68.
Consideration of the integrals in Ex. 4 (g), nos. 40-49, will verify
that the general procedures for integrating circular and hyperbolic

functions are the same.
Exercise 4(g)
Prove the following formulae.
1
chas + sho;
2 sh 2x
3
ex,
chx ahx =
e~ x .
= 2shx chx.
ch2x = ch 2 c + sh 2 a; = 2ch 2 c-l =
4 th.2x
2tiiX
5
l+th?x
6 c\i(x-y)
8 Express as
ch.xch.y-shxah.y.
+ 2sh 2
cc.
ah(x-y) = Bhxchy-chxahy.
7 th(x + y)
th x + th y
-
sums
or differences
(i)
sha; sh?/;
(ii)
+ tha thy
shxchy,
(iii)
cha; ch.y.
INTEGRATION
129
sh+shD = 2 sh( + D)ch (->).

BhS-shD = 2sh$(S-D)ch$(S + D).
ch + chD = 2chi(S + D) chi(S-D).
ch S chD = 2sh( + D) sh $(S - D).
sh Zx = 3sha; + 4sh 3
14 ch 3a; = 4ch 3 3chx.
2t
1 + t2
If t = th \x, prove (i) cha; =
-; (iii) thx = -; (ii) ahx =
a
9
10
11
12
13
a;
a;.
15
16 Solve the equation 7 sh a; + 20 ch x = 24 (i)

(ii) by using the substitutions in no. 15.
2t
-.
1+T a
by expressing it as a quadratic
in e x ;
(cha; + sha;) n
17 Prove
and
(chaj + sha:)
(chy + shy)
chraj + shna;,
ch(x + y) + sh(x + y).
(l+thx\ n
= ch 2na; 4- sh 2nx.
1-th xj
;
19 If ch x cos x = 1, prove that th \x tan \x. [Express

20 Prove sin 2 x ch 2 y + cos 2 x sh 2 y = |(ch 2t/ cos 2a;).
If tan x
21
= th y,
Find (and simplify

22
sh(loga;).
in half-angles.]
th 2y.
if possible) the derivative of
24 cotha;.
23 cosecha;.
secha;.
26
prove sin 2a;
all
28 tan-
27 logth&c.
30 cha; cosaj + sha; sin a;.
31
x cbx
25 logsha;.
29 tan- 1 (th \x).
(cotha;).
32
(cha;)*.
= A ch nx + B sh nx where A B, n are constants, prove d 2y/dx2 = n 2y.

If y = tan -1 (sha;), prove d2y/dx 2 + (dy/dx) 2 tany = 0.
33 If y
34
Write down the integral of
36 sech 2
35 sh2a;.
e a! (tha;
38
3a?.
+ sech 2 a;).
37 thfcc.
39
^chbx.
Using the formulae of 4.44 (1) and nos. 1-15 when necessary, calculate
the integral
of
40 sh 2 a;.
41 ch 2 a;.
44 sh 3 a;.
45 cha; ch2a; ch3a;.
42 th2 a\
43 sha;ch3a;.
46
ch(loga;).
47
jx ch x dx.
50
By
51
Reconcile the result of no. 50 with the answer of no. 29
48
jx sech 2 xdx.
expressing sech x in terms of
e,
jx 2 sh x dx.
49
prove Jsech xdx
2 tan -1 (e x )
+ c.
by using
Tan- 1 a - Tan- 1 6 = Tan- 1 {(a - &)/( 1 + ab)}

to
show
i.e.
Tan- 1 (e x - Tan" 1
)
= Tan" 1 (th Jx),
by a constant.
by use of the definition;
that the results differ only
52 Obtain
9
J*cosecha;<ia;
(i)
(ii)
from no.
27.
GPM
INTEGRATION
130
[4.45
53 Sketch the graph of (i) y = cotha;; (ii) y = secha;; (iii) y = cosecha.

54 Prove that sh x x and x th x are increasing functions for all x. Deduce
that for x > 0, thar < x < ahx < chx.
55 Calculate
4.45
The
lira
shx/x and lim thx/x. [Use no. 54;
cf. 2.12.]
inverse hyperbolic functions
These functions bear the same relation to shx, chx, thx,

tan-1 a;, ... bear to sin a;, cos a;, tana;, ....
...
that
sin -1 #, cos -1 a;,
Since x
(1)
steadily
from
= ahy is a continuous function of y which increases

oo to +oo as y increases from oo to +oo (see
hence shy takes every value just once; i.e. to any given
value of x there corresponds a unique value of y, written y = sh-1 x
4.44(2)
(c)),
and called the inverse hyperbolic sine of x.

The graph of y = sh-1 x is obtained from that of y = sh a; as described
in 4.41
(4).
Fig. 52
Fig. 51
= sh -1 then shy = a; and so by 4.44(1), (vi),chi/ = +<J(l+x2 ).

Hence y = log{x + ^(x2 + 1)}, i.e.
ev = shy + chy = x + *J(l + x 2
If y
Also
a;,
).
sh" 1 x
This shows that sh_1 a;
is
is
log {x + V(z2 +
continuous for
1 )}.
all x, since
\og{x + J(x 2 +
a continuous function of a continuous function (2.62
= chy
1)}
(2)).
an even continuous function of y which into + oo and also

creases steadily from 1 to + oo as y increases from
to oo, hence ch y has the same value for two
as y decreases from
(equal but opposite) values of y, except when chy = 1. Thus to any
(2)
Since x
is
INTEGRATION
4.45]
>
given value of x
when x =
correspond two equal and opposite values of y;

1 the function y of x is not defined. The
and for x <
1, y
two-valued function y
by ch-1 #.
0;
is
denoted by Qh~ x x, and the positive value
The graph of y = ch_1 a;is the

curve
is
that of y
'thick' curve in
ev
chy, shy
= chy + shy =
ev
2
= x + <]{x
-l)
v
Ch" * =
1
i.e.
ch- 1 ^
and
Since x
= thy
or
The complete
= + <J(x2 1), and
= x*-(x2 -l) =
,/
1)
(a
1),
+log{x + yl(x2 -l)}
{x
1).
x^
for
1,
x + j(x2
- 1)}
log{a; + V(^
Thus ch_1 a; is continuous

(3)
52.
x<J(x2 l).
{x + <J{x 2 - 1)} {x - V(z2 -l)}
hence
fig.
= Ch-1 x.
From y = Ch -1 a; we have x =
Since
131
1.
a continuous
is
function of y which increases steadily

from 1 to + 1 as y increases from
oo
+oo, hence thy takes every
to
value between
x(
<x<
sponding
just once. Thus, given
there
1),
a unique corre-
is
th-1 x.
y, written y
th -1 x,
tht/
From
i/
so
t>2y
_ l+x
e2y
e2
v+V
1+a;
and
IT-lIogj^,
Fig. 53
th-i*
i.e.
which
(4)
is
continuous for
= ilogi^
all
|a;|
<
(H<1).
1.
The functions Sech_1 a;, cosech _1 a;, coth -1 a; are seldom used
because
Sech- 1 x
= Ch"1
They could be
cosech" 1 x
sh" 1
treated similarly; see Ex. 4
(&),
coth" 1 x
nos. 38-40.
th"1
INTEGRATION
132
and
(5) Derivatives
[4.45
integrals.
= sh -1 a\
From x = shy, dxjdy = chy = + A/(l + sh 2 i/) =
(i)
+ x 2 ), the posiHence
tive sign being chosen since ch y is never negative.
s sh
-1
~la;
=+
{aUx)
v(rb)
= ch
Since x = chy, dxjdy = shy = + yj(ch2 y 1) = + /(x 2 1), the posi-1
tive sign being chosen because the values of y = ch a; are not nega(ii)
a;.
and hence sh y
tive,
(hi)
not negative. Therefore
is
th-1 a;.
From x =
thy, dxjdy
The corresponding
seoh2 y
= 1 a;2
So
integrals are:
These should be compared carefully with the
last
two
results of 4.12.
Exercise 4(h)
1
Obtain the derivatives of sh -1 x, ch -1 x, th -1 x by using their logarithmic
expressions.
down the derivative of the following, stating any restrictions on the values ofx.
Write,
2 sh- 1 ^).
5 th-iftan^).
6 coth" 1
8 th -1 (sina;).
9 ch -1 (sec a;),
10 Calculate
J
r
11
Calculate
By writing x/a
f
12
dx
-rr
(a
4 th- 1 (2).
ch- x (2a;-l).
J^^+^J
dx
7 sh _1 (tanaj).
by the substitution x =
V(l+* 2
sh t.
x
v(* -i)
(j
>
(x
>
1)
by the
substitution x
cht.
0)for x in the integrals of 4.45 (5), prove that
- = sh- 1 - + c.
13
C
dx
I-:;
- = ch"
,
+c
(x
>
a).
INTEGRATION
dx
;
15
x2
,a
=-th~ 1 - + C
a
133
<o).
(\x\
by using
Calculate the integrals in nos. 12-14
suitable hyperbolic sub-
stitutions.
16
Show that the logarithmic form of no.

dx
V(a 2 + x2 )
and
12
is
log{a + V(a 2 + a 2 )} + c',
between the constants
state the relation

nos. 13, 14.
Give similar results for
c, c'.
Write down the integrals of

17
V(
}+25)*
*
21
24
18
v^
By
22
putting
2
)
dx
20
, ]
V( 4a;2 + 25 )'
- )'
V( 36 aj8
1
23
r..
V( 2 + 2a; + a;2 )
a sh and using ch a t
a:
19
-.
By putting a; =
}- 36
,
)'
V(4a 2 -9)
V(*
25
ix J{x 2 + a 2 )
J(ch 2t +
1),
J(2x + x*)
prove that
>
if a
0,
+ ia 2 sh" 1 (a/a) + c.
ach, calculate J(x 2 a 2 )dx (a
>
0).
[Contrast 4.21,
ex. (vi).]
By wsmgr a suitable hyperbolic substitution,

26
J*
V(9# 2 4) da.
27
+ 4)dx (answer in logarithmic form).
y/(9x 2
calculate the following.
< 1, what is the substitution to be used in no. 11? Show that the
log{ x + *J(x 2 l)} + c. [As ch$ is never negative, the substitution
required is x = chtf.]
*30 If a;
result is
-12
*31
(i)
(ii)
Evaluate
dx_
t/
J^" og by the substitution x
2
13y/(x -25)
x
Also evaluate this integral
substitution
= y.
by first reducing it to
*36 If c n = Ja"ch axdx and s n

integer, prove
n
34 ash- 1 *;.
x
= sh ax
a
fx
n ah.axdx,
n
a
by the
(i).)
the integrals of
33 th- 1 ^.
J12VOS 2 - 25 )
(This obviates the difficulty of signs indicated in

32 ch- 1 ^.
= 5 ch
*_i,
35
where a
xn
ch ax
a
Hence obtain a reduction formula for c n and for s n

37 Using no. 5, show that jaecxdx = 2 th" 1 (tan s)
aHh- 1
and n
is
*:.
a positive
n
a
c n _,.
if
|tana|
<
the result when |tana| > 1? Show that both results are given
arithmic forms log tan ( %x + \n) = log sec x + tan x
j
1.
What is
by the
log-
INTEGRATION
134
38
[4.5
Verify the results stated in 4.45 (4), and state for what values of x they hold.
Use these
results to
prove that
sech-ijc =
ax
(l)
cosech-ia =
ax
(ii)
-coth-^ =
(iii)
(0<a;<l);
xj(l x 2 )
1
(x
x*J(l+x 2 )
#= 0);
*39 Sketch the graphs of (i) cosech -1 c;
(H>1).
(ii)
Sech -1 a;;
(iii)
coth -1 a:.
*40 Prove that

(i)
(u)
sech-i*
log
cosech- 1 ^
Jlt^Z^J
log
if
I
(iii)
coth" 1 *
ilog
(B)
4.5
Revised
list
<
(0
<
>
1);
0,
log|
if
<
0;
(|a;|
J|i|J
>
1).
Systematic integration
of standard integrals
In section (A) of this chapter we gave some general methods of

integration (decomposition, substitution, parts, reduction formula),
and applied them to a variety of functions. In this section we approach

the subject from a different point of view by considering various types
of function and investigating what methods can be used to integrate
them. Although we cannot give rules which will apply for the integration of all functions, we shall see that certain classes of functions can
always be integrated by following a well-defined procedure. Our

classification of functions will be the 'structural' one outlined in 1.51.
The following resultsf have been obtained in

xm dx
i<fcc
(m
m+ 1
log|a|;
ex ;
section (A)
# - 1):
"
(i)
(ii)
F.
ex dx
jsinxdx = cos x,
f
The
(iii)
cos x &x
~ sm x
>
arbitrary constant of integration has been omitted for brevity.
a b
>
INTEGRATION
4.5]
2
Jsec xdx
2
Jcosec xdx
tan x,
jsh xdx = ch x,
jsech 2xdx
J*ch xdx
dx
j j(x*-l)
The
(v) a, b
sh x\
(vi) a, b
= coth x;
(vii) a,
tan_1 x;
JvuW^
lj(iTx*)
cot x;
Jcosech2 xdx
th x,
jiTx*
135
dx
8*11
(vm)
"1
(ix)
&
Bh lx
>
dx
Gh ~ lx
(aj>1 ^
J^cfe - log|/(*)|
result
includes the following:
Jtan xdx
= log
Jth xdx =
exs.
(i), (ii))
Jcosec xdx
Jcoth xdx
log ch x,
We shall show (see 4.81,
Jseco;cia;
jcot xdx
cos x\ ,
log sh x\ .
|
(xii) a,
(xiii) a,
that
log tan %x\

|
log |tan(|a? + Jtt)|
log sin x\
or
(xiv)
log |seca; + tana;|.
(xv) a, b
The reader should know all of these, and should be able to quote
when x is replaced by any linear function
px + q (p 4= 0). Thus by writing xja for x in nos. (viii)-(xi), we have
when a > 0:
the corresponding results
f.
dx
\~n~r
CI
J J{a* + x*)
dx
ah
2\
~1 x
= - tan -1 dx
(xvi)
sin"1 -;
g(a; + V(
(xvii)
+ a;2 )};
(xviii)a,6
INTEGRATION
136
and
if
< a<
C
^ ==Ch"
J V(^
Similarly,
[4.6
x,
-a 2
fcgfc + VO*
xby px + q in.
on replacing
a2s
because
= J- f
2a\x
- 02 )}-
(xix)a,&
(ii),
x + a/
Integration of rational functions
4.6
4.61 Preliminary considerations

(1)
All rational functions of the form Jcf (x) \f{x) (where k is constant)
can be integrated immediately as
by
fclog f(x)\,
4.33.
(2)
it
When
the function
is
not already of this form,
we decompose
into simpler rational functions. If the degree of the numerator
is
than that of the denominator, we begin by using 'long

division' to reduce the fraction to a polynomial together with a
not
less
'proper' fraction.
Examples
_^!_
(i)
x+\
x%
hence
= *_!+.
dx
\x 2 x + log
2xi -x 3 -Sx 2 + 5x-4
(u)
o
,
x3. -3x+l
.
so the integral of this function

a;
4.62 Digression
We may
on
x+V
\x
a;
3* 2 -3
=2x-l+-
+1
-3a:+r
is
-:K + log|a: 3 -3a;+l|.
partial fractions
suppose that, whenever necessary, the above division

Our problem is then to decompose a 'proper'
process has been done.

fraction into a
sum of simpler fractions, known as its partial fractions.
When the denominator can be factorised into
a product of linear and
INTEGRATION
4.62]
137
irreduciblej quadratic factors (repeated or not), the reader will
how this decomposition is made. We

a summary of the working rules; the theory is
know
give here, for convenience,
where there
(10.53),
is
full
in the Algebra section
formulation of the basis of 'equating
coefficients' (10.13).
1 (a)
For each simple linear factor xa assume a partial fraction

xa
(b)
For each squared linear factor
(c)
xc
'
==-rz
Ax + B
A.
or equivalently
.r
,
'
C2
C
+ 7 3 \s
(x c) 2
(x c) 3
,
b) 2 assume a sum
x -b) 2
(
For each cubed linear factor

<?i
and
+-
x-b
(x
(x
(x-b) 2
'
c) 3 assume
or equivalently
'
Ax2 + Bx + C
(x c) 3
so on.
(a)
For each unrepeated irreducible quadratic factor x2 + bx + c
assume a fraction
x
(b)
For each squared
assume a sum
+ bx + c'
irreducible quadratic factor (x2 + bx + c) 2
A x x + Bx
.
x2 + bx + c
and so
A 2 x + B2
.
(x2
+ bx + c) 2
'
on.
Thus, in general, for a factor of degree n
we assume a partial frac-
n 1
whose numerator
(cf. the equivalent forms in

is of degree
but in the case of a repeated factor it is usually better to
express such a fraction as the sum of n simpler ones, as first stated.
tion
Rule
1);
Having followed the above procedure for all factors of the denomin-
we convert the relation expressing the equivalence of the given

fraction and the sum of partial fractions into a polynomial equation,
by multiplying both sides by the given denominator. The constants
A,B,C, ... can then be determined either by (i) equating coefficients,
ator,
or
substitution of special values for x, or (most usually)
a
mixture of these methods. The following examples should revise
(ii)
and
clarify all that is necessary.

| See the definition in 10.52.
(iii)
INTEGRATION
138
[4.62
Examples
ABC
Simple linear factors.
(i)
x z +l
x(x 2 4)
+ 2= + 2'
x x
x+
0:
= A(x*-4:) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx{x-2).

1 = -4A,
so A = -\.
Put x =
2:
x2 +l
;.
Put
Put
a;
= -2:
a:
Hence
a;
SB,
so
B=
f.
8C,
so
C7
f.
15
+l =
a;(a:
5=
ABC
7cc-4
+2
+ 2) a?-l (a;-l) a
7a; - 4 = A(x - 1) (a + 2) + 5(a; + 2) + C(x - l) a
(a;-l) 2
3=1:
Put x = - 2:
coefficients of
a;
(a:-l) a
+ 3a?+l
^ a ,
(a;
o,
(a;-2) 3 (a;-3)
and we could proceed as
=
+ 2)
so
before.
so
x-1
2.
5=1.
C - -2.
so
= A + G,
lx~ 4
2a; 2
a;
Hence
(a;
= 35,
-18 = 9C,
Put
Equate
8(x + 2)'
S(x-2)
4x
Repeated linear factor.
/.
5
(--
-4)
+ 2*
CD
(a;-l) 2
a?
B
A
^
+ 7
^ + -
+-x-%'
(a;-2)
(x-2)
a
a:-2
The
following variation of the
method should
be noticed.
+ 3a: + 1 = A(x - 2) 2 (x - 3) + B(x - 2) (x - 3) + C(x - 3) + D(x - 2) 3

= 2:
15 = -G, so G = - 15.
2a; 2
Put x
Hence
^(a;-2) 2 (a;-3) + 5(a;-2)(a;-3) + jD(a;-2) s
=
=
=
2z 2 + 3a;+
+ 15(a?-3)
+ 18a; -44
(a; + ll).
2
4(a;-2)(a;-3) + 5(a;-3) + i)(a;-2) = 2a; + 22.
-5 = 26,
Put = 2:
and hence
A(x - 2) (x - 3) + D(x - 2) 2 = 2x + 22 + 26(x - 3)
= 28(a;-2).
A{x- 3) +D(x- 2) = 28.
/.
Putting x 2 gives J. = 28, and x = 3 gives Z) = 28.
2a;
2(a;-2)
.*.
a;
WAen
cw&ic or higher order repetitions occur,
method (equivalent
to repeated division).
it is
shorter to use the following
INTEGRATION
4.62]
Putting y
139
= x 2, the fraction given in ex. (iii) becomes

2y' + lly+15
2(y + 2)' + 3(y + 2) + l
=
3
y (y-i)
y*(y-i)
15+lly + 2y = - 15(y - 1) + 26y + 2y*
Nowf
ss
-15(y-l)-26y(y-l) + 28y
= - 15(y- 1) - 26^/(2/ - 1) - 28i/ 2 (2/ - 1) + 282/8

.
15
-
so the fraction
is
y*
28
26
28
h
yi
y-\
26
15
(x-2)*
(x-2)*
28
x-2 x-2
28
Simple quadratic factor.
x+4
(1V)
x(x* + 2)
_ A Bx + C
~ x + x* + 2
'
x+4 = A(x* + 2)+x{Bx + C).

4 = 2A,
so A = 2.
2
Equate coefficients of a;
= A + B, so B = 2.
Equate coefficients of a;:
1 = C.
2 2a;-l
s+4
Hence
2
(a; 2 + 2)
+2
_Ax + B Cx + D
xs
+ 2
2
+9
+ 4) (a 2 + 9) ~ 2 + 4
.'.
Put x =
0:
a;
(a;
a:
a:
but if we notice that the given fraction

have (more easily)
a function of *2 and put y
is
.4
a;
2
,
we
2?
+
+ 4) (2/ + 9) ~ ^+4 ^+9'
from which we find A = $ B = f as in ex. (i). Thus
(2/
x1
(a;
+ 4) (a; 2 + 9)
9
5(z 2 + 9)
5(a:
+ 4)
x* + x 3
(vi)
x3 -l
'
Here the fraction is not 'proper', so that first the division process must be
applied. It can be combined with the work for finding the constants in the
partial fractions as follows. Since the quotient is of first degree in x, it has the
+ + 1) of x3 1,
a;* +
A
Bx + C
T
= ax + o-\
+
#-1 x* + x+l
a^-1
x* + x* = (ax + b)(xi -\)+A(x l + x+l) + (Bx + G){x-l).
Equating coefficients of x* and of x* gives respectively 1 = a, 1 = 6. Put x =
2 = SA, so A = f
form ax + b;
so,
using the factors (a;

a;
1)
(a;
a;
.'.
t The following can also be obtained

(arranged in ascending powers of y).
by long
division of
1:
15+ lly + 2y 2 by 1 +y
INTEGRATION
140
Proceeding as in ex.
(iii),
first
[4.62
method, we find after a
little
calculation that
3(Bx + C)(x~l) = -(2x + l){x-l),

Wx + 3C = - 2x - 1.
so that
Equating
coefficients of
C = I.
Hence
3
x gives
xi + x
.
B =
,
x*-l
and equating constant terms gives
= x+l +
2x+l
2
3(a: + a;+l)
B(x-1)
Repeated quadratic factor.
but
= A
X-l
x+3
{X-1)(X 2 +1) Z
(Vll)
a+3
(-l)(a: 2 +l) 2
x-l
x+ 3
/.
Put x =
X*+l
I:
(X 2 +1)*
Write
easier to proceed as follows.
it is
Dx + E
Bx + C
1
f{x)
(a;
+l) 2
'
A(x*+l)* + (x-l)f(x).
4A,
A=
so
1.
x+ 3
1
_
+l) 2 ~ ix-l)ix 2 +l) z ~ x-l
f{x)
"
ix
_ -x 3 -x*-3x-2
~
ix + l) z
2
after
fix)
and
or
this
by
1.
We now have
either
by inspection
combining the fractions and then removing the factor x
= -x -x -3x-2,
z
can be put in the form iax + b) + icx + d)
division
by x 2 + 1.
/(*)
The given fraction is
+ 1)
= (- 2x - 1) + (- x - 1) ix* + 1).
therefore
x+1
2x+l
x-l~ x +\~ ix 2 +l)

2
(viii)
(*
We find
'
Case of linear factors with irrational coefficients.

(i) would apply to a case like
The method of ex.
xix*-2)
and we could express the
xjx + ^2)ix^j2)'
result in the
form
A+- B
x + y/2
C
x-^2
For the purpose of integration, surds can often be avoided by incompletely

decomposing the given fraction. Thus
1
xix*-2)
_A + Bx + C
x
x 2 -2'
INTEGRATION
141
and by the visual methods we should find A = \, B = \, C = 0. Then immedi4.63]
ately
dx =
2
J x(x 2)
Jlog
Exercise
Using
the results of the above
worked examples, calculate
x*+l
2
x(x
4)
4(0
the integrals of
lx- 4
2x 2 + 3x+l
(x-l)*(x + 2)
(a;-2) 3 (a;-3)'
X+4:
x*(x+l)
x*_
x(x 2 + 2)'
(a;
+ 4) (a; 2 + 9)'
'
x*-l
x+3
*7
(a;-l)(a; 2 +l) a
Express the following completely in partial fractions (using inspection whenever

convenient),
and hence
calculate their integrals.

a;
-l
2
CK +1
a;
11
7a;
20
2a;
18
'
2a?
21
3a;
*23
+ 22a; 2 + 7a; + 54
+ 3) 2
(l-2a;)(a; 2
+7
(aj+l)(aj+2)(2aj + 3)'
3a;
19
(x-l)(x + 2) 1
+ 12a; + 2
(a;+l) 3 (a;-2)'
+13
6a;
16
a;(a;+l)
a;(a;-3) 2
2
2a;+l
(a?-l)(4a;-l)*
15
a; 6
'
13
x(x+l)'
a;+18
17
(*-l) 2
2x3 + a; 2 + 4
2a;a;
a;+l
10
x-2
12
'
+l
x*-l'
(a;-2) 3
14
a;
+3
22
xJx^+Ty
2
2
-3a;-2
(a;+I) 2
x* + 4a;- 16
(a;-2) 2 (a;2 + 4)'

1
24
'
(2a;
+1) (3a;2 + 2)'
Express the following in partial fractions involving only rational
coefficients,
and
hence calculate their integrals.
25
(2a;
4.63
It
x+2
+ 3) (a; 2 -3)
Summary
will now be
4a;
26
+3
(a;-2)(a; 2 + 4a;-l)
clear that, provided
we can
27
2x* + x 2 -2
a;
-4
resolve the
'
denominator
and quadratic factors, any given rational function f{x)jg{x)

can be expressed as a sum of partial fractions of the types
into linear
A
(x-a) m
'
Bx + C
(a* + bx+c) m
'
INTEGRATION
142
for
m=
where x
1, 2, 3,
+ bx + c
[4.64
has no factors or else has linear
factors with irrational coefficients.
Integration of the
type yields
first
r~i1
\m(x a)-
>
if
oil
-4 log
or
1,
=f=
a\
la;
We examine the integrals of the second type in 4.64,
m=
if
1.
4.65.
be factorised as described above, we

remark that the method of partial fractions becomes powerless,
Thus it cannot cope with
If the polynomial g(x) cannot
"j*
'Zx
+ 5x* + x2 -2x-l
{x*-x+lf
although the expression for this integral

x* +
xP
is
dx
'
in fact
x+V
Ax + B
dx
bx + c
(1)
Constant numerator (case
A=
0).
Complete the square in the denominator, thus reducing the

tegral to one of the standard forms (xvi), (xx) in 4.5.
in-
Examples
dx
dx
_ r
x 2 + 6x-4~ J (x + 3) 2 -13'
f
Jx -a
Since
J
C
therefore
Hence the given
integral
dx =
x + a/
2a
^~ (
2a\x-a
xa
log
8
x+a
k-a
= log
(x + k) z -a*
2a Îx + k + a
dx
\x +
is
1
|aj
;log
e
2V13
dx
+ 3-Vl3|
^
+ Vl3|'
1
|* + 3
_lf
dx
dx
{x + 2)*
~.
Since
dx
)x* + a*
Hence the given
- tan
-1 x
integral
a'
dx
J (x + k)* + a*
- tan
+ 2\
-1,x + h
is
11
+2 . tan -1,
= tan -1
1
4 1|
t
li
2a;
+4
Hermite has shown how to find the rational part of any such integral
ff(x)
/
J 9(P)
without having to factorise
g(x).
dx
INTEGRATION
4.64]
Alternatively,
put x + 2
tan 6; the integral becomes
sec 2
4j
143
11
6j
In practice the middle step of the working in each example is done mentally.
(2)
.
Linear numerator (A
#= 0).
Express the numerator in the form
A (derivative
Hence
split
of denominator) + fi.
sum
the given integral into a
of the form
rf'(
of two integrals: the
J5|jf<fa-log|/(x)|
the second
is
covered by case
(1)
above.
Examples
Zx - 5
Write
Then we
find
A=f
fi
The
2a:
A(4a:
+ 2) +/t.
Hence the given integral is

4x + 2
j*
4J
13
+ 2a: + 41
dx
|*
2 J
2a;
+ 2a; + 4l'
last integral is
= tftan -1
= JjS-.^tan- 1
Therefore the given integral

log ( 2a;
is
8
+ 2x + 4 1 -
tan" 1
2x+ 1
7
(1V)
ii-te-ax*
^
2*-7 = A(-3-4tB)+/t;
Write
then A =
(i
W and
_i
the given integral
-3-4x
is
ii r
+
2 J 11 -3a:- 2a; 8 * ~2 J ll-3a=-2a; 8
The
'
last integral is
11
/*
dx
11
1
|
s+f-W97
is
iloglll-Sa^l-^log
4a;
+ 3-V97
4a + 3 + V97
first is
INTEGRATION
144
Ax
xx +rD
B
4.65 Reduction formula for
As
in 4.64 (2), begin
by
finding
[4.65
^ /
...
2
n
J (x + bx + c)
numbers
A,
(i
for
dx
'
which
Ax + B =
X(2x + b)+/i.
Ax
B
r
2x + b
r
+
dx
dx = A f 2
dx + u
n
^ J (x* + bx + c)
J(x + bx + c) n
J (x* + bx + c)
_A
1
n-1 (x* + bx+c) n - 1+llUn
Then
'
dx
where
6aj + c) n
by completing the square,
jTsvJ;
{(a + i&) + C-i&*}
jjTZTTixirh.
2
+ B
= c 6 2 Writing the numerator of the integrand
!
jfc)
t = x + \b and
+ k) (l/k) t 2 we decompose the integral:
on putting
as ( ljk)
(t
A;
I f
_1
+
1*n ~ i1 H
on integrating by
2&(n -
parts.
1)
* 2cfe
J* 5 {(! +
2k{n-l)(fi + k) n - 1
2k(n-l)
Hence
2(n-l)k
2w-3
(P + k)"- 1
2(w-l)fc
Successive applications of this reduction formula will lead to u x which is

many cases un is more easily calculated by means
of a substitution, as in the following.
,
either (xvi) or (xx) of 4.5. In
Example
2x- 1
{x*
+ 2x + 5) i
dx.
2x -
Write
Then A =
and /* =
X{2x + 2) +/i.
3, so that the integral is

2x + 2
C
J
+ 2o; + 5)
^ -3
(a;
* 2 + 2a; + 5
/*
cite
a
2
J (* + 2 + 5)
3 f
J {(*+
<fo
2
1)
+ 4}
INTEGRATION
4.7]
Putting x +
145
2 tan 0, the last integral becomes
f 2sec 2
4
J 16sec
dd = - f coa
J
6dd
(l+cos20)d0
16
1
'
= ^g(^ + i sin 26) =

sin 6
Since
the expression
tan
16\
1
is
Hence the given
and
,,
V{(a;+l) 2 + 4}
f
-1t
*+l
integral
cos 6
+ sin 6 cos 0).

=
2(x+l)
-;
^+1)2 + 4}'
,
\
J
(x+l) + 4j
is
^tan- ,x+l
2
16
x* + 2x + 5
3x+ll
-A
16 tan
8(x* + 2x + 5)
3
x+1
Sx 2 + 2x + 5
x+1
-1
'
Exercise 4(j)
Integrate each of the following functions.
1
7^
A
4
+ 2) 2 +16'
^
5 4a;-a;
g:2
'
a:
+i
(a;
25) 2
2a;
(a;
*il
(a;
a; 2
*13
+^+ 3
(l+a:)(l+a; 2 )'
10
1
.
+ 2) 2 -16*
3a;
2a;-10'
_
2
(3a;
rr.
(3a:
-3a:-4
- l)(a: 2 + 2a; + 2)'
+ 4) 3
x2 + 2a; + 2'
6x + 5
- 18a; + 25'
3
8
a; + 7a; - 3a; + 4
4
+ 2 +l
+2
*
2
2
(a; + 2a; + 5)
9a; 2
a;
*12
'
"
t
1+a;
*14
a;
*15
1+a*'
l+a; 2 + a^*
Integration of some algebraical functions
4.7
4.71 Linear irrationalities
For functions containing roots of linear expressions, a rationalising

substitution can always be used.
Examples
(i)
xdx
C2ts dt
=
=
$t*-t2 + 2t-21og\t+l\
fa;*-a; + 2a;*-21og|a;*+l|.
INTEGRATION
146
C
....
To
both
Jt* + t*
>
put x
roots,
(since 6 is the l.c.m. of 2
and
3).
The
becomes
C6t6 dt
[4.72
dx
rationalise
integral
<
t*
t+1
6(i*
2a;*
dt
-* 2 + *-log|*+l|)
as in ex.
(i)
- 3a;* + 6** - 61og la;* + 1|.
jxT^Y) = frnwt-
where 2*~
so that *
= * 2+ 1}
2feft
:
+ l)
2 f|
by
- 1 <ft
partial fractions,
2{log|+l|+^
21oglV(2a;-l)
(iv);
V
^ =
Ja;^(a;-8)
f
3* 2 eft
J*
3 f
Jt*
The
-1
i\
dt
partial
by
3 y
+ 2]
-2 + 4
variable
fractions,
+ 2)
fI
-|Ti -ilog|
<
+ 2|.
tan
J(*-l)* + 3-V3
The
ilog( , 2 _ 2, + 4)
last integral is
+1
J(t + 2)(t*-2t + 4)
t+2
p1 /
1)
J eft
3 f
j6\<"-2< + 4
2J \
+8
+V(2a; _
x 8
where
,
f 3
( + 8)*'
J(*
+ l|
x is now restored by putting t
"73'
(x 8)*.
4.72 Quadratic irrationalities
For functions containing J (ax2 + bx + c), the substitution

ax2 + bx + c
is
not usually successful; but 'completing the square'
is
useful at
INTEGRATION
4.73]
some
stage.
proved that
We
if
by a few
illustrate
R(x, y)
is
147
particular cases; but it can be
a rational function of x and
*J(ax
where
y,
+ bx + c),
then jB(x, y) dx can always be reduced to the integral of a rational

function by means of a substitution.
i71
If
Ax + B
we remove the
factor
\a\
from under the root
sign,
we
obtain a
multiple of an integral of one of the types
Ax + B
aX
dx
)J(x* + gx + h)
Ax + B
aX
dx
)j(- x * + gx + h)
>
'
(1) Constant numerator (case A = 0).

Completing the square in the denominator reduces either type to
one or other of the standard forms (xvii)-(xix) in 4.5.
Examples
(i)
*!
2
JV(* + 4a;+13)
(i)
dx
dx
r
J J{( x + 2)* + 9}
- J_
= 3h-^ +2
"
dx
a; )
da;
V{W-(*+f) 2}
V3
6ar
+5
11
da:
J V{a?(3 + 2a;)}
J V(2aj +
3ar)
^2 J V(* 2 +t*)
da;
V{(* + l)
(2)
Linear numerator (A
Since dUf(x)}/dx
in the
=j=
-i9}
ch
4a;
V2
+3
'
0).
%f'{x)j<]f(x),
we begin by writing the numerator
form
\X (derivative of expression under the
root)
where A, /i are constants. The given integral is then

of two integrals the first is of the form
+ ji,
split into
the
sum
"*/'(*)
dx
p.V/(*)
the second
is
as in case
y/f(x);
(1).
IO-2
INTEGRATION
148
[4.73
Examples
+X
(
iv )
Jva-x + x
I
2,
%
dx.
1+ x =
Write
Then A =
and /* = f the
;
A(
integral
- 1 + 2x)
is
r_i (^-l)_
fd
dx
x + x2 )
dx
= V(i-^+^ 2 )+|
J V{(^-4) 2 +e
<v>
by
J7(lsi) *- - Jv,- wL+i
,to
/,/<*!'+->*'
'rationahsing the numerator'. Write

a;-
= ;
Then A = | and
1
2J
\l{2x* + x-Z)
(i)-(v)
A(4a; + l)+/t.
the integral
(4a;+l)
=
Examples
is
da;
_5 f
~l) J{2x* + x-Z)
5
4a;
+a;-3)-^ch-i
^V(2a;
4-
could also have been done by using a trigono-
metric or hyperbolic substitution. Thus, after the preHminary steps

in ex. (v),
we
Putting x + J
could proceed as follows.
| ch u, the integral
is
*f(cliM 1). shudu

x-1
If
= J_f|(
2
*
f shw
V2j
V2J V{(* + i) -ff}
5
J*(chw
~"~
v
4V2j
From w =
ch
-1
f (a; +
i)
ch -1
*,
l)<Zi*
= -^^(shw m).
"~4V2
+ we have
4a;
shw = V(ch 2 w-1) =
y{(^
2V2
B
5
this gives the result as before.
1
^)
~ 1 = iV(16 2 + 8a;-24)
}
V( 2a;2 + a;
- 3 );
INTEGRATION
4.74]
149
dx
k74
Jo{x - k) ^{ax2 + bx + c)
This can be reduced by the substitution x k
1/f
to the form
considered in 4.73.
Examples
J(a+i)V(i+*-* 2 )'
= 1/t, so that dx = - (1/t 2 dt and

l+x-x* = -(a+l) 2 + 3a: + 2 = -(x+ l) 2 + 3(a; + 1)-
Put x + 1
The
integral
is
J(i/).(i/<)V(- 2 +3-i)~
J V{f-(-f)
= - sin" 1 =
sin" 1
>
j = sin-
1
by using t l/(x+ 1).
x+1
J(x-l)J(4x* + l)
_
~
The
(x-l) + 2
J(x-l)J(4x* + l)
dx
JV(4a; +l)
2
first of these integrals is ^sh _1 2a;;
stitution
a;
1 =
1/t
JV(5<
dt
a
J(*-l)V(4z 2 +l)'
the second
is
reduced by the sub-
to
_ _ J_
dt
+ 8< + 4)""V5jV{( + t) 2 -^}

=
r-
ch _1
ch -1
2*V5
V5
^{ax* + bx + c)dx
4.75
By
completing the square, the integrand
forms
The
dx
\l(t* + W),
<J(k*-t
is
2
2
),
V(*
reduced to one of the
-^ 2
)-
integral can then be
found by a trigonometric or hyperbolic

substitution. For example, putting x = ash u we have
j*J(x
+ a 2 )dx = jachu.ach.udu
a2 Jch2 udu
\a2
+ ch 2u) du
J(
= %a2 (u + %sh2u) = \a\u + ahuchu)

= \a 2 sh- 1 (s/a) + \x J(x2 + a 2
).
'
INTEGRATION
150
We
could also rationalise
<J(x
[4.76
+ a2 by
putting #
atan#; the
would become
integral
ja seed, a sec 2 Odd = a2 Jsec 3 Odd,

but this
is less
easy to calculate.
Similarly, jj(a 2 x2 )dx is rationalised
veniently by x
= a th u) and j*J(x2 a2
;
by x = a sin 6 (or less condx

by
x = a ch u (or # = a sec 0)
)
4.76 Direct use of a trigonometric or hyperbolic substitution
The
substitutions mentioned in 4.75 can often be used directly.
Others are given in Ex. 4 (k), nos. 32, 33.
Example
By putting x =
2 tan 0,
[_dx__
dx
_
2
J a V(a
+ 4)
2 sec 2 Odd
1 f cosfldfl
lCi
~~
2
J 4tan 0.2sec0
V(a:
4sin#
"
4 J sin 2
+ 4)
4a?
Exercise 4(fc)
TFnfe down or calculate
(if possible
by more than one method) the integrals of
2a+l
X
V(*+i)'
1
1+^z"
V(* + 4)'
V(2+l)-V*'
V(i+*)-^(i+*)'
V(2*
+ 4a;-7)'
+2
a;
V(* +i)'
+7
V(6-a;-a;
a:
+l
17
V(* + 6a;+13)'
2
J (^l)
20
V(* +i)'
6a;+13)*
1
12
15
-^ 2
J{(x + B)(2-x)}'
3x-5
V(2B + 4a>-7)'
18
a;V(*
V(* +i)'
2
+ 4)'
21
a?V(2a;
3a;-2
xj{3x 2 + 2x-l)'
V(a
V(6a;-7-a; 2 )'
V(*
a;
2 )'
22
a;
16
19
11
14
2a;
2 + yfx
j/x-l'
10
x + Jx'
13
)-
23
(a;-l)V(* 2 + 9)*
26 V(* 2 -a 2 ).
+ a;)'
1
24
(a;+l)V(l
27
+ 2a;-a; 2
V(3a; -5a;).
INTEGRATION
4.8]
28 V(* 2 - 5* + 6).
* 30
* 31
*29 (3a+l)V(2a: 2 -6:r +
op+^+W
(^-t.4)V(^ + 9 )
32 If a
151
l).
p t=W(^+9).]
Pprt >M]
< fi, show that the substitution x = a cos 2 + fi sin a
will
convert the
integrals of
integrals
33 If a
J{(x- a) (fi-x)}, lM{(x-a)(fi-x)}, and JUx-a)l(fl-x)} into

of rational functions of cos 9 and sin 6.
> /?, show that the substitution x = a ch 2 w
sh 2 u will convert the

and J{(x-a)/(x-fi)} into
integrals of J{{x-a)(x-fi)}, l/y/{{x-a)(x-fi)},

integrals of rational functions of ch u and sh u.
4.8
Integration of
some transcendental
This class of functions

circular functions
and
very wide;
is
yff
functions
we
concentrate mainly on the
but see
their hyperbolic analogues,
4.85.
4.81 Rational functions of sin x, cos
( 1 ) The integral of any rational function of sin x and cos x can always
be reduced to the integral of a rational function oft by the substitution
For
sin x
coax
=
=
t&nx =
2 sin \x
cos 2
\x
2
,
2
cos 2 \x
2 sm 4x
2
sin
dt_
^L =
i sec
da;
This substitution
is
2 sin he
cos he
2
2t
f = -1 + Sf
sin 2 a; + cos 2 a;
cos 2 4a; sin 2 he

2
cos
r-|
2
|a;
sin2
,
= |(1
+ 2
.
a;
so
),
,
rfa;
especially useful for integrals of the
JcosecajcfctT.
taxi^x,
we have
=:
Jsh^
Hence
'
Examples
t
tz1 + *2
l
2(tt
dx
(i)
'
acoax + bainx + c'
Putting
2t
a;
cos a;
and
tan \x.
J^rr^ = j7 = Iog
J*cosec a; da;
log tan %z
|
<|
form
INTEGRATION
152
(ii)
fsecxdx.
Since sec a;
we have by
cosec (%n + x),
sec a; do;
As
and
[4.81
tan(7r + a;)
ex.
that
(i)
+ \x)
log |tan
cos $x + sin %x
+ \x) cos \x sin \x
1+ sin re
(cos \x + sin a;) 2
sin 2 a;
cos x
cos 2
sm.(\n + \x)
cos
\ir
since the last expression can be written in the forms

/
seca + tana;,
/l
/I-
+ sina;\
I,
V \1 sina;/
:
the result can also be given as

log sec x + tan x
|
1
\
log
+ sin x
| log
or
2dt
r
dx
_ C dt
_ f
j5 + 3cosa;" j5(l+* 2 + 3(l-< 2 ~ J 4 +
= |tan -1 ^ = | tan* 1 (| tan a;).
(iii)
(iv)
J 3 + 5cosx
J 3(l
+ * 2 + 5(l-* 2 ~
)
_
~
J{log|2 + |-log|2-*|}
dx
sin-cosa;+l
J
C
(v)
_
~~
The
|2
2+*
ilog
2-t
'
|2-tania;
f dt
2dt
J 2t-(l-t*) + {l+t*)
J("r+i)*
log|*|-log|*+l|
log
tan \x
tan \x +
log
-log|l+cota:|.
integral
a cos x + b sin a; + c
into
two
integrals
A (derivative
It then
4-* 2
+ tana;
Acosx + Bsinx + C
is first split
2 + </
J4\2-J
(vi)
+ sina;
sin a;
dx
by writing the numerator in the form
of denominator) +p (denominator)
+ v.
becomes
Alog\A coax +Bam.x + C\+ fix + v j-
dx
A cos x + B sin x + G
and the
last integral
can be reduced by
tan %x.
INTEGRATION
4.81]
153
Although always available, the substitution t
(2)
tan \x is sometimes
not the best one.

(a) If the integrand is an odd function of cos x, put u = sin x.
Let the given integral be Ji?(sin#, co8x)dx. Then R I coax is an
even function of cos x, and will therefore contain only even powers
= 1 sin2
of cos a;; using cos 2 a;
can be expressed as a rational
it
re,
function of sin a; only, say /S(sinx), and
jsdx =
js(sinx) cosxdx
= js(u) du.
Example
( vii)
J*sin
x cos 3 x dx
J*sin
x cos 2 x cos x dx
= ju2 l v?)du
(
%u3 \uh where u

= \ sin 3 x \ sin5 x.
,
(b)
If the integrand
cos a;,
an odd function of sin x, put u = cos a;.
is
Example
sin6 * sec*xdx
(vm)
J
smxdx =
8
J COS *
\(z6
J \w
J
Bu6
=
(c)
u=
//
integrand is
T^-du
w8
u + -4
w
-7
l
2_
Su3
where
du,
u=
sin a,
Jsec 6 * f sec 3 * + sec*.
an even function of
both sin a;
and cos a;, put
tana;.
By
writing sin a;
cos a; tan a; the integrand becomes a rational
function of cos a; and tana; which

COS a X
is
even in both; using

1
+ tan2 x
we have a rational function of tana;, say
= jT(t&nx)dx =
jlldx
T^tana;),
and
JV(t*) ^j^-2 .
Examples
C
(ix)
- dx =
J sin
a;
cos 2
dx = f 1+w
fsec 4 *
I
J tan *
tan x cot x.
2
T
du
INTEGRATION
154
Alternatively, the integral
is
dx =
(sec 2 #
2
2
J sin a;cos a;
or it
[4.82
+ cosec 2 c)cia; =
tana; cota;;
can be written
4
/*
X^
dx
2
J sin
cosec 2 2xdx
= 2 cot 2a;.
da;
2a;
sec 2 a; da;
2
2
2
J a + ft tan a;
2
2
2
2
J a cos a; + 6 sin a;
du
on dividing top
and bottom by cos 2 x,
Ja 2 + 6 w 2
2
= tan- 1
a&
\aj
1
/&
\
=
tan -1 - tana;
,
ab
C
(xi)
dx
J a + o sin x
cos 2 x + sin2 x = 1 to
The integral is
2
\a
can be reduced to the form of ex.
make
the
(x)
by
first
using
denominator homogeneous in coax and sin a;.
dx
2
2
2
J a cos x + (a
+ 62
sin 2 x
4.82 Circular functions of multiple angles

If the integrand consists of
a.
A cos m ax sin"
'
sum
of terms like
ax cosn bx
sin' bx
where the indices m,m', n,n', ... are positive integers and the multipliers a, b, ... are any numbers, then by the formulae of elementary
trigonometry each such term can be expressed as the sum of a number
of terms of the types
A cos {(pa + qb +
. .
.)
x],
ji
sin {(pa + qb
. .
.)
x);
these can be integrated at once.

Alternatively, if a, b,
...
are integers, the functions of the multiple
angles can be expanded in powers of cos a;
and
sin a;; here
m,m'
may
be positive or negative integers. If a, b, ... are not

integers but rational numbers, and k is the lowest common multiple
of their denominators, the substitution x = ky reduces this case to
the one just mentioned. The integral is thus reducible to the form
n,n',
...
already considered in 4.81.
In practice the elementary trigonometrical formulae can be used

a, b,
for larger values
for small values of the constants m,m',
the help of de Moivre's theorem (Ch. 14) becomes necessary (e.g. see
Ex. 14 (6), nos. 6-8), or

Ex. 4 (m), nos. 28-30).
else
a reduction formula
is
used
(see 4.84,
and
INTEGRATION
4.83]
155
Examples
J*sin 2x cos xdx
(i)
J*$(sin 3a; +amx)dx
= cos 3a; J cos x.

Alternatively, the integral is
2
J*2sina; cos a;<2a;
= 2 J*w 2 dw,
where
coax,
= $w8 = $ cos 3
This example
(ii)
jsinx
is
easy by either method.
J*(sin3a; sin a;) sin
1
- f{1
J(a;
cos2a; sin3a;da;
f
I
{sin 2 3a;
3a; cZa;
(cos 2x cos 4a;)} dx
cos 6x cos 2x + cos 4a;} dx
J sin 6a;
-J
sin 2a; + J sin
4a;).
The second method leads to complicated calculations.

(iii)
J*cos
sin 8 2a; dx
8 sin8 a; cos 6 xdx
= J*cos 2 x
8
J*
8 sin8 x cos8 a; dx
it 2 w 5 cZw, where w =
)
cos a;,
J*(
= fw* + w8 =
cos8 a; cos 6 a;.
The first method is much less direct.

4.83 Hyperbolic functions: analogous results
In addition to the standard forms

/.v
(i)
i
j
cosecharaa;
dx
= C - =
Jahx
J*-~
=
=
-\
r
(ii )
|*
j
i~
sechxdx
(vi), (vii)
and (xiii) of 4.5, we have:
dx
fisech
-=
J2sha;ch|a;
2
where
Aacfa;
thfa
th^x,
log|thr|.
,
= C dx
= C dx
= fsechHa
dx
Jchx J ch 2 %x + ah 2 $x Jl+th 2 c
2<^T
i1+T
where
= 2tan- 1 (th|a;)
th \x,
'
INTEGRATION
156
[4.83
Alternatively,
C
seen a; ax
2dx
)ex
e~x
= 2tan- 1 (e
C2ex dx
-r
Je *+1
2
2du
= r
)u*+V
u=
where
ex ,
a:
).
It can be shown (see Ex. 4(g), no. 51) that these two results differ
by a constant.
The substitution r th.\x (cf. Ex. 4(g), no. 15) will convert the
integral of any rational function of ch x and sh x into that of a rational
function ofr; but often the substitutions u = 8hx,u = ch.x,oru = thx
are more convenient, as in 4.81 (2).
Expressions involving powers and products of ch ax, sh bx, ... can
be dealt with by the formulae of Ex. 4 (g), nos. 2-4, 8.
In general,
the procedure for integrating hyperbolic functions is
As the
similar to that for circular functions.

shall
results are less useful,
we
not give further examples.
Exercise 4(/)
Integrate the following.
1
cosa;
1
.
cosa; + sina;
5,
^ sina; cosa;
sina;
+ sina;
L^.
+ cosa; + sina;
cota;
+ cosa;
-=
2cosa; + sina; + 3
5cosa; + 7
2 cos x + sina; + 3
1+cota;
io
5 3cosa;
*n
<J{(I + sin x) (2 + sin x)}
x+8hlx
1
+ cosa;
12 sin 6 a; cos 3 a;.
13 sin5 a; cos 2 a;.
14
15 cos 3 x cosec 2 x.
16 tan3 a;.
17 cosec 3 a\
_
19
20 sin 4a; cos
cos 2 a;
18
+ sm 2 a;
21 sina; sin 3a; sin 4a;.
sina; cosa;
-r-i
ir
sin2 a; cos-'a;
sin* x cos 2 x
6a;.
23 cos 3 x sin 2 2a;.
22 cos 2 x sin 5a;.
*24 Find constants E, a for which a cos x + b sin x R cos (x a). Hence give
a method for integrating l/(acosa; + &sina; + c). Apply this method to nos. 4, 5
above.
*25
(i)
If a + b
>
0,
show that
is
^tan-
Îtania;)
/(-
if
>
b,
INTEGRATION
and
is
b + a cos x + *J(b
2
)
157
sin x
if
a + booax
<
If a + 6 =
If a + b
(ii)
(iii)
0,
a change of sign of the whole
0,
what
is
<
6.
integral will lead to
(i)
the value of the integral?
dx
2
acos
sina; + csin 2 a;
a;
-ftcosa;
+
J
*26 Calculate f
*27 Use integration by parts to calculate

a;
cos
xsinx
(aa cos 2 a; + & 2 sin a aO a
*28
m 4= n, prove that
If
(i)
(m sin mx cos nx n cos ma; sin nx),
=
ma
cos mx cos nxdx
sin mx cos na;tfo;
-- (w sin mx cos na; m cos wra sin nx),

=
2
2
"
sin ma; sin nxdx
m -n
m -n
(m cos ma; cos nx+n sin mx sin na;).

7
What are the values of these integrals when m = n?
(ii)
*29 If
dx.
m and n are integers, prove that

2n
(i)
sin ma; cosna;da;
0;
/:
(ii)
are zero
if
*30 If m,
sin mx sinna; dx
and
cos ma; cos nx dx
Jo
Jo
m + n, and
7r
if
m = n.
n are integers, prove that

(i)
cos mx cos nxdx
and
sin ma; sin nx dx
Jo
Jo
m = n, when each is J7r;
are zero unless
sin ma; cos nx dx
(ii)
J
is
2ra/(m 2
2
)
or zero according as
m n is odd or even.
*31 If
f(x)
and
is
A;
â
+ a1 cosa; + 6 1 suia; + a2Cos2a; + 6 2 sin2a;+...+a B cosna; + 6 n sinna;,
a positive integer not exceeding n, prove that
r2n
j
Jo
[2w
f(x)dx
= na
Jo
P2v
cos kxf(x) dx
= nak
Ifk>n, show that the last two integrals are
Jo
zero.
sinfca;/(a;)(fa;
INTEGRATION
158
4.84 Jsinm
(1)
[4.84
x cos" xdx by reduction formula
This integral
is
an important case of 4.82.
It
can be treated as
when m, n are not small;

or by using the substitutions given in 4.81 or by a reduction formula.
As the last method can be used to simplify the integral even when
m, n are not integers, we consider it here.
described there, using de Moivre's theorem
;
First
m + n 4=
we suppose
Write
0.
um,n Jsinm #
fsinm x
As
ooaxdx
write
so that
u'
^sinm+1
ra+
(m
a;
we can
coa n xdx.
u=
coan
= in 1
v
~1
x,
sinm # cos a;,
v'
cos71-2 a; sin a;,
m+l
'
and integrate by
um,n
mn
m+
t cos
71-1
x sinm+1 x +
1 )' cos n_2 x sin

sinm+1 x (n
v
.
Jm+1
= ^t cos w_1 x sinm+1 x +

=f=
TO
Jsin x( 1
m + \lj sin
1.
=
(i)
m+ 2 x
1-2
cos*
mx
J*sin
x dx,
(i)
m+
cosn-2 xdx j*sinm x cosn xdx
^m.n 2
and solving for um>
um,n
m_ =
^m,n*
we find that, provided m
cos n_1 x sinm+1 a; H

ra
m+
rc
um
n_ 2
m,n
=}=
sinm_1 x,
= (m l)sinm-2 a; cosa;,
v'
'
Q08 n x sin a;,
ooa n+1 x
^
we have, provided that w=(=-l:
(n
1
(n)
v
Similarly, taking
u=
xdx
The last integral is
cos 2 x) cosn ~ 2 xdx =
Putting this in
sinm+1 x,
parts:
m+ l
provided m
1),"
4=
=f=
1),
INTEGRATION
4.84]
and
um,n
mn =
m+n
159
SUl"1-1 X COS n+1 X -\
m 1U
m + n m_o2,n
If both m, n are positive, repeated applications of

reduce the indices of cos x, sin x by 2, respectively.
m
m
m
(lv)
v
'
(ii),
(iv) will
If
> 0, n < 0, then (iii) numerically reduces ftoJ/i. indices by 2.
If
< 0, n > 0, then (i) numerically reduces both indices by 2.
If
< 0, then 2 is numerically greater than and the integral on the
right of (iv) involves a higher power of sin a; than um n does. In this case the
formula can be reversed by putting
+ 2 instead of in (iv), and then solving
for
um
which now appears on the
Um,-n =
right.
We obtain (ifm + l,n=}= 1):
~ SmW+1 X COS"+
.
-r i
Similarly, if n
<
we obtain from
0,
wm
=-
(ii),
X+
m+n+2
m + I Um+% n
+ 1:
if4r
w+ +2 u
m> n+a
rT
sinm+1 x cos n + 1 a; +
~
w+ 1
(v)
w+
-^
vi)
m<
and n < 0, then (v), (vi) numerically reduce the powers of sin a;,
by 2.
When m and n are integers (positive or negative), the integral is reduced
eventually to one in which the indices of sin a; and cos a; are 1, 0, or 1; this
If
coscc, respectively,
is
easily calculated.
The preceding
discussion includes the cases
um,o = jsimm xdx,

Secondly, suppose
vm
u0n = Jcosn xdx.
m + n = 0. Ifm>0 the integral is

m xdx =
m_2 a;(sec 2 a;-l)da;
Jtan
jta,n.
= Jtanm ~ 2 x sec 2 xdx vm_ 2

1
tanm_1 x vm_ 2
m
This
is
If
if
m#
1.
the required reduction formula.
<
0,
then n >
formula similarly (n
0;
the integral
is
jcotn xdx,
and we obtain a
4= 1).
method for getting the reduction formulae.

obtain quickly the formula relating um n to any specified one
(2) Alternative
To
Mm n _ 2 , nm_ ijn um>n+2

deriving sin1* a; cosa a;, where
of the six integrals
we
begin
by
um+2in um _2>n + 2 um+2>n _2

,
p 1
is
the smaller of the
INTEGRATION
[4.84
two indices of sin x and q 1 is the smaller of the two indices of cos x.
160
For
^
and
x cos 3 x)
(sin?
p sin '1
x cos a+1 x q sin3,+1 x cosff_1 x;
after expressing the right-hand side in terms of the required
powers of sin x and cos x, the formula
obtained by integrating the
is
result.
Example
Find the formula relating wTO> n to um> _ 2
The index of sin a; in both is m, so p =
.
cosa; is
n 2,
(sin"1
-1
-*
dx
so q
m+ 1.
The smaller of the
x cos" -1 x)
= cos n_1 a;.(m + l)sinm a;cosa; sinm+1 a;.(n l)cos n-2 a;sina;
= (m+ l)sinTO cos n o? (n l)cos n-2 sinm a;(l cos 2 )
= (m + n) sin" a; cos" (n 1 cos"~ 2 sin"* x.
silL m+i x cos -i * = (m + n) w TO - (n - 1 w m _ 2
a;
a;
Integrating,
a;
a;
which gives um>
(3)
The
indices of
= n 1.
in terms of um> ,,_ 2 .
mx
definite integral
coan xdx (m,
siri
positive integers
Jo
or zero.)
By formula
umn=
f **
(ii),
m X CQ8n xdX
SlD.
JO
n_1
[1
m n cos
a;
sinm+1 #
Jo
m + njo
sinOT # cos w_2 a;<fa;
rc-1
...
Similarly, formula (iv)
In particular,
if
would give
um,n =
^Vu>
m=
we have
cos w #da;
Jo
and
if
n=
n Jo
if
coa n
~2
w>
xdx
(viii)
1.
(n
>
1);
(ix)
0,
amm xdx =
Jo
smm - 2 dx
Jo
(m >
1).
(x)
INTEGRATION
4.84]
By means
or
161
n can be reduced
of these relations the indices m,
the final integral
is
m,n both
ulx =
odd:
m odd, n even:
m even,
Pi"
sin a:
fl
cosxdx
[sin 2 a;]^
u 10 =
n odd:
to
one of the following:
sinarâr
cosa;?a;
=1;
1;
=
J
m,n both
^=
even:
|^r.
J
If there
is
an odd index, the working
shortened by selecting this
is
(say n) for successive reduction: the integral

f**
sinm x
.
cosxdx
= T
becomes a multiple of
-sinm+1 x
Lra+1
Jo
Jo
m+ 1
which gives the result without further formulae.

Also, it is enough to remember the single reduction formula (vii);
it includes (ix), and also (viii) and (x) because u
= un m For,
mt<n
putting x = \n-y,
.
/0
sin"1 x cosn xdx
u.
cosm y sinn y{-dy)
smn y cosm ydy = un m
Examples
(i)
sin 4 a? cos'icefo?.
Jo
Selecting the
odd index
W4.7
7 for reduction,
= 1^*4.5 = A-|W4(8 = A-f -f4,l

=
6.4.2 f* ff
11.9.7
6.4.2
sin* x cos 6
and
6.4.2
9 7
ft
sm *]T
16
1155'
= =
=
4
= |Ma = |.^ =
4>
Jo
Sm x coaxdx =
11.9.7.5
(ii)
we have
M4,6 =
5.3.1.3.1
|m4
n_
10.8.6.4.2 2
Jtt.
3tt
512'
| | 4
.
INTEGRATION
162
(iii)
J
sin 8 x cos 2 x dx
sin 3 a; oos i xdx+
Jo
The
= n y in the last integral reduces it to

ain 3 y coa 2 y(
dy) =
sin3 ?/ coa 2 ydy.
Jo
Jin
2
is
sin 3 x cos 2 a; efce
2.1
2
proceeding in this
way
4
15
5 3
Jo
By
sin3 a; C0B*xdx.
Jin
Jo
substitution x
[4.85
Pn
r\n
/w
for the general case,
we deduce the fol-
lowing rule.
To evaluate
sinOT a; cos xdx where m,
are positive integers or zero,
Jo
write
down
the expression
(m-l)(m-3)...(n-l)(n-3)...
(m + n) (m + n 2) ...
where
all three
reached; if m,
as
'
sequences of factors decrease by 2 until either 1 or 2 is

are both even, multiply the expression by \ir (zero counts
an even number).
(iv)
f x 2p ( 1
x 2 )" dx, where p,
q are positive integers.
Jo
Putting x
sin 6,
where
<
<
\n, the integral
becomes
[in
Civ
sin 2 * 6 cos 2
cos 6d6
sin 2 * d cos 2 + 1 Odd
Jo
Jo
2j9(2j?-2)...2.(2g+l)(2g-l)...
(2p + 2q + l)(2p + 2q- !)...!
4.85 Integrals involving other transcendental functions

Integrals of the types
^xm (swr 1 x) n dx,
OT
Jaj
(cos
_1 x) n dx,
Jaf^tan
-1
x) n dx
can be cleared of inverse functions by a substitution. For example,

n
m
1
t/ = sin- x in the first gives
jy 8m y cos ydy; and since
smm y cosy can be expressed in terms of multiple angles, this integral
becomes a sum of integrals like A jyn amaydy, B jyn cosbydy, each
putting
of which can be found
by a reduction formula
(see 4.24, example).
However, direct integration by parts is often successful: see 4.23 (2).
INTEGRATION
4.85]
163
Ex. 4 (w) includes some integrals of other transcendental functions

which can be calculated by a reduction formula. The results of
Ex. 4 (e), nos. 28, 29 are useful in applications.
Exercise 4(m)
Calculate the integrals of the following by using
1
cos 6 a;.
sin4
a reduction formula.
2 sin 5 a;.
x cos
5 sec
x.
sin3 x cos 4 x.
6 sin4 a; sec 7 a;.
a;.
Evaluate the following integrals.

r\*
r\n
cos 6 a:dte.
fin
sin 8 xdx.
Jo
Jo
sin4 a;cos 5 a;<fo;.
10
11
Jo
+ cos x) 6 dx.
(1
cos 4 \xdx.
sin8 x( 1
12
- cos a;) 4 dx.
f x*<J(l-x*)dx.
13
14
JO
ra
15
I** a;
Jo
xm (a x) n dx, where
V(*
m and n are positive integers or zero.
Jo
sin8 a;a5a;.
sin 3 a; cos 8 a; da;.
17
JO
Jo
= Jcos" xdx and s B = Jsin"

- 1 c B _ a and
a:<Za:,
sin x cos"- 1 a; + (n
sin 2 x cos 3 x dx.
18
JO
19 If c n
nc
ft*
f2?r
16
prove that
ns n
= (n- l)s_,- cos x sin"" 1
a;.
Obtain reduction formulae for the following integrals. (Some of these examples
have already been given.)
20 fx n e*dx. (Ex.
22
Jsh n a;cZa\
24
JV
4(e), no. 21.)
23 jx n sin ax dx. (Ex.
eh axdx. (Ex. 4 (A), no.
36.)
26 J>*sin B &a:da;.
28 If um
21 J*ch B a;<fo;.
25
Ja;
4(c), no. 12.)
B shaa;da;.
27 JV(loga;) B da;. (Ex. 4(d), no.
45.)
= J*cos m x sin nxdx, prove that

(m + n) um n = mum h B _ x cos m x cos nx,
__
and
calculate
cos 2 x sin 4a; dx.
Jo
n 2 obtain a formula relating um
29 Assuming m* #
,
. Hence prove that
J*sin
mx
sin na;da; with
um _t
(m 2 -n 2
sinm a; sin nxdx
= m(m- 1)
Jo
and
calculate
sin- 2 x aianxdx,
Jo
I
sin 4 x sin 5x dx.
Jo
30 Prove that
J*cos na; sec a; da;
= ^-jsin(n l)a; Jcos(n 2)a; seca;da;,
INTEGRATION
164
and
calculate
% n sin
[4.9
sin x
8a;
dx.
cos a;
If
31
2(n -
prove that
1)
um
*32 If
where
xm dx
J (x*+l)"'
m- 1
mto _
2>
_!
^2+1)w _
JâJ"(l-a?)"(fa,
m and n are positive integers, prove that

m,n
(i)
= wn m
[integrate
by
parts,
2/
1-x];
m~+n+T Umn
~1
and use xm +\l -x)"- 1 = xm (l - x)"- 1 - m (l -x) n ].
um
Deduce that
Fir
33 Prove
[put
Wm>n
(")
(iii)
_
=
n'
a;
sin4 a; cos 2 a; da;
mini
(m + n +
= ^n 2
1)
[Put y
it
x.]
Jo
34 Prove
xf(sm.x)dx
= \n
*35 Write
down
the derivative of xn eax cos bx and of x n e oa! sin bx. Putting

cn
deduce that
(for
f(amx)dx.
Jo
JO
w>
n e ax cos 6a; eZa;,
sn
J*a;
= jx n e ax sin 6a;
cfa;,
0),
ac bs n + nc n _ x
x n e ax cos bx,
as n + bc n + n5_ x
a;
n e oa5 sin bx.
Prove also that

ac
bs =
e 0ir cos bx,
as
+ 6c =
e ax sin
6a;.
[See Ex. 4(e), nos. 28, 29.] (The pair of reduction formulae will determine
and s n when n is a positive integer. Also see 14.66, ex. (iii).)
4.9
Generalised integrals
4.91
The problem
cn
In our definition of a definite integral (4.15) we required the

integrand to be continuous, and we implied that the range of integration was finite. Expressions like the following are at present undefined:
C+^dx
J-i^'
For, the integrand of the
C1
p_ dx
dx
JoVU-*
first is
)'
Jo
+ x2
discontinuous at the value x
within the range of integration; that in the second
is
discontinuous
INTEGRATION
4.92]
at the upper end x
and
1;
165
in the third the range of integration is
infinite.
We now consider how a meaning may be assigned to such integrals,

which are called improper,
or generalised integrals.
infinite,
4.92 Infinite range ('integrals of the

(a)
Suppose that f(x)
continuous for
is
all
x ^
a,
and suppose that
X ->co.
when
dx-^l
f{x)
kind*)
first
/*O0
Then we define
f(x)dx to be
I; i.e.
rx
r<*>
dx
f(x)
Ja
provided this limit

integral
(6)
is
f(x)
dx
X->oo J a
If the limit does not exist, the infinite
exists.
not defined.
Similarly, if f(x)
is
continuous for
f
f{x) dx
J -co
provided this limit

(c)
lim
lim f f(x) dx
X->coJX
is
continuous for
all
f(x)dx,
both exist for some fixed
x and if
ra
f(x)dx
J oo
Ja
a,
then
we define
f(x)dx+
f(x)dx=
J -oo
J -co
f f(x)
J 00
dx by
r^dx.
Ja
This definition gives a result independent of a; for
we have
( f(x) dx,
Ja
["fWdx^
rf(x)dx;
Ja
f f(x) dx + [ f(x) dx
Ja
Jb
letting
we define
/*
and by
b,
exists.
Finally, if f(x)
x ^
all
X -> oo we obtain
b
f{x)dx+
Ja
Jb
( f(x)dx + f f{x)dx=(
f(x)dx.
J oo
J oo
similarly
Ja
Hence
f*>
_J(x)dx+J^f{x)dx =
fa
f&
/(a:)(fo;
J
/(o;)da:
J oo
/oo
+ f{x)dx.
|
Ja
f>b
f(x) dx
/(cc)cfo;
-J
INTEGRATION
166
[4.92
Examples
If a
(i)
>
0,
then
1/a:
continuous for
is
J a x*
If a
(ii)
>
0,
then 1/x
is
continuous for
[log*]^
(iii)
- dx does not
all
a;
log
a,
and
X log a
X -> oo.
when
oo
|
X -> cc.
1 dx exists and has the value 1 (a > 0).
-dx =
Hence
2X 2
2a 2
when
2a 2
Hence
x^ a, and
2a;2j
L
->
00
all
exist,
Ja x
cosxdx
[sina:]^
sinX.
When
->
oo,
sinX
oscillates
between
Jo
1.
Hence
cos xdx does not
exist.
J'
Jo
/X
(lv)
J,
(ftp
x /1
JS+IT Jx
=
(j-jpt)*-**-' "^* 1 *
iog
s^]r
=iog
log =
-> log 1
xfi" io8i
when
log 2
C" dx =
Hence
(a)
oo.
log 2.
evaluated the integral at stage (a) as logX log(X + l) + log2,

into
would have been necessary to combine the terms containing
oo, because neither log
nor log (X + 1) tends
log {X/(X +1)} before letting X
to a limit separately.
Had we
it
(v)
when
<fo
Jo o
-* oo, if
>
,af|*
-= Tl-tan- 1 =
La
+aJ*
0.
aJ0
Jo
Similarly
and hence
f
I
a 2
when
Hence
dx
da;
,X >-.1 7T
- tan- 1
tan -1
f
I
a* + aT2
_ n
~ 2a'
1 /
>
tt\
n
dx =
oo,
INTEGRATION
4.93]
Therefore
if
>
167
0,
n
+
= -.
2a 2a
a
it
exists
and
is
rx
xe~ x dx
(vi)
Jo
= [- xe - a>yf+
=
it
e~ x dx
Jo
-Xe-x +l-e-*]X
= -Xe-x -e~x +l.

When X -+co, e~x -+0 and X erx ->
(4.43 ( 6)) .
x e~ x dx exists and is
Hence
Jo
4.93 Discontinuous integrand ('integrals of the second kind')
(a)
f(x) ->
Suppose f(x) is continuous for a ^ x <

co when x -> b If
b,
but that/(aj) -> oo or
'b-h
when
f{x)dx-*l
we define
f /(#) da; to
be
I,
A->0 +
i.e.
Ja
J'bf(x)
[b-h
f(x) dx
A->0+Ja
= Km
dx
provided this limit exists. Otherwise, the generalised integral does
not
exist.
(6)
Similarly, if f(x)
is
<x<
continuous for a
lim
and if
/(a;)<fo;
h-+0+Ja+h
Ja+h
exists,
(c)
we define
f(x) dx to
be this
If f(x) is continuous for a
a<c<b
the integrals
/(a;)
dx to mean
<x<
f f(x)dx,
Ja
/(a;)da:
limit.
and
if for
f /(a;)<fc
Jc
both
b,
As in
a ^
a;
<
b,
discontinuous for a value x
we define
/(a;)
cite
to
mean
Ja
e
f(x)dx+ ( f(x)dx
I
Ja
Je
provided that each of these integrals
exists.
c satisfying
exist,
4.92(c), it
Ja
Ja
Je
that this definition is independent of c.
{d) If f(x) is
some
we
define
can be shown
c within the
range
INTEGRATION
168
Finally, iff(x)
(e)
is
[4.93
discontinuous for a finite
number of values of a;
in the range of integration, this range can be divided into adjacent
which
intervals for
in
Then
(d).
f(x) is discontinuous at only
f f(x)dx is defined to be the
sum
one of the ends, as
of the integrals over
Ja
each part, provided that
these exist.
all
Examples
f1 l
-dx =
(i)
Jh s x
C
Hence
1
r-
Jo 4X
[2-h
r2
Jo
f
(iii)
1
efcc.
Hence
j
|*00
2
Jo a
To
dx
f3
dx
consider
dx
| (a; _2)*]3 +Jk
=|-|A*^f
does not
Jl x*'
exist.
Hence
does not
Jo*
f
J
-1
exist.
*
,1C^dx
<fe;
J -1
h dx
* =
We consider the integrals

,
as
*_U
Jo* 2
J-l*
3.
We may consider separately the integrals

ndx r'dx
dx.
C+ 1 dx
when
exists and has the value + =
-> oo
which lies within
we must
#(*-2)
Ja* 2
(v)
2,
find whether the integral exists
Jo*'
so that
h->0 +
when
dx
J^^^__
=---h>.oo
2 -ft
-12-ft
exist
f2
(i
2.
The integrand is not defined when x =
\( x ~ 2)
the range of integration.
the integrals
and
dx does not
2)
ate
h^0 +
= 2-2jh^2 when
dx exists and has the value
(ii)
Hence
[_2^x]\
[log|a;|]l*
Jo
logh,
h^0 +
INTEGRATION
4.94]
and
rl
dx
-=[\og\x\]\.
Jh' x
Thus neither
However,
integral exists separately,
169
-logh'.
and so by
r+idx
(d)
does not
exist.
J I x
C~ h dx
fldx
l0g 'l - l0g

7
J-l"^ J*'^
T ,
=1 8
,
h"
and if a special relation is assumed between h, h', this expression may tend to a
limit when h and h' -> 0+ e.g. if h = kh' (k being a positive constant), the
result is log k. In particular, by taking h = h! we obtain log 1 = 0; Cauchy called
;
this the principal value of
J
verify that
(vi)
An
ri
dx
-la
written
f1
dx
For
f1
I
dx
J-i 2
J-i*
the reader can
dx
does not
J-l * 2
integral like
exist.
-r
J_ 5 V(a 2 -9)
interval of values of a; in the
is still
meaningless because there
range of integration for which the integrand
is
an
is not
denned.
4.94
(1)
The
relation
Application
When we
j /(*) dx
= <f>(b) - <f>(a)
to generalised integrals.
by this relation in 4.15, we

assumed that (i)f(x) is continuous and (ii) <j>\x) =f(x) for all x satisfying a ^ x ^b. If these conditions are not satisfied, the relation cannot
defined the definite integral
be used without investigation.
Thus
J i
'evaluated' as
which by
l/a^lx
4.93, ex. (iv) does
by an incautious
not
exist,
would be
application.
On
the
other hand, the relation gives

f3
which is correct by
at x = 2.
dv
4.93, ex.
(iii);
this is because
<f>(x) is
continuous
a^x
If conditions (i), (ii) hold for

< 6 except at x = c (a ^ c ^ 6), and if
is continuous for a < x < b, the relation is valid.
Proof. First supposing b is the exceptional value of x, we have by definition
<l>(x)
(4.93(a)),
f(x)dx
Jo
by continuity of <j>(x) at x =
lim {0(6 -A) -^(a)}
0(6)-$5(a)
ft->0+
b.
Similarly, the result follows if a
is
the exception.
INTEGRATION
170
If a
<
<
b,
[4.95
then by definition (4.93 (d)),

rb
f(x) dx
rc
f(x) dx +
Ja
Ja
rb
f(x)
Jc
dx
lim {0(c-/i)-0(a)} + lim {0(6)-0(c + fc')}

A'->0+
A--0+
=
=
{0(c)- 0(a)} + {0(6) -0(c)}

0(6) -0(a).
(2) Definite integrals found
by a special method.
Although, most of the definite integrals in this chapter have been
obtained directly from the definition in terms of the indefinite

integral
<j){x),
yet
we have given examples where the
has been found independently: Ex. 4

nos. 33, 34
depend
essentially
on the
fa
(6),
definite integral
nos. 31, 33, 34
and Ex. 4 (ra),
relation
/*a
f(x)
dx
f(a x) dx,
=
Jo
Jo
sinm a; coan xdx
proved by a substitution;
(ra,
positive integers)
Jo
was found in 4.84 (3) by reduction; also see Ex. 4 (ra), no.
nos. 26, 27 and Ex. 4 (o), nos. 79, 80.
Calculation of the definite integral
32,
Ex. 4 (n),
may clearly be possible without
knowing (j>(x) explicitly in terms of x, because by some device it

may be easy to find the difference <f>(b) <j>(a) between two particular
values of
<j>{x).
4.95 Integration
by parts and by
substitution
In suitable circumstances the formulae of 4.22 and 4.25 can be

extended to generalised integrals. At this stage it is best to treat each
example from first principles: an illustration of integration by parts
occurred in 4.92, ex.
(vi),
and the following will illustrate substitution.
Example
Find
'
dx
by using the substitution x = a + (6 a) t 2 t > 0.
4{{x-a)
(b-x)}
Ja
When x increases from a to 6, t increases from to 1. Since the integrand is
discontinuous at both ends of the range of integration, we consider (see 4.93 (c))
the transform of each of the integrals
|*
dx
Jay/{(x-a)(b-x)}'
Cb
)c
dx
<]{(.x-a){b-x)Y
INTEGRATION
4.95]
where a
<
<
171
Now
b.
Cc
dx
2(b-a)tdt
)a+h<J{(x-a)(b-x)}
J ti (b-a)tj(l-t*)
_
~
dt
/*'.
} k J(l-t*)*
where
so the integral
is
2[sin- 1 ]*j
when h
->
since then
tx
2sin- 1 < 2 -2sin- 1 <1 - 2 sin- 1 J,
->
also.
Hence
dx
sin -1i ts
T77
"Tr;
JoV{(*-)(6-^)}
Similarly,
ft
-A
da;
"777
^r
f.
tt,
2 sin" 1 U-2 sin- 1
where
When A -> +
the expression tends to
2sin- 1 l-2sin- 1 /a
since
t3
7r-2sin- 1 <g
77
-* 1. Therefore
,ft
da:
2 sin -1 1%
Consequently the given integral has the value n.
Exercise
4(/i)
Discuss the following improper integrals, and evaluate each that
rdx
r<dx
-rxt
Jl
5
_a .
e-*da;.
f 00
JO
of
9
-7-.
00
1,
j ,
sechada;.
10
Jo
dec
-.
* 2 -l
+4
o
8
xe*da;.
00
.
,
xamxdx.
_
12
flda;
11
da;.
f
I
Jo
J _oo
fcosK
Joe*
-.
exists.
dx
Jo *
Jl V*
00
<-
-rr~.
Jo$z
da:
a;
-co^+l
fid*
Jo x
xlogxdx.
17
-r-:
Jo ^jamx
19 Prove
dx.
a;
n loga:da;
Jq
Jo
r
dx
,
.
2
Jo a + 6 2a; 2
,
7T
= ttt
if a, 6
2a6
d*
t,
f*
20 Prove
Jo
Ifn> 1, prove
18
(a;
+aa )(a; a + & 2
have
= _
)
7r
2o6(a + 6)
B
/;
like signs.
(a?
+a
if aft
da:
)(a? 2
+ 6a
>
0,
and find
(n + 1) 2
"
INTEGRATION
172
- =
2ab
Prove
21
if
if
cr cos 2 x + b 2 sin 2 x
J o
>
ab
What
0.
the value
is
if a, b
have opposite signs?

C7T
*22 Prove
{Top
jQa + bcosx
What happens if 6 a >
f*
*23 Prove
ff
Jo
24 If a
>
v( a
>
>
[Use Ex.
0.
no. 25.]
4(Z),
")
0?
P = V(
a + fccosx
da;
lb
1
*
f -0
e
* cos
prove
0,
JT
= -,
log
,v
+ Jlb 2 -a 2
bx dx
Jo
if
+6
>
>
0.
and
a
)\
;
00
e- ax smbxdx
a2 + 62
Jo
[See Ex. 4 (e), nos. 28, 29.]
7r < a <
25 If
and a
it
prove
4= 0,
da!
2
Jo x + 2x cos a +
If
a =
0,
integer,
*27 If
um
sin a
(which
is 1
is
the limit of
CO
t*
_ a
dg:
-> 0).
/*
*26 If
g f
2
J o # + 2# cos a + 1
verify that the value of each expression
when a
a/sin a
a" e -aa! da; and a
Jo
deduce that u
>
prove w B
0,
(n/a) w_i. If
n is a
positive
n!/a n+1 .
f a; n_1 (loga;) m da; where m, n. are positive integers, prove that

Jo
- (m/n) m _ h . Deduce that wTOj = ( - l) m n!/n TO+1 [See Ex. 4(d),
wTO
no. 45.]
28
y putting y -
-, prove
da;
29 Calculate
j-
_
~
<
^+
2;c
cos a + 1
by putting x =
t* It
r1
>
do;
a;
+ 2a; cos a +
1*
0).
Jl (1+aOV*
f 00
30 Prove
da;
ôx
/
//
(x
3)V(*-l)
31
Show
00
7\
Jl
Jxdx
2
Jl (l+)
a;" da;
JoVC
/
33 Calculate
<
tan 6,
34 Prove
= i + hr.
co
-*
xm dx
if
Cb
<
2
,
<
<>
0.]
then integrate by parts.]
n and 2w w 2
da;
-;
4.95, ex.)
Fmd
a;
sin 6,
<
<
7r.]
JaVtt^-aM 6 -^)}
35
[Put
Put ~
if m is a positive integer. [Put x =
2
Jo (1+a; )"
6 ^ 7r.]
C^
32 Calculate
xdx
JaV{(*-)(&-*)}'
= n by
putting
are positive integers.
a;
a cos 2
+ b sin 2 0.
[Put
(Cf.
INTEGRATION
173
Miscellaneous Exercise 4(o)

For
general practice in integration, the reader
may
try
a random
selection
from
nos. 1-60 following.
2a? + 7
"
(2x+l)(x* + 2)
4
xdx
/: (a; 2 + l)(a;+l) 2
2
'!
15
a;
+ a:2 -2*
+l)(* 2 + a;+l)
da;
14
f
4
Jx a;(l+a; )
17
J *j(x + a) J(x a)'
f 1 a;da;
<
f_^_
J a;*V(l+*
19
da;
MSK
* 24
2 )'
dx.
x 4a; 2 x 3
Jo 1+V*'
23
(a;
dx.
f_=*L
-a; - 2x +1
fi^->.
dx
(a;
*25
a;V(l
-l)da;
+ 3a; 2 +
a;
4 )'
-11
26
sin -1 a; dx.
(a 2 -*; 2 )-* da;.
/15
l 5
3)V(* +
J8
30
a;V(l
1)
dx
xj{5x 2 -4x+l)'
32
a;da;
xd:
28 Jcot~
x*(l+x* )'
dx
29
cos 2a;
+ 2a;-a; 2
00
33
36
31
38
jx- 1 log (log a;) dx.
dx
Jo
Jo
e~ x sin
e-*
sm.Zxdx
Zx dx.
37
a;
log ( 1
a; )
dx.
J
*]tan
39
da;
V(6*-8-a; 2 )
(a;+l) 2 V(a; 2 +l)
a;
f
J
35
xdx.
40
Jo
sec 8 xdx.
JO
r\n
41 J"sina; cos x cos 2a;da;
cot x dx.
42
<
Jin
43
(i)
jam x log (sin
a;)
dx
*(ii)
sin x log (sin x) dx.
Jo
rt*
44
sina;(l
c 2 sin 2 a;)da;,
<
c2
<
Jo
45
aw.- 1 (*Jx)dx.
dx.
da;
a;
4
a;
xH&+\)
Ji
f
3
J ^(l+aj+^+a! )
11
da?,
+ 4)
"
Jra
2a; 3
l) 2 (* 2
da;
Jo(i+* 2
r
xz2 -5* +
(*-:l)(aj + 2)'
13
x2 dx
a
da;.
10
j*3
i"
46
dx
3 + 5cosa;'
INTEGRATION
174
C
47
An
49
rn
50
f* ff sin.ctsin.xdx
;
r-r-.
r-i2
2
Jo l-sin asin
sin* a; cos
+ 5cha;
sha;
xdx
ft" sins^xdx
*54
fi*
56
20 svnQdQ.
+ acosa;
sec i xdx.
Jo
r
f*'
f*<
58
tan7 xdx.
Jo
/*a
XAj(2ax x 2 )dx.
60
x\a x)~*dx.
Jo
Jo
and deduce
Calculate Jlogaida;,
jam. 6 log (1 e cos 6) dd
62 If a tan
and
6 + 6 a cos 2 0)
if
>
0,
>
T+ 1
63 Prove
J _j
according as 2rwr < a

denotes any integer.
ft
cos 2 0)
2#cosa+a;
=
a
Ja;
B+ *
(2n 1)7T
a86 8
<a<
n
(a-bcosd)dd
-
=
Write the integrand as

is
1 - / H
I
2a \
a positive
2)u n -(2n+l)au n _ 1 +x
fna*,
and
66 If I(m,n)
cos"*
7(4, 5).
where n
according
6
2a
2
integer,
calculate
cos nBdd, prove
Jo
(m 2 n 2 )I(m,n)
and calculate
Jo
Jo
nzr,
~&
a + 2aocos0/
2
[2a
x % ^{2ax a; 2 ) dx
0,
n - 1 (2ax-x*)l
r2a
Hence prove
a=
2nn, or
2
2
J o a + 6 -2a6cos0
J(2a x) dx where n
(n +
d<f>jab.
\n, -\it or
|_
65 If w
a 26 2
sinaaa;
< (2n+ l)7r,
b.
Cn
b,
+ 6 2 sin 2 0) =
+ & 2 cos 2 0) 2 ~
64 If a and b are positive, prove
<
0,
(a 2 sin 2
Jo
^- cos dj log ^- cos 6^
(a 2 cos 2
dd/(a* sin 2
Deduce that
6 tan <j>, prove that
(a 2 sin 2
b,
0<a<6.
+ cos a;)
cos*
/2a
2a
>
-,
(2
a>-l.
Jo
as a
dx
+ 2cosa; dx.
i" l
_^
a;aa;.
j~
52
a;
/lOg 2
Jo
61
<
Jo
55
59
Ja C Vl( a;-a )( 6 x )s
Jo
mm
57
sina; +cos a;
dx
- in 5 + 7cosa: + sina:
53
dx
48
C+i"
J
51
dx
J sin a; cos a;
= m(m 1) I(m 2, n),
1
J
prove
0.
x 3 *J(2ax x 2 ) dx.
INTEGRATION
175
nit
67 If I(m, n)
r\n
and J(m, n) ~
sinTO x cos nxdx
(m+n) I(m,n) =
and when m >
sinm a; sinnxc&r, prove
Jo
Jo
mJ (m l,n 1),
sin n7r
2 express 7(m, n) in terms of I(m 2, n
2coB n - 1
=-
68 Prove Jsinntf sec Odd
and hence evaluate
2).
sin ( w _ 2)
sec Odd,
f* ff cos50sin0
<*
69 If w B
x p( 1
JO
6'-
cos a
Jo
a; 5 n dx where n, p,
q are positive, prove that
(nq+p + l)u n = wgwî.

Evaluate when n is a positive integer.
70 Obtain a reduction formula to express
j(x* + a 2 )*"- 1 dx. Prove
+ a 2 )'
(a 8
J"
If u n
*71
of n.
cfcc
tan" a;dx, prove u n + tt_a
n-l
Jo
when n is a positive integer.
Vn + Vn-t
Ca
is
a positive
+ V2)}.
1,
(a;-a) n
a)"- 1
r Sin*
.
-:
terms of
COBX.
(nl)\
n\
prove
integer,
{x-a)* n Hmxdx
(a;
in
and express u n as a function
= j(x a) n ainxdx, prove that if n >
*72 Writing n!/ B
If n
+ a 2 )* n da;
Ja4{7 V2 + 3 log ( 1
n*
I
a
J*(aj
a2
a 2n
a*
= (-l)-i(2n)!jcosa-l+ - + ...
(
73 If c
Jch ax cos bxdx,
74 Calculate
75
= J"sh ax sin ftxaa;, calculate c and * in terms of x.
J*ch ax sin bx dx,
If/X (x)=
Jan oa; cos bx dx.
f(t)dt,Ux)=
Jo
Jo
(n-
l)!/(x)
A(t)dt, ...,fn (x)=
/_!(<)
<ft,
prove that
Jo
(a?-*)-1 A.
J**/(<)
[Integrate repeatedly
by
The
parts.
result expresses repeated integrations as
a single integral.]
ra
/2a
76 Prove
{f(2a-x)+f(x)}dx. Deduce that
f(x)dx=
Jo
Jo
[2a
(i)
if/(2a-a;)
-f(x), then
f(x)dx
0;
Jo
r2a
(ii)
if/(2a
-a) =f{x), then
/(*)da;
Jo
(m)
f(ainx)dx
Jo
Jo
/(sina;)daj;
pa
/()aa;;
Jo
INTEGRATION
176
(i
Cn
/(cos x) dx
v)
fin
function of
11 Prove
/(cosa;)<fo according as/() is
or 2
J
an odd or even
Jo
Jo
t.
/(sin2a;)sina:<iC
Jo
78 Iff(a + x)
*J2
/(cos 2x) cos x dx.
Jo
= f(x) for all x, and w is a positive integer,

f(x) dx
=n
prove
f(x) dx.
Jo
Jo
rwt
/(cos 8 x) dx.
Simplify
Jo
79
(i)
By putting 6 =
\ti
<f>,
prove
log ( 1
+ tan 6) dd =
Jo
r1
(ii)
Calculate
'
80 Prove
ios(i+x)
I
Jo
f**
Jo
dx.
+ x2
/l+sinaA
log (\l
+ cosa;/
dx
0.
\n log 2.
177
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Construction of differential equations
5.1
5.11 Elimination of parameters
from a function
If y is a function ofx, an equation involving at least one of the derivatives dyjdx, d 2yldx2
and possibly also x, y, is called a differential
,
equation for y. Before considering
equation
how
to solve or integrate such an
to find y explicitly or implicitly as a function of x), we

further examples (cf. 3.53, ex. (i)) of differential equations
(i.e.
give some
which arise from the process of eliminating parameters from a function. The results will be helpful when we turn to the problem of solving
a given differential equation, because they

solution to expect; see also Ex. 5
may suggest what sort of
(a).
Examples
Eliminate a from y 2 = 4ax.
To eliminate one unknown we must have two equations. The second one
obtained by deriving the given equation wo x:
(i)
2yy'
Eliminating
a,
4a.
we have
2xyy'
2xy'
i.e.
4ax
= y2
y.
Geometrically, the given equation represents

a parabola having Ox for axis of symmetry and
Oy for tangent at the vertex (16.11). The
differential equation, which is independent of a,
thus expresses a geometrical property common
to all such parabolas. Since y' = tan xjr, we have
= ycotf = y/y' = 2x = 20N; the property is
'the subtangent = twice the abscissa' (see 5.71).
Fig. 54
NT
(ii)
To
twice
Eliminate A,
cc
from x
= A cos (nt + a).
eliminate two constants
wo
we
require three equations; hence, deriving
t,
dx
= Ansm(nt +
at
12
is
<Px
cc),
2 = An
dt
cos (nt + oc).
GPMI
178
From the last equation and the
[5.12
given one,
'h
dsx
dx d 2x
dt 3
dt dt 2
'
Practice in forming differential equations satisfied by given functions has

already been offered in Ex. 3(6), nos. 7-10, and Ex. 3(e), nos. 19, 20, 23-25.
A few further typical exercises on elimination follow; the reader should do all
of nos. 110.
Exercise 5(a)
1 If y = a log x, eliminate a.
2 If x 2 + y 2 = a 2 prove dyjdx = x/y, and interpret geometrically.
2
2
2
3 If y = A cos nx + B sin nx, prove d y/dx = n y.
,
4 Eliminate
A and B from y A chpx + B shpx.
ax + a 2 prove y = xy' + y' 2

6 Eliminate c from y z = Sex + c3
7 If y % = 4=a(x + b), prove yy"+y' 2 =
5 If y
9
10
*1
*12
0; interpret geometrically.
= Aekx +B lx prove d yjdx 2 -(k + l) dy/dx + My = 0.

2
If y = (Ax + B) e nx prove d2y/dx 2 2n dy/dx + n y = 0.
2
2
2
2
ax
If y = e~ (A cos px + B sin pa;), prove d y/dx + 2a dy/dx + {a +p )y =
3x
2x
x
Eliminate A, B, O from y = Ae + Be + C
3
2
If (x -a) 2 + (y -b) 2 = 1, prove (1 + y' 2 = y"
8 If y
0.
5.12 Definitions
All the preceding differential equations involve functions of only-
one independent variable, and are called ordinary differential equations. In Ch. 9 we shall construct differential equations in functions
of more than one variable, called partial differential equations.
When an ordinary differential equation in y contains dnyjdxn but
no derivative of higher order, it is said to be of the nth. order. Thus in
exs. (i), (ii) and (hi) the equations are of first, second and third order
respectively.
an ordinary differential equation can be expressed as a polynomial in all the derivatives which occur in it (but not necessarily as
a polynomial in x or y), the degree of the equation is the highest power
If
5.13]
of the highest derivative which occurs. Examples
degree equations. In Ex. 5
(a),
179
(i)-(iii)
the equation in no. 5
is
are
of
all first-
first
order,
second degree; in nos. 7-10, second order and first degree; in no. 12,
second order and second degree. Had the equation in no. 12 been
written
+ y' 2 )% =
(1
purposes,
cf.
y" (as
8.32(1))
both sides before deciding

of first order and
5.13
Some
first
may
it
well have been for geometrical
we should have
to rationalise
its degree. Finally,
dyjdx
it
by squaring
y]xj(*Jy
+ x)
is
degree, although not a polynomial in x or y.
general conclusions
The above examples and Ex. 5 (a) all suggest that the result of
n parameters from a function is in general a differential
equation of order n: from the given function we obtain n further
equations by deriving n times, and from the total of n + 1 equations
we can in general ehminate the n parameters.
(1)
eliminating
This statement
only true
in general' because sometimes the

elimination leads to an equation of lower order. Thus, eHmination of
b
from y 2
is
2axy + bx2 leads to
y - X fx)
{y
- ax)
so that y x dyjdx
in either case;
instead of the expected
2.
and
>
this equation is of order 1
Geometrically, the given equation repre-
two lines through the origin (see 15.52); each

y = mx, and for both it follows that y = x dyjdx.
sents
(2)
an
Conversely,
we should
is
of the form
expect that the most general solution of
nth-order differential equation contains
arbitrary constants.
not attempt a general justification of this here, but

will be seen in several important cases which follow.
shall
Given a
differential equation, the solution
number of
arbitrary constants
is
its
We
truth
which contains the
full
called its general solution (g.s.) or
Any
relation between x and y which satisfies the

a particular solution (p.s.) or particular integral.
Usually a p.s. is obtained from the g.s. by assigning special values to
the arbitrary constants, but exceptionally there are solutions {singular
solutions) which cannot be so obtained. Thus from Ex. 5 (a), no. 5, the
g.s. of y = xy' + y' 2 is y = ax + a 2 but it is easily verified that y = - %xz
complete primitive.
equation
is
called
also satisfies this differential equation although it cannot
from the
g.s. for
any particular value of a. See
be obtained
also 5.27.
12-2
180
We now
[5.2
give methods for solving the simpler types of ordinary
equation which
differential
in
arise
geometrical
and physical
problems.
5.2
First-order equations
is dyjdx = f(x, y), and our problem is to obtain

not involving dyjdx but containing one arbitrary
constant. If possible we try to give y explicitly in terms of x, and free
of the sign of integration. We do not discuss whether such a relation
The standard form
a relation
always
5.21
(1)
g(x, y)
exists,
One
If y
solution
but show how to find
it
in certain special cases.
variable missing
is
missing, the equation
is
of the form dyjdx =f(x); the
is
where the symbol j...dx implies the presence of one arbitrary constant: cf. 4.11. Thus all the integrations in Ch. 4 could be interpreted
as solutions of differential equations having this very simple form.
missing, the equation has the form dyjdx =f(y), which
can be written dxjdy = ljf(y). The solution is
(2)
// x
is
dv
i.e.
Each
of the integrals implies an arbitrary constant, which together
give a single such constant.
5.22]
It is
181
sometimes convenient to obtain this result from a formalf use
of differentials
by writing the given equation

f(y)dy+g(x)dx
as
and then integrating throughout. Compare exs. (i), (ii) following; the
may set out the work in either style, although we shall use the
reader
former.
Examples
Divide both sides by x( 1
+ yz
) :
wo
f
J 1
x,
+ y*
dy
x'
f - dx,
J
ilog|l+^ 3 = log|x|+c,
.:
\+y* = Ax 3
i.e.
since
may
dy
+ y a dx
Integrating
on freeing the equation of logarithms we get |l+?/3 |*

cube both sides, remove moduli, and write A = e 3c
\x\ e e ,
and we
(ii)
sin x dyjdx y %
Rearrange, divide both sides by
"
f
J
+ yz
sin x,
dy
dx
l+y*
sina:'
dy
y=
and multiply by
da;:
f COSeCa *
1^2=J
tan -1 y
/.
log tan \x\

|
+ c,
tan {log tan $x\

|
+ c}.
Exercise 5(6)
Solve the following differential equations.
i
1
^-5*2
5x
dx~
9
2
1 +a?4 if
dy
~w
Sy
-
dlC
When
t Cf. 4.11,
x=1
'
where dx
is
not a
dy
dx
~ = tana;
differential.
8y
2
'
cot*/,
182
9
+x =
y%
aa;
=y
ax
logcc if
when
a;
e.
Solve dy/dx
(*
dy/dx+P(x)y
is
+ y) 2 by putting 2 = x + y.
= 2xy by writing p =
14 Solve (dy/dx+x 2y) dy/dx

the quadratic in p.
15
a;^+i/=l.
ace
12 fSftow #&a the general solution of

stant is implied in the integral.)
13
10
2.
ace
dy
11
= -l whena =
if$^
Solve (3y 2 x) dy/dx
16 Solve dy/dx + yjx
[The equation
1/x
is
y = eSPdx (A con.
<%/cJa;
Sy 2 dy/dx
and
factorising
= d(xy)/dx.]
2
.
*17 If tfv/cft = (1 v 2 jk 2 ) g where k, g are constants, and

prove v = fcth (<#/&) What happens when t - 00?
5.23
[5.23
if
when
0,
Homogeneous equations
If the differential equation can be written
homogeneous and 0/ fte same degree (1.52

then the equation can be reduced to the form
where /(#, y),
g(x, y) are
dx
Forf ${x,y)
fy)
Putting
<j){x,
g(x,y)jf(x,y)
y) for all
va?,
t;
homogeneous of degree
1/x shows that
is
0,
i.e.
= v + xdvjdx and the equation becomes
+*
in
\x/
taking
then ofy/ox
(4)),
5 -'().
which the variables are separable.
Example
dy
xy = x 2 ~y
z
.
dx
Since ay and jc 2 y 2 are both homogeneous of degree
x 2v\v + x =a; 2 aaj a

/
t Cf. Ex. 1(d), nos. 7(i),
o
,
8(ii).
2,
we put y = vx and get
5.24]
i.e. (if
'
dv
0)
V*
+ XV = 1 V 2
ax
v
1
dv
2v 2 dx
so
-log|l-2v|
i-e.
log \x*( 1 - 2v z = - 4c,

)
x\l-2v = A,
)
and
a;
.-.
since v
log|a;|+c,
-2V = A
y\x.
5.24 Equations reducible to
homogeneous type
Examples
(i)
^=
da;
g +y-3
3a;
y 1
This equation
is
not homogeneous, but by the transformation
Y = x+y-3, X=Zx-y~l
=
dx
the given equation becomes
dY ~ dY dX 1+ y'
l
=
dX dx/ dx Z-y'
now
by the formulae of transformation; hence from
dY = l+Y/X _
(a),
X+ Y
dX~ Z-Y/X~ ZX-Y'

This
is
homogeneous; putting
Y = vX gives
V+
i.e.
1+v
X dX = 3=-v>
<Zv
= v*-2v+l
X^dv
dX
Z-v
Z-v
dv
{v-l)*dX
on separating the
variables. Integrating
.
'
X'
wo X,
= /{(Îj5-^l}*
2
v-1
log|t>-l|+c,
184
hence
, %1
log|X(t;-l)|+
=
,
Using v
= Y/X,
[5.24
c.
this is
log\Y-X\
and from the formulae
2X
+Y-^ =
(b)
c;
X, Y,
for
log \2{y-x-
l)\
y
=c
+_
x+ y _ l
(c)
and 3x yl =
x+y3=0
represent two straight lines,

coordinate axes through (1, 2), and
parallel to the old, we obtain two lines through the new origin: their equations
will contain no constant term. To make the change of axes, put (see 15.73 (2))
Alternatively,
which intersect at
we take new
If
(1, 2).
then dx
= dX,
dy
y=Y + 2;
= X+l,
= dY and the given equation becomes
dY _
X+Y
dX~ 3X-Y'
whose solution
is (6)
above. Using
X = x Y = y
1,
becomes
2, (6)
" 1)
=e\
log|y- a; -l|+
xl
y
2(a;
(d)
It
is
easy to verify that

^
=
4x +
dx
a?
(ii)
v
'
2y +
Find the solutionJfor which y

*
= 1 log 2 + c.
Owftena;
0.
in ex.
_ dz_ 2
dy
dx
dx
.-.
25a;
i.e.
n
2
dx
i.e.
"
dx
dz
-
and the equation becomes
dz
a;
+ 25c =
The condition that y =
dz
5zl
dx
22 + 1
2g+l
5z-l
0.
_2 +
5
5(52-1)'
+ c = f2+^log|52-l|,
10(2a;
10a; + 5y - 1
= 5x-l0y + 25c.
+ y) + 7 log
when a; =
7 log
3
2z + 1
z
71og|10a; + 5t/-l|
or
hence
c'
(i) fails because, geometrically, the lines 2x+y 3 = 0,

are parallel. However, the right-hand side is a function of
therefore put z = 2x + y. Then
The method
4x + 2y+l
2x+y;
"*"^
are equivalent, with
(c), (d)
enables us to determine
1 =
1
25c,
The required solution is

71og|10a; + 52/-l|
= 5x-10y.
c:
5.25]
Remark.
185
Had we written our solution less precisely as

71og(10a; + 5y-l)
= 5x- 10y + 25c,
substitution of the values x = 0, y =

would have given the meaningless
equation 7 log ( 1) = 25c, since logt is not defined for t < 0.
Exercise 5(c)
Solve the following.
1
x- = x-y.
dy
2 (x + y)
dx
xy
if
when x =
3.
ax
= - + tan -
5
aa;
a;
11
da:
if
= i7r when
a;
x*
1.
a;
^ = y + J(x
6 a;
dx
_ dy
7
+ y 22X
).
dy_2x + y-l
x + 2y+l'
dy
dx
4(a;-2) 2
{(x
+ l)* + (y-2)*}
2x 2 + xy + y*
x* + xy + 2y2
dx
dx
dx
_ x + y-l
x + y+l'
d
?-
ax
+ 2(x + l)* + 2(x+l)(y-2) =
5.25 Linear equations of
first
order
If y and its derivatives occur to the first
terms, the differential equation
The most general
0.
is
power only, and in separate
said to be linear in y.
first-order linear equation in
expressed in the form
y can therefore be
+ P(x)y =
Q(x),
(i)
where P{x), Q{x) are functions of x only, or possibly constants.

Ex. 5(b), no. 16 is an example, which happened to be integrable
because on clearing the left side of fractions the equation becomes
d{xy)fdx
1/x. Similarly, no.
can be written
and its correctness
12
is
fD
the case
when Q =
verified since
E&""*)-
,M
-(i+^)-
0;
the solution
186
[5.25
These considerations suggest a method of solving the general linear

t make the left side into an exact derivative by multiplying the equation by a suitable function R{x). We obtain
equation:! we ^rV
R^ + RPy = RQ,
and if the left side is now an exact derivative, it must be the derivative
of By, as the first term indicates. Since
d
/T>
dR
~dy
we see by comparing the terms in y that R must
dR _
R~dx~
satisfy
ie
so that
log \R\
and hence R e$Pdx

Thus we can begin to solve
The equation is then
'
= jpdx,
(i)
by multiplying both
sides
by
efPdx .
dx
and the right-hand side is a function of x only.

The function efPdx which makes the left-hand side into an exact
derivative is called an integrating factor of (i). Notice that there is no
need to include an arbitrary constant in the expression efPdx provided
that a constant is introduced when integrating (ii): any particular
function will serve as an integrating factor, without any loss of
generality. Often an integrating factor can be seen by inspection;
if not, it is best to obtain it from first principles as in the examples
,
following.
Examples
(i)
If
dyjdx + 2y
e Sx .
R is an integrating factor, the left-hand side of

B^- + 2Ry =
Re**
dx
must be
dR
dy
d
(Ry) = R + y
dx
dx
dx
identical with
And
others: see Ex. 5(1), no. 58.
5.26J
Hence
so that
,.
mT>
R = e2x
dR
dB
187
The equation becomes

d
~{ye**)
dx
e 6 *,
.-.
ye 2 *= |e 5 * + c,
.-.
= ie^ + ce- 2 *.
Remark. Similar work will show that, if A; is constant, an integrating

factor of
is
always
ekx .
In future this case can be done by inspection.
(ii) dy/dx + 2y tan x = Bin. 8 x.

For a suitable R, the left-hand
side of
dy
R
+ 2Ryt&ax = i2sin
8
CvZC
must be
(Ry) R + y
dx
dx
dx
identical with
2R tan x =
Hence
ldR
R~dx~
and R =
sec 2 x.
2tana;
log|JB|
'
dx
= 21og|cosa;|,

d
sm*x
(ysec x)=:
dx
cos
2
a;
.*.
sec 2 a:
f sin x ,
-r-dx
cos 2 a;
J co
I
u2 -l
-du, where u =
u
u-\
cos 8 x + cos x + c cos 2 x.
he
5.26 Equations reducible to linear

(1) Bernoulli's equation
cosa;
cos a;,
+ seca; + c.
form
188
As a first
by y n
sides
step towards the standard linear equation, divide both

,
As a second
[5.26
step to standard form put z
-=
x ~n
,
so that
l-n)y-.

dz
which
is
linear in
+ {l-n)P(x)z =
(l-n)Q{x),
z.
Example
This
0.
dy
-r-+y tana;
dx
is
= 2y 3 sec x,
1
I dy
H-tana = 2 sec
i.e.
t/
Put
cos x dy/dx + y sin x + 2y s
(i)
I/?/
3 aa;
t/
a:.
2 dy
2
,
so that
z
y dx'
dx
+ z tana; = 2 sec x,
Then
2dx
dz
2 tan a;
i.e.
4 sec x.
dx
The reader should verify that cos 2 a; is an integrating factor;

d
dx
(z
cos 2 x)
zcosa a?
and
since z
(2)
1/y
Change
2
,
so
4 cos x,
4sina; + c,
4sina; + c
to the inverse function.
Example
(ii)
i.e.
(x
+ 2y 3
dy/dx
= y is not linear but, regarding a; as a function ofy, we have
3
dy
=
y
2y*,

5.27]
which
is
linear in
x and has integrating factor 1/y (seen by inspection, or
Hence
otherwise).
189
and
+ cy.
5.27 Clairaut's equation

All the standard first-order equations so far considered in 5.2 have also been
of first degree. Clairaut's equation
y=px+f(p),
(i)
where p denotes dy/dx, is not of first degree unless f(p) is linear in p. To solve (i),
derive both sides
wo
x:
dp
dp
dx
~=
and so
dp
(.+/<!.!-.
or
x+f'(p)
The first alternative gives p = c, so that from

taining one arbitrary constant, is the G.s.
From the second alternative and (i),
*
0.
(i),
cx+f(c). This, con-
-f(p), y=f(p)-pf'(p),
and elimination ofp gives another solution. Since these equations do not involve
an arbitrary constant, nor will the solution obtained from them.
Nos. 16-19 of Ex. 5(d) illustrate that:
(a) the second solution cannot be obtained from the G.s. by assigning a
special value to c; it is consequently a singular solution (s.s.) (see 5.13 (2));
(6) the G.s. represents a family of lines which are tangents to the curve
represented by the s.s. (see no. 20). This fact is confirmed geometrically: for
at the point of contact of any tangent to the s.s., the curve and tangent have
the same x, y and dy/dx; hence the tangent satisfies the same differential equation (i) as the s.s., so this tangent must be included among the lines in the
G.s.
of
(i).f
Exercise 5(d)
Solve the following, finding
1
dy
3
dx
sin a;-
y =
dy
dy
2 -f-+ycotx
dx
ycosx
dy
sui 2x.
-^-
dx
+ 2xy =
= sa\2x.
2x
if
when x =
1.
21oga;.
t This fact alone does not

8.52, ex. (vi).
integrating factor by inspection whenever possible.
e x.
ax
dy
5 xlogx
+y
an
show that
every line of the g.s. touches the s.s.
but see

190
dx
*6 If L at
+ Rx = E cos pt, where L, R, E, p are constants,

x
c e~RtlL
+ 2
zrr (Lp sinpt +
+ L zp 2
it
If p
and
7 ~r + y
jR/L
aa;
is
positive,
prove x
when
-> 2/.R
dy
xy~-3y 2 =
[5.3
3x 3
dx
dy
10
2a;
aa;
R cos pt).
oo.
?/
dy
+ ?/tana;
dx
13
(2x-5y 3 )^- =
dy
12 * 2 -t-
3
y aec*x.
dx
14
y.
when x = -|.
v.
2/
= xy + y.
+are v )^
(1
if
a;
sin a;
aa;
11
prove
e*
aa;
aa;
^y + dy =h
15
dx 2
Find
dx
the g.s.
and
s.s.
*16
2/
= pa; + i.
*18
2/
= px+p 3
*19
?/
= >a: + sinp.
0/ the following.
*17 (y-px) 2
.
Also find
all
solutions for
which y
= p 2 + 1.
when a; = 7.
*20 Verify that, in nos. 16-19, the G.s. represents a family of straight lines
which are tangents to the curve represented by the s.s.
*21 Find the differential equation of a curve such that any tangent makes
with the coordinate axes a triangle of constant area 2k 2 Hence show that the
curves are rectangular hyperbolas xy = k 2
.
Second-order equations
5.3
These involve d 2yjdx2 and some or all of dyjdx,
Some
5.31
y, x.
simple special types
dyjdx and y missing. If the equation can be put in the form

d yjdx2 =f(x), it is solved by integrating twice wo x; two arbitrary
constants are introduced.
(1)
(2)
p=
dyjdx and x missing.
If the equation
is
d 2yjdx2
dyjdx, so that
d 2y
dx 2
Then
(dy\
d (dy)
\dxj
dx\dx)
*tj
dp
dx
_dpdy _ dp
dydx
=M
'
dy
= f(y),
put
and by integrating wo y,
5.31]
2
iP = jf{y)dy =
<f>(y)
191
+ c,
Thus
say.
^=
{2<f>{y)
+ 2c}* and x =
j{2<f>(y)
+ 2c}-* dy.
Example
d 2y/dx2 + n2y
Putting p
(the equation of simple harmonic motion).
dyfdx, the equation becomes
dp
l|
i.e.
+ 4M2
(p2)
.'.
%p
+ $n2y 2 =
constant
2=p2 =
'
(i;)
da;
+6 =
0.
n 2a a ,
say.
n2(a2_2/2) '
1
= +
-nV(a 2 -t/ 2 )'
dy
/.
^^
+
|
= sin-^,
= a sin (tik + 6).
?/
Since the constants a, 6 are arbitrary, there is no loss of generality in taking

the ambiguous sign as + The general solution is therefore
.
It can also be written in the forms
asin(wa; + &).
(cf.
aco8(nx + b'),
5.11, ex.
(ii),
and Ex.
5(a), no. 3)
A cos nx + B sin nx.
The above differential equation will be met frequently when solving

and for convenience we will quote the solutions when needed;
the last is usually the most suitable when finding a general solution.
others,
(3)
The
y missing. The equation has the formf
substitution
p=
dyjdx immediately reduces

equation in p, viz.f(dp/dx, p, x) = 0.
t This includes
(1).
it
to a first-order
192
x missing. The equation
(4)
[5.32
isf
J \dx^dx ,y
'
Putting
p=
dy/dx as in
becomes f(pdpjdy, p,
(2), it
y)
0,
first-
order equation in p.
Exercise 5(e)
Solve the following.
= a2
3 y" = nhf.
= 2 when = 1.
4 y" = Zy'.
5 xy" = 3?/' if y = f and
2
a
3
6 y" = 6yy'
7 2/" = 1 +
when = 0.
8 Solve 2y" + 2 = 4y, where y = 1 and dy/dx =
and cfo//<2a: =
9 Solve d(y dy/dx) /dx = 6t/ with the conditions that y =
when = 0.
1
x*y"
=1.
2 y 3y"
a;
2/'
t/'
a;
a;
Given that
u=
1/c
and du/dd = w&en

when h, fi are
equation for central orbits)
10
P = /m
11
d2 u/dd 2 + u
and
0, sofoe
constants
P = fiu*.
P/(h 2u 2 )
(the
P = nju.
12
5.32 Linear second-order equations
The general
linear equation (see 5.25) of second order is
.d 2y
x)
.dy
d^ + q
x)
^y =
.
+r
dx'
p(x), q(x), r(x) are called its coefficients.
the standard form
where f(x) and the
d,
It
&'
g{
can always be reduced to
+ (*)^ +
(i)
=*/(*)
coefficients a(x), b(x) are functions of a; or possibly
constants.
(1) The complementary function.
Let y u be any particular solution of
however obtained. Then
d 2u
aW +
The function y =
dH
d^
d 2u
.du
a{x)
dx'
...
.dz
+ S? +a(x) Tx + a(x)
,
...
+{x)u= f {x)
+ u will satisfy
(i)
however simple and
(i),
if
'
and only if
.
7/
E +<*)+*<> -
f This includes
(2).
/./v
/<*>
5.32]
i.e. if
and only
the equation
if z satisfies
_+
which is simpler than
The general
193
a(a;)
_+6
(a;)s
(u)
>
(i).
solution of
two arbitrary constants.

is given by
will containf
(ii)
When this solution is known, the general solution of (i)

y = z + u, also involving two arbitrary constants. Thus
g.s. of (i) = g.s. of (ii) + p.s. of (i).
The general solution of (ii) is called the complementary function (o.p.)

(i). Hence
of equation
G.s. of
(i)
c.f.
of
+ p.s.
(i)
of
(i).
Example
To discover a p.s., try y = ke x , where Tc is some constant, to be found by

substitution in the given equation. (This trial is reasonable, since the term in
e x on the right can arise only from derivatives of functions containing e x .) Then
ke x + 9ke x = 5e x
Hence a p.s. is y = \e x
The c.f. is the solution of d2y/dx 2 + 9y =
:.
\.
The
of the given equation
G.s.
y
(2) c.f.
I.
by
5.31 (2), example, this
is
<fi(x),
ifr(x)
is
therefore
A cos Zx + B sin Zx + \e x
as a linear combination of independent particular solutions of
Ifz
0;
A cos Zx + B sin 3x.
are two solutions of

z
A(j){x)
(ii),
then so also
(ii).
is
+ Bxjr{x)
for arbitrary constants A, B.

Proof. We have
0" + a0' + &0
so that
+ af + bf =
(ii)a,6
0,
+ a(A<f> + Bft) + b{A<j> + Bft)

CiOO
=
=
A(<f>"
+ a<f>' + b(j>) + B{ft" + aft' + bft)
0;
therefore A<j> + Bft satisfies (ii).

If <l>(x)lft(x) is not constant,
z
ft"
(A<f>+Bft)
QfOC
then the solution
and
A<fi
+ Bft
if ${x), ft(x) are 'independent' solutions,

involves two arbitrary constants A, B. Con-
i.e.
versely
II.
A<fi
If
<f>,
ft
are independent solutions of
(ii),
then
any
solution z is of the form
+ Bft, where A, B are constants.

t
x3
From
the considerations in 5.13(2); but see 5.32(2) for a proof.
GPMI
194
Lemma, fiyi, ya are any two solutions oiy'+Py =

For by elimination of P from
y[+Pyi =
we have y^-y^ =
Proof of
0, i.e.
y'2
Q,
d{y i jy 1 )ldx
0,
then y2
[5.33
= Ayx
+Py 2 =
0, i.e.
yjy x = A.
II.
By elimination of 6 from (ii) and (ii) b, we get

ftz"-zf + a(ftz'-zft') =
d
- zf)
(ftz' - zf) + a(fz'
dx
i.e.
Similarly from
(ii)
a and
(ii)
0,
0.
b,
^-(ifr<f>'-<f>f)
+ a(f<t>'-<f>f) =
0.
Hence, by the lemma,

ftz'
- zf =
d_
dx
{t)-
4 = A%+B
yr
so that
- <j>f),
A{f<f>'
dx{f)'
and
A+Brjr = Cfr
where G = Ak + B, which involves effectively only one constant C. Thus a
knowledge of a single particular solution will not give the G.s. in this way;
but see 5.64 for a method applicable in this case.
(f>
From the preceding account it appears that,
to solve equations like
our first problem is to solve the simpler equation (ii). We do not

attempt this in general here, but confine ourselves mainly to the case
when a, b in (ii) are constants; see 5.6, however.
(i),
5.33 Linear second-order equations with constant coefficients
Our standard equation now is
g + ag +
where a and
fc,
0,
(iii)
-ky),
(iv)
6 are constants.
(1) Direct solution.
The equation
i.e.
^{y'-ky) =
l{y
y"-(k + l)y' + kly =
0,
5.33]
will
be the same as the given equation
(k + l) =
i.e. if
and only if k,
Case
z
(i):
= Cete
=
,
suppose
y'
ky,
and
if
and only
kl
if
b,
(v)
are the roots of the quadratic in m:
m
Put
(iii)
195
k,
+ am + b =
0.
and k^l.
(iv) becomes dzjdx
exist
so that
so that
Iz.
This has solution
y'-ky = CeVe
(vi)
This can be solved either by use of the integrating factor e_fcB

d_
= CtH**,
j-{ye-kx )
dx
y e-1^ =
- el-*
where
A=
0/(1
= Ae^+Be**,
k); or by observing that,
symmetrical in k and
I,
+ B,
ic
1/
:.
the given equation
since the relations (v) are

(iii)
is
also equivalent to
from which we deduce that (C being another arbitrary constant)

y'-ly
Elimination of y' from
(vi), (vii)
{k-l)y
so that y has the form
C'ekx
gives
= C'ete-CJ*,
A eu + Bekx as before.
Case (ii) : suppose k = I.

Proceeding as before, the given equation
y'
-ky = A ekx
Using the integrating factor e~kx
.'.
Cf.
Ex. 5 (a), no.
9.
(vu)
ye
it
-kx
is
Ex. 5 (a), no.
8.
equivalent to
(vi)'
becomes
= AX + B,
y=(Ax + B)ekx
Cf.
196
Case (Hi): suppose the m-quadratic has no
[5.33
roots.
The preceding method then breaks down because

no. 10,
we write equation
y"
This
(iii)
as
+ ay' + (|a2 +p*) y =
0.
(viii)
because the m-quadratic has no roots, and so
justified
is
(iii) cannot be
However, taking our clue from Ex. 5 (a),
(iv).
\a 2 is positive and equal to p 2 say.

If we now putf y = z e~^ ax i.e. z = y e% ax we have
a 2 46 <
0, i.e.
z'
Hence
(viii)
(y'
+ %ay) e^ ax and
becomes
z"
.*.
and
Conclusions.
z"
+p 2z =
(y"
+ ay' + \a2 y) e%*.
0.
= A coapx + Bsinpx
^ (A coapx + B
sinâ;).
We have now proved that, in the case of linear second-
order equations with constant coefficients, the g.s. always involves
two arbitrary constants; and that the form of the solution depends on
the nature of the roots of the quadratic
m + am + 6 = 0,
2
called the
auxiliary equation.
Examples
y"-6y' + Sy
(i)
This
is
0.
equivalent to
^ (y'-fo/) = l(y'-ky),
y"-(k + l)y' + kly =
i.e.
0,
- 6 and kl - 8.
2 6m
Hence k, I are the roots of m
+ 8 = 0, viz. 2 and 4. Taking k =
have dz/dx = 4z where z y' 2y. Therefore z G eix and
y'-2y = Ce4 *,
k+l
if
'
.-.
{ye
d\
~ 2x) ==Ce2x
'
= %Ce + B,
y = Ae ix + Be* x
ye~ 2x
2<e
where
A=
<7.
Alternatively,
by the symmetry in
k,
y'-4y =
Elimination of y' gives
2y
we
have
also
Ce
2 *.
= C eix C e 2x
t Cf. Ex. 4(e), no. 23.
2, 1
4,
we
5.33]
so
as before, where
(ii)
A=
= Ae + Be
ix
\G and B = tyC'.
y"-Gy' + 9y =
0.
Proceeding as before, the auxiliary equation
- 6m + 9 =
^Z
dx
By. Hence z = A eZx and so

y'-Zy = AeSx
y'
found to be
is
0,
m = 3. The given equation is equivalent to
which has the repeated root
where
197
2x
ye-**) = A,
{
= Ax + B,
=
(Ax
y
+ B)e3x
ye~ax
and
2/*-6y , + 25y
(iii)
0.
The auxiliary equation is m 2 6m + 25 = 0, i.e. (m 3) 2 + 16

no roots. We therefore write the given equation as
and put y =
z'
Hence
and
(2)
(y"-6y' + 9y) + 16y = 0,

= y e~Zx so that
= e~* x (y - 3y), z" = e~** {y" - 6y' + % a
z*+16z = 0,
z = A cos 4x + B sin 4x,
y = e 8 * (.4 cos 4a; + B sin 4a;).
z e3 *, i.e. z
0,
which has
).
Solution by trial exponentials.
Since the linear first-order equation dy/dx+Py =

with constant coefficient
has solution
e Px (Ex. 5 (b), no. 12), we may try to find a p.s. of this type for
equation (iii). The function y = emx will satisfy (iii) if and only if
e mx (m 2
+am + b) =
0,
m + am + 6 = 0.
If this quadratic has distinct roots m = k, m =
2
i.e.
I,
dent solutions of (iii). Hence by 5.32
y
If the roots are equal, say
(2),
the g.s.
= Ae kx +Be lx
then e** and e lx are indepen-
is
m = k, then we seek a more general solution than
e kx by putting y = ve kx On substituting in (iii) we find that e kx v" = 0, so

that v" = and v = Ax + B. The g.s. is thus y = {Ax + B) e kx
If the quadratic has no roots, the trial method fails without the aid of complex
numbers: see
14.66, ex.
(ii).
The reader may feel that, when it is applicable, the trial method is quicker than
that in (1); but he may wonder why only the exponential function is selected
for a trial p.s. The direct calculations in (1) make clear why exponentials
198
[5.33
are involved, without a priori assumptions about the form of the solution.
Both methods can be applied to linear equations with constant coefficients
and order greater than 2: see Ex. 5 (I), no. 56.
We have now discussed completely the equation
(ii)
for the case of
we next consider the

With the same
Ex. 5(f), nos. 9-28, provides essential information, and
the reader should consider these examples carefully, especially
constant coefficients.
p.s.
of
restriction
(i);
nos. 9-18.
Exercise 5(f)
Find the general solution

1
y"-Ay' + Sy
= 0.
y"-y +y =
of the following.
4 y"-Ay
7
2 y" -y' - I2y
0.
= 0.
y" + 3y' = 0.
5 y" + Ay
0.
0.
^+10^ + 26^=0.
6 y" + Ay' + 13y
By
substitution find the values of the constants A, B,

equations have the particular solutions indicated.
C for
0.
which the following
= 5;y = A.
= 6a;; y = Ax + B.
y" + 5y'-2y = Ax 2 y = Ax2 + Bx + C.
y"-3y' + y = 7e 2 *; y = Ae 2x (cf. 5.32, ex.).
y" y' + 1y = 8 sin 3a; + cos Zx;y = A cos 3a? + B sin 3a\
9 y" + 3y'+2y
10 y"-2y' + Sy
11
12
(This is reasonable
13
because terms in sin Sx and cos 3a; can arise by derivation only from similar
terms.)
14 y" + Ay' = Sx. If we try y = Ax + B, as suggested by no. 10, we find that

for which this can satisfy the equation. Integrating
there are no values of A,
once (without arbitrary constant, since only a p.s. is required) gives y' + Ay = Ax 2
and no. 1 1 suggests trying y = Ax 2 + Bx + C. Values for A, can now be found.
Hence a suitable trial for the given equation is y = Ax 2 +Bx.
= 3a; 2 y = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx.

16 y" 2y' Sy = AeZx The trial y = A e 3x suggested by no. 12 fails, so put
y = veSx we find that v satisfies v" + Av' = A, and to solve this we try v = Ax
as in no. 14. Hence y = Ax e 3x would be a suitable trial for the original equation.
(The trial y = Ae3x for a p.s. is futile since the o.r. of the equation is
y = A e~ x + Be3x which already involves e 3x
17 y"6y' + 9y = 2e3x
y ve 3x gives v" = 2, whence v = x 2 and so
3x so the
2 3x
=
suitable
trial. (Here the cf. is y = (Ax + B) e
would
be
Ax
e
a
y
trials y = Ae 3x and y = Ax 3x would both be futile.)
18 y" + 9y = 3 cos 3a; 2 sin 3a;. The cf. is y = A cos 3a; + B sin 3a;, so we may
try y = x(A cos 3x + B sin 3a;).
19 y" 5y' + 6y = xe x y = ve x gives an equation for v like no. 10, hence
y = {Ax + B) ex would be a suitable trial.
*20 y" %' + Qy = x e3x y = v e3x gives type of no. 14; hence y = (Ax 2 + Bx) e3x
*21 y" %' + 9y = x e 3x y = v e3x i.e. v = y e~3x gives v" = x; so y = Ax3 e3x
15 y" + 5y'
.)
5.34]
*22 y-5y' + Qy
x*e x
y"-5y'+Qy
*23
e 2x
(Ax* + Bx +
= (Ax3 + Bx 2 + Ox) e ix
*24 y"-by' + y
*25 y" + 3y' + 2y
lOe^sin 2x; y
*26 y + 3y' + 2y
10e- a 8in2a;.
*28 y" - Ay' +
13t/
e 3x
199
C)e x .
.
Ax*e* x.
6e2a, sin 3x;
= ve x gives type like no.

*27 y"-&y' + y
13.
= e Sx amx.
y = v e2x gives type of no.
18.
5.34 Particular solution in the case of constant coefficients
The
(1)
results of
for finding
when f(x)
p.s.
Ex. 5(/), nos. 9-28 suggest useful
of
y"
trial
methods
+ ay' + by=f(x)
a polynomial, an exponential function, a sine or cosine,

or certain products of these. Our conclusions are summarised as
is
follows:
a polynomial of degree n, a p.s. is also a polynomial of

= 0,in which case a p.s. is a polynomial of degreern- 1.
px a p.s. is usually A epx but if epx belongs to the
(ii) // f(x) = ke
px
CP., a p.s. is Ax
unless x epx also belongs to the o.f., in which event
Iff(x) is
(i)
degrees unless 6
Ax2 epx
Iff(x) = A cosâ; + /* simpx, a p.s. is usually A coapx + B sin px;
p.s. is
(iii)
but if these terms occur in the c.p., a p.s.
is
x(A cos px+B sin jp#).
Iff(x) = kx n e vx , a p.s. is usually e px x (polynomial of degree n); but if

belongs to the c.p., a p.s. is e px x (polynomial of degree n + 1), unless xe px
also belongs to the c.p., in which case a p.s. is Ax n+ *e px.
px (A cos qx
( v) Iff{x) = e
/t sin qx), a p.s. is usually e px (A cos qx + B sin qx) ;
but if these terms appear in the o.r., a p.s. is x e pt (A cos qx+B sin qx).
(iv)
e 3*"
(2)
Nos. 14-28 also suggest that in solving a differential equation
first, so that when we seek a p.s. we shall

be aware of what trials to avoid.
Sometimes we are asked for the special solution in which y, y' have
prescribed values for given x. This information (called initial or
boundary conditions) enables us to determine A, B from the g.s. (not,
it is
desirable to find the c.f.
of course, from the c.p. alone).

in applications; e.g. see Ex. 5
Hence the
order of procedure
(a)
Find the
(6)
Inspect
above.
Boundary conditions are important
(h),
nos. 1
(ii),
(ii).
is:
c.f.
it,
and then try a
suitable p.s. as indicated in (i)-(v)
200
[5.34
+ P.S.
(C)
G.S.
(d)
If required, find the solution which satisfies given
C.F.
boundary
conditions.
(3)
types
When/(#)
(i)-(v),
sum
consists of a
we can
of terms
fx {x), f2 (x)
of the above
use the following theorem.
+ ay' + by = fx (x),
y = u z is a p s f V" + aV' + ty = hix )>
a p.s. of y" + ay' + by = fx (x) +f2 (x) is y = ux + u 2
If u = ux + u 2 then
u" + au' + bu = [u x + u'2 + a(u'x + u'2 + b(ux + u 2
= ux isa p.s.
If
and
then
Proof.
of y"
(u'i"
+ au'x + bux + (u'2 + au'% + bu 2

)
= A(*)+/i(*).
= u satisfies the original equation, i.e. ux + u 2 is a p.s.
= 2x x2 we should not apply this theorem with fx (x) = 2x
= x 2 because it is easier to make the trial y = Ax2 + Bx + C
Therefore y
Itf(x)
and/2 (a:)
whatever is appropriate) for the whole p.s. directly. The theorem

used when/1 (x), f2 (x) are functions of different 'types', as in the
(or
is
following example.
Example
y"6y' + 8y
when x = 0.
Solve
y'
e 2x
First consider the c.f.,
+ &m.2x, and find
which
is
the solution for
which y
and
the general solution of
y"-6y' + 8y
0;
(see 5.33, ex. (i)) y = A

+ Be
Next, seek a p.s. of y" 6y' + Sy = e 2x Since e 2x occurs in the c.r. but xe 2x
does not, we try y = Axe 2x ; this is found to give 4 = - |, so a p.s. for this
equation is \x e 2x
Finally, seek a p.s. of y" 6y' + 8y = sin 2x; we may try y = A cos 2x + B sin 2x,
for which y' 2A sin 2x + 2B cos 2x and y" = 4y, so that A, B must be
chosen to satisfy
J
Qy , +8y
4y
= sin 2x,
e ix
it is
2x .
- 6( - 2A sin 2x + 2B cos 2x) = sin 2x.

and 4B + 12A = 1, whence A = ^ B = ^.Ap.s.
This requires 4A - 12B =
of the last equation is thus ^(3 cos 2x + sin 2x).
i.e.
4(A cos 2x + B sin 2x)
-,
Hence a
p.s.
\x e x +
and the
G.s. is
From
is
cos 2x + sin 2x),
ix
._,
= Ae ix + (B- %x) e + 4^(3 cos 2x + sin 2x).

,
this
y'
= 4Ae3x + (2B-x-$) e Sx +
- 3 sin 2x + cos 2x)
5.4]
hence for the special solution required we have, when x
= A+B+&,
from which A
201
0:
= 4A + (2B
B = - This solution is therefore

y = Ae4 * - (| + $x) e 2x + J^(3 cos 2a; + sin 2x).
-f
Exercise 5(g)
Find
the G.s. of the following.
= 6.
2 2/*-2 + 3?/ = 6a;-l.
3 y"-y'-2y = -\x*.
4 22/" 5j/' + 32/ = 4e2 *. Also find the solution for which y = and
=
when x = 0.
5 y"-y'-\2y = 2e4 *.
6 j/" - 2</' + 2*/ = sin Zx.
7 2/" l^k/' + SOy = 2cosa;.
8 y" + 16y = cos 4a;. Also give the most general solution which vanishes when
x = \tt.
9 y" + 8y'+16y = 6e~ 4 *.
10 y" + 6y' = 4a;.
11 y" + 4y = sinx sin 3x.
12 y" 3y'+ 18y = sh 2x.
13 y"-6y' + Sy = e -cos2a;.
*14 y" + 3y' + 2y = e~ x Bmx.
2
*15 3j/*-%' + 22/ =
e*.
*16 j/" + 6j/' + 9?/ = (l+a;)e*17 y"+y' + y = e x (x + oosx).
*18 </"-4i/' + 4t/ = 8a;2 e 2 * sin 2a;.
1
y"-Zy' + 2y
2/
4a!
3a!
a;
5.4
The operator D;
calculation of a p.s.
In 5.34 we gave some
trial
methods
for finding a p.s. of a linear
second-order equation with constant coefficients.

it
We now show how
can be found more systematically (and often more easily) by formal
calculation.
The
discussion, given here for second-order equations
only, extends naturally to higher orders.
5.41 Algebraic properties of
The notations Dy, Dhf

mentioned in
or
or briefly
where
and second derivatives of y were
for first
2.11, 3.51 respectively.
linear equation
as
We now
D*y + aDy + by =f(x),

(D2 + aD + b)y
= f(x),
F{D)y=f{x),
F{D) =
D + aD + b.
2
write the standard
202
When
the coefficients
a, b
D, because
F(D) can be
were an algebraical polynomial
are constants the operator
treated for certain purposes as

in a variable
if it
obeys the same laws of addition and
multiplication as do algebraical symbols. For,

*10n
by the
D(u + v) = Du + Dv
'
[5.42
rules of deriva-
(distributive law)
Dm {Dnu) = D+w = Dn (Dmu)

where m, n are positive
and if h
integers',
is constant,
= hDu
D(ku)
(index law)
(commutative law).
Example
If x 2 + ax + b has factors (x k) (x I), then k + l
preceding laws,
{D _ k){D _ l)y
= {D _ k){Dy _
= a and
kl
b.
By
the
= D(Dy-ly)-k(Dy-ly)
= D 2y-(k + l)Dy + My
= D*y + aDy + by
=
F(D)y.
Hence the operator F(D) can be 'factorised' as (D k) (D l), (or, if we wish,

as (D I) (D k) by a similar argument), just as if it were a quadratic in D.
For the same reason, polynomials in
D with constant coefficients are
added, subtracted and multiplied just like algebraic polynomials.

n = (j){x), we write
= D~n (j){x), so that D~n denotes
If
integrations
that
wo
Dn {D~n
in x with
fails for
x,
y,
but that D~n {Dny)
= y + a polynomial of degree n
arbitrary constants for coefficients; the above index law
negative indices.
5.42 Shift theorem
F(D){epx u}
the product rule,
Ifu =
u(x), then
Proof.
By
D{epx u]
Repeating
this,
evx
An operator is
epx F(D+p)u,
Du+pepx u =
epx
epx
where p
{Du+pu) =
with u replaced by (D +p) u,
B\epx u) =
\
thus introducing n arbitrary constants. Observe
{D + p) {{D +p) u}
epx
is constant.
{D+p)u.
we get
epx
(D + pf u.
understood to act on the function placed immediately after
it.
F(D) {e*> x u) = (Z> 2 + aD + b) {&> x u)
5.43]
Hence
eP*{{D+p)* + a(D+p) + b}u
e* x F{D+p)u.
by symbolic methods
5.43 Calculation of p.s.
= f1 (x)+f2 (x) + ...+fn (x), then

of each of the equations
If f(x)
p.s.
%+
and add the
% + hy=fr{x)
We
results.
203
by
we can
5.34(3)
raBl 2
seek a
).
therefore suppose f(x) to be one of the
following simple types.
Case (i):f(x)
is
to be considered
a polynomial in x of degree m, say P. The equation

then F(D) y = P.
is
yx =
Method. Write
=
by
j^ p
D-f>{c
+ ct D + c2 D2 +
. .
.)
by resolution
by use of a relation like
algebraic long division (in practice
partial fractions, followed
a D
which
s% /i
verified
is
<
2,
a2
by summing the geometrical
progression).
Hence
yx
D* + aD + b
(/t
D(D + a)
(6
= 0,/*=
{a
D"/'(c
+ cx D +
. . .
0),
1),
0, pu
+ cm Dm
P is a polynomial of degree m.
We have to show that yx constructed above is
=
P. Write
F{D) = 2>#(D),
and
2).
P,
Justification.
of F(D) y
Here
which covers the cases when
F(D) =
since
a\
of l/F(D) into
G(D)
where
+ bt D +
. . .
<
/i
+ b^B*-",
and consider the polynomial in x,

G(x)
+ b 1 x + ...+ b^x*-".
2,
p.s.
204
By long division,
or otherwise,
c
+ c 1 x + ...+cm xm +
"0-r-l--r-
=
is
a polynomial of degree greater than m. Clearing of
fractions,
1
~,
On
(c
values of
all
by
it is
an
identity
between two
D and recalling the principle if 5.41
are manipulated like algebraic polynomials,
we obtain the following
replacing x
that polynomials in
+ c1 x+...+ cm xm + R(x).
0{x)
This results holds for

polynomials.
'
^G{XY
G(x)
where R(x)
[5.43
equivalence of operators
G(D)
(c
(cf.
5.62):
+ Cl D + ...+ cm D m ) + B{D).
P with both gives

P = 0(D) (c + c D + + cm Dm P + B(D) P
= G(D)(c + c D+...+cm Dm )P since B(D)P =
= G(D) Dv{D-t>(c Q + cj) + + cm Dm )} P
= F(D) {D-a(c + Cl D + + cm D)} P
Operating on
. . .
. . .
. . .
= F(D)yv
Hence yx does
satisfy the given equation.
Examples
(i) Find a p.s. of y" + 4y = x 3
Rewriting the equation as (D 2 + 4) y
.
D +4
k.3
x3 a
p.s. is
given symbolically by
41 + > 2
= i(l-lD + ^--) 3
(D 2 + 3D-4)?/ = a;3
Here J'(D) = - ( 1 - D) (4
(ii)
D), so
by partial fractions
1/
5\1-D + + d)
= - l{(I+D+D* + D* + ...) + %(l-kD+&D --hD 3 + ...)}x3
D + 3>-4
a
4:
-m+HD+nD +mD +...}x

= -{ix + &3x +1&6x + gs 6}
=
5.43J
Case
(ii):f(x)
epx P,
where
From F{D)y =
Method.
epx
_
by an
P is a polynomial.
P we have, proceeding symbolically:
epx
F{D+p)
extension, at present unjustified, of the shift theorem to
The
rational functions of D.
Case
205
calculation
is
now
formally reduced to
(i).
Suppose that work as in Case
Justification.
F(D+p)
P:=U
sothat
'
Then we have to show that yt =
By
(i)
gives
P = F{D+p)u.
epx u satisfies
F(D)y =
epx P.
the shift theorem,
F{D){epx u]
epx
F(D+p)u =
epx P\
so y does satisfy the equation.

Short method when F(p) =}= 0.
If F(p)
since the
P=
k),
#= 0,
we have
1
F(x+p)
F(p)
two sides must agree when x
the
+ c x x+...
0.
Hence iff(x) = kepx
p.s. is
Examples
(iii)
{D*-3D + 2)y =
A p.s.
8eix
is
Se4 *
e48
(
D+4
)a
-3(i) + 4) + 2
I>2
+ 5> + 6
61 + (2> 2 + 5>)
=
=
tei *{l-l(D* + 5D) +

e4 *.8
...}8
'extension' of 5.42,
(i.e. if
206
Alternatively, since .F(4)
16 12 + 2
6,
Seix
p.s.
(iv) (D 2 3D + 2)y = 3 e 2 *.
= (D- 1) (>- 2), and ^(2)
Here
applicable. We have
[5.43
the 'short method' at once gives
fe
0,
4 *.
so the 'short method'
is
not
(D-1)(Z>_2)
3e 2iB
e 2 *l{l
-D +
= e^D^Z =
by
(-D+1)D
...}
'extension' of the shift theorem (5.42),
3xe**,
omitting the arbitrary constant of integration since only a

(v)
y"-6y' + 9y
p.s.
being sought.
20a; 8 e 3 *.
F(D)
so
p.s. is
-^-20x
e 8a! -j^
(D-3) 2
20x*
Z> 2
-6D + 9 =
(-D-3) 2 ,
e Zx
by extension of 6.42,
'
'
= Xs e Zx on integrating twice and omitting constants.

Case
{Hi). lff(%)
eie
involves cosqx and
smqx linearly, we use
cos 6 + i sin 6,
e~id
cos d i sin 6
(equivalent to Euler's exponential forms, 14.65) to express such
trigonometric terms as complex exponentials, thus reducing the
work
easier to select the real or
(i), (ii). In practice it is

imaginary part at the end of the work, as in the examples below.
formally to Cases
Examples
(vi)
is
y" + 4y
cos 2x.
Consider instead the equation (D 2 + 4) y

the real part.
p.s.
+4
(Z>
Z> 2
-e
2t) a
+4
D(D + 4d)
e 2ix ,
of which the given equation
5.43]
= i e *<*D-il =
4a
\-.e
207
u *x
4*
= Jia;(cos 2x + i sin 2x)

The
p.s.
Alternatively, using
is
the real part of this result, viz. Jxsin 2x.
complex factors of the operator,
p.s.
D +4
2
D-2i\D + 2i
=
D-2i (ii
e 2ix
36
hy the Shrt method
e2i
'
'
")
^-j
by the
e six
'extension' of the shift theorem (5.42),
03 before.
4t
(vii)
(D 2 - 6D + 13) y
p.s.
> 2
^-
-6D + 13
e8 cos 2a.
e 3z cos 2x
(D + 3) a -6(D + 3) + 13
cos 2x
(u
cos
2a;
in the shift theorem)
=
(viii)*
e 3x a;sin2a;
(D
as in ex.
(vi).
- 3D + 4) y = asinx.
3D + 4) y = x e ix
Considering (D 2 -
p.s.
-3> + 4
1
(D + i)*-3(D + i) + 4
1
D* + (2i-3)D + 3(l-i)
3(1-*)
e<*
+
l
8(l-<)
+ (2t-3)D
~ 3(1-0 \
3(1=0
2t-3
/
3(1-01r" 3(1-0)
3(T=o
= ie (l+0{* + i(* + 5)}
<!e
ie f {(l+0a: + K3i + 2)}.
""r
208
The required
p.s. is
[5.43
the imaginary part of this, viz.

%{(x + 1 ) cos x + (x + ) sin x}.
The reader should now find by
the symbolic
method the
p.s. of
some
of the differential equations in Exs. 5 (/), (g); e.g. Ex. 5 (/), nos. 16-28
and Ex. 5 (g), nos. 13-18 are best done this way. Ex. 5 (h) includes
some general examples from Mechanics and Electricity.
Exercise 5 (ft)
2
dx
+ n x = a cos pt.
Forced harmonic motion :
dt 2
If p 4= n, show that x = Acos nt + sia nt+ {a j(n 2 p 2 )} cos pt. (The

CF. represents the free oscillations, and the p.s. represents the forced oscillations.
When p = n, the amplitude of the forced oscillations becomes large a pheno1
(i)
menon known as
2
(ii)
Find x
if
(i)
If p =
n,
resonance.)
when t = 0.
= Acoant + Bsmnt + (a/2n)tsin.nt.
and dxfdt
prove x
(The amplitude
of the forced oscillations therefore increases without limit when t -> oo.)
(ii) Find x if x =
and dxjdt = when * = 0, and verify that the result
the limit when p - n of that in no. 1 (ii).
+n x =
d^cc
dec
dt 2
dt
-r- + 2k
Damped harmonic motion :
is
0.
2
2
3 If w 2 < k 2 , prove x = Aexp{-kt + J(k 2 -n 2 )t} + Bex.p{-kt-J(k -n )t}
(which represents a non-oscillatory motion). (Here exp u denotes eu .)
= k2
n2 > k2
4 If n 2
5 If
senting
damped
x
= e~ kt (At + B) (also non-oscillatory).

x = e~ kt {A cos (t J (n 2 -k 2 j) +Bam(tJ(n 2 -k 2 ))}
prove x
prove
oscillations).
If
A;
is
(repre-
small compared with n, prove that
e~ kt x (the solution which
would be obtained
if
0).
(Hence smaH damping changes the period only slightly, but diminishes the
amplitude of successive vibrations in geometrical progression.)
Damped forced harmonic motion

d2x
(i)
Prove that the

b
p.s.
dx
nr
+ n 92x =
+ 2k
a cos pt.
can be written b cos (pt + a), where
a{(n 2 -p 2 ) 2 + 4k 2p 2}-*
and
tan a
2kp/(p 2 - n 2 ).
(This represents the forced oscillations; if n 2 > k 2 , the free oscillations are given
by no. 5.)
(ii) If a, k, n are constants and p varies, prove that b is greatest when
p = \j(n 2 2k 2 ). If also k is small compared with n, show a == -\n,b = a/{2kn)
(resonance again).
5.5]
209
7 If the free vibrations (no. 5) are in resonance with the applied

both are damped, then *J(n 2 k 2 ) = p and the equation becomes
+ 2k +
Show that
+p
(k 2
at
Cur
)x
and
force,
a e~ kt coa pt.
represents an oscillation of amplitude (a/2p)te~ kt, and that

when t oo.
a/(2pke) when t~\jk and tends to
the damping is small, the forced vibrations become large but remain
this has
the
p.s.
maximum value
(Thus if
bounded.)
and applied
Electric circuit with self-inductance, capacitance, resistance,
d 2x
motive force:
+R
d^
(Observe the analogy with no.

8 Find the c.r.
9 Find the
When
10
_,
= Ec
apt
4L.
the form x
-> oo, no. 8
d^
6.)
when OR 2 <
p.s. in
dx
b cos (pt
shows that the
+ a).
away. Ignoring
free oscillations die
these, prove that for given E, L, p, R, the greatest values of
J(LC)
x occur when
1/p.
If F(x)
11
electro-
is
a polynomial in
x,
prove
F(D 2
cos ax
F(
12 Assuming that this result can be used when F(x)

find a p.s. of (D 2 +
l)y = cos 2a; as follows:
a2
cos ax.
a rational function,
is
D+
D +D+l cos 2x
2
D+3
- cos 2x = d-3
- cos 2x =
cos 2x
_4
-9
+ > + i
D-+2
- cos
2x
-^(3008 20; 2 sin 2x).
Verify this solution directly.

Generalise this method to
are polynomials in x.
*13
{<fi(D
2
)
+ Di/r(D 2 )} y = A cos ax + fi sin ax, where
<fi{x), yjr(x)
Simultaneous linear first-order equations with constant
5.5
coefficients
We restrict ourselves to the case of two functions x, y of

two
related
by
linear equations of first order with constant coefficients.
Examples
(i)
Solve
dx
+ x-y = 2Ue\
dt
Using
nr,
2y
dx- + dy
~=
dt
25 e l
dt
D for d/dt here, these equations can be written

(D+l)x-y
=2&e*,
-Dx + (D + 2)y = 25e*.
As
J4
in algebraic simultaneous equations,
we
(i)
(ii)
eliminate one unknown.
GPMI
We
210
[5.5
choose y for elimination because it is more simply involved in the equations

than x. First operate on (i) byf D + 2:
(D + 2)(D+l)x-(D + 2)y
(D* +
i.e.
Now add v;
(ii)
and
(iii)1
v
From
t
,
3D + 2)x-(D + 2)y
^

(D 2 + 2D + 2)x = 25(3< + 2)e,
which is a linear equation for

found to be (15 2)e*. Hence
x
= 25(D + 2)te
= 25(3*+ l)e<.
x.
The
c.r. is e
-<
(iii)
(Acos< + Ssini), and a
p.s. is
= e-Â coBt + B sin t) + e'( 15* - 2).

y = (D+ \)x-25te
i
(i),
and since
(D + 1) x =
e-' {(
- A sin + B cos ) - (4 cos t + J5 sin t) + (AcoBt + B sin <)}
+ e {(15*-2) + 15 + (15-2)}
= e-*(B cos - A sin J) + e'(30* + 1 1),
y = e-'CBcos^-^sin^ + e^+ll).
t
..
We could find y independently of x by operating on
(i)
with D, on
(ii)
with
D+l, and
adding. This would lead to a linear second-order equation for y,

whose solution would introduce two further constants of integration, say A', B'.
The relations between A, B, A', B' would then have to be found by substituting
the solutions for x, y in both of the equations (i), (ii). This method, clearly
involving more work, should be avoided.
....
(ii )
dx
dy
2 37 + 3T
Solve
dt
dy
+ dt =
dt
5x + y + e
(2D l)x + Dy = 0,
(D-5)x + (D-l)y = e~K
The equations are
To
dt
dx
=^
eliminate y, operate on
(i)
with
D 1, and on
(ii)
(i)
(ii)
with D:
= 0,
(D*-5D)x+D(D-l)y = -erK
(D* + 2D+l)x = e~K
(2D 2 -3D + l)x + D(D-l)y
Subtract
The
c.f. is
= (A+Bt) e - and the p.s. is 2 e -< hence

x = e~ (A+Bt + ^ti ).
tf
*,
Before finding
y, eliminate dy/dt from the given equations
dx
= 4x "y
dt
y
*
dx
by
subtracting:
-t
e %
A
e~*.t
4x
dt
Now substitute for x:

y = e~ [{B A + (l B)t
+ {4A. + 4Bt + 2t 2} + 1]
= -e- {(3A+B+l) + (3B+l)t + ^}.
t
f In full this means deriving (i) wo ', and adding twice (i) to the result. Thus
symbolic methods are convenient but not essential in examples like this.
5.6]
211
Had we substituted directly for x in either of the given equations, we should

have obtained a
integration.
wo
differential equation for y, and hence a redundant constant of

The method used avoids this, and involves no more than derivations
t.
Exercise 5(0
Solve the following paira of aimuttaneow differential equations.
dx
37 + 2/
sin*,
dx
dx
+ 2x+y =
0,
at
dy
+X =
dy
dx
dt
~dt
ix
-Z-2x + Sy =
0.
and y
when t =
0.
0.
e<
dy
dx
+ x + 2y =
= h
dy
dy
-+-, = 0.
cos t.
dt
dy
+ 2^-lx-5y* =
dt
dt
dx
3
^
e**.
dx dy
3
+-f + 2a?= 3cos<,
at
dx
37 +
dt
dt
dy
2~
+ 3y = 7cos<-4sin*
if
and y =
when
dt
= a? + y and v = x y, show by adding and subtracting the

equations in no. 2 that du/dt = e and dv/dt + 2v = e\ and solve each of these.
7 Writing m
Hence
find
x and y.
by the method of no.
8 Solve no. 3
d x
dy
at*
of
6 3^T + 3T + 2a;
9 Solve
7.
4cos,
dx
+ y = 4*cos*.
dt
du
dv
= eE evH, m = euH,
m
dt
dt
*10 Solve
e, E,
are constants (the equations of motion of a particle of mass m
and charge e in perpendicular electric and magnetic fields of strengths E, H).
If also u = x, v = y, and x = y = u = v =
when t = 0, prove
where m,
x
where
5.6
(0
(1
coswf) and y = E-((ot sinwi),

particle
moves along a
cycloid: 1.61, ex.)
linear second-order equations with variable coefficients
5.61 Euler's
is
eHjm. (Hence the
Some
This
'homogeneous* equation
of the form
14-2
212
where
a, b are constants. It
stant coefficients
by the
* (fi
dx \dx)
dx 2
[dt 2
can be reduced to an equation with con= e'; for then
substitution x
dy
dx
and
[5.62
_
=
dy jdx
dt/dt
_
=
_ dy
dt'
Um \%
(*
e-.U^-e-M
dt/} / dt
\dt\
dt 2
dt J
dt}*
and the equation becomes
which gives t/asa function of t.
Examples
/.v
(i)
4a;
2
d
y
2
dx z
Put x
e*;
dy
y = x + logx.
dx
then as above the equation becomes
dt)
\dt*
The
c.f. is
A e* + -B e -
*',
(ii)
and the p.s. is found to be \t e* t + 3. Hence

= Ae + Be-^ +\te -t+^
= Ax + Bx-l + \x\ogx logaj + 3.
t
The equation
(px + q) 2
a(px + q)
+ by =f(x)
can be reduced to the standard homogeneous form by putting

then
d*y
dy
d*y^
dy
dydz
dx
5.62
Remarks on
dzdx
dz
is
= px + q,
for
dx 2
dz 2
the use of equivalent operators
any derivable function of x, and x e', then by

derivable function of t and we showed above that
If y
3.2 (4)
is
5.63]
The operations djdx on y

function of
t)
(as
213
a function of x) and e~ djdt on y (as a

same effect. We say that these
l
therefore have the
operators are equivalent, and write
Since the operator acts on the function which follows
it,
we must
avoid writing the second operator as (d/dt) e~l this expression already
denotes the function which is the derivative of e~~*.
\
By applying these operators to dyjdx we have

d?y
dx2
as before.
The use of other equivalent operators
will
be illustrated
in 5.63.
5.63 Solution of other equations
by a given
substitution
Examples
(
(i)
(l+x i 3<?X3 + 2x(l+x 2 )* ^-9(l+x*)y = x*-l

dx
dx
Solve
by putting x
tan 8.
We have
dy
l+x*dd'
so
(a)
Deriving both sides of this
wo x,
Alternatively, applying the equivalent operators
obtained from
(a),
to
both sides of (a), we get
i.e.
Hence from
either (6) or
(c)
the given equation becomes
214
and
since
tan 6,
we have
n = tan 6-1
= smnn#-cos
~-9w
*
<Z0
sec
2
dy
The
c.f. is
= .4 e*e + B e~3e and the p.s.

,
.'.
(ii)
cos20
Solve
is
found to be
cos a;
x2
13(1 +Z 2 )'
1
'as.j.^g-Stan
2cos 2 0-l
dy
+ sina; + 4wcos
dx
dx
-
sec 2
d2y
a;
-- 1.
1+x 2
2 cos 6 a;
sin-1 u.
fy_dydu_ <fy
dx
so,
^ cos 20.
= Ae + Be- +&cos2e
by putting x
= -cos 20.
s9
30
= ^ e3tan
Lee
by using equivalent
dudx
du
ooax
_ dy_ui_ u 2y
du
operators,
dx2
(1
v
'duy
du)
u2 )2 u
'du
du
V(i-{(i-')g-|} + {|vn-'}+4<i-. i y =
)
d2
y
-4
+ 42/ = 2(1-m
aw 2
i.e.
2
).
We find as usual that the g.s. is

y
(iii)
= Aoos2u + Baia2u + l(3-2u2

= A cos (2 sin x) + B sin (2 sin x) + J(3 - 2 sin 2
Transform
the equation
x 2y" + (3a 2 + 4ar) y' + (2a2 + 6x + 2) y
e*
by the substitution x 2y = z. Hence solve the equation.

Deriving the relation x 2y = z twice wo x,
x 2y' + 2xy
z'
and
x2y" + 4xy' + 2y =
Hence the equation becomes
+ 3z' + 2 = e x
= A e- x + B e~ 2x + \e*. Hence
z"
and the
G.s.
of this
is z
y
is
= -(Ae
+ Be-* + ie)
2
x
the G.S. of the given equation.
z".
S( i
5.64]
(iv)
215
Express the equation
as a differential equation for x as a function of y, and hence solve
From
^^^
3.53, ex. (iv),
it.
Hence the given equation becomes
which
is
solution
is
a linear second-order equation with constant

found to be
x = Ae y + Be*v + h, + h
coefficients
5.64 General case: one integral belonging to the c.F.
whose
known
Consider the general linear second-order equation
and suppose that a solution y =
u{x) of
known. Then the given equation can be reduced to a

first order in v' by putting y = vu; for by hypothesis
is
u" + a{x) u' + b{x) u
and
y'
vu'
+ v'u,
y"
linear
one of
0,
vu" + 2v'u' + v"u,
so the given equation becomes
i.e.
{vu"
+ 2v'u' + v"u) + a(x) {vu' + v'u) + b{x) vu = f{x),
v{u"
+ a{x) u' + b{x) u) + v'{2u' + a{x) u) + v"u = f{x).
Hence
uv" + (2u' + a{x) u)
= f{x),
u~+ (2u' + a{x) u)w= f{x),
i.e.
where
v'
w=
otherwise.
v'; this
can be solved by using an integrating factor, or
216
[5.64
Example
x 2 y" - (# 2 + 2x) y' + (x + 2) y
= x3 e x
We easily verify that y = x satisfies

x 2y"- (x 2 + 2x) y' + (x + 2) y
Putting y
0.
= v + w'a? and = 2v' + v"x, we have

+ v"x) - [x 2 + 2x) (v + v'x) + (x + 2) vx = x z e x
x 3v" x 3v' = x3 e x
v" v' = e x
vx, so that y'

2
* (2v '
which reduces to
i.e.
Integrating,
v'
v =
ex
and hence
where
i.e.
= 1 + c e - *,
^- (v e~ x )
a*
= x ce~ x + A, v = (x + A)e x c,
y = e x (Ax + x 2 + Bx,
e-^v
.'.
+ c,
B = c.
Exercise 5(j)
Solve the following homogeneous equations.

1
d 2y
dy
x 2 -^-3x~
+ 4y
dx 2
dx
9* 2
2
dy
n d y
2 x 2 ?-2 + x-f--y
dx
dx
x 2 logx.
dy
dy
- + Zx-?- + y = log*
dx
a
2
4 x i Ll2
a*
<
(l
if
dx
2x-jt - y
dy
and -f
dx
= x2
when* =
1.
* 3 + 21og*.
da;
+ 2*)2^-6(l + 2a;)^+162/ =
8 log (1
+ 2a;).
*6 Solve the simultaneous equations
d 2x
dx
dt 2
dt
d 2y
dy
dt 2
dt
Solve the following by using the substitution given.
d 2y
dy
dx
dx
(l-x 2 )-A-x-r
+y =
2
(l+x 2 )^2 + x^- =
(l+x 2
dx
10 * 2
^+
dx 2
sin0.
3(8h- 1 x) 2 ;x
^ + 2x(l+x
dx 2
2a;(2a:
ahd.
dx
2<
)
x;
2
)
^ + 4y = 0;x = ta,nid.
dx
+ 3)^ + 3(a; 2 + 4a; + 2)2/ =

dx
0;
zx~3
that the constant n can be chosen so that the substitution y = x nz

the equation x 2y" + x(x+ \)y' + 2(<tec+ l)y = cos* to the form
z" + az' + bz = cos x, where a, b are constants. Hence solve the given equation.
11
Show
reduces
5.7]
Solve the following, in which an integral belonging
12 x3y"-2xy' + 2y
0;
14 xy
16 x
0;
ex.
-2(x+l)y' + (x + 2)y = {x-2)e 3x y =

;
15 xhf" + xy' 9y
V+ V
a;
to the c.r. is given.
x.
(x+l)y"-2xy' + (x-l)y =
13
217
e x.
= x 3 try y = kx3 or treat as

+ (a; - 2) = a 3 e*; y = a? -1
'homogeneous' type.
17 Prove that ay* + by' + cy =

and by y = x if and only if 6 + cx
is satisfied
by y = eîfandonlyifa + + csO,
ft
0.
*18 Riccati's equation dyjdx = P(x) + Q(x)y + R(x)y 2 Prove that the suby = u'jRu reduces this to the linear second-order equation
.
stitution
Ru" -(QR+ R') u' + PR 2u =

Solve x*y' + 3 - Zxy + x 2y2
* 19
0.
0.
Some geometrical applications

We now illustrate how differential equations
5.7
arise geometrically.
5.71 Definitions
Given a plane curve, let P be a point at which there is a definite

tangent (2.15);
is the ordinate of P. If the tangent and normal at
P cut Q$ at T, G, then
is the suby
PN
tangent akid
cinrve at
NT
NO is the subnormal to the
P. Also PT,
lengths of the tangent
Since tan ^
fig.|55
(where
y',
PO are called the

and normal at P.
is clear from
it
x, y, y' are positive)
that
NT = yly', NO = yy\
PT-y^l+y'^y',
PG = yJ(l+y'*).
Fig. 55
In tne general case these results are obtained from the equations of
the tjangent and normal at P by finding the intercepts on Ox the lengths
are signed magnitudes. Thus, the tangent at (xv yx ) has equation
;
and cuts Ox where y
and
yx =
y(a;
ajj), i.e. xx x =
and
Example
For the parabola y 2
NG is 2a.
is
4a# (16.11) we have 2yy'
4a, so that the
subnormal
It is often stated that 'the subnormal of any parabola is constant'; but this
true only iN, G are understood to be points on the axis of symmetry.
218
[5.72
5.72 Orthogonal families of curves
For a fixed value of a (supposed independent of x and y), the

equation F(x,y,a) =
represents a plane curve (1.61). For different
values of a
we thus
individual
members of the
obtain
a,
family or system of curves; a 'labels the

'
family. For example, x2 + y 2
ot
repre-
sents a family of concentric circles of various radii; y 2 = 4tax represents a family of parabolas situated as in 5.11, ex. (i). The curves of
the family may not all be of the same geometrical 'type': thus
x 2 + oty 2 = 1 represents ellipses for a > 0, hyperbolas for a < 0, and
a pair of lines for a = 0, as will be shown later.
The
angle of intersection of
tangents at the
Two
common
two curves
is
the angle between the
point.
intersecting families of curves are orthogonal, or orthogonal
trajectories of
one another,
if
each member of one cuts each member
of the other at right-angles.
Let F(x, y, a)
be the equation of the given family.
get its differential equation

is f(x,
y,y')
0.
gradient y' at
y'
P(x,y)
eliminating
is
(5.1);
We
is
first
suppose the result
given, this equation determines the
of the member(s) of the family through P, say
The gradient of the orthogonal curve through

be \\${x, y); hence on this curve,
<$>(x,y).
therefore
This
When
by
the differential equation of the orthogonal family;
involving one arbitrary constant,
is
will
its solution,
the equation of the orthogonal
family.
Examples
(i)
x*
Find
+ y* =
aa
the
orthogonal trajectories
of
the
family of concentric
circles
differential equation of the family is x + yy' = 0. The gradient of the

through P(x, y) is therefore y' = x/y. Hence the gradient of the orthogonal curve through P is y\x, so that on this curve we have
The
circle
The orthogonal family is y/x = c, a system of straight lines through O.

The result is evident geometrically: the diameters of a circle cut the curve
orthogonally.
5.72J
(ii)
219
Prove that the system
y2
x2
+A
+A
where A
is the parameter, is identical -with the orthogonal system. (For a geometrical interpretation see Ex. 18(d), nos. 18, 19.)
To form the differential equation of the family we must eliminate A. First
clearing of fractions,
A2 + A(oa + 6 2 - x 2 - y2 ) + (a2b 2 - b 2x 2 - aV) =

Derive
wo x
X(x + yy')
+ (b x + a
b
A = --
and
,
2
+ A=
(a 2 -6 2 )a;
x+yy'
yy')
0.
0,
x+a yy'
2
x+yy'
62 +
A=
-a2 )yy'
~x + yy'
[b 2
The required differential equation is therefore

x(x+yy')
t
a*-b 2
yjx + yy')
{b 2
-a 2 )y'
(x+yy')(x-fy
=a2 -b*.
\\y',
Since this equation is unaltered by replacing y' by

family is the same as the given family.
the orthogonal
Exercise 5(k)
Find
the differential equation of curves having the following properties,

find these curves by solving (notation of 5.71).
1
Subnormal
Projection of the ordinate on the normal
OP = PT.
OT = kPN.
is
Find the orthogonal

11
xy
=a
14 x* +y*
2
.
= a*.
constant
k.
OG = OP.
PG = k.
2 Subtangent
6
10
is
OT = OP.
PG = kPN
- 4ax.
3
3x2y =
y
15
constant
ON = NG.
a being
13 ay 2
16
a.
Tc.
Tc.
trajectories of the following families,
12 y2
is
constant
and hence
y=
the parameter.
x*.
axe x
17 (i) Prove that the system of parabolas y 2 = 4a(x + a) is identical with the
orthogonal system.
*(ii) Show that the curves corresponding to a = a
lt a 2 will intersect only
if o x , a a have opposite signs. [Consider y 2 = 4a(x + a) as a quadratic in a.]
18 Prove that in general there are
equation
two curves which
satisfy the differential
(dy
and pass through a given point. Prove that these curves coincide
given point lies on the parabola y = x 2
if the
if
and only
220
19 Find the inclinations to

the equation in no. 18.
Ox
of the two curves through
(3, 5)
which
20 Find the locus of a point such that the two curves through
cut at right-angles.
it
satisfy
in no. 18
Miscellaneous Exercise 5(/)

Eliminate the parameters from the following functions.
= A cos -1 x + B.
= A cos -1 x + B sin -1 x, and explain why the result is the same as for no. 2.
= Ax sin (a; -1 + B).
4 y
2 y
cch(/c).
Obtain the differential equation of

straight lines.
all
all circles
all
which touch both coordinate axes.
tangents to the rectangular hyperbola xy
[The general point
1.
is (, l/<).]
.For general practice the reader
may
a random
solve
selection
from
the following
differential equations (nos. 8-52).
l+y
=
dx
1+x
dy
10 (x + y)
dy
-.
2
2<
^-=l.
11
dx
(l-4y')y=(4 + y')*.
2xy.
dx
*24 y
dx
a;
2x 3y*.
dy
21
px + %p z
23
7a;-32/ + 2.
xy.
1.
27
0.
dv
dx
(xy 3 + y)-^-=-.
sin x y cos x
dx
29
1.
31
0.
e* sin 2 x.
= px + e p
= 0.
+
+
a#y" + xy' 2 + yy' = 0.
y"-V + y = 0.
*25 y
30 y"-y' + 2y =
2/"'
dy
+ y = y logx.
32 y"'-Zy"
1)^ =
dx
dx
28 yy' + y' 2
+ y.
1.1^ aw =
+ %xy =
26 y" + y' 2
34
(3 + 52/+
10/(a; 2 +l)19
22 x
*33
15
dy >V
+dx x
dy
20
(x-y) 2
17
a;
^ = (x-y-l)
13
a; = y xcos 2 -.
dx
iq
18
y.
*
aa;
14 (x2 -y 2 )^-
16
(<s-y)^ =
cto
12
xy
0.
Zy" + 3y' + y
y"-3y'-fy =
[put
10 cos 2a.
u = ye x and
calculate
w'"].
35 y" - 5y' + 6y
4x 2 e x
36 y"-4y' + Zy
= xK
38 x 2y" - 20y
7a;
a;
*42
a;
44
.
45
39 x 2y" -xy' + 2y
= e sin 2a;.
= x log x.
a;.
dx
+ 2x = 2y,
46
at
47 ^- + 5x-2y
dx
*^ =
d 2ic
+% =
0,
^ + 3 ^-2x + Gy =
0.
2a;
dt
dt
dt
=
-f-x+Qy
dt
48<
dx
dv
-3- +
dt
= 3*.
^+y
a*
^ ~
221
5*
2xy' + 2y = x* cos (log x).

41 t/" + (2/*) y' = 0.
y'
=
Zxy"
log
+
+
V"
y" + y't&nx ycos 2 x =
[put w = sina:].
(l+x2 s y" + 2x{l+x 2 2 y' + (l+x 2 )y = x [put x - tan0].
40
43
V-
37 y" - 10y' + 29y
40e*,
27e*K
dx
dv
dy
dz
J=
dhj
dv
"
*.
dx
[For nos. 49, 50 see no. 56.]

51
xy" (2x +l)y' + (x + l)y =
52 x(l+ x) y"
0; particular solution
2y' + 2y; particular solution
53 Transform 4x 2y" + ixy' + (4a; 2 -
1)
1/(1
by the
e x.
+x).
substitution y
zx~i,
and
hence solve the equation.

54 Show that the constant n can be chosen so that the substitution y = x nz
transforms the equation x2y" + 2x(x + 2) y' + 2(x + 1 ) 2 y = e~ x cos x into one
with constant coefficients. Hence solve the given equation.
55 Prove that a differential equation of the form p 2 + p<f>{x, y) \ Q, where
dyjdx, represents a system of plane curves such that in general two pass
through every point and intersect at right-angles. Find the system of curves
p=
when <f>(x, y) = 2y/x.

*56 Show that y"' + ay" + by' + cy =
is
the same equation as
d
-^{y"-{k+l)y' + kly} = m{y"-(k + l)y' + kly}
Mm
if and only if Jc + l +
= a, Im + mk + kl = 6 and
= c, i.e. k, I, are the
roots of t3 + at 2 + bt + c = 0. Putting z = y" - (k + 1) y' + kly, show that the
solution of the given equation is reduced to solving one of second order in y.
*57 If J/(ar)<fo
log{l +/()>, find/(ar).
*58 Verify that cos nx and sin nx are both integrating factors of y" + n 2y = f(x)
first integrals. By eliminating y', obtain the a.s. and express
and obtain two

it in the form
= A cos nx + B sin nx+ -
Cx
/(tf)sinn(a;
t)dt.
222
*59 Solve y" + y
also
when f(x) =
sec x
by the method of no.
58,
and show that it will succeed
coseca;, tana;, or cot a;.
*60 (i) If u, v, w are functions of x, and constants a, b, c not all zero can be
found such that au + bv + cw = for all x, prove that the determinant
W=
(the
Wronskian of u,
v,
w)
is
W=
u'
v'
w'
u"
v"
w"
zero for
all x.
prove that u, v, w are connected by a linear

relation. [Consider the linear second-order equation in y obtained by replacing
u, u', u" by y, y', y" in W: it has solutions y = u, v, w; use 5.32 (2), II.
(ii)
Conversely, if
0,
223
SOME THEOREMS OF THE

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
6.1
Two
This chapter contains a sequence of theorems, some of which are

'obvious geometrically'; they are of considerable importance. All
of them depend for their proof on the following two properties of
continuous functions, which we will state and then explain.
(1) Iff(x) is
(2)
Iff(x)
least value
Property
is
continuous in a
continuous in a
when x varies in
(1) means that,
^ x ^ b, then it is bounded in this range.

< x ^b, then it possesses a greatest and
this range.
for all values of x satisfying a ^ x ^ b,

number K such that \f{x)\ < K. In other words
(cf. 2.4 (3)), f(x) cannot tend to +oo or to -oo or oscillate infinitely
when x varies ina<a;<6:itis 'bounded' by the number K in that
its numerical value cannot exceed K; we can write K
<K
and call K an upper bound iovf{x), and K a lower bound. Clearly any
fixed positive number greater than K would also serve as a bound
fovf(x) in a ^ x ^ b.
It may happen that some numbers less than K would serve as
there exists a positive
bounds for f(x). It can be proved that, of all numbers which serve
as upper bounds for f(x), there is a smallest such number, say
i.e. f(x) ^
for all x for which a ^ x <. b, but if
is any number just
less than M, there is at least one value x of x in the interval such
x
that/^j} >
Similarly, of all lower bounds iorf(x) there is a largest,
say m, which has the property that f(x) ^ m for a ^ x ^ b, while if
h is any number just greater than m, there is at least one value x = x2
in the interval for which f(x2 ) < h. These numbers
m are called
the upper, lower bounds of f{x) in a < x < b. Functions other than
continuous ones may possess upper and lower bounds in a given
interval; on the other hand they may not. Property (1) implies that
for a continuous function these numbers always exist.
Property (2) asserts that, for continuous functions, these bounds
are actually values taken by the function for suitable values of a; in
the interval
is the greatest and m the least value off(x) for a < x ^ b.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS: THEOREMS
224
The property
is
usually expressed
by saying that
[6.2
'a continuous
bounds in any closed interval'. This may or may

not be true for a discontinuous function: even if it possesses upper and
lower bounds Jf m, there may be no x in the range for which/(x) =
or for which f(x) = m.
function attains
its
yi
Fig. 56
and others can be deduced from the definition

of 'continuity' given in 2.61 with the help of some fundamental
theorems on bounds of a function. We shall assume them, because to
give rigorous proofs would deflect us too far from the course in view.
The properties
(1), (2)
In the following theorems we use the
closed interval
a ^ x ^
continuity oif(x) (see 2.61, Remark), and the open interval a

for derivability. This
is
defined only in a
at x
b;
demand
^x ^
b,
then f'(x) will not be defined at x
hence existence in the open interval
is
as
much
as
if f(x)
a or
we can
off'(x).
Rolle's theorem
6.2
6.21 If(i)f(x)
(iii)/(a)
and
reasonable because (3.11, Remark),
is
b for
< x<
is
continuous for a
=/(&), then there
<x<
is at least
b, (ii)/'(a;) exists for a < x < b,

one number gfor which a < < b
f (& = 0.
Geometrically the result is obvious
(figs.
57, 58):
a continuous curve
with a definite tangent at every point between A and B, where it meets

the line y = k, must have a tangent parallel to y = Tc at some intermediate point or points. The reader who is willing to accept the
theorem on these grounds
may omit the following proof.
in hypothesis (iii). Since f(x) is continuous, then

First suppose f (a) =f(b) =
by 6.1, Property (1), the functionhas upper and lower bounds M,m in a ^ x < 6.
and m < 0; we consider the following three
As /(a) = =f(b), therefore
S
cases.
6.22]
(a)
M>
By
0.
Property
(2)
of
6.1, there
225
a number such that a s$ ^ 6

> 0, must be different from a
is
and /() = M. Since /(a) = f(b) = and ikf

and 6, so that a < < 6. We now prove that /'() = 0.
Let h be any positive number such that + h lies in a <
+ h) < ikf, it follows that M+h) </(), and so
a;
6.
Then
since
M+h)-M) <0.
h
Letting h
+ , we have /'()< by using hypothesis (ii) of the theorem
together with a variant of the lemma in 3.63.
Similarly, if h >
and h lies in a S cc S b, then /(- A) </(), so that
/<-*)-/()
2* 0.
Letting h->0 + gives/'()
0.
Comparing the two conclusions shows/'()
0.
Fig. 58
(b)
M-
0,
but
m < 0.
a < g <b; f(g+h)2*m
There
is
a number for which/() = m, and as before,

by an argument similar
= /(), from which /'() =
to the above.
(c) If
= = m, then /(#) = everywhere in a < x < 6, so
=
everywhere in a < x < b; any number in a < x (x) = f(x) k, which clearly satisfies hypotheses (i) and (ii) and
also 0(a) = 0(6) = 0. Then Rolle's theorem follows.
Remark. The number depends on the function f(x) and on the

a function of a and b.
See Ex. 6 (a), no. 3.
interval; thus for a given f(x), is in general
Definition.
a < x <
b,
If f(x)
we say
is
continuous for a
that f(x)
^x
4-
and derivable
a < x ^
satisfies the Rolle conditions in
6.22 If the Rolle conditions are not satisfied, there
number
may
for
b.
not be a
with the required property. Tigs. 59, 60 illustrate cases in
which hypotheses (i), (ii) respectively are not satisfied; but fig. 61,
which neither is satisfied, shows that the result of the theorem may
still be true
the conditions are sufficient but not necessary.
in
x5
GPMI
[6.23
y.
b
Fig. 60
Fig. 59
Fig. 61
6.23 Application to algebraic equations
a polynomial, then f(x) and

Rolle conditions in any interval. Taking
f(x) = 0, we have (cf. Ex. 3 (e), no. 14):
If f(x)
(1)
is
Between two
Further
(2)
(cf.
roots off(x)
Ex. 3
(e),
a, b
lies at least
of 6.21 to be roots of
one root off'(x)
0.
no. 15)
Not more than one
roots a, fi off'(x)
f'(x) certainly satisfy the
root of f(x)
can
lie
between consecutive
0.
If there were two, then by (1) there would be a root off'(x) =

between them, so that a, /? would not be consecutive roots oif'(x) = 0.
(There will be exactly one root off(x) = between a and if and only
if /(<*),/(/?) have opposite signs, by 2.65.)
The result (2) is helpful in locating the roots of an equation f(x) =
when those off'(x) = are easily found; see 13.62 (3) for some worked
examples. Finally
(3)
// f'(x)
has s
roots,
thenf(x)
cannot have more than
s+1
roots.
For the roots off'{x)

6.3
Lagrange's
mean
must separate those of f(x)
0,
by
(1).
value theorem
In 3.81 we conjectured on geometrical grounds the following mean

value theorem.
A
6.31]
Iff( x ) satisfies the Bolle conditions in a
<x^
b,
227
then there is at least
)-f(a) = (b-a)f'().
one number for which a
<
6.31 Linear approximation to f(x)
We may
prove this theorem by applying Rolle's theorem to the

by making a linear approximation to f(x) in a < x ^ b.
error obtained
When a is given, any linear function g(x)
can be put in the form
#)=ô+î(*-)-
We choose the coefficients p p1 so that it takes the same values as/(a;)

,
= f{a) and g(b)
at the ends of the interval: g(a)
p
Hence
g(x)
(Geometrically, g(x)
of 3.81
and
=f(a)
= f{a)+
is
=f(b), so that
p +p 1 (b-a) = /(&).
f(b) ~ f(a)
(x-a).
ba
the equation of the chord
AB
in
fig.
41
we now consider the error caused by replacing the arc AB by
the chord AB.)
At any point x in a < x <
b,
the error involved in the approximation
=f(x)-g(x). Now <f>{a) = and <j>{b) = 0, and <j>{x)

the Rolle conditions in a ^ x ^ b because f(x) and g(x) do.
Hence there is a number for which a < {x)
satisfies
from which the mean value theorem
follows. Incidentally
justified the geometrical conjecture in 3.81; Rolle's
case
6.32
when AB is
we have
theorem
is
the
parallel to Ox.
We may set out the preceding proof as follows. Consider the function
</>(x)=f(x)-f(a)
Clearly
<p(a)
0;
we choose A
+ A(x-a).
so that also
<p(b)
0=f(b)-f(a) + A(b-a).
0:
(i)
The hypotheses of Rolle's theorem are now satisfied by <p(x), so that

there is a number for which a < < 6and0'() = 0,i.e.O = /'() +
Hence from (i),
....
W
...
f(b)=f(a) + (b-a)f'().
(ii)
228
[6.33
6.33 Alternative versions of the theorem
< 6 < 1, then a + 6(b a) lies between a and b, so that for

a suitable 6 we can write = a + 6(b a). Putting b = a + h, the
(1) If
result
(ii)
takes the form

f(a + h)=f(a)
+ hf'(a + 6h)
Bemark. Since depends on a and b

will be some function of a and h.
(2)
Since 6 h
a,
we
(0
(ii)
(hi)
1).
Remark), hence
(6.21,
have from
also
< 6 <
in (hi)
that
f(b)=f(b-h) + hf'(b-(l-6)h).
Putting h
= hv l d =
d1
(so
< 6X <
that
1)
and rearranging,
f(b+h 1 )=f(b)+h 1 f'(b+e 1 h1 ),

which is the mean value theorem for the interval b + h x < x ^ b where
h x < 0. Hence the result (hi) remains valid when h < 0; in the statement
of the theorem the only modification required is the replacement of
a ^ x ^ a + hby a + h ^ x ^ a.
Example
Take f(x) =
log a;, a
>
0,
>
a+h
0.
log(a + h)
log (1
i.e.
Then
(iii)
= loga+
becomes
h
a + cw
+ -J = ^27,
a + Oh
a/
=
from which we find
log
Put w
7&/a;
then since a + h>
and
Since
0< <
1,
-<:
w
log ( 1
1+U
u > 1 and w
=}=
0,
and
i.
log ( 1
0, also
+ w) w
+ u)
<1+-,
u
<log(l+M)<M,
the logarithmic inequality (4.43 (1)).

This example illustrates how the mean value theorem can be regarded as a
< d < 1.
disguised inequality owing to the condition
6.33]
229
Applications of the theorem to increasing functions and to in-
were given in
equalities
3.83.
few further examples appear in
Ex. 6 (a).
Exercise 6(a)
Find when Rollers theorem is applied to

1 x(l #) B in0â;<l,TO being a positive
2
e a sina: in
<
2n.
integer.
(x a) (b
x) 2
in
^x^
6.
4 Iff(x) satisfies the Rolle conditions in a < x < b and/(a) = = /(6), prove
that for any given number A the equation/'(a;) + A/(a;) = has at least one root
between a and 6. [Consider eXxf(x). Cf. Ex. 3 (e), no. 16.]
Find when
Find 6 when
7 x
9
the
<
\tt.
a;
w in
<
8 x3 ,
<
1,
n being an integer >
and verify that 6
1.
when h
-> 0.
10 Deduce an inequality from the result of no.
e".
why
mean
the
value theorem
Mean value theorem for integrals.
12
a;
mean value theorem is applied for the interval a < x < a+h to
Explain
< a + h.
11
mean value theorem is applied to
<
cobx in
the
Iff(x)
when
fails
f{x)
continuous in a
is
<
9.
x~ x and
<
6,
apply
[X
the
mean
for
which a
value theorem to $(x)
<
< b and
/(a;) <fo
/() dt
(6
to
show that there
- a)/().
is
a number
[Use 4.15 (7).]
13 If f(x) and gr(a;) satisfy the Rolle conditions in a ^ x < 6, prove that the
functions ^./(a;) +Bgr(a;)
constant), f(x)g(x), f(x)/g{x) do also, provided
that in the last case g(x) is never zero for a ^ x ^ 6.
14
If/'(a;) satisfies
the Rolle conditions in a
<
<
6,
prove that/(a;) does also.
[See 3.52.]
*15 If f(a)
ditions in a
= f(c) f(b), where a < c < b, and if f'{x) satisfies the Rolle con< x ^ 6, prove there is a number for which a < < 6and/"() = 0.
[Use Rolle's theorem three times.]

*16 If {f(b)-f(c)}/(b-c)={f(c)-f(a)}l(c-a), where a < c < b, and /'(*)
the Rolle conditions in a ^ x < 6, prove there is a number for which
satisfies
<
<
and /"() =
*17 If a;
>
*18 If
<x<
19
<c
>
If/(0)
1,
prove
0, (i)f(x)
y,
Interpret geometrically.
0.
a; + 2 + loga:
xf'{dx),
deduce that f(x)jx
J(x 2 + lOx- 2). [Use 3.83, Corollary
2.]
prove
and f'{x)
>
is
is
0<6<1;
(ii)f(x)
increasing for x
>
0.
<
for
xf'(x);
(iii)
>
0,
prove that when
d{f(x)/x}/dx
>
0,
and
230
6.4
The second mean value theorem
6.41
An algebraic lemma
In 6.31 we proved the
first
linear approximation tof(x).
mean
mean
[6.4
value theorem by considering a
By using
other polynomials,
we
obtain
value theorems of higher orders.
Any polynomial
degree
of degree
in x can be written as a polynomial of
n in (xa).
If the given polynomial is

g(x)
aQ + a x x + a 2 x2 +
. . .
+ a n xn
= a + y and expand
each term. The term of highest degree in

y will arise only from an (a + y) n and hence is an y n We obtain an
expression of the form
putf x
Po +PiV +p*y
which
is
a polynomial in x a
+p n yn
= y of degree n.
6.42 Quadratic approximation to f(x)
For given
every quadratic can be written
a,
= p +p x (x - a) +p 2 {x - a) 2
g(x)
We
choose the coefficients p 0) p v p 2 so that g(a) =f(a), g(b) =f(b),

and g'(a) = f'(a). (Geometrically, the quadratic curve passes through
the extremities A, B of the given arc
y
and has the same gradient at J..) Then
i
Po =/(),
Po +Pi(b - a) +p 2 {b - a)
and
= /(&),
(i)
since
The
- a), p x = f'(a).
function {x) = f(x) g(x)
=p x + 2p
g'{x)
'
error '
2 {x
clearly satisfies
0(a)
0(6).
Hence by Rolle's theorem there

= 0.
and
Since also
<x^
]_
<fi'(a)
to
f
0,
is
a number
we may apply
E,
Rolle's
show that there is a number
for
for
which a < x <
theorem to <j)'{x) for

which a < < x and
Another proof is indicated in the Remark of
10.53.
6.5]
(j>"{i)
0.

Now <j>"{x) = f"(x) -2p 2 and hence p 2 =
,
by
f(b)
For the preceding applications of
6.21 to
^x<
and consequently /'(#),
we may
in 6.33(1),
since certainly lies
<
<
a;
in a
a;
we shall require
< x ^ 6.
= a + dh (0 < 6 < I)
<
write 6
= a + h and
6. Hence
6,
^ x ^ a + h,
then
= f(a) + hf'(a) + ffif'(a + dh),
and in general 6 depends on a and
1,
<p'(x)
between a and
f(a + h)
<
valid, the Rolle con-
to satisfy the conditions in a
Iff'(x) satisfies the Rolle conditions in a
where
be
(ii)
b and by
Since we know only that x Ues somewhere in a
As
therefore
= f(a) + (6 - o) /'(a) + (& - a)
ditions must be satisfied by <j> (x) in a
^'(#),
231
(hi)
h.
Remarks
The result
(a)
^x^
a+h <
< a,
We
(hi)
remains true when h <
if
we write the interval
same proof now shows that lt satisfy

a respectively, and therefore a + h < < a.
can still write = a + Oh where < 6 < 1, since h < 0.
as a + h
a.
From fig.
(y#)
For, the
36 in 3.11
l-
we see that
f(a + h) -f(a) - hf'(a)
= NQ-MP-PR tan TPR

= RQ-RT = TQ.
Hence TQ \h2f{a + dh). Compare the comments on the approximations
(i)-(iii)
of 3.91.
We give some applications of (hi) in 6.7.

6.5
Theorems of Taylor and Maclaurin
6.51 Approximation to f(x)
The
first
and second mean value theorems are particular
mean value theorem
the following
i//(n_1) (aO
< 6<
and
Proof. Choose the
9(x)
cases of
of order n, called Taylor's theorem.
satisfies the Rolle conditions for
/(a + A)=/(a) + V'(a) +
where
by a polynomial of degree n
^n^
A2
hn
depends in general
coefficients in the
a ^ x ^ a+h, then
ona,h and n.
polynomial
= Po+Pi(* - a) +p 2 {x - a) 2 +
. . .
+pn {x - a) n
232
[6.52
so that
=M,
9(a)
If
i/r(x)
(x
g^\a) = /<-%),
g(a + h)=f(a + h).
9'(a)=f'(a),
a) m where mis a
positive integer, then
verified that
[ml
and hence
p1
=f{a),
Write
<j){x)
Also $(x) and
a < x
<:
f^(x),
Since
+ h) =
<f>(a)
11
-1
(ii)
w 1
its first
(n-1)
<f>'(a)
= ^-(a) =
...
0.
derivatives satisfy the Rolle conditions in

this is true for/(n-1) (a;),
...,f(x),f(x).
<fi(a
Since also
0"(g 2 )
(hi)
(i)
a + h since by the hypothesis and 3.52
+ h) =
0.
(n-i)
<j>\a)
0,
,x
there
< a+h
and
^'(i)
0.
a number 2 such that a < 2 <
is
Proceeding similarly, there is a number

n -x)
=
0.
Lastly, since also
which a < <
and
(TC)
()
a < < n _ x <
we may put
NoW
a number x for which
0(a), there is
a <
so
(n-iy.Pn-x^P
= f(x) g{x); then by
</>(a
for
r\pr
m.
n
p +p 1 h+p 2 h?+...+p n h =f(a + h).
and
2\p 2 =f"(a),
=f'(a),
....
it is easily-
11
&r\a) =
It follows that
(i)
...
(a)
0,
there
is
and
which
for
a number
0. We know that
<
<
< a + ^>
= a + Oh, where < 6 < 1.

n
fi*\x) = f \x) - g^\x) = /(">(*) - n\
,
/<n) ()
hence
From this with equations

With a modification
h < 0.
(ii),
as in
= n\p n
the result follows
Remark
(a)
n,
by using
(iii).
of 6.42, the result holds for
6.52 Maclaurin's form of the theorem

If
we
replace a
following.
by
and h by x
in Taylor's theorem,
we
get the
'
6.53]
V/
(n-1)
f{x)
where
(0 satisfies the Rolle conditions in
<
233
x, then
= /(0) + z/'(0)+|-^
< 6<
and in general
depends on x and n.
we could apply it to
^ h and arrive at Taylor's
Conversely, starting from Maclaurin's form,
f(a+x)
the function g(x)
in
<$ t
theorem:
g(x)
^(0)
+ a ^(0) + ^^(0) + ...+^-^^(0)+|j^(to)
= /() +
*/>)+f*/>)
dr
= -^f(a + x) = /W(o + a;).
r
g< \x)
since
+ .^
Thus the two forms are equivalent.

6.53 Closeness of the polynomial approximation
When
satisfied,
the conditions of Taylor's (or Maclaurin's) theorem are
we can apply
the theorem to approximate to the given
function by a polynomial of degree n
mation
is
measured by the
size of the
B = ^fW(a + dh),
1.
The closeness of the approxi-
'remainder term
or
^F
n) (dx).
we see that R depends on n and x;

we may be able to make R small (a) by increasing n when x is given
(i.e. taking more terms); (6) by decreasing x when n is given (i.e. narConsidering the Maclaurin form,
rowing the range).
Keeping n
n\Qx) is
bounded for all x sufficiently

small, say for \x\ < n. Then
< K, where K is independent of x;
we say that R is of order xn when x is small, and write R = 0(xn ).
Standing alone, 0(xn ) means 'any function which is of order xn \
fixed,
suppose
f(
\Rjxn
We can now write either

f(x)
= /(0) + s/'(0) +
. . .
+ ^^/<î>(0) + 0(x"),
or
f{?)
=f
fiO)
+ xf (0) +
. . .
+ -^-fin-ViO)
(n
1)!
correct to order
n-1.
234
[6.54
Example
If/(a;)
e x,
then f (r) (x)
gives
ex
ex
and/
x2
= 1+X + - + ...+ex
(0)
n_1
C
(n
2!
Hence
(r)
TT,
1)!
for
each
xn
n\
2!
Since e x possesses derivatives of
(n
all orders,
Maclaurin's theorem
(0<0<1).
+ , edx
= 1+X + + ...+-
r.
(i)
1)!
n can be
as large as
we
please;
and the conditions of the theorem are satisfied for all x.

(a) When x is given, we know by 2.74 that x n /nl -
when n - oo, which
shows that the more terms we take, the better does the polynomial (i) approximate to e x and this happens to be true here for any x. (In general it will be true
off(x) only for x within some definite range.) In particular, by taking x = 1 we get
;
e= 1 +
,
1
1
1
+ + ...+
2!
3!
(n-1)!
Successive terms in this expression are easy to calculate, because the (r+ l)th
term is 1/r! = (l/r){l/(r- 1)!} = (1/r) xrth term. With n = 11 we find that
e = 2-718282, correct to 6 places of decimals.
much rougher result was
obtained in 4.32 (5).
n ~ x and im,
(6) When n is given, the approximation (i) is correct to order x
1
6x
proves the smaller
becomes; for e < e ! when \x\ < ij.
In order to use Taylor's or Maclaurin's theorem directly in this

way, it is essential to be able to find/ (n) (a) or/(w) (0) explicitly in terms
of n. Consequently, in 6.6 we obtain formulae for the nth. derivative
some elementary
functions. | For most functions f(x) the formula

n
for f^ \x) cannot be found explicitly; but we may still employ the
of
theorem to
hold 'for
We
infer approximations of a given order, expecting these to
all
x sufficiently small' (see Ex. 6 (b), nos. 26-30).
return to Maclaurin's theorem in Ch. 12
infinite series; there
when we
we shall sometimes require a different
discuss
expression
for the remainder term.
6.54 Other expressions for the remainder term

(1) Alternative
proof of Taylor's theorem.
For a proof involving only one application of Rolle's theorem

that in 6.32,
where
F(x)
we could begin by
f(x) = F(x)-A(b-x)P
like
considering the function

(p
= f(b) -f(x) - (b - x)f'{x) - ... n-1 (h _ v \r
>
0),
f^(x)
-m-f{x)-z \^-r\x).
{
t In Ch. 3 this would have seemed an academic exercise ;
we now see its significance.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS! THEOREMS

Clearly ifr(b) = 0; we choose A so that i/r(a) = 0:
235
6.54]
=
By the
hypothesis of Taylor's theorem and 3.52,
<x
Rolle conditions in a
a <

r=l
is
i/r(x)
satisfies
the
a number for which
(h
_ yV
s y-^f(x)+pA(b-x^
*
r1
n-1
Lfr+1) ^)- S
r=l
(fr
^-r%
(J
+^(6-^-1
+1) (z)
^1
^^
/7
x , (
(6-*)*-i{
From ^'() =
n-1
/<->(*)-
*)
r=l
Hence there
Now
n-2(h__ T \r
= 2
F{a)-A{b-a)*>.
"
(6-a;) TC-f/<^(a;))
and the fact that
|.
- 4=
we now have
(6
'
(n-l)!#
and so
Fla)
Writing b
= a + h and
a, h, n, p),
we find
{nl)\p
= a + 0h (where
,
n .. _ 8 n _^
F(a) =
(n-l)\p
g
+y
will
depend on
so that from our definition of F(x)
/(a + AH/(a)
in general
(a)
+ ...+
we have
^
Ji
n1
An _ fl\nP
The last term is known as Schlomilch's remainder. In particular, by

p = n we recover that given in 6.51 (Lagrange's remainder);
and by taking p = 1 we have Cauchy's remainder
taking
&*(l_0)-i
(71-1)!
which
(2)
will
be used in Ch.
fW(a + 6h),
12.
Remainder as a definite integral.

and
(1) we have F(b) =
From
236
If we suppose f \x)
(n
continuous for a
is
^x<
b,
[6.6
then
= F(b)-
F(a)
Putting 6
( F'(x)dx
Ja
= a + h and a; = a + fA, we find

F{a)
(^^! Jo
(1
- f)n " 1/(")(a + ^
This form of the remainder term does not involve an undetermined

function 6; but
6.6
we have assumed more about f in\x) than in
Calculation of some nth derivatives
6.61 Elementary functions

(i)
xm Here
= mx- 1 f"(x) = m(m- l)x m -\

m~n
f (x) m(m 1) ... (m n+ 1) x
f'(x)
...
(n)
(a)
In particular,
if mis
a positive
integer,
(ml
#" - n
(m n)
f(n)(x)
(w
<
n),
(n
=
>
m),
ml
(w
.0
m).
When m = - l,/(a>) = 1/x and /< n) (a;) = - l)"n!/*" +1

m then similarly
(c) If/(a;) = (ckc + 6)
f n\x) = a nm(m - l)...(m-n+l)(ac + b) m ~ n
(ii) logo;.
Since /'(a;) = a? -1 we have by (i) (6)
(6)
cZ
n_1 /1\
-1
\ay
(n-1)!
da;"
(iii)
*.
/<n) (a;) =
Clearly
(iv) sin(aa;
+ &).
/'(a;)
a cob (ax + b)
Thus each successive derivation
+ 6).
will
asin(aa; + 6
add \n
+ 7i
Similarly
f<-
n \x)
a" cos (aa; + 6 + Jnw).
(vi) e ox sin6a;.
e* (a sin 6a;
This can be written in the form
e ax Raia (bx
/'(a;)
e ax
).
to the 'angle'; hence
= a n sin (a# + b + %nn).
/(*(#)
(v) cos (aa;
a" e ax
+ 6 cos bx).
+ d),
(R cos 6 sin 6a; + i? sin
i.e.
cos 6a;)
6.51.

237
if we choose R and 6 so that R cos 6 = a and R sin 6 = 6. These give R = J{a? + b 2
6.62]
),
and
is
determined from
= a:b:R.
cos 6 sin 6:1

:
The next derivation gives

d
f(x)
= R {e ax 8in(bx + d)} = R 2 e ax 8ia{bx + 2d),

ax
with the same R, 6 as before since the equations for determining these are
independent of x. Hence we see that
= R n e ax sin (bx + n0).
/<">(#)
dn
{e ax cos bx}
Similarly,
= R n e ax cos {bx + n6),
where R, 6 have the same values as before.

*(vii)
tan -1 a;. (This example requires complex numbers and de Moivre's
theorem.)
Since
= I-^.
Now
1
hence by
(i)
a;
2*
_
(
v
\a;
= ^(TT3i)-
+ i/
U,
a;
= /0cos0,
theorem,
j
.
(x
= p sin
t)
/>- B (cos
d" -1
n
f< \x)
<j>
<
\
>
(x + i) n)'
<j>
<f>
cot -1 ^.
By
de Moivre's
i sin 0)-" = yo -n (cos n$ + i sin

1
= (-l) n-1
(n-1)!
-
pn
-sinnoi,
Y
(-l)- 1 (n-l)!(l+a; 2 )- in sin(ncot- 1 a;).
Theorem of Leibniz on
If
W''2i\(x-i)
),
Tin-,
1
dx"'
1+x2;
'
i.e.
= /O~"(cos^+isin^)- n = />- n (coswj5 isinn^)
and
(n
= p(cos + i sin 0),

=
and p = <J(1 +x 2
x+i
Write
6.62
/'"'<*>
(6)
dxB-1 l+a! a
so that x
d"-1
/'<*>
the nth derivative of a product
where u and v are functions of x whose successive

known, then /(n) (#) can be found by the following
theorem. Write
If f(x)
uv,
derivatives are
Then
(uv) n
= un v + *C?i
+ nC2 un _ 2 v 2 +...+ nCr un _^vr +
This result has already been verified when n
2,
. . .
3 in Ex. 3
+ uv n
(b),
no. 17.
238
[6.62
Proof by Mathematical Induction. (The general principle is explained

in 12.28.)
Suppose the result
some particular value of
true for
is
say
n,
n = m. Then
{uv) m
= um v + mCx um_ x vx +...+ mCr um_r vr +...+ uvm
and
(uv) m+1
= ^(uv) m
=
Vi + Vi) + mCi(^m-i
+ mCr-l Wm-f+1 vr +
^2
+ Vi) +
vr-l)
+ m Or {um^vr+1 + um_r+1 vr + ... + {uvm+x + Ux Vm

)
= Um+
lV+ (1 + m
<?l)
),
Vl+ - + (^r-l + ^^m-r+l^
= %m+1 v + wl+1C1 wm v1 + ... + m+1 Cr tv_r+1 vr + +wvwH 1

.
mC _ + mC = m+1 (7r
r
r 1
since
(r
1).
= m,then it also holds for n = m+1.

when n = 1 (it is then the product rule of 3.2), therefore
when n = 2, therefore when w = 3,
and so for all positive integers n.
Hence, if the theorem holds for n
It does hold
. .
Alternative proof Successive derivation of uv (as in Ex. 3 (b), no. 17)

shows that the expression for the nth derivative will be of the form
.
(uv) n
un v + c x un_ x vx + c 2 un_ 2 v 2 +...+ cr un _ r vr +...+ cn uvn
where the coefficients c c x

cn are numbers independent of u, v.
We can therefore determine these coefficients from the convenient
special case when u = e035 v = ebx and hence uv = e(o+6)a! for then
,
ur = ar e,
vr
br ebx ,
(uv) n
+ b) n e(+w*
{a
e{a+b)x
and the above formula becomes

{a
+ b) n e(fl+b)x = S (cr an~r eaa: .6r c
&a;
r=0
,\
{a
(cf an-r6r
).
r=0
+ b) n = Y {cr an -rbr ).
l
r-0
Hence cr is the coefficient of an_r6r in the expansion of (a + b) n viz.

w<7 and the result follows.
r
Leibniz's theorem is easily remembered by analogy with the
,
binomial expansion of (u + v) n
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.* THEOREMS
6.63]
239
Examples
Find the nth derivative of x 1 sin x.
Taking u = sin a; and v = x % we have
(i)
ur =
Hence
dn
sin(# + \rn),
(x 2 sin x)
vx
2x t
v2
vr
2,
>
for r
2.
= x* sin (x + inn) + 2nxsm (x + $n 1) n)

+ n(n 1) sin (x + \{n 2) n).
(ii)
Find a relation between any
We
first
find
three consecutive derivatives of sin (p sin -1 x).

sin (p sin -1 x), yx , and y3 .
direct
a relation between y
By
derivation,
V\
i/i
- ^\_ x
V( 1
cos
81x1-1 *)
a 2 = P cos
sin -1 x).
Deriving again,
:.
a;
2
)
y % - xy x +p*y
0.
(a)
Now derive this equation n times,t using Leibniz's theorem:

(
- * 2 y n+2 +M- 2x) y n+1 + in(n -$(-2)y n

-a^n+i -ny n
)
+p*y n =
This
0,
(l-a' 8 )y+2-(2n+l)^ n+1 + ( 2j2-na) 2/B
i-e-
is
the required relation, and
6.63 Maclaurin coefficients
it
holds for
n>
0.
(6)
0.
from a recurrence
relation
In Maclaurin's theorem it is only the values of the successive

x = which are required. A relation between
any three consecutive coefficients can be obtained as in ex. (ii) above.
derivatives of f(x) at
Example
Obtain the first 4 terms of the Maclaurin expansion of sm(psin~ x x).
(6) of ex. (ii), put x = 0, and denote yr when x
by ar ; then
In equation
<*n+i
+ (P 3 -n 2 )a =
Hence if a is known, a rt+a can be found.

Now a = sin (p sin -1 0) = 0, so that a % =
with even
0,
0.
a4
0,
i.e. all
coefficients
suffix are zero.
-1
t Had the given function been sin ( sin x),
to avoid using n in two senses.
we should say
'derive k times',
240
Also
ax
therefore
a3
s
a7
and so
on.
[6.63
= p cos (p sin -1 0) = p;
= (l i -p )a1 = (l 2 -p 2 )p,
= (3 2 -:P
= (&-p*)(l*-p*)p,
= (5 2 -p 2 )a5 = (6-p)(3*-p)(l-p)p,
!l
The required expansion is
sin (p sin- 1 *)
+ a 1 x + ^x 2 + ^x 3 + ... +fW(6x)
= px +
-p*)p ^ + (3 2 -p 2
+ (5 2 -p 2
(3
-p
) (
) (
2
)
- p2 p ^ +
)
. . .
+ ^/ (n
W-
TAis method only shows what the Maclaurin expansion would be

if the conditions of the
theorem were satisfied:
it
does not discuss the
and continuity of the successive derivatives, nor does it

help us to calculate the remainder term. The method is formal, and
approximations so established may only be expected to hold 'for x
existence
sufficiently small'.
Exercise 6(b)
Calculate the nth derivative of the follovnng functions.
1
cos 2 *
sin 8
*4 e*.
[first
a;.
8 * sin 2 *,
10 If/(*)
11
12
express in terms of 2*].
=
=
n>3.
14
15
6 Xs /e x .
7 a4 log*, n
* 2 + *-2
>
4.
9 sin* sin 2x sin 3*.
e^sin*, prove
(n)
(0)
= 2* n sin(|w7r).
= (- l)"n! {log * - 1 - -
- 1/n} ar"" 1
(x)
2
-*
If y = f{x) = (sin- *)/.^
prove that
1 - x 2 y x - xy = 1
and /< n+1) (0) = w 2/< n -(0).
If y = sin (log *) prove x2y 2 + xyx + y =
and deduce that
a% +2 + (2n + 1) *2/ n+1 + (n 2 + 1) y = 0.
If y = e taa_la! prove (1 + *2 y n+2 + {(2n + 2) * - 1} y n+1 + n(n + 1) y, = 0.
-1
If y tan *, prove 1 + * 2 y 2 + 2xy = and deduce that
2
1 +x
y n+z + 2(n + 1 *y n+1 + n(n + 1 y n = 0.
If/(*)
log */*, prove
n)
. . .
),
13
3 ch*.
Hence calculate the first four non-zero terms of the Maclaurin expansion of tan -1 *,
assuming that an expansion of tan -1 x is possible.
16 If y = (sin- 1 *) 2 , prove (l-x 2 )y n+2 -(2n + l)xy n+1 -n 2y n =
(n^l).
find the values of all the derivatives of y when * = 0, and write down a
few terms of the Maclaurin expansion (assuming this exists).
Hence
6.7]
why
17 Explain
241
Maclaurin's theorem cannot be applied to log a; or to
sin (log a;).
Verify the following expansions.
mx
2
18 e mx
= 1 +mx-\
m n- x n ~
1
...
2!
19 log(l+a;)
x6
-\
3!
a;
21 cosa;
2!
.
a;
...
5!
.,
22 (l+a;)"m
(n-1)!
e m0x .
n!
x
= x-
sina;
= x-\x 2 + \x3 -... + (-\) n ^^ + {-l) n + (\ + dx)- n

nl
n
x3
20
m nx n
H
T
x*
+
^
4!
2 * -1
x 2k+1
+ (-l)*- 1
h(-l)*
K
'
(2Jfc-l)!
h(-D*
K
(2k-2)r
'
m(m
= l+ma; + i 1)
'
(2k+l)\
cos(0a;).
K
'
(2k)l
(w1)!
m(m 1) ... (m n+ 1)
+ _i
xn
+ 7&) =
h 2 "- 1
(2n^
Give the corresponding formula up to
cosa; h sin
Ji
C S
"+(
h 2n
- 1)n
W!
1)n
h2n
Verify the following approximations 'for
= x + %x + ^x [See Ex.
= a; + â; 3 + â; 5
29
seca;
C08
Give the corresponding formula up

25 Writing a x = e xlz a (a > 0),obtain an expansion for a 9
sina;...
"- 1
to h 2n+1
27 sin" 1 *;
+^
3!
8in(aJ
cos aH
h
+ - 1)B (2^ljl S^^ +
26 tana;
2n+1 .
2!
+ Acosa? sina; cosa? +

+ - 1)n "1
*24 cos(a; + 7&)
+ dx) m ~ n
h3
ft1
sinaj
a?*- 1
(l
nl
sin(a;
'
2*
2!
*23
cos(0a:).
V
m(m 1) ...(m n + 2)
V +
'
x 2k ~ 2
y
^+
x sufficiently smalV.
3(6), no. 10.]
= l + $x 2 + &c*.
28 e"
30
sina:
ix 2 + -g$xi ).
e(l
= l + ^+s^x*.
*31 Prove the second mean value theorem by one application of Rolle's
theorem to the function ifr(x) =f(b) ~f(x) - (b-x)f'(x) -A(b-x) 2 choosing
A so that
r/r(a)
0.
Further applications of the
6.7
mean
value theorems
6.71 Turning points; concavity, inflexions

(1)
The second mean value theorem can be written

f(a + h) -f(a)
J6
hf'{a)
+ lh 2f"(a + dh)
(0
<
<
1).
GPMI
242
h
for all
/'(a)
can be so only
otherwise the right-hand side would change sign with h. Hence
sufficiently small, positive or negative (3.62). This
0,
f(a + h) -f(a)
[6.71
a to give a turning value off(x), f(a + h) f(a) must have the same sign
For x
"(a
if
+ Oh).
then f(a + h)f(a) > for

and hence x = a gives a minimum. If f(a + Oh) is negative, we
similarly find that x a gives a maximum.
If f"(x) is continuous at x = a, then f"(a + 0h) -> /"(a) as h -> 0, and hence
f(a + 0h) has the same sign as f{a) for all h sufficiently small (assuming
f"(a) =}= 0). Hence if /"(a) > 0, x = a gives a minimum; if f"(a) < 0, it gives a
maximum. These results agree with 3.65, but here we have assumed more
If
all
(a + 0h) is positive for all
such
sufficiently small,
h,
about f"(x)
is concave upwards at P if in the neighabove the tangent at P (fig. 63).

Iff"{x) is continuous at x = a, the curve y f(x) is concave upwards
or downwards atx = a according asf"{a) % 0.
(2) Definition.
bourhood of P,
curve
it lies
Fig. 64
Fig. 63
Near P we have by
6.42,
Remark
(fi)
that
ordinate to curve ordinate to tangent
and
this expression has the
small since f{x)
Corollary
For by
is
same
continuous at x
sign as
a.
f{a)
\h2f(a + Oh),
for all
(i)
sufficiently
The result follows.
At a point of inflexion the concavity changes sense.

f"(x) changes sign as x increases through a point of
1.
3.71,
inflexion.
Corollary 2. At a point of inflexion the curve crosses its tangent.

For/" (a + Oh) has opposite signs when h > 0, so that the difference (i)
changes sign as x increases through a (fig. 64).
(3)
I.
The preceding results ean be generalised by using Taylor's theorem.

= 0, and/ (n -(a;) is continuous atx = a and is the first of the derivatives
//f'(a)
off{x) which is non-zero atx = a, then:

(i) ifnis odd, there is no turning point
atx
a;

6.72J
ifnis
(ii)
/<>(a)
>
even, there is
a maximum atx
if /
(n)
(a)
<
243
and a minimum if
0,
0.
For from the hypothesis,
= -f<\a + 0h),
f(a + h)-f(a)
nl
and the results follow immediately from the definitions in 3.62.

II. Iff(a) = 0, andf (n\x) is continuous at x = a and is the first
vatives off(x) of order greater than 2 which is non-zero at
point of inflexion off{x) if and only ifnis odd.
of the deri-
a, then
is
Applying Taylor's theorem to f'(x), we have by hypothesis:
= JL^-/(n) (a + ^).
f'{a + h)-f\a)
Hence/'(a;) has a turning point at x
The result follows from the
a if and only if n
1 is
even,
i.e.
n is odd.
definition in 3.71.
6.72 Closeness of contact of two curves
= a, the
= f(x) to the polynomial approximating curve
Geometrically, 6.53 shows that in the neighbourhood of x

closeness of the curve
y =f(a) + (x- a)f'(a) +

is
...
measured by {x-a) n fn\Qjn\; in
+ ^""^V ^frO
If
two curves y = f(x), y =
a,
we now
consider
(cf.
have a point
g(x)
how their
\{x-af
particular,
sures the closeness of the curve to its tangent
closeness near
(")
/"()
equation
(i)
mea-
above).
P in common where
P can be defined. If
P, then /(a) = g(a). If also /'(a) = g'{a), they

have the same tangent and are said to touch at P. If further
f"(a) = g"(a), they have the same quadratic approximating curve.
In general
they merely
intersect at
m is the largest integer for which the two polynomial

approximating curves of degree m are the same near P, then the given
Definition. If
curves are said to have mth-order contact at P.
The necessary and sufficient conditions! fr

(m+1) (a)
but
#=
*his are *na*
^m +1>(a).
Remarks
(a) If/(x), g(x)
the conditions
were polynomials, then by Ex. 3
(iii)
has a simple root x
show
(e),
no. 13 (or 10.43)
f \x) = gfîx)
^) = g<m - x\x) has a double root x = a,
in turn that the equation
a,/*-
f Subject, of course, to the validity of Taylor's
{m
theorem
for
n = m + 2.

[6.73
and finally /(#) = g(x) has an (m + l)-fold root x a. On account of
this it is customary to say that the curves y = /(#), y = g(x) possess
'm + 1 coincident points in common at P.
244
'
(/?)
The above
definition fails if the tangent at
P is parallel to Oy,
would not exist and the conditions of Taylor's

theorem would be violated; but the curves could be taken in the form
x = F(y), x = G(y), and approximating polynomials in y considered
since then f'(a), g'(a)
similarly.
Theorem. // two
curves have mth-order contact at P, they cross there
if m is even, and do not cross if m is odd.
qI
A/
i
!/-/(*)
i
j
a+h
Fig. 65
For, near P, the difference of corresponding ordinates
is
QB=f(a + h)-g{a + h)
m
hm+1
7>r
hm + x
j^^{f^\a + eh)-^(a + dh)}
by Taylor's theorem with n =
m+
and the conditions (hi). Assuming

are continuous at x = a, the content of the
that
braces has the same sign as f(m + x\a) - m+1) (a) for all h sufficiently
small, positive or negative. Hence f(a + h) g(a + h) has the same
sign for all small h if m is odd, so that the curves do not cross at P.
and h > 0,
If m is even, the expression takes opposite signs for h <
gr
1,
(m+1) (a;)
gr(
i.e.
the curves cross.
6.73 Approximate solution of equations

(1) Outline of the
3.52 also f'(x), f(x))
by Newton's method
method. Let/(#) be such that/"(x) (and hence

is
continuous in a
have opposite signs. Then
<x<
(2.65) there is
b,
by
and suppose /(a), f(b)
a root of/(#)
= 0ina<#<&.
6.73]
Let x
245
be an approximation to this root, and suppose the actual

is c + h (h may be negative). If c is a fair approximah will be small. Since f(c + h) = 0, the second mean value
c
value of the root

tion,
theorem gives
(o<e<
o =f(c)+hf(c)+$hy'(c+dh)
Assuming that f"(c + 6h) is not large,

neglect the term in h2 and get
i).
and that /'(c)
0,
we may-
0=f(c) + hf'(c),
so that h
the root
= f(c)/f'(c). Thus,
= c-/(c)//'(c).
now be repeated,
This process can
c 1}
in general, a closer approximation to
is c x
and leads
starting with the approximation

a closer approximation
(in general) to
/(ci)
and
an example of an iterative process or iteration; i.e. a

process by which the accuracy of an approximation is improved by
repeating the calculation on successive previous approximations.
so on. It
(2)
is
Geometrical interpretation.
curve y
= f(x)
at the point x =
The equation
of the tangent to the
c is
y-f(c)=f(c)(x-c).
It meets
Ox where y =
the approximation
is
and x = c /(c)//'(c),
i.e.
at x
cx
Hence
geometrically equivalent to replacing the arc
< x ^ b by the tangent line at x = c.

For the process to be successful, the situation must be as indicated
in fig. 66, where the numbers c l5 c 2 ... approach c + h. In fig. 67, the
approximation gets worse: the trial c is too rough.
of the curve for which a
(3)
Estimation of the error at any stage. Let c x c 2 c3 be successive

,
approximations. Then
C2
and
Cl
~~
C3
^2
/(c 2 )
C2
/'(c 1
"
+ A)'
246
where h

= /(^//'(Cj.) and is supposed small. Then
Co
[6.73
Co ficj+hficj+w^+eh)
f'{ci+h)
f'(c 1
+ h)
/'(<a)
Fig. 67
by the assumed
continuity
The expression
(i)
will
slowly
(c)
small,
the curve
is
is
2{/'( Cl
)}s
the
approximation
if
first
h,
(i)
'
if
i.e.
is
good;
the direction of the curve
is
changing
approximately straight; and
/'(Ci) is large, i.e.
The method
"
hence, substituting for
be small
(a) /(Cj) is small, i.e. if

(6) /"(Cj) is
off and /*;
most
the curve
effective
is
steeply inclined to Ox.
when
these conditions are satisfied
near the required root. Figures 66, 67 confirm
this.
6.73]
When
a specified degree of accuracy
enough not to affect the result, then

and c3 need not be calculated at all.f
is
required,
c 2 is the
and
247
(i) is
small
approximation sought,
Example
Solve x + sin x 1-5 correct to four places of decimals (x in radians).
Trying x = 1 as a first approximation, we find
sin 1
/^ =
0-8415
/'(l)
and
8 415-l-5
+ 0-5402
cos
0-5402,
= 0j415^
1-5402
W<
'
"
A second approximation is therefore 1 0-2217 = 0-7783.

/(0-7783)
/'(0-7783)
_
~
0-7783 + 0-7022-1-5
1-7120
^~
A '*
Similarly,
' 0114
'
third approximation is 0-7783 + 0-0114 = 0-7897.

This result is in fact correct to four places of decimals; for by taking
c x = 0-7783 in the expression (i) above, it can be shown to be of order
+ 2-7 x 10 -5, and hence c2 = 0-7897 is the required value.
and a
(4) Refinement of Newton's method. % By using a quadratic approximation for h we can improve the linear one = /(c) + hf'{c). For
0=/(c)+A/'(c) + pr(c),
and
since
= - hf(c)lf'(c), we have
The next approximation is therefore

Ci
c-/(c)
shownj that the error diminishes very rapidly. Taking c = 1

in the above example, we should find c = 0-7909, which is very near
x
the correct value. Taking c = 0-7909 in Newton's process, we should
It can be
reach the result.

Exercise 6(c)
Test the stationary point
*1 cosa;-l.
for each of the following functions.
*2 sinx-x.
*3 cosa:-l+
2!
f Without an error estimate we should have to calculate c8

to the required degree of accuracy, it does not differ from c .
2
only the previous approximation.
%
E. H. Bateman, Mathematical Gazette,
xxxvn
and then observe that,

Our estimate involves
(1953), p. 96.
248
[6.8
3
*4 sin X X + -.
*6 sinaj a; +
7 Prove that at a point of inflexion, a curve and

of at least the second order.
its
x
x
'
tangent have contact
Show that a root of x* + 5x 15 = is approximately 1-6206.

9 Show that the smallest positive root of 2 sina; = 1/x is about 0*741.
8
10 Find correct to three places of decimals the smallest positive root of

sina;
\x.
Further examples on approximate solution will be found in Ex. 13
mean
value theorem
6.8
Cauchy's
6.81
For a curve given parametrically by x
by t
and the gradient of a tangent
{/(&)-/()}/&(&)
principle
is
3.81 suggests that there
which {f(b)-f(a)}l{g(b)-g(a)} =f'(W().

under suitable conditions.
for
6.82 //
(i)
(ii)
and
f(x)
and
=)=
is
= f(t),
a, t =
b is
is f'(t)lg'(t).
a value
We now
the
prove this
a < x ^ b,
same value of x in a < x <
g(x) satisfy the Rolle conditions in
f'(x), g'(x) are not zero for the
(hi) g(b)
g(t),
gradient of the chord joining the points given
The geometrical
(/).
b,
g{a),
then there is at least one
number for which a < <
and
f(b)-f(a)_f'()
By
hypothesis
(i),
theorem, so that there
and
0.
Since
<fi(x)
is
<f>'{x)
now
satisfies
at least one
the conditions of Rolle's
number
for which a
= f'(x) + Ag'(x), we have
/'()
/(&)-/(<*)
g(b)-g(a)
<
<

249
We cannot have gr'() = 0, otherwise the last equation would imply
and hypothesis (ii) would be contradicted. Hence we can
/'() =
6.9]
by g'{i), and obtain the result.

Corollary // g'(x) never vanishes in a < x < b, then hypothesis
(ii) is satisfied; and so is (iii), for if g(b) = g(a) then Rolle's theorem
shows that g'(x) would be zero between a and b.
divide both sides
.
Remarks
The mean value theorem (6.3) is the case when g(x) = x.

The result is more general than that obtained by applying the
mean value theorem to f(x), g(x) separately and then dividing. For
(a)
(/?)
we should have
=
=
/(&)-/()
and
g{b)-g{a)
(&-)/'(&)
<&<&),
(b-a)g'{t )
(a
<
m-f(a) =
from which
9(b)-g(a)
<
b),
m.
g'(Q-
There is no reason why ^ and 2 should be equal, and in general

they will be different (see Ex. 6 (d), no. 1).
'Indeterminate forms': ^Hospital's rules
6.9
6.91 Suppose /(a) = 0, g(a) = 0; then the function <j>{x) =f(x)lg(x) is

not defined when x = a because it takes the meaningless or 'indeterminate' form 0/0. Yet limbic) may exist: e.g. when f(x) = sin x,
x-*-a
g{x)
limit
x,
when
0.
The following two rules give means of calculating this
certain conditions are satisfied.
6.92 First rule
If
> g{a)
0,
(h)/'(a)
and
=# a,
and
g'(a)
0,
/'()
/(*)
x-+ a g(x)
Proof. If x
g'{a) exist
then by hypothesis
/(*)
= /(*)-/()
g(x)
g(x)-g{a)
(a)
(i)
=/(*)-/() j g{x)-g{a)
xa
-+f'(a)lg'(a)
by hypothesis
(ii)
and the
xa
when
x->a
definition of 'derivative' in 3.11,
(ii).
then

and g'(a) = 0, the conclusion
Corollary. If f'(a)
250
=j=
\f{x)jg{x)\ -> oo
[6.93
that
is
when x -> a.
Example
1 cosaj
sinO
= -- =
lira
C->0
Second rule
6.93
If
(iii)
0.
f( a )
(i)
lim
0,
g(a)
exists,
f(x), g(x) are continuous at
(ii)
0,
a,
then
Proof. Hypothesis
/(*)
/'(*)
implies that f'(x)lg'(x) exists throughout
(iii)
a < x < a + H, i.e. that/'(a;) and g'(x)

and g'{x)
in this range (otherwise/'(a;)/<7'(;r) would be meaningless for an infinity of values of x just greater than a). If0<h<H,
some
sufficiently small interval
exist
=f=
the conditions of Cauchy's
a ^ x < a + h: condition
f(x), g(x) are therefore
thesis
(ii)
for
(i)
mean
value theorem are satisfied for
since/'(a;), g'(x) exist in
continuous in a
a; conditions
(ii),
a < x < a + h, and

using our hypo-
^ x ^ a + h,
(iii)
by
for a < x < a + h.

Hence by Cauchy's theorem and hypothesis
6.82, Corollary, since
g'{x) 4=
and /'()/<7'()
When h-> + also
Hence f(a + h)jg(a + h) ->Z when h^-0 +
x-+a +
,
(i)
tends to
i.e.
its limit,
f{x)jg(x) ->l
say
I.
when
hypothesis (iii) implies that there is an interval

a k ^ x ^ a for which Cauchy's formula holds, and hence that
f(x)/g(x) -> I when x -> a Consequently,
Similarly,
f(x)jg(x)
and the result follows.

Corollary. If f'{x)jg'{x) ~>
shows that ahof(x)lg(x) - oo.
when
oo
when x->a, the same argument
x ->
a,
.Reraarfcs
(a)
Tê conditions of
the rule are sufficient but not necessary, i.e.
Hm{f(x)lg(x)} may exist when ]im{f'(x)lg'(x)} does not. For example,
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS THEOREMS

if f{x) = z2 sin(l/a;), g(x) = x, then f{x)jg{x) = asin(l/z)
x-> 0; but /'(a;) = 2asin(l/a;)-cos(l/a;) (x 0) and gr'(a;) =
6.93]
=f=
/'(*)
-tt
2a:
sm 1
(x)
and
251
so
cos-,
not approach a limit when x -
this does
when
1,
because cos
(1/x)
oscillates.
The second rule can be used repeatedly, provided the conditions

and it can be used in combination with the first.
(/#)
are satisfied;
Examples
cosa;
hm 1
=
...
(i)
sina;
lim
x->0
x-*0
(We cannot use the
first
sina;
lim
since
2a;
rule to
show lim sin x/x =
because this result
was assumed when proving that the derivative of sin a; is cos x

be 'arguing in a
circle'.
We
could use the
first
1.
x-i-o
3.32) :
we should
rule to prove lim tan x(x
because this last limit has not been employed fundamentally in finding
d(tana;)/c2a\
....
a;cosa;+7r
,.
Jim
(u)
x-*n
.....
2logaecxx 2
..
km
(in)
x-+0
&
coax
1
=
1
1.
first rule.
2taxix2x
lim
x-*0
lim
x _+ n
This could also be done by the
scsina;
cosa;
,.
sina;
4a; 3
sec a a;
Inn
by the second
rule again,
x-+Q
lim it-0
/tana;\ a
I
by trigonometry,
6\ x
tana;
lim
since
x-+0
1.
The expression should be simplified at each stage of the work whenever

possible: the trigonometrical reduction eases the calculation here, as the
reader
may verify by proceeding directly by rule to

..
lim
(iv)
lim ( 1
= lim 2tana;sec
sec*a; 1
- x) tan \nx
(the
form
a;
oo)
X-+1
lim
x^cot^nx
lim
x->i
(the
form
cosec 2 nx
n'
0/0)
....

[6.93
->
To find limits when x oo we may put y = \jx and consider the
corresponding limit when y -> +
252
lim
(v)
a;
Put
tan-)
m=
/tant/X
I
lira
1 /"
log u
y^'y-tanyX
and consider
= lim(-^ (
t/sec 2 2/
= lim
l/x.
/tansA
log
^-
yy
j
.
a
tany
2y 2 tfmy
y -*0
sec 2 y + 2y sec 3 3/ sin y sec 2 2/
4t/tant/ +
y^0
limlogu
where
2?/
sec 2 t/
tan
after reduction,
lira
y _> sm.2y + y
2
sec y
2cos22/+l
lim
2,^
Hence w
when y
->
-> 0,
i.e.
when a;
00.
Exercise 6(d)
1
Find
terval
i,
x 2 in 6.82,
<
is 1
cos 5a;
when x
x2
log(l
+ a!)
sina;
10
ex e x
->
Xs
g(x)
a;
and the
rt
2a?tana; Trseca; (x ->
,
\it).
'
lQg(1+a:2 + a;4)
.
+ 6a;)
log(l
tan x x
(a:->-l).
e a_ 6 -o
x smx
11
(cos*) 1'*.
12
e x_ e sin
x smx
:
|tana;| sl a 2 * (x -> tt).
03(6* 1)
13
(cosaj
+ 2sina:) cot *.
14 cota;
*15
1/a;.
1/a;
cosec 2 a;.
Miscellaneous Exercise 6(e)

Verify the following approximations 'for
1
xcotx = l-^gsx*.
log
(^^J
in-
unless otherwise stated, of the following.
lO^-e*
cos 2 *7ra;
when
(/?),
2.
Calculate the limits, taken
Remark
x sufficiently small '.

2
-^-^ x
5
i
.
ex
= l-$x+-&x 2
253
4 Prove that the nth derivative of cos nx is n n cos (nx + \nn). Show that the
derivative of a a cos7ra has the value ( l) m+1 n 2m - 2 (n 2 + 2m 4m2 ) when
2mth
1.
If
m =
m = m(m- 1) (m- 2) (m-r+ l)/r! (r 4= 0), prove that

m n + m _ n + m _ n + +m n = (m + n)
and
...
for all values of
x m .x n
...
m, n and any positive integer r by deriving the identity
xm+n r times by Leibniz's theorem.
Calculate the limit
e siax
when x
of each of the following,
-l-x
x 2 shx
(i+a
2a?-2a; a -log(l
'
cosec nx
10 {COBx) coi
nx,
Apply the second mean value theorem to e* to prove that e x

12 Apply Maclaurin's theorem to prove that, when n is odd,
11
e*> l+x+?- + ... +

and that
is
if
is
(a;
n\
zi
even this result holds for x
>
+ 2a;)
x 2 tan -1 x
)*-(i-a;3 4
0,
> l+x(x
4= 0)
4=0);
while for
a;
<
the inequality
reversed.
In
nos. 13
and 14
$(x)
f(a)
g(a)
h(a)
f{b)
g(b)
h(b)
f(x)
g(x)
h(x)
*13 lff(x), g(x), h(x) satisfy the Kolle conditions for a < x < b, apply Rolle's
theorem to <f>(x) to prove that there is a number for which a < < b and
f(a)
g(a)
f(b)
g(b)
/'(
Deduce
* 14
(i)
the
first
h(a)
h(b)
=0.
*'(
mean value theorem;
(ii)
Cauchy's
Iff'(x), g'{x), h'(x) satisfy the Rolle conditions for
mean value theorem.
<x
s$ 6,
and a <
<
6,
prove by considering the function

,
F(x)
(x a)(xb)
rr^
^t
a)(c
o)
< f < 6 and
c)
(c
that there
*15
is
a number for which a
0(e) = *(c-a)(c-&)0"().
By taking g(x) = and h(x) = 1 in no. 14, prove
m-f(a)
f(b)-f(a)
ba
Ub-c)f(E).
The value off(x) is known when x a and when x = b, and the value at an
intermediate point x = c is calculated approximately by the 'rule of proportional parts' (see 13.71). Prove that the error in the value thus found does
not exceed (& c) (c a)
numerically, where
is the upper bound of
\f"(x)\ for
<
<
b.
254
*16
(i)

If f'(x) satisfies the Rolle conditions in a h^xâ+h,
considering the function $(x)
which a h
<
=f(x)Ax Bx*
that there
is
prove bya number for
< a + h and
f(a + h)-2f(a)+f(a-h)
J
h%
[Choose A, B so that <j>(a h) = 0(a) = 0(a + h), and apply Rolle's theorem for
a h < x ^ a and for a < x < a + h.]
(ii)
If also/"(a;)
is
continuous atx
lim
*17 Apply Cauchy's
a,
deduce that
/(a +A )-2/(a) +/(a- A)
mean
6.54(1) and G{x) {b x) v ,

Schlomilch's remainder.
value theorem to the function F(x) defined in

to obtain Taylor's theorem with
0<p^n,
255
INTEGRATION AS A
SUMMATION PROCESS
7.1
Theory of the
definite integral
7.11 'Area under a curve'
In 4.14 we gave an account of the process for calculating the area

under a continuous curve y = fix). It is now desirable to re-cast the
argument.
Suppose that the area under y

divided into
strips
x
where
= f(x)
between x
a and x
b is
by ordinates through the points
=x
1}
x%,
a < xx < xz <
...
..,
xn_ 1}
< xn_ x <
b.
(The points need not be at equal distances apart.) It will be convenient to write x for
Referring to
fig.
a,
xn for 6.
suppose
68,
xr+v Then the area of the
areas of the rectangles
and
N to
PMNQ lies in value between the
PMNR and SMNQ, viz.
f(xr ){xr+1 ~xr )
Hence the
M corresponds to x = x
strip
and f(xr+1 )
total area under the curve lies
areas of all such 'inner'
and
between the sums of the
'outer' rectangles, viz.
n-1
2 f(xr)(Xr+i-*r)
r=0
n-1
and
r =0
f(xr+i)
Geometrical intuition leads us to expect that, as we make the division of the given area gradually finer by increasing the number of
and consequently decreasing the width of each strip, the

of the corresponding outer rectangles will approximate to the
required area 'from above', and the sum of the inner rectangles will
ordinates
sum
approximate to it 'from below'. That is, as n ->

each strip tends to zero, the sums (i) will tend
which is the required area.
For a steadily falling graph like fig. 69, the
SMNQ have respective areas f(xr+1 ) (xr+1 -xr)
oo
and the width of
to a
common
rectangles
and f(xr )
limit
PMNR,
(xr+1
-xr );
INTEGRATION AS SUMMATION
256
but the required area
ment
still lies
between the two sums
[7.11
(i),
and the argu-
essentially unchanged.
is
For a curve like fig. 44 of 4.14 (a mixture of parts like figs. 68, 69)
some of the strips will be like that shown enlarged in fig. 70. The area
of this strip still lies between the areas of the inner and outer rectangles
R'MNR, SMNS', although their heights are no longer f(xr ), f(xr+1 )
but the least and greatest values off(x) in the range xr < x ^ xr+1
.
Iff(x)
is
continuous, we know
at points x
7jr
(6.1,
in the range,
Mr)( xr+1- Xr)
Property (2)) that these are attained
and the areas of the rectangles are

and
/
/5?
f(7f r )
xr+l
yi
xr)'
R
S
MN
M N
Fig. 69
Fig. 68
The
total area then lies
between the two sums
n 1
S Mr)
xr+l ~ Xr)>
r=0
n1
f(Vr)
Xr+1 ~ xr)>
r=0
where xr ^ r ^ xr+1 xr ^ ij r < xr+1 for each r = 0, 1, ...,n- 1; and

we expect it to be their common limit when n^-oo and each difference
,
We pause
at this stage to re-emphasise
cussion given so far assumes that
(cf.
4.16(1)) that the dis-
we know what
is
meant by
'the
area of a strip' and 'the total area under the curve'. Although in
elementary work
figures
we have
bounded by
definitions of the
straight lines,
term 'area' as applied to
we have not
yet stated precisely
what is to be understood by 'the area' of a figure bounded by one or

more curves. The preceding considerations are therefore only suggestive, and are based on 'what seems reasonable'.
Although we would not so readily associate an 'area' with a curve
having one or more discontinuities like that shown in fig. 71, the same
argument as before can be begun. The heights of the inner and outer
these numbers are the lower and
rectangles are now mr
r where
,
7.12]
upper bounds (see 6.1) off(x)

actually a value of f(x), but mr
r\
(In this figure,

is
not because the function
The inner and outer
defined at the discontinuity.)
have areas
xr+l ~ xr)
>
257
-"*r \
xr+l ~ xr)
r is
not
is
now
rectangles
>
and we may consider the sums

nl
*
= S
{xr+1 - x
r
r ),
r=0
which
may
the range a
n 1
S=
ilÔr,^ - av)
(iii)
r=0
be called lower and upper sums for the function /(a;) over
a;
<
6.
5"
J2'
Mrir
gr
Fig. 70
N
Fig. 71
The lower and upper sums
7.12
There is nothing vague about the sums (iii): we have obtained them
by (a) taking a subdivision of the range a ^ x ^ b by n 1 points
xx < x 2 < ... < x^; (b) taking the lower and upper bounds mr M,.
of /(a?) in xr < x < xr+1 for each of these subintervals; (c) adding up
the products like mr (xr+1 xr ) corresponding to each subinterval, to
obtain the sum s, and similarly for S. We may therefore consider these
sums quite independently of any notions of 'area' (although we may
visualise them geometrically as sums of areas of rectangles associated
with the curve y =f(x) and the points x = a, xx x 2
xn _ t b).
,
We
remark first that, given f(x), there is still plenty of choice in

the way in which we can construct s, S: the number n 1 of points
chosen can be as large as we please and (subject only to the restriction
a <xx < x2 < ... < xn _ 1 < b) the points themselves can be arbitrarily
placed in a < x < b. Thnas,8 depend on n, the number of subintervals;
and even when n is assigned, both depend on the numbers x x
v 2
,
xn-v We express this by saying that s, JS are functions of the subdivision

{x1} x2 ,..., n _^ of a < x < b.
17
GPMI
258
[7.13
When we vary the subdivision, s and S will in general vary. We

may ask (in view of the intuitive considerations in 7 1 1 what happens
to s and S when n-+oo and each subinterval tends to zero. This
.
question was considered
by Riemann
(1826-66),
and we
shall state
the answer without proof (because this would involve fundamental
theorems on bounds of a function, and would take us too far afield).

It can be proved that, provided f(x) is bounded for a ^ x ^b, there are
numbers
j,
J such
when n ~> oo and each interval

then s ->j and 8 ->J\ and j ^ J.
that,
division tends to zero,

Definition. If j
J, then f(x)
is
of the sub-
said to be integrahle in
^x ^b
{in the sense of Riemann).
like S have a common

view of the discussion in 7.11)
to define the area under the curve y = f(x) between x = a, x = b to be
this common limit. Thus, if the lower and upper sums possess a common
limit, there is defined thereby an 'area' under the curve y =f(x);
if the limits are different, then the term area remains undefined.
It can be proved that we certainly have j = J whenever (i) f(x) is
bounded in a ^ x ^ 6 and continuous in a < x < 6; or (ii)/(:c) is bounded
and either steadily increasing or else steadily decreasing in a ^ x ^ 6.
That is, every bounded continuous function and every bounded monotonic
In this case the sums
limit, viz.
J. It
is
like s
and the sums
then natural
(in
'
'
is integrahle; and the corresponding curve has associated

an area in the sense just defined.
function
with
it
7.13 Definite integral
denned arithmetically
In 4.14 we inferred (again intuitively) that the 'area function A (x)

the differential equation dA/dx = y when y =f(x) is continuous in a < x < 6, and we concluded that the expression for the
'
satisfies
total area
AHKB
(fig.
44)
was
(iv)
which we took as the definition of f
f(x) dx.
We therefore expect some
Ja
close connection between the common limit of the upper and lower
sums of a continuous function, and the definite integral of that function.
We remind the reader (cf. 4.16(2)) that our definition (iv) of a
definite integral has a logical defect: it depends on the concept of an
indefinite integral or primitive function
function
<f>(x)
whose derivative
is f(x).
<f>(x)
Unless
jf(x)dx of f(x), i.e. a

we can actually find
7.14]
259
<j)(x) explicitly, we cannot be certain that such a function even exists;

hence any attempt at obtaining general properties of definite integrals
(as in 4.15) would be hampered by ignorance of circumstances under

which the integrals themselves have a meaning.
To give an independent account of the definite integral it is best
to actually define the symbol f f(x) dx to be the common limit (when

Ja
this exists) of the upper and lower sums of f(x) over a < x ^ 6. If
we define
b,
f(x) dx to be zero,
and
if
a > b we
define
Ja
( f(x)dx
=-
Ja
(This agrees with 4.15, properties
With
f f(x)dx.
Jb
(1), (2).)
these definitions, the other general properties of definite
integrals given in 4.15 (3)-(ll) can all
those required for carrying out the

7.14 Properties; existence of
an
We now prove
be established.
programme outlined in
4.16
(3).
indefinite integral
We shall suppose that/(a;) is integrable in a
^ x ^
and has bounds
m,M.
f f(x) dx lies between
(1)
m(b - a) and M{b - a).
Ja
First suppose b
n-l
s
>
r)
M ^ M and m
Since
m for each
r,
both
between
>
4.15 (10).)
hence
n-1
m (xr+1 -x
= ^
a.
(Cf.
and
r=0
S= 2
il^(;rr+1
- #r
lie
r=0
M^(xr+1 -xr = M(b-a) and mE(xr+1 -xr = m(b-a). Hence

common limit of s, S also lies between these numbers:
)
the
m(b-a) ^
f(x)dx
< M{b-a).
Ja
If b
<
apply the result just proved to
a,
f(x) dx, multiply the

J*
inequalities
by - 1, and use the
definition of f f(x)dx
when
<
a.
Ja
We get
M(b-a) ^
f(x)dx < m{b-a).

Ja
If a
6,
the result
is trivial.
Corollary. If \f(x)\
For
^Kfora^x^b, then
K is the greater of |m|,
f(x)
\J
dx ^ K{b - a).
[If |.
17-2
'
260
(2)
Ifa<c<
= ? f(x)dx.
Ja
sight rather obvious)
Ja
This property (at
[*f{x)dx
f(x)dx+
b,
[7.14
(Cf. 4.15(3).)
Jc
first
a ^ x ^
as a point of the subdivision of

(3) Definite integral
b.
proved by taking
omit the details.
We
is
as a function of its upper limit. According to its
definition as a limit of sums, the definite integral f f{x) dx of a given

Ja
and 6, but not on the variable x: cf. Remark

now allow the upper limit 6 to vary, and consider the
function/(x) depends on a
(fi)
We
of 4.15.
function
rx
Ja
where a
I.
regarded as fixed.
is still
F{x)
Let a ^
<
< x ^ 6. (Cf. 4.15 (6).)

and suppose h > 0. By (2)
continuous in a
is
'c+h
rc+h
fc
f(t)dt+
f(t)dt=
Ja
Ja
f(t)dt,
Jc
rc+h
F(c + h)-F(c)=
so
The bounds of f(t)
in c
<
of f(t) in the whole interval a
mh <
+h
<
(V)
f(t)dt.
cannot exceed the bounds m,

6. Since h > 0, (1) gives
F(c + h)~ F(c)
< Mh.
shows that F(c + /&)-> F(c).

Similarly, if a < c F(c)
when h -> Hence F(x) is continuous in a < x ^ b, even at the
When h -> +
this
end-points.
II.
atx =
Ifa<c 0, there
( )-/(c)| < e, i.e.
|/(
Given
is
(Cf.
4.15
c,
then F(x) is derivable
(7).)
a number n such that, when
_ e<m<f(c) + e
and hence the bounds of /(f)

< \h\ < n, then by (1)
for this range
tj
f(t)dt
lies
between
h{f{c)-e}
he between
/(c)
and
+ e},
h{f(c)
lc
so that
by
(v)
F(c + h)-F(c)
Mesbetween
+ n,
"c+h
4. t
me>
e. If
7.14]
F(c + h)-F(c)_
i.e.
to *<!zM
Hence
III.
<
fic)
=/(c)
f(t)dt
= /(#)
is
bounded in a ^ x
<fi(x)
By
e.
// <f>(x) possesses a derivative f(x) which
and is continuous in a < x < b,then
261
^6
<f>(a)fora ^ a; ^
6.
and by hypothesis, (f)'{x) = f(x)

a < x < b.
By I, F(x) is continuous for a <: a; ^ b; and since by hypothesis
<j>'{x) exists for a ^ a; ^ 6, 0(x) must be continuous for a ^ x ^ 6(3.12).
Hence by 3.82, Corollary, i'Xa;) - 0(#) is constant for a < a; < 6.
Since JT'(a) =
by definition (7.13), we find on putting x = a that this
constant is - 0(a). Hence F(x) = 0(a) - 0(a). (We now see that F(x)
for
is
II,
J" (a:)
a < x <
b.
Hence
Remarks on Theorems
Theorem II shows
b;
0'(a?)
for
A (x) of 4.14.)
the 'area function'
(4)
a < x <
for
F'{x)
that,
II, III.
when f(x)
is
continuous in a
<x <
in this range it is the derivative of another function, viz. F(x)
b,
then
f(t)dt
Ja
(which certainly exists

fj/tj
jfe
if /(a;) is
= f( x
i8
continuous);
satisfied
by
i.e.,
F(x).
Theorem III shows that am/function which satisfies d{<p{x)}jdx f(x)

a < x (x)?
a
which is what we took as a definition in 4.15.

Thus, by starting from the precise idea of lower and upper sums, our
theory of definite integrals does not depend on whether we can find
another function J/(a?) dx having the given f(x) for derivative, but
(subject to the continuity off(x)) actually defines such a function F(x).
This situation has been illustrated in 4.31 where, in order to investigate
jx^dx
(i.e.
examined the function
a function satisfying dyjdx
t~ dt.
Ijx)
we
first
262
[7.2
We conclude with two statements which may surprise the reader.

(i) The definite integral (as a limit of sums) may exist even when there is no
function having /(x) for derivative in a ^ x < 6. (Of course f(x) could not be
continuous in such a case, by II above, but yet it may be integrable, i.e.y = J.)
(ii) If g(x) has a derivative g'(x) at each point of a S x ^ b, then g'(x) is not
necessarily integrable in a < x < 6.
Examples to
illustrate these
statements can be constructed, but not easily.
Definite integral as the limit of a single
7.2
^x ^
7.21 Let the interval a
Cq
CI
<
X-y
3?2
summation
be divided by the points

Xj^ }
and let r be any number such that xr ^ r ^ #r+i for each r = 0, 1, ...
Then, if mr il^ are the bounds oif(x) inxr ^ x ^ xr+1 we have
n 1.
^ /(r ) <
rar
so that
n 1
n 1
r=0
r=0
n-1
r=0
i.e.
E /(&.) (Xr+1 - X
r)
<
fl.
r=0
If/(a;)
is
integrable, then s
and # tend to the common limit
f(x)
dx
Ja
when n-+co and
all
the differences xr+1 xr
^0. Hence
(n-i-*r)
tends to this same limit;
i.e.
n-1
/*&
limS Mr)(Xr+l- xr) =
f(%)dx.
Ja
r=0
This result will be of practical importance to the reader. The point

is that the limit of a summation of the above type (which
to grasp
arises in calculation of areas,

etc. discussed later in this
7.22
Some
volumes, arc -lengths, centres of gravity,
chapter)
is
a definite integral.
definite integrals calculated as limiting
sums
rb
(i)
xdx, b
>
a.
Ja
is
Divide the range a

x < b into n intervals each of length h (the calculation
by choosing equal intervals); then
simplified
x1
and
= a + h,
x<l
= a + 2h,
nh b a.
xn^
= a + (n l)h,
7.22]
Again
for simplicity, choose r
considered
xr in each
263
Then the sum
interval.
to be
is
n-l
2x
.h
h[a + (a+h)
+ (a + 2h) + ...+{a + (n-l)h}]
h[na + h{l + 2 +
...
h[na + %n(n
h]
1)
+ (n-l)}']
by summing the
a.p.,
= nhâ + %nh(l J
= (b-a)[a + ${b-a)
(6
a) [a + 1(6 a)] when n
J
J
-> oo.
n-l
'6
xdx
= lim S
a?r fe
(&-a)(6 + a)
(&
-a 2 ).
r=0
(u)
By proceeding similarly, we consider
x i dx.
Ja
n-l
ajfc
fc[a 2
r=0
+ (a + fc) 2 + ...+{a + (n-l)/i} 2 ]
= fe[na2 + {l + 2 + ... + (w-l)}2a^+{l 2 + 2 2 +... + (n-l) 2}^2]

= h[na2 +n(n-l)ah + i(n-l)n(2n-l)h 2] (see 12.24(2))
+ w% 2 ^1 -
= nh a2 + ara^l -
^2 -
= (6-a,[. + a( 6-a)(l-i) +i ,6-a) ! (l-i)(2-I)]

(6
- a) [a 2 + a(& - a) + 1(& a) 8] when n
-> oo.
n-l
= lim 2
2 <fo
aA
(&-) (& 2 +a& + a2 )
r=0
(iii)
f e fca5 da:. This

Ja
is
the limit of
h[e ka + e#+A>
fte* a [l
^ e fco
a
^
-
since
kh
-+ 0, since lim
by summing the
=
rb
Ja
g.p.,
= A
em 1
when 7&
+ e *{-H-i)A}]
+ e *+... + e(n -1 >**]
gfi*&
. . .
a+nh,
1
(Ex. 4 (/), no. 19).

i
e^dx = -(e k * e ka ).
*
Hence
$(b s -a*).
264
C
(iv)
[7.22
sinxdx.
Ja
We divide the range into equal intervals of length h, but here

convenient to take fr at the middle of the interval xr < x < xr+1 i.e.
it is
most
= a + (r + i)h.
Then
n-l
sin
(a;r
+ &)./& =
h[sin (a
+ %h) + sin (a + fh) +
. . .
+ sin {a + (n -) h}]
r=0
[cos a
cos (a + w&)J
sin/&
by
12.27
(1),
and hence the sum considered is

hh
(cos a cos
6) ->
cos a cos b
when
-> 0.
sin/&
sin a;aa;
cos a cos 6.
Ja
(v)
xm dx, ml?
1,
<a<
6.
Ja
Instead of dividing the interval a < C ^ 6 by points whose ^-coordinates

are in a.p., as in exs. (i)-(iv), we now divide it by points
a?!
in G.P.,
where b
n-l
2 f (s+1 - xs )
ar,
x2
ar 2
x n _r
ar n (Wallis's method).
Taking s
= ar n_1
= x (s =
0, 1,
. .
.,
n 1),
= am (ar a) + a mrm (ar 2 - ar)
s=o
+
_
mr 2n, (ar3 - ar 2 )
am+l( r _ J) J
+ a" *-*"- 1 m (ar n - or" -1

1
. . .
m+l _|_ ^(m+l) _j_

_|_ r
_}.
(*-l)(ro+iyj
_ y(m+l)
_ am+i( r _ J) __ ___
by summing the
= am +Hr- 1) Jl -
j{l-rm+1
G.P.,
/I _
When n -> oo,
then r ->
l'Hospital's first rule, 6.92).
by 2.76,
Hence
a m cfa:
(i),
and
m+ 1 (b
(1
-r^+^^l -r)
->
m+ 1
(e.g.
by
m+1 -a m+1 ).
These examples show that even the simplest integrals require quite a lengthy
The practical importance of 7.14 (3), Theorem Illf is that it relates
calculation.
process) and the process inverse to derivation: if

such that <j)'{x) =f(x) under suitable conditions, then
the value of the limiting sum can be written down as ^(6) <fi(a), and the tedious
integration (a
summation
we know a function
calculation from
f
The
<f>(x)
first
principles avoided.
so-called 'fundamental
theorem of the integral calculus'.
7.23]
7.23
Formula
265
for change of variable in a definite integral

6
In 4.22 we obtained a formula for evaluation of
f(x)
Ja
dx by the substitution
We now prove it as a further illustration of the use of limiting sums.

b = g(fi). We assume f(x) is continuous in a < x < b, that g{t)
is continuous in a <; t ^
We also
and that g'(t) is continuous in < t <
x
g(t).
Let a
= g(cc),
a,
ft,
assume that
in
a ^
<t n _x
<fi,
into subintervals by tx , t.2
t^x where
g(t) is
cc<t x <t2 <
...
and let the corresponding values of x be x x x 2

,
a <
By the mean value theorem
xx
<
<
rr
< tr+x
Let r
definite integral
/?.
Divide a
=S
< /?
(tr+x
f(x)
dx
x n _x
- tr
xr
x n _x Since
<
<
g(t)
increases,
b.
g'(Tr ),
(i)
< xr+x and

,
r=0
The
<
...
g(jr ); then
/(&) (Xr+X - Xr)
"]
<
x2
xr+x -xr
tr
< /?.
where
S/{9r(Tr )} sr'(Tr )
r=0
(r+1
- tr
the limit of the left-hand
is
).
sum when n
-> oo
and all the differences xr+x xr ->0. Since g(t) increases, g\t) >0ina<</?,
and hence g'(Tr > 0. Therefore, if either of xr+x xr tr+1 tr tends to zero, so
does the other, by (i). From the hypothesis, f{g{t)}g'(t) is continuous; hence
)
Mt)) 9'(t) dt =
lim
/{gr(rr )} gr'(Tr ) (<r+1
- *r
r=0
when n
-> oo
and
all
of ir+1
0.
Thus
fi
( f{g(t)}gV)dt.
J a.
Ja
Itg(t) decreases
from 6 to a as t increases from a to
a <
corresponds
and since
tr
<rr <
tr+x ,
then to the subdivision
< tn _x < f}
b > xx
... > x n ^ L > a;
we now have xr > gr > xr+x
tx
f(x)
...
/
J
< t2 <
> x2 >
fi,
dx
n-1
limj:
r)
(xr
-xr+x
r=0
= - lim S/{<7(Tf )} g (Tr

,
=
M
-(
J
(tr+1
- tr
fi
f{g{t)}g'(t)dt
at,
f{g(t)} g'(t) dt
by
definition.
The proof emphasises the need for g(t) to be steadily increasing or steadily
decreasing in a ^ t ^ /?, otherwise the points xr corresponding to tr would not
be in order, nor would the statements xr+x xr -*-0, tr+x tr -*-0 imply one
another since g'{jt ) might be zero. Compare the Remark at the end of 4.22.
266
[7.3
Exercise 7(a)*
Assuming the functions are continuous, prove

from 'limiting sums\
rb
1
the following properties (nos. 1-5)
rb
dx
kf(x)
Ja
f(x) dx, k being constant.

Ja
I
rb
2 If f(x)
for
<
<
then
b,
f(x)
dx
[Zmr (xr+1 xr ) cannot
0.
Ja
be negative.]
rb
If/(a)
+ h{x),
g{x)
then
rb
/(#)&
rb
gr(a;)da;+
Ja
Ja
rb
4 Iff(x)
5
I
&t
<J <
f /(*)
Ja
g(x) for
<
f \f(x)
Ja
a;
<
b,
prove
[For
rb
f(x)
Ja
I
if or
[Use 7.21.]
/&(#)<&
Ja
dx
g(x) dx.
[Use nos.
2, 3.]
Ja
/(.) (av +1
- *r and
)
<r=nf{IZr )\{xr+1 -xr ),

then
(7
<
o"
because
dx.
6 Prove thatiL
~
ve
all
terms of er are positive but
J*
f(t) dt
f(x) for a
<
those of
cr
may not be.]
b.
JX
isK{/ ( + ^) +/ (
<
all
<,+
?)
+ --' +/<a+
'' )
}]
^r
/<a,)<fe -
(This generalises the idea of the 'average of n numbers' to that of the 'mean
value over an interval' of a function of a continuous variable x.)
8 Prove lim
7.3
7.3 1
n
r
=02 +r2
In.
*
E a
w +ra
=S
l
Approximate calculation of definite
+ (r/n) a
>
Jol+* 2 J
integrals
When the indefinite integral off(x) is not known, we may resort to approxi-
mative methods to calculate
f(x) dx,
where
a, b
are given numbers. Since a
Ja
definite integral measures and is represented by a plane area, we may conveniently give the following discussion in geometrical language.
The crudest method of estimating areas is by counting squares ; this requires
the curve to be drawn on squared paper. The method is useful when the curve
itself is given but its equation is not known. When the equation of the curve is
known, the following methods are less tedious.
'
'
7.32 Trapezium rule

Divide the given area into n strips by w + 1 equally spaced ordinates
2/2 Vn+i at distance h apart. Let PM, QN be two consecutive ordinates
(fig. 72). The method replaces the arc PQ of the curve by the chord PQ and uses
the area of the trapezium PMNQ, viz. %h(PM + QN), as an approximation to
the area of the strip. The required area is thus approximately the sum of all
Vi>
7.33]
the trapezia formed by joining the tops of consecutive ordinates
267
by
straight
lines, viz.
hHVi + Vi) + hHVi + yz ) + ih(y8 +yt ) + ...
+ %h(y n + n+1
HiiVl + Vn+l) + (Vi + Vz +
)
=
Hence the
rule
+ 2/n)}-
is:
Divide the given area into strips by any number of equidistant ordinates. Take
the average of the first and last ordinates, and add this to the sum of the other ordinates.
Multiply the result by the distance between consecutive ordinates.
When the curve is concave do\m (6.71 (2)) the rule clearly underestimates
the area because the chords lie below their arcs. For a curve concave up, the
rule overestimates.
7.33 Simpson's rulef

Instead of approximating to the curve by straight lines,
arcs.% First, suppose
PM,
QO,
we now use parabolic
RN are three equidistant
ordinates to points
P, Q, R on the given curve. We may choose coordinate axes so that Oy is along

OQ. Let
= ylt QO = y 2
= ya (fig. 73).
We can choose the constants a, b, c so that the curve y = ax 2 + bx + c passes
through the points P(-h,yj), Q(0,y 2 ), R(h,ys ); for these requirements lead to
the following three equations for a, b, c:
PM
RN
= ah 2 bh + cA
y% = c,
y3 = ah2 + bh + c.)
yx
(i)
j-
We approximate to the actual area PMNR

the corresponding area under the parabola
under the given curve by finding

= ax 2 + bx + c, viz.
rh
j
From
equations
(ax2 + bx + c)dx
[%ax 3 + \bx 2 + cx~] h_ h
fah
+ 2ch.
(ii)
(i)
yi
+ y3 =
2ah 2 + 2c
2ah 2
so
t
2ah2 + 2y z
yi + ya -2y 2
Thomas Simpson
(1710-61).
t This title is justified
by Ex.
16(e), no. 4.
268
Hence by
(ii)
the area under the parabola
i%i +
2/s
[7.33
is
- 22/ a + 2%a = %HVi + 4j/2 + /8

)
(hi)
of course independent of any choice of position for Oy: we took the

OQ merely for convenience in calculation.
If we divide the given area into any even number of strips, say 2n, by ordinates
ylt y2
y 2n +i equally spaced at distance h apart, we can apply (iii) to consecutive pairs of strips and hence approximate to the required area. We obtain
This area
is
y-axis along
iHVi + 4/ 2 + Vz) + iHVa + 4j/4 + 2/5) +
M(2/l
Hence Simpson's
+ P(2/2-i + 4j/ 2 + 2/an+i)
+ Vtn+l) + 2 (2/3 + 2/5 +
+ Vtn-l) + 4 (2/2 + 2/4 +
+ 2/2n)}.
rule:
even number of strips by equidistant ordinates.

of the first and last add twice the sum of the remaining odd ordinates
and four times the sum of all the even ordinates. Multiply the result by $ of the
distance between consecutive ordinates.
Divide the given area into an
To
the
sum
Example
f2 dx
Calculate
using
(i)
the trapezium rule;
Jl *
The curve concerned
is
1/x.
apart. Using tables of reciprocals,

First
x
1
2/i
will
Simpson's
take 10
rule.
strips, at intervals
calculate y x , y 2 ,
of 0-1
y u as follows.
and
last ordinates
We
we
(ii)
Even
Odd
ordinates
ordinates
11
y2
0-9091
yt
0-7692
1-2
1-3
1-4
7/3
0-8333
2/5
0-7143
y6 = 0-6667
1-5
y1 = 0-6250
1-6
1-7
ya
0-5882
y10
0-5263
1-8
y9
1-9
2/u
0-5556
0-5
3-4595
1-5
2-7282
The work has been set out so as to be used more conveniently with Simpson's
rule.
(i)
By the trapezium rule,
= ^{J x 1-5 + (3-4595 + 2-7282)} =
area
(ii)
By Simpson's
area
The value
0-694.
rule,
+4x
3-4595 + 2 x 2-7282}
correct to 6 places of decimals
is
==
0-693147.
0-693.
7.4]
269
Exercise 7(6)*
From
the formula hr
-,
Jo
(i) by the trapezium rule;
5 ordinates.
mals
(6)
+x
(ii)
%n to four places of
calculate
by Simpson's
rule,
2 Verify by direct calculation that Simpson's rule

cubic polynomial.
3
(i)
f00
Prove that
dx
differs
from
Jo
(ii)
dx
o 1
rio
(iii)
Calculate
dx
;
is
(a) 3 ordinates;
exact
when f(x)
by less than i x 10 -3
is
Jo
Calculate
f 10
I
using
deci-
dx
by Simpson's rule with
11 ordinates.
by Simpson's rule with 9
ordinates.
J2
(iv)
7.4
Hence
find the approximate value of
00
dx
-.
Jo l+x*
Further areas
The reader
will
have used the
result
dx for finding the area
f(x)
Ja
under a curve in early work in calculus.
We now
consider
some
extensions.
7.41 Sign of
an area
when a < x ^
<
then the upper and lower sums of f(x)

(7.12) will be negative; and if they have a common limit, this will be
non-positive. Hence the formula
If f(x)
b,
A=
f{x)dx
Ja
may give a negative value for A. We therefore interpret an area below

Ox
as negative.
Itf(x)
is
positive in some parts of the interval and negative in others,
the interval must be split up and the corresponding areas found

separately.
7.42 Area between two curves
Suppose that f(x) ^
g(x)
throughout a
^x<
rb
= f( x
)>
9( x ) are respectively
between them
is
The
g(x) dx.
f(x) dx,
Ja
6.
areas under
rb
Hence the area
Ja
n
{f(x)-g(x)}dx.
(i)
Ja
This formula gives the correct area whether or not the #-axis cuts
the curves.
270
7.43
[7.43
Area of certain closed curves
Given a closed curve which is met by a line parallel to Oy in at most

two points, then the equation of the curve provides the functions f(x)
g{x) in 7.42, and (i) gives the area.
Example
Find
Sx
the area enclosed by
- lOxy + 10y 2 + 8x - 20y + 10 =
0.
The two values of y corresponding to a

given x are found by solving the equation
as a quadratic in y
10y 2 - 10y(x + 2)
If
2/3
+ {3x* + 8x+ 10) =
are the roots, where y x
5s
O
Fig. 74
0.
y 2 then
,
=
+ to +10),
+ 2/2 = * + 2,
2
= Vl + y 2 - yx y% = |x(4 - a;).
(y, - y 2
2/i
hence
The two values of y become equal when
\x{4,
x) =
0, i.e.
These are the extreme values of x for the curve. The area
when x =
or
4.
is
x(4 x)}dx
(Vi-V^dx
Jo
=
by putting x = 4 sin 2 6.
32 Cin
sin 2 d cos 2 Odd
V 5 Jo
7.44 Generalised areas

Since
J*
^ = ij
^ ->
we may say that the infinite integral

Ji
when
x^
X -> oo,
whose value is
1,
represents
the 'area' under that part of the curve y = 1/a;2 for which x > 1
(cf. Ex. 4(d), no. 20). This region is unbounded, and its 'area' has
been defined as the limit of the area of the bounded region enclosed
between
when -> oo.
Similarly, if the integral
f(x)
dx
exists,
we may
define its value
Ja
to be the measure of the generalised area under the curve y
= f(x)
which x > a. Other types of generalised integral can also be

associated with areas.
for
7.45]
7.45
271
Area of a sector (polar coordinates)
Given a plane curve r = f(d), where f(0) is continuous for a < ^ ft,
find a formula for the area of the sector bounded by the arc AB
we
and the
radii
OA,
OB
given by
a,/?.
We first assume that r steadily increases

with
0,
angle
and that each radius within the
AOB cuts the arc just once.
Divide the sector into n elementary

sectors
cc
by
radii of inclinations
<01 <02 <...<
n_ x
<on = p.
o
OPQ be a typical
Fis- 75
bounded by
=
radii
r 6r+1 Construct two circular
arcs with centre
and radii r =f{6r ), r + 8r = f(0r+1 ), forming the
circular sectors OPM, ONQ whose areas are
Let
sector,
(or+1 -0
2
r ),
The area of
lies
OPQ
lies
w+*rndr+1 -e
r ).
between these. Hence that of the sector
OAB
between
r=0
r=0
When n -> co and the differences 6r+1 dr ->0, these two sums tend
rfi
to the
common Mmit
2
${f(6)} dd.
Hence
Ja
area of sector
If r steadily decreases as
OAB = -1
Cfi
r*dd.
(ii)
^ Ja
increases
from a to ft, the same argument
In the general case we divide the arc into intervals in each

of which r steadily increases or steadily decreases, and apply (ii) to
each part separately.
applies.
If the radius cuts the curve in
the case of spirals) then as
more than one point (for example in

from to 2n, the shortest radius
increases
sweeps out a certain area; and as increases from 2n to

swept out includes the first one; and so on.
47r,
the area
272
[7.46
Examples
(i)
Gardioid r
The curve
is
2\br*d8=
Jo
a( 1
+ cos 6).
symmetrical about the
initial line, so
the area
is
a 2 (l+cos0) 2 *0
Jo
a2
(l
Jo
+ 2cos0 + cos 2 0)<20 = a2 [0 + 2sin0 + J(0 + sin20)]J
(ii) Equiangular spiral r ae^

By the formula, the area enclosed by the radii r
f*i
r*dd
$a 2
e 2 *0<20
x,
r2
is
[e 2fc
0$
= ^(e 2 ^-e 2 ^) = ^(r 2 -r2 ).

If 6 Z 81
7.46
>
2n, this result will include
some parts of the area more than once.
Area of a sector (parametric formula)
Formula
(ii)
can be transformed as follows. Since

r2
x2 + y2
xy
tan#
and
= |,
xyyx
2\
If the given curve has parametric equations
and the points
^L,
B correspond to =
t
area of sector
OAB =
, t2 ,
0(),
?/
^(),
then
1
r*dd
=-
/*
d#
r 2 ^<ft
The change of variable is valid if ddjdt, i.e. xy yx, retains the same
sign for t x < t < t 2 If it does not, the range must be divided up and
.
(hi)
applied to the separate parts.
7.5]
273
Examples
(i)
Ellipse
a cost, y
The curve is traced
as
a;
&sinf.
increases
from
-y = a&(cos
qai
dec
at
at
area
to 2n. Since
2
+ sin 2 1) =
1 r8
- I
abdt
2 Jo
ab,
nab.
(ii) Sketch the curve x = t + t 2 y = t 2 + t s , and calculate the area

,
of the loop.
Since x = t(l+t), y = t 2 (l +t), we see that (a) as t increases from -oo to - 1,
x decreases from + oo to and y increases from oo to 0; (6) as t increases from
1 to 0, x varies from to through negative values and y varies from to
through positive values; (c) as t increases from to + oo, both x and y increase
from to + oo.
The gradient of the curve is y/x = (2t + 3< 2 )/(l + 2t); when t = this is zero,
while when t = 1 it is 1. The curve is therefore roughly as shown in fig. 76;
the loop is traced when * increases from 1 to 0.
Since t = yjx in this example, we have by deriving this relation wo * that
(xy- yx)/x 2 hence xy-yx

;
= x2 and formula (iii) becomes

,
after simplification.
Fig. 76
Volume of a
7.5
Fig. 77
solid of
known
cross-section
Consider a surface whose sections parallel to a fixed plane are closed

Ox be chosen perpendicular to this plane, and suppose
that the area of the section at distance x from the plane is a continuous
curves. Let
function <j>{x).
We obtain a formula for the volume of the solid enclosed
between the planes x

J8
a,
b (fig. 77).
GPMI
274
Divide the required volume into
%c-y
slices
* *
[7.5
by planes through
*^ti
^*
The shoe determined by xr xr+1 lies between inner and outer cylinders
xr ), where mr r are the
with volumesf mr (xr+1 xr ) and
r (xr+1
least and greatest values of <p(x) for xr ^ x ^ #r+1 Hence the total
volume lies between
,
n-1
n-1
- %r
^(V+1 - x
and
r)>
r=0
r=0
and when w
the
-> 00
and the
common limit
xr+1 xr -*0, these sums tend to
differences
b
<f>{x)
Thus
dx.
Ja
F=
f 0(a)
Ja
(i)
<fo.
In particular, if the sohd is formed by revolving the plane curve

y = f{x) about Ox though angle 2tt, then <j>{x) = 7n/2 because the
sections are now circles. The volume of a solid of revolution is thus
rb
ny 2 dx.
(ii)
Ja
Example*
Find the volume of the
ellipsoid
xi
yZ
c2
z
+ +-
1.
The section by the plane x = constant is the

2
z
iL +
62
c2
xi
ellipse (see
Ch. 17)
a2
constant,
(iii)
whose semi-axes have lengths
of this ellipse is nbc(l -x 2 /a 2 ) (by 7.46, ex.

is therefore
between the planes x = 0, x =
The area
The
<f>{x)
(i)).
The volume
largest possible values of
x are given from
(iii)
by x 2 = a 2 Hence when
.
X = a, we obtain half the volume of the ellipsoid, viz. %nabc. The total volume
is
fnabc.
Remark.
When b = c, the surface is the ellipsoid of revolution obtained by

rotating the ellipse x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1 about its major axis Ox. and is called a
prolate spheroid. When a = c, it is obtained by rotation about the minor axis
Oy, and is an oblate spheroid. If a = b = c we obtain a sphere.
t
The volume of any right
cylinder
is
defined to be area of cross-section x height '.

'
275
Exercise 7(c)
Find
the area
enclosed by a
= x 2 (a2 - x 2 ).
under
one arch of the cycloid x
2
1
>
a(0 sin 0), y
a(l
cos 0).
=x y =x
h 2 , prove that the area enclosed by ax2 + 2hxy + by 2
3 between the curves y
4 If ah
is
nly](ab-h2 ).
Sketch the following curves {allowing r
enclosed. (Cf.
Ex.
1 (e),
to take negative values)
5 r
a(2 + cos0).
6 r2
7 r
asin20.
8 r
cos 20.
11
r 2 sin
areas of the following sectors.
10 r
12 r
= e"0, =
< < %n.
2tt
(ii)
the area
= a2 sin 2(9.
= acos30.
9 Find the area of the loop of r cos

.Find
and find
nos. 12-15.)
asec 2 0,
to
to \n.
J7r,
1 3 Sketch the curves r

to them.
14 Sketch the curve r

7T-f ^3.
20
and included by the arc

a cos
and r =
a( 1
a2
for
/r
which
to %n.
<
(i)
<
\-n\
cos 0), and find the area common
= 1 + 2 cos 0, and prove that the area of the inner loop
is
.Fmw the area enclosed by

15 the hyperbola
t
x = aBm 2 t, y =
16
acht, y
6sh< and the radii to the points where
baiiit coat.
17 a;*+2/*
a*.
that the loop of the curve x = t/(l+t3 ), y

varies from to oo. Find the area of the loop.
Show
18
= 0,t-u.
19 Sketch the curve x
Find
the
= t(t 2 1), y =
/(l
+ t3
is
traced as
- 1, and find the area of its loop.
volume obtained by rotating the following curves through one revolution
about Ox.
22
23
24
x{a x) 2 , x
= to a.
21 x = acos 3
x~ a(0-sin0), y - a(l-cos0), = to 2n.
l/r = 1 +cos0,
= to a (0 < a < n).
The area between the parabolas y 2 = ax, x 2 = ay.
20 Say 2
*,
25 The inner loop of the curve in no.

26 If the area under the curve y
asin8 *,
to \n.
14.
= f(x) from x =
a to x
6 is rotated
about
/ft
02/
through one revolution, prove that the volume generated
is
2n
xydx.
Ja
27 If the area between y 2 = 4ax and ay 2 = x 3 is rotated about the line x

prove that the volume generated is fof
^ 3
= a,
18-2
276
7.6
[7.6
Length of a curve
7.61 Definition,
and sign conventions
In attempting to make precise the intuitive idea of 'length of

a curve' we meet a problem similar to that discussed for area in 7.1.
We begin with straight-line approximations to the curve.
(1)
Let AB be the given arc, and choose n 1 points

on it. Then the perimeter of the open polygon APX P%
'
'
P ,P^, ,Pn-i
Pn- B is
. . .
n-l
sn
~ 2
PrPr+l>
r=0
where we have written
for
A and Pn for B (fig. 78).

n^co and each chord Pr Pr+x tends to
If s n tends to a limit s when

zero, we call s the length of the arc
(2)
Sign of the arc-length.
AB.
Now let s denote the length of the arc AP,
measured from the fixed point A to the variable point P. The direction
along the curve in which s increases can be chosen arbitrarily in one
of two ways.
If the equation of the curve is of the form y = f(x), we measure s to
increase with x; if x = g (y), with y; if x = </>(t) and y = fr(t), with t;
if r =f(6), with 6; and if 6 = g(r), with r. The direction of increasing
s may clearly be different for alternative representations of the
same curve.
Fig. 79
Fig. 78
7.62 Cartesian formulae for arc-length
With the notation

let cr
of 7.61
cr
f
{{xr+1
Pr have coordinates
Pr Pr+1 (fig. 79). Thenf
(1) let
be the length of the chord
(xr ,yr ),
- xr f + (yr+1 - yr f$.
The symbol ui always denotes the
positive square root of u.
and
277
If the curve has equation y = f(x), then yr = f(xr and yr+1 = f(xr+1
7.62]
).
x steadily increases as P{x, y) varies along the arc

to B. Then by the mean value theorem
First suppose that
from
Vr+l -Vr=
f'ilZr)
(*r+i
~ *r)>
where xr < r < xr+1 Hence

.
cr
(xr+1
-xr )[l + {f'(Q}*$
and
sn
= [l + {f'(r mHxr+1 -xr
).
r=0
If this sum tends to a limit when n -> oo and

tend to zero, then (7.21) this limit is
all
differences
xr+l xr
Jc
/
The limit
If
first
will certainly exist if f'(x) is continuous.
Thus
P varies from A to B, then we

AB into consecutive arcs, some of which have the above
x does not steadily increase as

divide
property and the remainder of which have x decreasing steadily along

By the sign convention (7.61 (2)) s will be positive along arcs
of the first sort and negative along the others. Formula (i) applies
them.
to each separate arc.
and with like reservations, the arc-length of the curve

from y = c to y = d is given by
Similarly,
9(y)
-nT*
For the curve defined parametrically by x = <f>(t), y = ifr(t), first
<f>(t) steadily increases from a to b as t increases from t
to t 2
suppose
(so
that dxjdt
which
s is
is
not negative).
By
measured to increase with
changing the variable in

x, and hence with t),
(i)
(in
278
If
<j){t)
steadily decreases
from b to a as
[7.63
from
increases
to t v then
ta " ft
"f(TS"j:-("*fflT*
with the minus because now dxjdt is non-positive. This formula applies
when s is measured to increase with x, i.e. to decrease as

Hence (hi) still holds if we measure 5 to increase with t.
increases.
Example
Cycloid x
a(6 + sin 6), y
a( 1
cos 6).
dy
dx
_ = a(l+co
8+
^=,
B 0),
(^) =
(^)
na 1+C " ! + Sin
=
Hence in fig. 23 of 1.61, the
arc
2a
2
(
+ cos 6) = 4a
cos 2 \d.
OP has length
rd
2a cos #<20
4a sin $6.
JO
7.63 Polar formulae for arc-length
From x
=-
r cos
cos
eft
6 and y
we find that
r sin
-=7
f sm v -jT
eft
eft
and
"
and hence
'
sin(9-7-
+ rcos0-7-
eft
eft
eft
"
'
'
'
"
"

increases from t x to t 2 then by (hi)
If s is
and
t,
if
the arc
is
traced as
(iv)
When the curve

= 6 X to 6 =
from 6
where
s is
has polar equation r

2 is
(by putting
Similarly, if the curve
s being
is
l(
r.
the length of the arc
6.
g{r),
1+r2
= /(#),
0)
the arc-length from r
(*))*'
r x to
(Ti)
7.64]
279
For a given arc AB, the cartesian and polar formulae always give
s, but the signs may be different. For
example, this will be so for (i) and (v) when x and 6 do not increase
the same numerical value for
together.
7.64 Derivative of s
Consider the arc of the curve y = f(x) measured from

a) to the variable point P{x, y). Formula (i) gives
(where
and by deriving
this
wo x,
|=
Similarly,
[i
from formulae
ds
^={ i+
W]* =
(ii)-(vi)
/dxy\l
1+
(
ay
f.
we find
ds
y HU)
t/dx\*
/dyY)i
(u)
(i)}>
'
(m)
(vi)\
(iv)', (V)',
Exercise 7(d)
1
Find the length of the arc of the curve y
c ch (x/c)
measured from
(0,c) to (x,y).
2 Sketch the astroid x = a cos 3 t,y = a sin8 , and find its total length.
3 Sketch the curve y = log sec a; for \ti < x < \it. Prove
*
= logtan(Jw+âr)
measured from the origin.

4 For the curve x = at*, y = at3 prove ds/dx
length of the arc from x = to x ~ c.
if 8 is
V(l
+ 9x/4a). Find
the
is the arc-length measured from the point u =

of the tractrix
a(u thu), y osechw, prove dsjdu = athw and dsjdy = ajy. Find ?/
in terms of s. Prove that the length of the tangent PT (5.71) at any point
is a.
(The curve is therefore the path of a particle attached to a string whose other
end T moves along a fixed line Ox; hence the name.)
6 Find the length of the arc of the curve x = cos 6 sin2 6, y = sin 6 ( 1 + cos 8 6)
from 6 = to \n. [We find (ds/dd)* = (2cos 2 0-sin2 0) a , so that
5 If 8
^ 2 COS2
jo
where a
tan -1
Sin2
.^2.]
dd
(2
Jo
S2 ^
Sin2
^ d +
f"
2 0S2
280
7 If 8
is
measured from the origin to the point

3j/
prove 3s
4a;
+ Sy
2
.
= x{l-x)
[7.7
of the curve
(x, y)
2
,
Find the length of the loop of this curve.
8 Find the total length of the cardioid r
+ cos 6).
= ae k0 from (rlf d x
a( 1
9 Prove that the length of the 'equiangular spiral r

(r 2 ,0 2 )is
! + *)
8
'
K-r
to
= ad measured from the pole to (r1?

= 2a cos 3 \6, and prove that its total length is
10 Find the length ofr
Sketch the curve r
11
12 If the polar coordinates are given parametrically

r
tan t
2asec,
(- \-n <
3na.
by
<
= a tan 2 1 if s is measured from t = 0.

*13
curve has equation x = /(#), where a; is a cartesian coordinate, (r, 6) are
polar coordinates, and x = rcosd, y = rsind. Prove that the arc-length from
e = ex to e = dz (o s$ e x < e2 < \-n) is
prove s
Check
this
Find the
+f(0) tan 6}* + {/(0)}
]* sec
Odd.
formula by finding the length of the closed curve x
V(*-
*15 s
+ 2ar).
7.7
Area of a surface of revolution
7.71
Area of a conical surface
The phrase area of a curved

'
so far
a cos 0.
curves for which
*14 a
[{/'(#)
we have
discussed
'
area
= OT.
[Use formula
(ii).]
surface needs to be defined, because

'
only for plane figures.
'
We
first
con-
sider a conical surface.
Given a right circular cone with base-radius r

slant height I, take any point P on the circumference of the base and join it to the vertex V.
By cutting along this line PV (called a generator),
and
the surface can be developed
We
into a sector of a circle.
the cone's surface to be
'flattened out')
(i.e.
p*t\r%
/
/
7
p.
define the area of
the area of this sector,
of
r
*
\
\
consider the frustum of the above cone
bounded by the
fig. 80, let
7Tr^l x
Fig. 80
viz. nrl.
Now
77T 2
and with the notation

Then the area of the frustum is
circular sections of radii r l5 r2 ;
VP1 =
and
x,
VP2 =
since rx r %
Trr x {l x
Z )
2
hx
2,
this expression
+ nrSx ~ h) = n
ri
can be written
+ r z) (h ~ h)-
7.72]
281
7.72 General definition
Suppose the surface of revolution is generated by rotating the

AB about Ox, and that the arc lies entirely above Ox.
continuous arc
Divide up the arc by points
P1 P
polygon'
...Pn _ 1
PV P
and consider the 'open

2 ...,Pn _ v
denote the sum of the areas of the
Sn
Let
by rotating this polygon about Ox. If

when n -> oo and all the arcs Pr Pr+1 tend to zero,
conical surfaces generated
Sn
tends to a limit
we define the area of the surface of revolution to be this limit.
Pr+
Pr
yr+i
xr+1
xr
Fig. 81
Pr correspond to s = sr and have

let cr be the length of the chord Pr Pr+1 This chord
Measuring arc-lengths from A,

coordinates (xr
will generate
yr );
let
a conical frustum of area
+ yr+1
7r(yr
cr
Hence
n-1
$n = I>(2/r + 2/r+l)<Vr=0
Since cr
arci^+1 =
==
sr+1
sr we write this expression as

,
7T
r=0
Because
sum is
(Pr
chord of the arc
sr+1
sr
^{(sr+1 -sr )-cr} =
terms in the last
when n-+ao and
tends to zero
P Pr+1
AB' shows
all
arcs
c\
j
that the last expression
Pr Pr+1
(and thereforef
The
all
tend to zero.
we assume here) that arc AP > chord

be proved by considering the difference
X
4>{x) =
\ {l+{f'(t)y^dt-[{x-a)* + U(x)-S(a)^
t
sum
%y
r=0
definition of 'length of arc
all
2nM [oxg AB
r=0
chords
<>r}-
certainly less than
2nM
The
+ Vr+l) {( Sr+1 ~ *r) ~
M denotes the greatest value of y between A and B,
If
)-
r=0
cr is the
are positive.
this
(yr + yr+l)(sr+ l-Sr)-7T
intuitive property (which
and showing that
<j>'{x)
>
for
x>
a.
AP
can
282
[7.8
Since %(yr +yr+ i) lies between yr and yr+1 then by the assumed
continuity of y this expression is a value of y taken at some point of
the arc between r and r+1 (2.65, Corollary). Therefore when n^-oo
,
and
all
arcs
P
P Pr+1
r
tend to zero, the
2nyds by 7.21 (where
cr
sum
first
at B), which
is
tends to the Umit
consequently also the
Umit of Sn Thus
.
area of the surface of revolution
2n
yds.
Jo
By
a change of variable we can adapt this formula for use with

cartesian, parametric, or polar coordinates. For example, a cartesian
form is (by 7.64, equation (i)')
(dyV)*
Example
Find the area of the surface obtained by rotating the cardioid r
through angle n about the initial line.
By
+cos#)
=r 2 +
/dr\
= a2 (l + cos0) 2 + (-asin0) 2 =
/_J
2a 2 (l
+ cos0);
= r.aind = a sin 0(1 + coad).
angle
a(l
7.64 (v)',
(ds\
also
it
is
Since rotation of the whole curve through

equivalent to rotation of the upper half through angle 2n,
surface area
Cn
2tt
Jo
da
y-r^do
d&
2n f aaind(l
Jo
2<j2na2 J'sui^l
+ coad)a*j2(l + coad)idd
+ cos0)*<20.
By putting u = 1 + cos 6 this becomes

2y/27ra zj*u*du
7.8
Centroids.
= ^TTa 2
The theorems of Pappus
7.81 Centre of mass, centroid
The
centre of
mass of
{x z ,y 2 ), ...,(xn ,yn ) in
(x,y),
particles of masses
where
If the system is in space,
m m
v 2 *,mn at {xx y t ) }
defined in Statics to be the point
,
^ ^
a plane
is
we have a similar formula for the z-coordinate.
7.82]
By regarding a
tary masses dm,
continuous body as the limit of the
we
xdm
I
body
is
sum of elemenby
are led to definef its centre of mass
dm
* = ~r
If the
283
ydm
y=
[
I
zdm
dm
^
I
uniform, the elementary masses
(ii)
dm
dm are proportional
to the corresponding elements of arc-length, area, or volume (according
to whether the body concerned is a wire, lamina, or solid). In this case,
the same as the centroid of the figure, a point defined independently of statical considerations. Thus the ^-coordinate of the
centroid of an arc, an area, or a volume is respectively
(x, y, z) is
\xdA
\xds
J
jds
When the figure has

on
\xdV
J
'
jdA
'
(m)
jdV
axes of symmetry, the centroid must clearly he
these.
7.82
Summary of well-known
results
The proofs of the following results for the mass-centres of uniform

bodies come directly from the definitions as an easy exercise in geometry or
integration.
TJNirORM BODY
CENTEOID
Rod
Mid-point
Rectangle
Intersection of diagonals
Intersection of medians
Triangle
Circle
Solid right circular cylinder or

cylindrical surface
Centre
Mid-point of axis
Conical surface (right circular)
Solid cone (right circular)
Hemispherical surface (or

Solid hemisphere
'shell')
way up axis from the base

way up axis from the base
Mid-point of radius of symmetry

way up radius of symmetry from the
base
t This definition involves reference to a system of coordinate axes. It is important
to show that, relative to the body, we obtain the same point whatever axes are chosen
i.e. that the definition is actually independent of the choice of coordinate system.
This will be done for a lamina in Ex. 15(e), no. 7.
284
[7.83
Theorems of Pappus
7.83
These two results relate the theory of centroids to that of arclengths
and
and volumes.
rotates about an axis in its plane, and
arc
a
curve
an
If
of
areas, surface areas
Theorem I.
the axis does not cut the arc, then the area of the surface generated is
equal to the length of the arc multiplied by the length of the path of
its
centroid.
an arc AB of length
Ox and measure arc-length from A
Proof. Given
the arc, then
By
by the
<r,
choose the axis of rotation for
(fig.
82).
If
is
the centroid of
definition its ^-coordinate is
7.72 the area of the surface
is
2n
yds, which
is
equal to 2nycr;
Jo
and 2ny is the length of the (circular) path of G in the rotation about Ox.
Fig. 83
Fig. 82
Theorem
plane,
and
II.
If a closed curved
is rotated
about an axis in
its
own
volume of the solid

area of the curve multiplied by the length of the
this axis does not cut the curve, then the
generated is equal to the
path of its centroid.

Proof. Choose the axis of rotation to be Ox. First suppose that the
is cut by a line parallel to Oy in at most two points. Let
x = b correspond to the extreme ordinates (fig. 83).
Divide the area into strips parallel to Oy, and let the ordinate
through x cut the curve at P and Q, where P is {x, y x ) and Q is (x, y 2 ).
closed curve
a,
7.83]
The centroid of the

(2/2
2/1) &x
strip
285
PQQ'P' has ^-coordinate \{yx + y2 ) and area
approximately, f Hence for the whole area,
>
(y2 -yi)dx
Ja
Cb
by 7.43.
The volume generated
areas under
is
the difference of those generated
AQQ'B, APP'B',
viz. f -n(y\
Ja
- y\
dx,
and
by the
this is equal to
2nyA, which proves the theorem.

If the closed curve can be divided into a number of parts each of
which is closed and has the above property, the proof applies to each
part. The axis of rotation must not cut the area, but it may be part
of the boundary, as in example (ii) following.
Examples
A circle of radius a is rotated about a line in its plane at distance b( > a) from
(i)
the centre.
Find the surface area and volume of the anchor ring (or torus)
so formed.
Area of anchor ring is 2na.2iTb = 47r 2a&.

Volume of anchor ring is na2 .2rrb = 2nsa 2 b.
Find
(ii)
the centroid of (a)
a semicircular arc;
radius a.
The centroid in each case will
as shown (fig. 84).
(a)
By Theorem
surface
I,
lie
(b)
a semicircular area, of
on the radius of symmetry. Choose axes
the area of the surface generated is 27iy.na. As this

a, its area is 47ra 2 . Hence 27fy.na = Ana*, and
a sphere of radius
is
2a jn.
(b)
By Theorem
II, the volume of the solid generated

a sphere of radius a, whose volume is fwa3 Hence
solid is
is 2ify.\iTa % .
This
2ny %na2
.
%nas ,
and
y=
4a
Bit
(iii)
sector of
initial line.
a plane curve
toith
polar equation r =f{6)
is rotated
about the
Show that the volume generated is ^njr3 sin 6d6. taken between suitable
volume for the cardioid r a(l +cos0).

Treating an elementary sector (fig. 85) as approximately a triangle, its centroid
is f the way down the median from 0, i.e. approximately fr sin 6 from Ox. For
a complete revolution, the length of the path of this centroid is 27T.fr sin 6.
limits. Calculate this
We
t
exact,
by
are approximating 'by rectangles'. The limiting result which follows is

7.21. Examples on centroids are done in this spirit (cf. ex. (iii) following).
286
[7.83
The area of the element rotated is %r 8d approximately. Hence the element of

volume generated is approximately
2
27r.|r sin d.%r 2 86
7rr 3 sin0<J0.
The total volume is the limit of the sum of these elements,

with suitable limits for
6.
Fig. 85
Fig. 84
For the
cardioid, the
volume generated (by the upper
%na? [
{\
+cos0) s sin0<Z0
half) is
= %na s P u3 du = %naa
Jo
Jo
on putting u =
viz. %Trr z Bm.ddd,
+ cos 6.
Exercise 7(e)
Find
the surface area generated
by rotating the following curves through one
revolution about Ox.
= a to +a.
2 Bay 2 = x(a-x) 2 x =
3
t =
to \n.
3 x = acos *, y = asin
4 x = a(0-sin0), y = a(l-cos0), d = to 2tt.
to a (0 < a < n).
5 l/r - l+eos0, 6 =
1
x2 + y2
a2 x
to a.
t,
Verify the results stated in 7.82 for a
6 solid cone.
7 conical surface.
8 solid hemisphere.
9 hemispherical surface.
10 Find the coordinates of the centroid of the quadrant of the

x 2 ja 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1 for which both x and y are non-negative.
11
Find the position of the centroid of (i) a
each of angle 2a and radius
circular arc,
(ii)
ellipse
a circular sector,
a.
12 Calculate the volume obtained by rotating the ellipse x = acos(j),

= b sin through one revolution about the line x = 2a. [Use Pappus.]
13 Find the polar coordinates of the centroid of the area of the complete
cardioid r = a(l + cos 6), and deduce the volume formed by rotating it about
the tangent x = 2a.
14 Find the centroid of one arch of the cycloid x
= a{d smd),y = a(l-ooad),
7.9]
287
and deduce the area of the surface formed by rotation of the curve about the
tangent y
2a.
by revolving a loop of r = a sin 20 about the
15 Find the volume generated

initial line. [See 7.83, ex. (iii).]
r
16 Find the volume generated by rotating the area between the

= 1 + 2 cos 6 about Ox through angle n.
two loops of
17 (i) The area bounded by an arc of a curve and two straight lines through
the origin is rotated through angle 2n about Ox. Prove that the volume
generated is
-
%n\y(xy-yx)dt,
taken between suitable limits.
(ii) If the area bounded by the ellipse x = a cost, y = b&uit and the radii
to t = 0, t = a is rotated about Ox, prove that the volume generated is
f7ra2>
7.9
Moments of inertia
7.91
Dynamical introduction
2 sin a
ê.
Consider a rigid body of mass

rotating with angular velocity o>
about a fixed axis. A particle P of mass Sm at perpendicular distance r
from the axis would have velocity (or and kinetic energy %8m((or) 2
.
By
regarding the continuous body as the
limit of a
sum
its kinetic
energy is
of such particles,
we
see that
limZfcuWm = j \(a 2r 2 dm = w 2 jr 2 dm,

w is the same for all particles of the body.
The expression
r
I = r*dm
since
Fig> 86
J
is
called the
moment of
inertia (m.i.) of the
body about the
rotation. It is usually given in the standard

called the radius of gyration
about the
form
Mk
2
,
axis of
where
Tc
is
axis.
7.92 Examples
We suppose in each case that the body is of mass M and uniform

density p.
(i)
Bod of length 2a;
An
axis along
element PQ, where

the m.i. of rod is
(fig.
87)
M = 2ap.
perpendicular bisector.
and PQ
fa px dx = |pa
2
since
its
OP = x
= pfa2
8x,
has mass pSx. Hence
288
(ii)
Let
Rectangular lamina;
AB =
by
Since
ex.
2a.
Divide the rectangle into strips of mass
(i)
m.i. of
m.i.
[7.92
axis bisecting sides of length 2a.
each strip
of rectangle
Y.\a
8m
parallel to
AB.
W,
8m = \a 2 T,8m = \Ma 2
PQ
8x
i
Fig. 87
(iii)
Fig. 88
Circular disc of radius a; perpendicular axis through the centre.
Divide the disc into concentric rings, and consider the ring bounded by
circles of radii x, x + 8x. Approximately, the mass is 2nx8xp and the m.i. is
(2mx8xp)x 2
.*.
m.i. of disc = hm.T>2npx 3 8x
.
ro
M = na
since
2npx % dx
Afa2
p.
Fig. 89
(iv)
fynpa1
J o
Fig. 90
Solid sphere of radius a; axis along a diameter Ox.
Divide the sphere into circular discs perpendicular to Ox. The disc of radius y
at distance x from
and of thickness 8x has mass ny 2 8xp. Hence by ex. (iii),
its m.i. about Ox is
\(uy 2 8xp)y 2 = inp(a 2 - x 2 ) 2 8x,
since x 2 + y 2 = a 2
m.i. of sphere = lim 2 \np(a 2 x 2 ) 2 8x
\7Tp{a 2
\
-x 2
2
)
J a
=
since
M = %na
p.
ff-npa*
= fMa2
dx
7.92]
(v) Spherical shell of radius
a; axis along a diameter.
Take rectangular axes Ox, Oy, Oz at the centre
jx2 dm =
=
about Oz
m.i.
jy
a;2
The
result
+ ^2 +
(fig.
By
the symmetry,
dm = jz 2 dm.
2
(x 2
)dm
+ y 2 + z 2 )dm
2 r
- a 2 dm
I
= \Ma2
_ q^z + z % - OP 2 =
91).
joN dm = j (x2 +y
since
289
a2
can also be found by direct integration: see Ex.
Fig. 91
7 (/), no. 10.
Fig. 92
(vi) Ellipse x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1; about major axis Ox.

Divide the area into strips parallel to Oy. By ex. (i) the
(fig. 92) is i(2ySxp)y 2
m.i. of a typical strip
/a
m.i.
.'.
of ellipse
z
%py dx
-a
fa
by the symmetry about Oy.
On the ellipse, x
a cos
<f>
and y =
s
\py dx
b sin <j> (see 17.31) ; hence
3
3
f/o& sin 0(
21
JO
asva.^>)d<j>
Jin
tpab3
i7t
sin 4 <f>d(f>
ipab 3
JO
=
since
by
7.46, ex.
Similarly, m.i.
(i),
Inpab*
= 1Mb 2
M = nabp.
about the minor axis
When the m.i.
3.1
472 2
of a
is
body about a
other axes can often be written
\Ma2
certain axis is
down without
known, that about
further integration
use of the following theorems.

X9
GPMI
by
290
7.93
Theorem of parallel axes
The m.i.
of a body about
any axis
axis through the mass-centre, plus

the
[7.93
is
Mh
equal to the m.i. about a parallel
2
,
where h
is the distance
between
two axes.
Proof.
of the
Choose the mass-centre
ordinates, the z-axis along the line through
the ataxia along the perpendicular
OA
body
for origin of co-
parallel to the given axis,
from
to this axis,
and Oy
perpendicular to Ox, Oz(cf. 21.11).
Fig. 93
Let the particle P of the body have coordinates (x, y, z) and mass 8m.
Then, with the notation of the figure, the m.i. of the body about Oz is
IG
Since
OA =
h,
= jpQ 2 dm =
^(x 2 + y2 )dm.
the m.i. about the given axis
is
= jpR 2 dm = j{(x-h) 2 + y*}dm

=
j{(x2 + y 2 ) + h 2 - 2hx} dm
= j(x2 + y 2 dm + h 2 jdm 2h jx dm
)
=
as
jxdm =
0; this is
+ h2 M
because the mass-centre
so that in particular x
from
(ii)
of 7.81.
is
the origin
(0, 0, 0),
7.94]
291
Example
Bod of length 2a about a perpendicular axis through one end.
Here h = a and I G = \Ma* by 7.92, ex. (i). So
about an end
m.i.
which
is easily verified
The
by
= $Ma 2 + Ma* = |Ma a
direct integration.
result also holds for the m.i. of a rectangular lamina

by 7-92, ex. (ii).
about a side of
length 26,
The above theorem
applies to
any body, but the following
is
true
only for a lamina.
Theorem of perpendicular axes
7.94
for a lamina
// the m.i. of a lamina about two perpendicular axes Ox, Oy in its

plane are Ix Iy, then the m.i. about the axis Oz perpendicular to its plane
,
Proof.
With the notation
of
94,
fig.
Examples
(i)
By
Rectangular lamina of sides 2a, 2b; perpendicular axis through

7.92, ex.
sides are Jikfa 2 ,
(ii)
\M6 a
.'.
(ii)
its centre.
the m.i. about axes through the centre and parallel to the
.
m.i.
about perpendicular axis
Cuboid of sides 2a,
= $M{a* + 6 2
26, 2c; axis through the centre
).
and parallel
to sides 2c.
By
dividing into rectangular laminae perpendicular to the edges 2c

summing, we find by ex. (i) that m.i. = \M{a 2 + 6 a ).
(iii)
and
Circular disc of radius a ; axis along a diameter.
By symmetry
the m.i. about any two diameters are the same, say I. Since
the m.i. about a perpendicular axis through the centre is \Ma z (7.92, ex. (iii)),
hence
(This
I+I
is
the particular case
similarly
by
= lMa\
when 6 = a
i.e.
= \Ma\
in 7.92, ex. (vi),
and could be obtained
direct integration.)
*(iv) Ellipsoid x*ja*
+ 2/a /6 a + z*/c 2 =
about axis Ox.
Divide the solid into laminae by planes parallel to yOz. As in the example in
7.5, the section at distance a; is an ellipse of area nbc(lx z /a 2 ). Hence the mass
19-2
292
of a lamina of thickness 8x is approximately

ex. (vi) of 7.92 its m.i. about Ox is
=
m.i. of ellipsoid
about Ox
j
since
inpbc(b* + c*)
M = %nabcp by
|77p6c(6 2
[7.95
nbc(l x 2 /a 2 )8xp, and by
using
+ c 2 (l-~^8x.
is
(from the symmetry about plane yOz)
{\-^dx = %7rpbc(b
+ c*) x&a = iM(6 2 + c 2
),
example.
7.5,
7.95 Routh's rule
This summarises
to
many of the preceding results, and is
a useful aid
memory.
If Ox, Gy, Gz are perpendicular axes of symmetry^ which cut the body
at
X, Y, Z,
then
GY + GZ
2
m.i. about
where the denominator
Gx = mass x -
3 or 4 or 5
is
3 for a rod, rectangular lamina, or cuboid;
4 for a circular or
elliptic disc;
5 for a solid sphere or ellipsoid.
For a lamina, the intercept perpendicular to
its
plane
is
zero;
and
for a rod, both intercepts perpendicular to it are zero.
The reader should verify the
correctness of this rule in
all cases.
Exercise 7(f)
Assume in this exercise that each body has mass M, and is uniform unless otherwise
stated. The results of 7-92, exs. (i), (iii) may be quoted.
Find by
1
direct integration the m.i. of the following bodies about the axes stated.
Circular wire of radius a; perpendicular axis through the centre.
1 Rod of length 2a; axis meeting it at distance c from the centre and inclined
to the rod at angle d.
3
Lamina bounded by
concentric circles of radii a,
b;
perpendicular axis
through centre.
4 Solid right circular cylinder of radius a; axis of symmetry.
5 Isosceles triangle of height h; axis through the vertex and parallel to the
base.
f If a
body has an axis of symmetry,
this
must pass through the eentroid
O.
6 Solid right circular cone of base-radius
7 Segment of parabola y2
r;
293
axis of symmetry.
4ax cut off by line x
b;
(i)
about Ox;
(ii)
= b.
8 Solid formed
by revolving the segment
about
about Ox; about Ox.
in no. 7
9 Surface of a right circular cone of base -radius r axis of symmetry.

;
10 Spherical shell of radius a; about a diameter.
Use
11
the theorems of 7.93, 7.94 to write
down the m.i.
Circular wire of radius a; about
to its plane
(i)
of the following.
a diameter;
(ii)
an axis perpendicular
and through a point on the circumference.
12 Rectangular lamina of sides 2a, 2b; perpendicular axis through a corner.

13
Square of side 2a; about any
line
through the centre and in
its
plane.
14 Solid right circular cylinder of radius a; axis along a generator.

Solid anchor ring formed by rotating a circle of radius a about a line in
plane at distance 6 from the centre (6 > a); about axis of rotation.
15
its
16 Isosceles triangle of height h; axis through the centroid parallel to the base.
[Use no.
5.]
17 If IA
the m.i. of a body about an axis through A, show that the formula
will give correctly the m.i. about a parallel axis through B, at
distance h from the first, only if either (i) A is G, or (ii) GAB is a right-angle.
is
= Ia + MW
Calculate the m.i. of the following (nos. 18, 19),
18 Solid right circular cylinder of radius a and height h about (i) a diameter
of an end; (ii) an axis through the centre perpendicular to the axis of symmetry;
(iii) a tangent to an end.
;
19 Solid hemisphere of radius a; about
(i)
a diameter of the base;
(ii)
a tangent
parallel to the base.
*20 The density of a rod
from A. Calculate the
AB of length 2a varies as the square of the distance
m.i.
about a perpendicular axis through A.
*21 The density at any point of a circular lamina of radius a varies as its
distance from the centre. Find the m.i. about (i) a perpendicular axis through
the centre; (ii) a diameter; (iii) a tangent.
*22 Find the m.i. of the area enclosed by r 2 = a 2 cos 20 about a perpendicular
axis through the pole. [Divide into sectors, regarding each as a rod whose density
is proportional to the distance from the pole.]

1 Prove that the parabola y 2 = x divides the circle x 2 +y 2
whose areas are in the ratio (3n + 2) (9tt 2).
2 into
two parts
2 Sketch the curve y 2 = a 2x/(2a~x), and prove that the area enclosed by
the curve and the line x = a is (n- 2) a 2 Also prove that the volume obtained
by rotating this area about Ox through two right angles is flra8 (log 41).
.
3 Sketch the curve x

a loop.
= a cos 2 1 sin
t,
= a cos t sin 2
/,
and
find the area of
294
= g(6) are closed curves surrounding the pole, and the second
4 If r =f(6), r
entirely within the
lies
between them
first,
is
prove that the area of the annular region enclosed

.o.
P is a variable point of the ellipse l/r = 1 e cos 6, and Q is on OP produced

PQ =
Show
that the area between the ellipse and the locus of

the minor semi-axis of the ellipse.
5 Sketch the curve r = ath0. Find the length s of the arc and the area
a(s r).
of the sector measured from 6 =
to 6 = a, and prove 2
such that
c.
nc(2b + c), where 6
is
is
6 The length of the tangent to a curve
if x
and y =
point where
i/r
when
c(log tan ifr + cos
rjr
\tt.
is
constant and equal to
i/r),
c sin
c;
prove
i/r
Also find s in terms of ijr, measuring it from the
\tt.
7 If the curve Bay 2
x{a x) 2
is
x=Zat 2
represented parametrically
= a(t-3ti
by
),
traced as t increases from oo to + oo. Prove that the

arc -length from the origin to the point of the loop at which the tangent makes
angle A with Oy is -(3 tan A + tan? A).
show how the curve
is
8 A, B are the points on y = cch (x/c) corresponding to x = a, x = 6 (a < b).

The area under the arc AB is rotated through 360 about Ox. If V is the volume
of the solid generated, and S is its surface area, prove V = ^cS, and find V.
9 The circle x z + y 2 = a 2 cuts Ox, Oy at P, Q. Find the centroid of the

quadrant OPQ. If the semicircle with OP for diameter is cut away, find the
centroid of the remaining area.
10 Find the centroid of the area enclosed
Prove that the centroid of the half of the
*11
x2
a2
b2
c2
_ +y
for
by one loop of r 2 = a 2 cos 26.
which x
12
is
semicircle
ellipsoid
z2
the point (fa, 0, 0).
ABO of radius a rotates about a line in its plane parallel to
and at distance b from the bounding diameter AC,

of
AC remote from the line.
so that the area is on the side

Find the surface area and volume generated.
13 Find the area of the sector bounded

= a sin2 6. Also find the volume obtained
line
by 6 = 0, 6 = \u, and the curve

by rotating this sector about the
\~n.
circle of radius a is divided into two segments by a line distant Aa from

14
the centre, and the major segment is rotated through angle 2n about this line.
Find the volume generated. [Use Ex. 7 (e), no. 17 (i).]
Sketch the curve y 2 = x 3 /(a x) (a > 0). Find the area between the curve
asymptote, and the volume obtained by rotating the area about this
asymptote. Hence obtain the coordinates of the centroid of the area.
15
and
16
its
A surface is generated by rotating y =
the volume bounded by
this
ax 2 + 2bx + c about Ox. Show that

= h is A 1 + 4A 2 + A s ), where
and the planes x
295
A A A9
are the areas of the cross-sections by the planes x = h, x = 0,

it
x,
x = +h respectively. Prove also that the ^coordinate of the centroid of this
volume is h(A a A 1 )/{A 1 + 4A 2 +A 3 ).
17 For the area enclosed by Ox and the curve y

0), find the centroid and the m.i. about Ox.
= aainz between
(0, 0)
and
(it,
Find the
m.i. about the axis stated of the following
(assumed uniform).
18 Equilateral triangle of side 2a; perpendicular axis through the centroid.

19 Solid right circular cone of height h, base-radius r; axis through the vertex
base.
and parallel to the
20 Rectangular lamina of sides 2a, 2b; about a diagonal. [Use Ex. 7 (/), no.
2.]
2 1 The density of a solid sphere of radius a varies as the square of the distance
from the centre. Find the m.i. about a diameter. [Method of 7.92, ex. (v).]
296
FURTHER GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS

OF THE CALCULUS
8.1
Relations involving arc-length
8.11 Sign conventions
In this chapter we give some applications of the calculus to the

geometry of plane curves, a subject known as plane differential
geometry. As the emphasis is now geometrical, we shall assume (without
further comment) the continuity and derivability up to any required
order of all functions which occur in the general discussion.
begin by extending the work already done about arc-length in
We
7.6. It is desirable
sign of sin 7.61
to introduce
more sign conventions (we defined the
(2)).
Q
Fig. 95
(a) The positive tangent. A line drawn from P along the tangent at
P in the direction of increasing s is the positive tangent at P.
Since the direction in which s increases

representations of the same curve
may
(7.61 (2)),
be different for two
the positive tangents at
P may be opposite for such, representations.

The angle made by the
positive tangent with the

measured in the sense from positive Ox to
positive Oy, is denoted by x]r. It is determined to within an integral
multiple of 2n, and is usually chosen so that it varies continuously
(b)
The angle
ijr.
positive direction of Ox,
along the curve.
Reversal of the sense of the positive tangent

replacing
i/r
by n + fr. For
either sense,
dyjdx equal to tan \jr, since tan
(tt
we
still
tan ijr.
is
equivalent to
have the gradient
GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS
8.12]
297
8.12 Differential relations (cartesian coordinates)
From formula
(i)'
of 7.64
we have
(i)
dx
\dx
so that
and hence
ds2
on converting to
(ii)',
(hi)'
7.61
dsjdx
This result also embodies formulae
differentials.
tan ijr,
ds
By
(ii)
of 7.64.
Since dyjdx
(a)
dx2 + dy2
(2), s
0;
is
and
(i)
also
{1
shows that
+ tan 2 rj/fi = + sec
i}r.

(b)
the positive tangent
x.
It follows that
in the direction of x
is
a positive or negative acute angle, and sec ijr ^ 0.

positive sign must be chosen: dsjdx = sec \jr. We now have
increasing, so that tfr is
Hence the
dx'.dy.ds
cos i|> sin
If the direction of the positive tangent
use of a different representation x

sin ijf
(hi)
reversed
is
and ds all change sign, but equations
(hi)
owing to
then cos^r,
(e.g.
g(y) of the curve),
are unaltered.
They are
therefore valid for all representations of the curve.
Infig.36of 3.11, Pi?

ds*
= dximdBT =
= PR 2 + RT* =
dy,soby(ii)
ds
PT*,
dy
/?\
i.e.
PT =
ds.
Although 8x
xlr
dx, in general 8y
H=
dy
and 8s #= ds; 8s is the arc PQ.

Theorem. WhenP-+ Q, {chord PQ) ({arc PQ) ->
F r
chordPQ _
arcPQ "
{(8x) 2
8s
2
when
8s -> 0,
i.e.
when P
(l)T
Q along the curve.
dx
+ (8y)*}i
=(
Fig. 96
298
[8.13
Remarks
The result can be expressed
(a)
when
(8x) 2
Ss is small,
Compare the exact relation
as follows:
(ii),
+ (8y) 2
== (8s) 2 .
from which this approximation arises.
When the curve is a circle of radius a, let arc PQ subtend angle

the centre. Then &tcPQ = 2a6, chord PQ = 2a sin 6, and the
(/?)
26 at
theorem &
gives
a
sin0
.
hm 5- =
Compare
about
2.12,
where
this result
1.
was obtained from assumptions
'area'.
8.13 Intrinsic equation
A relation between s
to a variable point P)
at
and a
(measured from a fixed point
and
fixed line)
is
of the curve
(the angle between the positive tangent
i/r
called the intrinsic equation of the curve.
Arbitrary constants can be added to s and
i/r,
since the fixed point
and
line are arbitrary.
Examples
(i)
Find the intrinsic equation

,
tan yr
of the cycloid
= ^d + rnr; and n =
Hence
By the example in 7.62, we have
8
(ii)
The
a( 1
cos 6).
(see 1.61, fig. 23).
4a sin ijr.
intrinsic equation arises
naturally, as in ex.
(ii).
catenary.
by a uniform
a[0 + sin 6), y
r/r
ifr
Sometimes the
smd
n
= tan id.
+ cos o
= when 6 =
since
dx
dy
The curve assumed
thin flexible chain hanging
from fixed ends is called a catenary.

A be the point at which the tangent
is horizontal, and P be any point (s,^r)
where s is measured from A and ijr from the
horizontal. Let T, T denote the tensions
at P, A, and suppose w is the weight per
freely
Let
Fig. 97
unit length of the chain (w is constant
because the chain is 'uniform').
of the chain is in equilibrium under the three forces T,
The part
and weight ws. Resolving vertically and horizontally,
AP
T sin
^5r
ws,
T co&ijr = T
8.13]
By
tan^ = ws/T
division,
i.e.
where
to find
parametric equations.
We illustrate with the catenary s = c tan

Since dy/ds
sin
i]r.
^ by 8.12, equations (iii),

dy
=
77
dyr
dy ds
77 = sm w.csee
yr.
ds dyr
J*c sec yr tan yrdyr =
2/
+ constant.
c sec yr
= c when yr =
Suppose axes chosen so that y
then y
0;
csec yr.
= cos yr,
Also, since dxjds
dx
-rr
dyr
dx ds
-7-
tt
2
Gosyr
r .csec \If
T
ds dyr
= jc sec yrdyr =
if axes
tan ijr,
= TJw.
Given the intrinsic equation,
(iii)
299
c sec yr.
r
c log (sec yr
+ tan yr)
= when yr = Q.
we may obtain a; as follows, working with s instead
are chosen so that x
Alternatively,
= COS^r =
dx
<fc
V(*
V(l+tan 2 ^)
2
+ ca
"
-1 (tan
c sh
c log (tan yr
on using the logarithmic expression

the constant is found to be zero.
c sh
-1
of yr:
V(*
I-
+c 2 )'
constant
^) + constant
+ sec ^) + constant
for sh" 1 u in 4.45 (1). If x
when ^ =
0,
Remarks
z
c 2 sec 2
^=
(a)
(A)
^ = tanv^ =
Integrating
c2
+ c2 tan2 ^ =
^V(2/
c2
-c 2 ), by
+s 2
(a).
by separation of the variables, we find
ch-^ = * + 4.
c
If axes are chosen (as before) so that
= c when x =
0,
then
4=
and
= cch-,
c
which
is the cartesian equation of the catenary. It could also be obtained

elimination of yr from the parametric equations above.
by
300
[8.14
Exercise 8(a)
1
Find the
intrinsic equation of the
curve
a(2 cos 6 + cos 2d),
a(2 sin 6 + sin 2d).
1 Obtain parametric equations of the cycloid s

at
f=
3
0, s
4a sin tjr, taking the origin
0.
Show that
the cartesian equation of 8
= log tan
can be written
log sin y.
4 Find the cartesian equation of y
logchs by
first
proving sin^
ths
and tan^ = ahs.

5 Prove that the curve * = cifr is a circle of radius c.
6 Find parametric equations for the curve * = aifr z
1
8.14 Differential relations (polar coordinates)
From x =
dx
rcosd, y
rsin#
we have
cos Odr r sin Odd,
and hence from formula
(ii)
of 8.12
ds2
siriddr + r cos 6dd,
we deduce
= dr2 +r2 d&.
Equivalently, this follows from

(vi)'
dy
(v)'
(iv)
of 7.64,
and embodies
(iv)'
and
there also.
We now
introduce an angle
similar to that of
Definition.
<f>
<f>
whose
role in polar coordinates is
^ in cartesians.
is
the angle from the radius vector to the positive
tangent at P.
Fig. 98 is the simple 'standard ' case;
fig.
100 illustrates a case when
r is negative.
We may choose

<
2n. In all cases we have
e+0 = 4
to within an integral multiple of 2n.
cos (j>
cos
cos
{ft
Hence
6)
cos 6 + sin \jr sin d
te*
as r
+ as
fy_r
_ xdx + ydy
rds
by8 .i2,(iii)
.
'
8.14]
Since r
+y
2
,
therefore rdr
301
xdx + ydy, and so

dr
= .
cos 6
ds
Similarly,
sin <f)
sin
(ip~
6) =
sin
\jr
cos
cos
dy x
dxy _ xdy ydx
ds r
ds r
rds
i/r
sin 6
'
Fig. 100
and from y\x = tan0 we have {xdy-ydx)\x %
sec 2 0dd
(r
2
lx )dd,
so
sin
dd

(Since s
sin
<j>
when r <
<j>
0; cf. fig. 100.)
By division we find
cot0
The
shows that
and n ^
^ 2n
result
0,
results
dd
can be summarised as
cos <f> sin 0:1
:
= dr.rdQ: ds,
(v)
302
[8.14
and may be remembered by thinking of the triangle P'Q'R' suggested

by the approximately triangular part PQR of the main figure, in
which PR is an arc of a circle of centre and radius r.
Fig. 101
Examples
Find the curve for which
(i)
Let k
cot a; then k
<f>
is constant and
(l/r) (drjdd),
8
If r
a when 8
0,
then
equal to a (an equiangular spiral).

and by separation of the variables,
^logr + c.
k
= (l/fc)loga, and 8 =
= ae k& = ae &eota
Find
(ii)
the
(1/k) log (r/a),
i.e.
family of curves which cuts the family r
ad
(spirals of Archi-
medes) at constant angle a.
form the differential equation of the family by eliminating a.

6, and hence tan^S = 6.
First
If <J>'
the corresponding angle for the required family, then
is
so(ifa*7T)
tan 
a, and
kd
we find
c(d
+ k) kt + l e-M,
an arbitrary constant.
then on the orthogonal curve we have
\tt,
cot 0'
= tan
Idr
from which
(iii)
= tan a. Hence the differential equation of the required family is

d6 _ 6 + k
T
dr~ l-kd'
and by separation of the
If a
get
6+k
where
We
rdd/dr
rd0
r2 =
= 6,
<j)
= -6
'
c e~6 *.
Orthogonal trajectories in polar coordinates.
Suppose the differential equation of the given family is f(r,d,drjdd) = 0.

This determines drjdd for the member(s) of the family through the point (r, 8),
say dr/dd = g(r,8). Then cot0 = (l/r)g(r,8).
8.14]
For the orthogonal curve(s) through
= tan
cot <j>'
(r, 6),
(j>
\tt,
303
so that
=
g{r,ey
Hence on the orthogonal
curve(s)
1
we have
dr
rdd~~g(r,e)'
and therefore
This
is
f{r, 6,
r2
j^j =
0.
the differential equation of the orthogonal family,
(iv) Reflector
property of the
SP+S'P =
ellipse.
P is any point on the ellipse, it is known (17.22) that
IfS, S' are the foci and
2a,
where 2a isthemajor axis. Writing&P = r,

r' (i.e. using two systems of polar
coordinates with poles S, S' respectively),
S'P =
the relation
is
r + r'
Deriving
wo
2a.
s,
dr
dr'
ds
da
cos $ + cos 0'
.*.
= cos
cos
i.e.
Fig. 102
0,
<j>'
cos (n 0')
and so
7r 0'.
Hence the angles between the focal radii and the tangent at P are equal; i.e. the
and normal at P are the angle-bisectors of SPS'. Cf. Ex. 17 (6), no. 14.
tangent
Exercise 8(6)
1
Find
for the curve
rn
= a" cos nd.
2 Prove that the tangent to the cardioid

with Ox.
3
a(l
cos 6) makes
angle |0
Prove that the curves

r
= acosd,
= a(l cos#)
intersect at the point ($a,\n).
and
find their
angle of intersection.
4 Find the curves
for
which
<j>
= nd.
perpendicular to OP meets
the tangent and normal at U, H, then U, OH,PU,
are called the polar subtangent, subnormal,
tangent, normal respectively. If r' denotes drjdd,
prove
If the line through
PH
5
OH = r'.
PU = r<J(r
6
2
+ r'*)/r'.
OU = r*/r'.
PH = V(r + r'
2
2
).
304
Find
9
Find
the curves for
OH =
which
10
OU = a.
11
OH = OU.
the orthogonal trajectories of the following families,
13 r
a(l
+ cos0).
14 r 2
16 r
a(l
+ 2cos#).
17 #2 + 2/ 2
18 x 2 + y 2
[8.2
ax.
= a 2 cos20.
=
a(:
15
y)
[first
12
a being
r3
PH = a.
the 'parameter.
a 3 cos 30.
convert to polars].
+ y 2 + a{x 2 - y 2 = 0.
for which rr' = k 2 and 6 =
a(a; 2
19
8' are called inverse

*20 Loci/(r, 0) = 0,/(r', 0') =
Prove that these curves cut the radius vector at supplementary angles.
[Derive rr' = k 2 logarithmically wo 0.]
curves.
8.2
{p t
r)
equation
8.21 Definition
We now introduce another type of equation for a plane curve which

be found useful in subsequent work on curvature, and which has
dynamical applications in problems on central orbits.
We define p to be the length of the perpendicular from O to the tangent at P. Then
will
p=
Since r sin $
r sin <f>.
r 2 dO/ds
increase with 6,
it
ordinates are used,
and
is
measured to
s is
follows that
when
polar co-
never negative.
The relation between the p and r corresponding to a general point
of the curve
is
Fig. 104
called
the (p, r) equation or pedal equation of the
cm
8.22 Qj, r) equation from polar equation
Write u
\jr;
then
du
__
dr
dd~~7*dd~
Since
p=
r sin
(J),
1 _
p*~
cosec 2 <ft
r
_ 1 + cot 2 ^ _ 1 + 1 (dry\
~
~r 2 [ r 2 \dd) /'
r2
f
(duy
The (p, r) equation is therefore obtained by ehminating 6 from

and the polar equation of the curve.
W
....
(i)

8.23]
305
Examples
(i) Equiangular spiral. Since (j>
equation is p = rsina.
(ii)
Lemniscate r 2
Derive
wo
= a by definition (see 8.14, ex.
(i)),
the (p, r)
= a 2 cos 26.
2r
0:
/dry _
~
= 2a
^
ad
sin 26.
a4 -r4
a 4 (l-cos 2 20)
a* sin 2 26
\dd)
Hence by equation
(i),
ai - ri
I
p'
so that r 6
(iii)
=
=
\\
(
\
?"
^
r6
'
r3 = a 2p.
a*p 2 andf
Cardioid r
Since r
r2
2
7*
a(l
-f
cos0).
by deriving logarithmically wo 6 we have
2a cos 2
*"
r^ = - tan ^'
= tan -|0 = cot (0 + \tt),
= 0 + 7T.
= rcos|0, therefore p 2 = r 2 cos 2 0 = r3 /2a, andj
cot
and
As# =
(iv)
rsin$6
Rectangular hyperbola x 2 y 2
= a2
= a2
Hence by equation
r3 .
i.e.
a 2u%
cos 26. Derive
wo0:
du
= sin 26.
d6
(ii),
/sin20\
= u +l\
a u
1
>
,
2
= u2 +
.*.
p2 =
8.23 Polar equation
l-a w
a*u 2
sin 2 26
a*u 2
a*u 2
a4 /r 2
andf
pr = a2
(p, r) equation
From p = rsin^ and cot0 =

form drjdd
= w 2o +
a*w 2
from
relation of the
First transform to polars: r 2 cos 20
a2u
2op 2
(\\r)drjdd, elimination of
= f(r)
(j) gives a
which, on integrating, leads to the
required polar equation.

Alternatively, equation
r
from the given

f
%
20
(p, r)
(i)
of 8.22, where
equation,
is
is
a known function of
the relation drjdd =f(r).
since r may be negative, but p is always positive.

+ since r ^ from the equation of the curve.
GPM I
306
[8.23
Example
Find
the polar equation of
= r2
2ap
Since
sm
r2
2 =
=p

4a
and
and
the polar equation
found from
1.
do
= 2asin(0 + c).
The constant c arises because the choice of

(p, r) equation makes no reference to 6.
When
4a
cot 6
Therefore from
cot 2 d>
is
initial line is arbitrary
the
known, the cartesian equation can be
it.
Exercise 8(c)
Find
the (p,r) equation of
rd
4 xy
is
2 r n sinn0
a.
2a (O being the pole).
an
5
x /a
+y
\b
Ztt=l + ecos0.
(O being the pole).
8
6 Prove that the tangent at the point t to the curve x = acos 8 <, y = asin
x sin t + y cos t = a sin t cos t. Hence find the {p, r) equation wo O as pole.
Find
7
the polar equation of
p2 =
ar.
2ap 2
9 r2
r3 .
op.
to prove that dp =
Use p = r sin and sin <fidr = r cos
Deduce that dp/di/r = rcos<j>.
Definition. The relation between p and rjr for a curve is
* 10
r cos
56 (<20
+ d<fi).
called its (p,
ijf)
equation or tangential polar equation.

*11
Prove p 2 + (dp/di/r) 2
r2 ,
and deduce that p + d 2pjdf 2 =
r dr/dp.
*12 If p =f(ft), prove

a;
cos tjrf'dr)
+ sin ff(fjf)
and
sin ftf'tfr)
- cos ^/(^).
[Use no. 9 and x rcos# = rcoa(ifr $) = ....] (The results are parametric
equations of a curve whose (p, tjr) equation is given. Elimination of ijr gives the
cartesian equation.)
8.3]
307
Curvature
8.3
8.31 Definitions
The concept of curvature

of bending of a curve,
i.e.
arises
from the need to measure the rate
the rate at which the tangent turns as the
point of contact varies along the curve.

(a)
fig.
The mean
105) {fQ
curvature of the arc
PQ
is
Fig. 105
(6)
(with the notation of
-jrP )l{s Q -8P ).
The curvature
Fig. 106
at
P is
lim *Q~*P
Q-KP S Q SP
With the notation of fig.
106, the curvature at

Stir
P is
d\Ir
hm ~^ = -f.
as
Sfs -+Q os
Writing k for the curvature,
we have
'
ds
Remarks
k does not depend on the point A from which s is measured, nor
line Ox from which
is measured; but its sign depends on the
sense in which s is measured.
at points where \Jr is stationary. These
(ft) We shall have k =
(a)
on the
usually correspond to points of inflexion of the curve (3.71).

= constant for a straight line, we have the natural
(y) Since
result k =
(that the line does not bend anywhere).
20-3
308
For a circle of radius B,
(8)
Let arc PQ, of length

is
also the angle
^ - -B
8s,
between the tangents at
and
This
is
and equal to
at the centre.
1 jB.
Then
8i]r
P and Q, and 8s = B8i/r.
^.q8s
also a natural result: since the
symmetrical,
same
at the
ss
8ifr
^ - -B
- Hm
8s
circle is
the curvature is constant
subtend angle
[8.32
it
bends everywhere
rate.
Because the curvature of a circle is conwe may compare other curves with
stant,
the
circle
of their rate of
respect
in
Fig. 107
bending.
p at the point P of a curve is the radius

of the circle which has the same curvature as the curve has at P.
By Remark (8) above it follows that
(c)
The radius
of curvature
radius of curvature at
P = reciprocal of the curvature at P,

ds
P
r
i.e.
= ~ = jTdyr
k
Bemarks
(e)
()
circle
may be positive or negative: it has the same sign as k.

When = at P, there is no radius of curvature at P since no
p
a:
can have zero curvature. But as a
small curvature,
we may
circle of large radius
has a
conveniently think of points where k
as giving an 'infinite radius of curvature'.
8.32
Formulae for x or
The
definition
di/rjds
can be applied directly only when the

known. We now seek other more
intrinsic equation of the curve is
convenient formulae.
(1)
Curve y =f(x).
From
and
l =tan ^
K
"1
^ = tan
(l)'
f
fJf = -[^m\*co
dx
S
ds
dx ds
d 2y
dx*
\dx) J
8.32]
the positive
sign being chosen since cos ft = dxjds ^
x.
309
because s
is
Thus
dx 2
=
+
1
[
{dx
i
Remarks
k has the same sign as d 2yjdx2 it is positive if the curve is concave upwards (6.71 (2)) at P, negative if concave down.
(^) At a point of inflexion k vanishes and changes sign; for d2yjdx2
has this property (see 3.71).
(a)
(y)
At a point where
ft
0, i.e.
dyjdx
we have k = d 2yjdx 2
a particular point P we
0,
When discussing the curvature of a curve at

may always choose axes with P as origin, Px along the tangent at P,
and Py along the normal. With this choice, the curvature at P is/"(0).
(2)
Curve x
g(y).
We find similarly that
d 2x
dy 2
i+
,
where the minus sign

(3)
Curve x
x{t),
_
(4)
is
correct if s
(dx\ 2
yj
is
chosen to increase with
y(t).
xy xy
Curve r=f{6).
Since
ft
= d+
and
<j>
f^
tan0 = ?/,
/
dft
=
- =
dO
ds
ds
d<
ds
ds\
ddj
do
y.
310
Now
/dry
tan
dd
jdr\\
/dry
d 2r
drV
+ r2
\dd)
(dr\ 2 \l
ds
Also
d*r
\d6]
[8.32
Id
(dry
d*r-i
Hmi
"
+r
&)
See also Ex. 8 (d), no. 14, and Ex. 8 (g), no. 20.
Owing to the complexity of this formula and the

one
now
to be obtained for (p,r) equations,
it is
simplicity of the
best to start
by
transforming the given polar equation into {p,r) coordinates (8.22).
We may finally have to ehminate p from the expression for k.

(5)
(p,r) equation.
_df_d6
~~
sin
also
A

1
.'.
64
ds
dr
ds'
= -&m.6 +
.
~
cos
dr
dd>
1 d
-as
= - -r (rsino)
,
r dr
__ldp
'
r dr
Examples
(i)
Find p
at the vertex of the cycloid a
4a cos w.
dyr
At the
vertex,
rjr
0,
and hence p
4a sin ft.
4a.
d)
8.32]
Find pat
(ii)
12
y
*
At
(3,4),
t/'
=
x
dx
.
= -f and
Pino" /> at the point
(iii)
xy
the point (3, 4) of the curve
I2
so
= asm o,
,
/>
y
y
24
= (l+W/f =
= a cos <j>,y =
of the ellipse
12.
^
and
x%
=f
y"
311
b sin
W
<j>.
dy
= 6 cos.
dq>
d%x
da;
% d x*
2
d 2y
d *V
/daA
/dw\ 2
d0 d^ 2
and
= ^ { a sin 2 + 6 2 cos 2 0}*.
This result can be written p = OD 2 /p, where p is the length of the perpenfrom the centre to the tangent at P, and OD is a semi-diameter conjugate to OP: see 17.64, ex. (i).
dicular
Find pfor
(iv)
First
the cardioid r
we find the
a(
1+ cos 6).
(p,r) equation as in 8.22, ex.
2op 2
From
4op
this,
p=
r = r lap = 4a
dr
dp
*(v)
3r a
dr
dp
lr s
since
*<J{2ar)
/
2a cos 2 0,
< 7t).
radii o/ curvature of x* + y 3 = x{x -y) at (a) (1,0); (6) (0, 0).

can find dyjdx, and then d2y/dx 2 by deriving the given equation
Pind tfie
We
wo a; as in
02.02/
2
Zx
+ Zy 2y
3.41:
:.
At
viz.
r8 .
Yr*jTa
= V(2a.2a cos 2 0)
= fa cos 0 (-7r <
(a)
(iii),
(1, 0), this
Deriving (a)
shows
wo
y'
{3y 2 + x) y'
,
o
2x
y xy
=
=
2x - y - 3s2 .
(a)
= - 1.
x:
= 2-y'-6x,
then y" = 2.
(By 2 + x)y" + Qyy'2 + y /
and hence when x

Therefore at
(6)
1 , 0),
Equation
sides vanish.
(a)
1,
and
y'
1,
p = Ji+il!
= _ ^2.
does not determine y'
when x =
and y =
because both
We may avoid this difficulty by making successive approximations
to the equation of the curve near the origin as follows.
312
[8.32
If x and y are small, then the terms x , y are small compared with x(x y),
the
so that the given equation is approximately x{x y) = 0. Hence near
curve has two branches approximating to x = 0, x y = 0.
Th# given equation can be written x = (x 3 + y3 )/(x y),so that on the branch
3
for which x =
we have x = (y s )/(y) = y z which gives a
mation to this branch. To get a still better one, consider
,
x + y*
x3 +xy 2
+ y2 =
x 3 + y3
x-y
x-y
(again from the given equation); since
^ 2^
x+
y
closer approxi-
x = y
-y
2
,
this gives
~zTy~
= ys
Thus x = g/ 2 + y 3
is a third approximation to this branch.

Also, the equation can be written x y = (x 3 + y 3 )/x, so
which y = x we have x y = (2x 3 )jx 2x 2 Hence
y x 2x 2 is an approximation to this branch.
on the branch
for
On the first branch we have at O

dx
Ty =
n
'
d 2x
dy-*
n
= ~2
SO
>
that
{1
}*
=2-=*-
At O on the second branch, dy/dx =

= -4; hence
and
d 2y/dx 2
yy
V
Fig. 108
Exercise 8(d)
1 Find the radius of curvature of the catenary s = ctan ft at the vertex.
sla
2 Find the radius of curvature of the tractrix e~ = cos ft in terms of ft.
3 If p 2 = c 2 s 2 find the intrinsic equation of the curve.
,
4 Find the curvature of the catenary y

5
6
7
and
*8
cch (a/c).
Find the radius of curvature of the cycloida; = a(d + aind),y = a(l-cos0).

Find piov x = at 2 y = a3
A curve which touches Ox at O has yO = c sec ^. Find parametric equations
prove that the cartesian equation is y = clog sec (xfc).
Prove that
.
<fe
dK
*9 Prove that
10 If p 2
ar, find
-r-
ds
/?
\ds 2 }
ds 2 /ds
/(fe
dx d y
~
-rr
ds ds 3
-j-
\ds*J
dyd3x
ds ds3
in terms of r.
a.
Find p in terms of r for the equiangular spiral r = a eflcot

2
2
12 Find p in terms of r for the lemniscate r = a cos 26.
13 If s is measured from the point 6 = of the cardioid r = a( 1 + cos 0), prove
11
that 9p 2 + s 2
16a 2 for
<
<
n.
8.4]
*14 Denoting dufdd by

wo 6 to prove
u',
derive each of the equations x
313
rcosd, y
= mind
twice
ijf
sin
ijf
(b)
(c)
(<Z)
By
= r sin 6 + r' cos 6,

z=.r cos
+ r'sin 0,
= r cos 2r' sin + r" cos 0,
cos ^ ks'* sin
2
s* sin
+ ks' cos = rsvad + 2r'coad + r"aind.
(a) s' cos

s'
rjr
ijr
xjr
subtracting the product of
Prove
Ks
,s
and
(a)
r2
and deduce the formula for k given
(c)
^+
from the product of

2r
(6)
and
(d),
2>
in 8.32 (4).
Find the radius of curvature of

*15 2x* + y*
Find
-x 2
*16
at (-,1).
2/(x 2
+ 2/2 ) =
a;
-?/3 at
(0, 0).
the radii of curvature at the origin for the branches of
*17 2x 3 + y z
-x 2
*18 x{y - 2x)
= y3
*19 If p =f(f), prove p = p + d 2pldi/r 2 [Use Ex. 8 (c), no.

20 What are the curves which satisfy
.
21 Find the radius of curvature of r
11.]
= a cos 0.
*22 Find the cartesian equation of the curves for which k times the radius of
curvature is equal to the cube of the normal (see 5.71).
8.4
Circle
and centre of curvature
8.41 Osculating circle
Suppose a curve y
= f(x) and
a point
P on it are given,
and
also
family of curves y = g(x, a 1} a 2 ...) depending on a number of parameters. If the parameters are chosen so that the corresponding
,
member
6.72)
of the family has the highest possible order of contact (see
with y
= f(x) at P, then the two curves are said to osculate there.
(1) Osculating line. If y = g(x) = ax + b, then the two constants a, b

can be chosen to satisfy the two conditions for first-order contact with
= f(x)
at x
xQ
viz.
f(x
These give b
= f(x x
)
ax +b,
f'(x
a.
f'(xQ ), so that the osculating line
is
y-fM =/'W
i.e.
the tangent toy = f(x)
at x
=x
This line will not in general have contact of order higher than the
first;
but
if f"{x
0,
then the order is at least two.
[8.41
Osculating circle. The three constants
R in the equation
314
cc, /?,
(2)
= Rz
(x-<x)* + (y-/3)*
can in general be chosen to satisfy the three conditions for secondorder contact with y =f{x) at x
/(*o)
where
y',
y" are given
/'M =
2/o>
viz.
f"M = Vo>
2/o>
by
0,
+ (2/-/?)2/" =
0.
(x-*) + {y-P)y'
l
Hence (dropping the
2/'
in x for convenience)
suffix
(x-*Y + {f{x)-py =
If /"(#)
R*,
0,
+ {/'W+r(^){/(^)-A} =
0.
(x-cc)+f(x){f(x)-/3}
we require
these give in turn, starting from the last:
4=
1+/' 2
r
X OL
which are
sufficient to
determine a,
/?,
'
R 2 uniquely.
We observe that R is numerically equal to the radius of curvature

p
at P(x,y).
The
of curvature at P,
circle just
and
its
determined
centre
is
C(<x, /?) is
Thus the centre of curvature at P(x, y)
therefore called the circle
the centre of curvature at P.
is
Since the circle touches the curve at P, therefore C

is also easily verified from equations
normal at P. (This
lies
(i).)
on
we should expect the circle of closest contact to 'bulge'

same way as the curve does at P, as in fig. 109 rather than 110;
tively
that
lies
on the 'inward normal' at P. This
is
the
Intui-
the
i.e.
so since in deter-
8.41]
mining the
As
we
circle
concavities at
chose y"
= /"
315
at P, so that the senses of the
P are the same (6.71 (2)).
= (l+/ /2 )t//",henceby(i)
Since/'
tan ^ and ijr is acute (positive or negative), by 8.12, we have
a =
x psmtfr,
fi
y+pco8i/r.
Fig. 110
Fig. 109
If f{x)
(ii)
(which
so in particular at a point of inflexion), the
is
R cannot be satisfied:
there is no osculating circle.

However, the tangent then has at least second-order contact by (1),
and we may conveniently say that 'the "circle" of curvature at P
is the tangent '. There is no centre of curvature.
equations for a,
Fig.
In general
HI
Fig. 112
the circle of curvature will cross the curve at
in the
theorem of
vature
is
The
6.72.
P;
m=2
illustrated in figs. Ill, 112.
Formulae
(ii)
are
still
valid in
fig.
112, since
is
negative there.
Fig. Ill, the simplest case, can be taken as the standard,
write
for
relation of the curve to a circle of cur-
down
the expressions for a,

f
An
easier
/?
method
quickly (see
is
fig.
given in 8.53.
and used to
113).f
316
[8.42
8.42 Newton's formula for p

(1) We should expect from intuitive considerations that the circle
having closest contact with a given curve y = f(x) at a point P could
be obtained by considering a circle touching the curve at P and
passing through a neighbouring point Q, and then taking the limit by
tend to P along the curve. Assuming this for the moment,

be the diameter through P of the circle PQ, and draw QN
perpendicular to PE; then PN NR = QN 2 In the limit, the diameter
PR tends to the diameter 2 \p\ of the osculating circle at P; so
letting
let
PR
|p|
= %]imPR =
$]im (NR + PN)
Q-+P
since
PN -> 0.
X-CL
Fig. 114
Fig. 113
As we are
discussing the given curve at the particular point P,
we
may first choose P to be the origin, taking Py along the inward normal
at P and Px along the tangent. Our result then becomes
Newton's formula, and gives the value of \p\ at the origin.

Analytically, the result can be obtained from Maclaurin's theorem:
This
is
= f(x) = /(0) + xf'(0) + i*2/"(0) + W'iOx).
Choosing axes as before,

(see 8.32,
Remark
(y)).
we have /(0) =
Hence
0, /'(0)
0,
and k =/"(0)
8.42]
and
317
lim
x->0
=
if xf"'(dx)
when x ->
->
lim
happens
0; this certainly
iff"'(x) is
bounded
for all x sufficiently small.
Examples
(i)
Find
\p\
at the origin for the parabola
We have
xz
= lim - =
lim
at the pole for r = a sin 20.

= rcos0 = a sin 20 cob 6, therefore on
initial line Ox at O (see Ex. 1 (e), no. 13) we have
(ii)
J'md
2a.
y-+Q 2y
xÔ
Since
4ay.
|/)|
a;
Ipl
=
=
->
when x
COS
- = lim a sin 20 cos
= lim 2rsmd
2sin0
/"
1/
lim
x -y
the branches touching the
(/
-> 0.
Hence
2y
_+ o
lim (a cos 0)
6 -+o
a.
0--O
The symmetry of the curve shows that

Oy at O.
\p\
has this value for the branches
touching
(iii)
Find
\p\
at the point (a, 0) of the ellipse

1
x6
+
a~i
y6
b*
Change the origin to A(a, 0) by writing a;

instead of x (see 15.73 (2)). The equation becomes
9
/
i*
1.
r-^ + fr
Fig. 115
referred to axes Ax, Ay'. The tangent at the new origin is not Ax but Ay';
hence we must interchange x and y before applying Newton's formula. We obtain
\p\
lim
= lim {b>- l
b
x-aA = lim
K-\ = *
(2) To justify the assumption made at the beginning of this section, let Z
be the centre of the circle PQR. Assuming the continuity and derivability of
f(x), the distance r from Z to points of the arc PQ is also continuous and derivable, and is such that ZP = ZQ. Hence by Rolle's theorem there must be a
point Px of the arc between P and Q such that ZPX is a stationary value of r.
Taking Z as pole, we now show that when the radius vector of a curve is
stationary, it is normal to the curve. For drjdO =
gives cot
= 0, i.e. = $n.
Hence ZPX is normal to the arc at Pv and so Z is the meet of normals at P
and
Px
318
[8.5
We show finally that the intersection Z of normals at neighbouring points

P, P-l tends to the centre of curvature C atP when P x -> P along the curve. Choose
axes as before; G is then the point (0,/>), i.e. (0, l//"(0)). The equation of the
normal at Pa (,/())
+ {x _ g) = 0>
This cuts x = 0, the normal at P, where y =/() + //'(), and this is therefore
the ordinate of Z. When Px -> P, - and/() -+f(0) = 0, while
g-o
1
i
is
the ordinate of G. Hence
Our
m{y _
Z - G.
assumption is now justified since, when Q ->P along the curve,

(which lies between Q and P) also tends to P.
original
the point
Exercise 8(e)
1
Find the centre of curvature at
(3, 4) for
the curve xy
12.
2 Find the centre of curvature at the point (acos^, 6sin0) of the
x2
v%
a2
62
+ =
1.
3 Prove that the centre of curvature (a, fi)
a xy
xyxy
4 Show that the coordinates
(a,
be written
ft)
ellipse
is
given parametrically
by
y+x
xy xy
of the centre of curvature at
(x, y)
can
dx
Use this result to prove that the centre of curvature at the point 6 of the cycloid
x = a(8 sin 8), ?/ = a(l cos0) is a = a(0 + sin0), ft = a(l cos0). [First
show that rjr = \n
5 Find \p\ at the origin for x* + 3t/a = 2y.
6 Find \p\ at the origin for x i /a2 + (y b) 2/b i = 1. Interpret the result in
terms of the
7 Find
*8 Find
= 1.
= a sin 3d.
at the origin for y 2x 2 3xy + 4y 2
ellipse
\p\
\p\
x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2
at the pole for r
Envelope of a family of curves
8.5
In this section the technique of partial derivation
is
required as
far as 9.42.
8.51 Definition
(1)
and determination of the envelope
Consider the curve

f(x,y,a)
depending on a parameter
(cf.
5.72).
a.
As a
varies,
Ca
we obtain a family of curves
8.51]
If,
for
each
Ca
curve
a, the
319
touches a definite curve S, then
is
called the envelope of the family.
Ca
Let
touch
x
<f
Pa
The
coordinates of
Pa
are certain functions
x(oc),
y{cc).
has parametric equations
x
it
at
not determined) of ct, say
(at present
Then
touches
Oa
x{t),
y{t);
at the point where
a.
Flg 116
Assuming that the family possesses an envelope,
we now
(2)
find equations to determine
The coordinates
(x, y)
f(x, y,
Proof.
<x)
it.
of any point on
and
For each a, the point
$ satisfy
^f(x, y, a)
(x(a), y{oc)) lies
f(x(a),y(a),a)
for all a. Deriving this
"
on
0.
Oa
hence
(i)
wo a, we have (by 9.41, equation (iv), extended
to a function of three variables)
!*'<*>+!,+! =o.
Since
cf. 9.42),
\dx
by
therefore
(dy
i.e.
Ca at t = a (and this implies that Oa possesses a

= a, i.e. that not both of 3//3a;, 3//32/ vanish there:
touches
definite tangent at
on
<^
9.42,
Thus at
(ii.
at
otj
x '(a)"
(x(a), y(afj
on
Ca at
(#(a), 2/(a))^
L^/92/Js=s}r
we have
!*<)+!<) = o.
p)
By subtracting (iii) from (ii), we see that at (x(a),y(ot)), dfjda

Consequently x(a) and y(a) satisfy the equations
f(x, y, a)
0,
^-f(x, y, a)
0.
0.
(iv)
320
The
cartesian equation of the envelope
from equations
is
[8.52
found by ehminating a
Frequently, however, the parametric equations
(iv).
x and y in terms of a are more convenient.

Remark. The solution of (iv) may include loci other than the
obtained by solving
(iv) for
required envelope, viz.
loci of
singular points of the family.
Cx is one at which both dfjdx =
A singular
0. At such
and dfjdy
a point, equations (i) and (iii) are satisfied, and hence also dfjda, =
by (ii), so that equations (iv) still hold. To ensure that we have found
the genuine envelope we must verify that our solution of (iv) actually
point
(x,
y)
on
touches CL at
a.
8.52 Examples
(i)
If the family of lines
x ocy + a 2
x-ocy + oc 2
2a and x
The parabola x oc 2 y
thepointais
from which y
is
has an envelope,
-y + 2oc =
0,
it is
given by
0,
= oc 2
= 2oc is actually the envelope because its gradient at
.
da/
which
also the gradient of the line
doc
oc'
x-ccy + cc 2
(fig.
117).
Also see ex.
(v).
(0,<x)
Fig. 118
Fig. 117
(ii)
The family
(y
a) 2 x z =
_ a)2 =
{y
has no envelope. For the equations to
_ 2 y - a) = 0,
and the only points satisfying these lie on x = 0, i.e. the y-axis, which does not
determine
it
are
touch any member of the family (the reader should verify this by finding the
gradient of the given curve at (0, a)).
The y-axis is a locus of singular points of the family, for such points are given
by
= =-3x 2 and
8x
and are thus the cusps

(iii)
(0, oc).
See
~
= 2(y-ot),
oy
118.
fig.
= 2(x-a) 3 has an envelope, it is given by

2
3
6(y -a) = 6(x - a)
3(y - oc) 2 = 2(x - a)
=
oc.
=
oc,
# = a + f, y = a + f, or x
y
If the family 3(y-oc)
from which
8.52J
321
The first solution corresponds to the line x y = f which touches the curve
at (a + f , a + ; this should be verified by the reader.
The second solution corresponds to the line y = x; this does not touch the
curve at (a, a), and in fact is the locus of the singular points (cusps) of the
family (fig. 119).
,
Fig. 119
(iv) Find the envelope of a family of coaxal ellipses for which the
semi-axes is constant.
Choosing the
common axes as
Ox, Oy, the family
x2
a~*
y2
a + fi =
where
last two,
<r
8 /a 8
the
a,
yff
(a; t
the envelope
is
detennined
dp~
from which
a+p _
+ y$
x$ + yt'
x*
in terms of
ellipse,
c,
dot
p da
2
8 Hence by
using properties of equal
y //?
from which we find
a _ p _
x*
is
c.
yd/3
From the
we have
of the
Regarding ft as a function of a given by a + /?

by the above equations together with
a3
sum
x and
* )a+
2/
y.
Substituting into the equation of
^_ i(a;i +
x* + y*
ratios,
l )a
2/
1>
c*.
Since an ellipse has no singular points, we may conclude that this locus is in
fact the envelope of the family.
Alternatively we may begin by eliminating ft, and then proceed in the usual
way. The method given preserves the symmetry in

(v)
Family which is quadratic in
If
has an envelope,
a?f{x, y)
it is
a,
the parameter.
+ ag{x, y) + h(x, y) =
given by this equation and

2acf(x,y)
+ g(x,y) =
0.
ft.
322
i.e.
In general
this will
is the condition for the
[8.52
4/A.
be the envelope (but see Ex. 8(/), no.

quadratic
a2f+ag+h =
to
have equal
13).
The equation
roots.
*(vi) Clairaut's equation y px +f(p) and its singular solution.

In 5.27 we showed that the general solution of this differential equation
y = cx+f(c), and that another solution is obtained by eliminating p from
is
y=f(p)-pf'(p).
-f'(p),
This singular solution is the envelope of the family of lines represented by the
general solution.
For the envelope is obtained by elimination of c from
y
i.e.
and
cx+f(c)
x = -/'(c),
from
y =/(c)
x+f\c),
- c/'(c).
The curve thus determined is a genuine envelope since its gradient isf
dy
_ dy
dx
which
(vii)
is
Idx
_ f'(c)-f'(c)-cr(c) =
dcj dc
-f(c)
the gradient of the line y
= cx+f(c).
Limiting intersections of neighbouring curves of a family.
Consider the neighbouring curves
f{x, y, a)
If these intersect, their

f(x, y, a)
f(x, y,a +
0,
Sec)
0.
common point(s) satisfy
and
f(x,y,a)
i.e.
Ca Ca+ $ a
f(x, y,ct + 8a) -f(x, y, a)
and fa (x, y, )
0,
some number between a and a + 8a.

8a
0, then by our general hypothesis of continuity in this chapter,
the curve Ca+Sa approaches the curve Ga and the coordinates of the limit of
for
When
their intersection(s) satisfy
f{x,y,a)
and
^f(x,y,a) =
0.
Hence if neighbouring curves intersect, the limit of these intersections lies on the
envelope or on a locus of singular points of the family.
Remark. The envelope of a family used to be defined as the locus of the
limiting intersections of neighbouring members. This definition is not consistent
with the concept of the envelope as a curve which touches all members of the
family, because an envelope (in our sense) may exist even when neighbouring
3
curves do not intersect. For example, no two curves of the family y = (x a)
t
We
are assuming throughout
(cf.
5.27) that /(a)
is
not a linear function.
8.53]
323
intersect, but y = is the envelope (which also happens to be a locus of inflexions)

as is easily verified. The old definition would not admit that a curve is the
envelope of its own circles of curvature: see 8.54, Corollary 2.
The
8.53
evolute of a curve
Definition.
The
sponding point
locus of the centre of curvature
as the corre-
P varies along the given curve is called the evolute of
this curve.
If the curve
= f(x), then equations
(i) of 8.41 give a parametric

representation of the evolute, the parameter being x. The following
is
theorem, which relates 'curvature' and 'envelopes', also provides a

neat way of finding the coordinates of C and the value oi\p\, instead
of using the formulae in 8.32 (3) and Ex. 8 (e), no. 3.
The
evolute of a curve is the envelope of the
sponding centre of curvature, then
a=
;.
normals
any point on the curve and
Proof. If P(x,y) is
(8.41,
to the curve.
C(a,fi) the corre-
equations
(ii))
x psini/r, ft = y+p cos

da = dxp cos \Jrd\]r sin i/rdp
*jr.
= sin i/rdp,
and
similarly
dfi
dj3
.*.
^ = cot
ijr
cos
rjrdp.
gradient of the normal at
P to the curve.
But dp/da. is the gradient of the evolute
at C.
to the curve
C to the evolute.
is
parallel to the tangent at
Hence the normal at P

Since
C lies
on the normal at P, this normal touches the evolute at C, the corresponding

centre of curvature.
Since
CP 2 = p 2
the 'distance formula' of coordinate geometry

gives the value of \p\ when the coordinates of C have been found.
,
Examples
(i) Find the centre of curvature at the point t of the parabola x =
The normal at (at2 2at) is (see 16.31)
,
y + (x-2a)t-at*
Its envelope is given
by
this equation
(x -la)
Hence
2a + 3at3
0.
and
-Zat*
and
0.
= 2aP.
at2 ,
y=
2at.
324
[8.54
These expressions are the coordinates of the centre of curvature at
and are
also the parametric equations of the evolute.
found by eliminating
Also
(7pa
_
=
*,
is
(2a + 2a*
2 2
4a (l+<
2
Find
(at
2at),
cartesian equation,
21ayK
+ - 2a* - 2a*) 2
3
2 3
on factorising, so that
(ii)
4(c 2a) 3
The
\p\
2a(l
+* 2 )*.
the centre of curvature at the point
x = acos<j>, y = osin0.
The normal at (acos^, bsmtj)) is (see
<f>
of the ellipse
y b sin 6
y-x tan ,
l
We find that
V
COS 8 0.
a 2 -6 2
sin 3
either by direct substitution in the equation of the normal, or by re-writing this

equation with the a;-term independent of as
a
y cot <p -x
,
-a
cos
2
o2
<p
and then deriving partially wo to get its envelope

The required centre of curvature is thus
cos3 $5
The evolute has
afresh.
sin 3 0]
cartesian equation (ax)* + (by)*
= (a
2
ft
)*.
Arc of the evolute
8.54
Provided that p steadily increases or steadily decreases along the given curve,
the arc-length of the evolute is equal to the difference between the radii of curvature
corresponding to its extremities.
A be the fixed point from which s is measured on the curve AP;

the centres of curvature at A, P, and let or be the arc C O of the
evolute, measured from C in the sense for which s increases.
If C is (a,/?), then from the proof in 8.53,
Proof. Let
let
C C be
,
da
= sin ijrdp,
dfl
cos ijrdp.
8.54]
Therefore
by
8.12, equation
applied to the evolute,
(ii)
d<r*
325
d**+dfi*
sin2 \jrdp* + cos 2 ijrdp*
dp*.
with cr, then do~ = +dp and cr = p + c.

= p and cr = pp
If /> steadily decreases as * increases, then dcr dp and <r = p p.
If
steadily increases with
When s =
0, <r
= and p = p
s, i.e.
so c
Fig. 121
Corollary 1. The circle is the only plane curve vnth constant p.

p = constant, then dcr = and so cr = constant. Hence the centre of
curvature is the same for every point of the curve, and every such point lies
If
at (constant) distance p from this fixed point; i.e. the curve is a circle.
Corollary 2. The circles of curvature at neighbouring points of a curve do not
intersect.
The difference between the radii of curvature at neighbouring points is equal

to the arc of the evolute between the corresponding centres of curvature, and
this arc is greater than the distance between these centres. Hence one circle
completely encloses the other (illustrate this with a sketch), and so they do
not intersect.
'Yet these circles have an envelope, viz. the curve itself.
Corollary 3. Involutes of a given curve.
Given the evolute CQ C, we can generate the original curve mechanically as
follows. Let a string be wound along the evolute from a fixed point G to C
,
x
and leave the evolute tangentially at C , continuing as far as A. Unwind the
string, keeping it taut; then the end A will trace the original curve.
For, when the end has any position P, the length of the unrolled part of the
string is PC = A O + arc G C = p + cr = p, so that P lies on the original curve,
which is called an involute of C^CC^

Given C CCV there are infinitely many involutes: any point A' on C A
traces a curve A'P' to which P'G is normal. Since tangents at such corresponding points P, P' are parallel, the involutes are all parallel curves.
326
Exercise 8(f)
Find
the envelope of the following families of curves {parameter a).
= - +ol 2
2 y
= x tan a
gx
..
+ fa,3
ocx
sec 2 a ; interpret dynamically.
4 x sec a + y cosec a
a p
x2
a.
y2
h-^
where
1,
6 Straight lines making intercepts on the axes whose

equal to a.
7 Circles with their centres on x 2 + y 2
cc
sum
+B =
is
c.
constant and
a 2 and passing through
(0, c).
*8 Through a fixed point on the circumference of a given circle chords are

drawn. Show that the envelope of the circles on these chords as diameters is
a cardioid.
9 Show that the envelope of y = a(x a) 2
member of the family for which <x = 0.
is
0,
and that
this is the
10 Prove that the envelope of the circles
x 2 + y 2 2cx<x cos a 2cyot sin a

is
the circle of the family for which a
Show that the curves a;* +
12
c2 ( 1
2a)
0.
Verify that the curves of the family y 2

their envelope ?
11
is
(x
a) 3
do not
intersect.
What
= a* do not intersect. What is their envelope ?
*13 Verify that the process for finding envelopes applied to the family
u 2f+2ctg + g = 0, where/, g are functions of a; and y, leads to g(fg) = 0; and
that g = 0, fg =
are the members of the family corresponding to a = 0,
a = 1 respectively. Assuming that g Q,f <7 = 0do not touch, verify that
no other members of the family touch either g = or/ g = 0, so that the family
has no envelope.
Find
the centre of curvature at the point
14 x
16 x
*18
a;
= at y = at
= ach<, y = 6sh.
= acos 3 y = asin8 .
3
t,
and
15
17 x
the evolute of
= ct, y = c/t.
= a(t tht), y =
aaeoht.

Prove that cot0 = (l/r)dr/dd. If P is any given point on the cardioid
cos 6), find two other points Q, R on the curve such that the tangents
at P, Q, R are all parallel, and show that the sum of the ordinates of P, Q, R
1
is
a(l
zero.
2 Find the values of 6 at those points of the curve r

tangent is parallel to the initial line. Sketch the curve.
3 Prove that the curves r 2 cos (20 a)
orthogonally.
= a 2 sin 2a,
= a sin 26 at which the

r2
2a 2 sin (26 + a) cut
4 The tangent and normal at P to the curve r
O perpendicular to OP at A, B. Prove OB OA =
(dr/dd) 2 : r2 .
A curve is such that

when
0.
Find
its
(i)
OB/OA =
equation,
327
= f(d) meet the line through
when -> oo; and (iii)

and show that triangle APB has area
62 ;
r - oo
(ii)
5 If cot $ varies as the ordinate of the point of contact of the tangent, prove
that the curve concerned is a conic having a focus at the pole and eccentricity
equal to the value of cot <f> when 6 = \tt.
6 If 8 =/(^), show how to find

5s
x,
y in terms of \Jr.
A curve is given by
4a(5 + tan J^)V(tanJ^);

2
if axes
are chosen so that x, y, s, tfr vanish simultaneously, find x and y in terms

of \jr, and verify that 5a; 2 + 9y 2 = 5s2
.
Show that
the tangent at the point 6 of the curve
a(4 cos 6 cos 40),
a;sinf0 ycosffl
is
sin 40)
a(4 sin
5asin$0.
With O as pole, prove that the (p,r) equation is r z = 9a2 + |fp 2 , and deduce
the radius of curvature at the point 6. Find the arc-length from 6 = to 2n.
circle of radius a rolls without slipping on the outside of a fixed circle of

8
radius 2a and centre O;
is a point fixed on the circumference of the rolling
circle, and
is the point of the fixed circle with which
initially coincided.
With
for origin
x
where
and
OA for a;-axis, show that P has coordinates
= 3acos0 acos30,
3a sin
a sin 3d,
the angle turned through by the line of centres. Find the

and prove p = 3a sin 6. Sketch the curve and find its area.
is
equation,
(p,r)
= a( 1 cos 6), prove p = 2a sin3 \ijr.

= a cos 3{/5% obtain x and y in terms of
and prove that the (p,r)
equation is r2 + 8p 2 = 9a2
1 1 At the point P(ct, cjt) ofxy = c*, prove k = 2c 2 /r3 where r = OP.
12 Find the radius of curvature of r = adaec^d at the pole by Newton's
9 If r
10 If p
yjr,
formula.
= c log (sec 6 + tan 6) and y = csec0, prove p = csec 2 0.

= a cos w0, find p in terms of r. Show that p = a/(l + n 2 when r = a.
Prove that p = cosec ^ dy/dfr. For the curve
= asec n
prove p is
13 If a;
14 If r
15
t/
vi
n times the length of the normal.
16 Find the (p,r) equation of the curve r n = a n sin nd, and prove that
pr*- 1 = a n f(n+ 1). Prove also that the length intercepted on the radius vector
by the circle of curvature is 2r/(n +1).
17 Find the equation of the circle of curvature of axy = x s 2a3 at

18 Prove that the centre of curvature C(a, ft) at P(x, y) is given by
dy
If
divides
is
the point (x,y) on the curve x
a, 3a).
dx
acos 3 (<), y
CP internally in the ratio 2:1, find the locus of Q.
asin3 (J<), and
328
19 Find the equation of the normal at the point d of the cycloid x a(6 + sin 6),
y = a(l+cos0), and hence the centre of curvature. Show that its locus is
another cycloid having the same dimensions as the given one.
20 Prove that 1/p* = w 2 + w' 2 , where u = 1/r and u' du/dd. Hence prove
P
21
_ (u z + u'*)*
~ uz (u + u")'
Show that a curve whose radius
of curvature
is
equal to the length of the
a catenary, [p = PO with notation of 5.71.]

22 Find the two systems of curves for which the radius of curvature
normal
is
circle or
is
half
the normal.
What are the curves for which p = TGI

24 Sketch the curve (x-y) (2x + y) = x 2 (x 2 + y)
23
near the origin, and find the
radii of curvature of the branches at O.
25 Find the envelope of

through O.
circles
whose centres he on xy =
c2
and which pass
329
FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

9.1
Introduction
9.11 Functions, limits, continuity
In 1.13 we discussed the concept of 'function' for a single independent variable, and mentioned that it extends to more than one.
We now begin the differential calculus of functions of several variables.

Suppose x, y are two variables whose values (perhaps within certain
ranges) can be assigned arbitrarily, so that x, y are not related in
any way. If one or more values of u are determined when values are
given to x and y, we say that u is a, function of the pair of variables (x, y),
and write u = f(x, y). We call x, y the independent variables and u the
dependent variable.
The notation u = f(x, y) is

although
we
used even when x and y are related,

are not then dealing with a genuine function of two
still
independent variables.
In this chapter we give our attention to functions of two variables.

This case is typical, and the results can be extended at once to functions
of three or more.
As in Ch. 2, we can define the limit of a function of (x, y) when these variables
tend to given values, and the meaning of continuity in {x, y) at a given point.
Thus, if a positive number e (however small) is given, and a positive number
ij can be found such that, whenever
0<\x a\<ri and 0<\y b\<ij,

we have
\f(x,
then we say that f{x, y) tends
and we write
y)-l\<
to the limit
hm
e,
when x tends
to
a and y tends to
6,
f(x,y)-l.
(x, y) ->(o, 6)
If also f(a, b) exists

point' (a, 6).
and
is
equal to
I,
then f(x,y)
is
continuous in {x,y) at 'the
We do not develop these matters here because we shall be concerned only

with certain special limits (of incrementary ratios) associated with the process
of derivation. However, the reader is warned that the situation is more complicated than would be expected at first sight continuity in the pair of variables
(x,y) requires more of a function than its continuity (as defined in 2.61) in a?
alone and in y alone.
:
330
9.12
Economy in
[9.12
functional notation
be convenient to economise in symbols. Instead of writing

<fi( x >y),
we now write y = y(x), u = u(x,y), .... That
is, we use the same letter for the dependent variable and the functional
symbol. No confusion can arise unless we require to make a substitution
or change of variables, and then we can revert to the former functional
notation whenever necessary.
Thus, if u u(x, y) and x = x(g, tj), y = y(, w), then by substitution
for x, y we can construct from these three functions a new function
It will
V =f( x )> u
u =/(, w), where/(, tj) =

this
new function
viz.
the value of u{x,y)
ample,
if
u=
u=
x*
we
9.2
Partial derivatives
tj), y(i-,
when we
+ y2
then
find
u(x(g,
would be wrong to
It
w)).
call
because this symbol already has a meaning,
tj)
+ w2
by and y by
replace x
2
,
2
7j
and
n.
For ex-
2gw,
2
.
9.21 Definitions
We
cannot usefully speak of
the derivative of
because x and y may

ever, we can define the derivative of u
a function u(x, y)
any way. How-
vary separately or together in
wo x,
or of
u wo
y, as follows.
Suppose y is kept constant and x is allowed to vary alone. Then a

change 8x in x causes a change Su in u given by
du
8u
^-
so that
u(x + 8x, y) u(x
y),
u(x + 8x,y)-u(x,y)
when 8x -> 0, this limit is called the partial

wo x, and is written du/dx.
if a; is kept constant and y varies alone, and if
If 8uj8x tends to a limit

derivative of u
Similarly,
Um
u(x,y + 8y)-u(x,y)
then this limit is the partial derivative of u wo y, written du/dy.

The reader should notice that, according to these definitions, no
new process is involved: partial derivatives are calculated in the same
way as 'ordinary' derivatives, by first treating all but one of the
exists,
independent variables as
if
they were constants and then finding the
9.22]
331
derivative of the function with respect to the remaining independent
In particular,
variable.
all
the rules of derivation (product, quotient,
function of a function) in Ch. 3 continue to apply.
Examples
(i)
u = Xs + 3a;
If
then (by treating y as
if it
V+
5xy* - ya ,
were constant)
du
ox
and
(treating
a;
as
if it
were constant)
du
- Qxhj + 20xy* - 3y
-1
(ii) If u = tan
(y/x), put z
of a function' is
= y/x so that u
du
du
8x
dz dx'
tan -1 z. The rule for 'function
dz
^
= J_(_^ =
dx
l+z
x
so that
!L_.
x 2 + y*
=
-\ = -
l+z*\xj
x*
Similarly,
8y
+ y*
In the statement of the rule for 'function of a function', we do not write

u is a function of the single variable z; but we write dz/dx because
is a function of both x and y.
du/dz because
z
9.22 Other notations for the partial derivatives
Instead of du/dx, the functional notations
ux
are often used.
The former symbols
ux (x, y),
u'x (x, y), or just
are appropriate for indicating
ux (a, b) denotes the

when x = a and y = b.
uy (x, y), u'y {x, y) and uy mean the same as dujdy.
particular values of the partial derivative; thus
value of ux (x, y)
Similarly,
9.23 Geometrical
meaning of du/dx, du/dy
= f(x) between two variables x, y is represented by a plane

so a relation z = u(x, y) between three variables x, y, z is represented
geometrically by a locus in space called a surface (fig. 122).
Let P(a, b) be a point on the surface z = u(x, y). The plane through
and
parallel to the coordinate plane xOz cuts the surface in a curve whose gradient
tan^ at is the value of du/dx when x a and y = 6, viz. u x (a, b). Similarly
dujdy at
measures the gradient of the curve of section of the surface by the
Just as a relation y
curve
1 .6),
P
P
plane x
a.
'
332
[9.24
Fig. 122
9.24 Partial derivatives of second and higher orders

(1)
The
may
functions dujdx, du/dy of (x,y)
partial derivatives
wo x and wo y,
d_(du
(du\
d_(to\
dx \dz)'
dyydx)*
written
dx2
'
viz.
dy\dy)'
dx\dy)'
dxdy'
dydx'
or
themselves
u.xy>
dy*>
U,
VV
Similarly the partial derivatives of these give eight third-order

partial derivatives of u,
and
so on.
Examples
(i)
In
9.21, ex.
(i)
we have
=
8x*
2
6x + 6y
y ,
= 12xy + 20y
dxdy
Remark.
dydx
u =
82
3
,
I2xy + 20y\
6rz 2
+ 60xy* - 6y.
dy*
We notice that the expressions for the mixed derivatives 8 u/dydx,

2
same in this example. It is true that, for most functions which

we meet, the mixed derivatives are equal; for some exceptions see Ex. 9 (a),
nos. 29, 30. The question is considered in (2) below. For all well-behaved
functions there are only three distinct second derivatives; and similarly only
four distinct third derivatives, and so on.
d 2u/8xdy are the
'
'
'
9.24]
If u
(ii)
assuming
By
(a)
3i
xn
f(y/x), prove that
d 2u
du
du
the
mixed
derivatives are equal.
/t4
d 2u
dhi
the product rule,
and on putting z
y/x and using 'function of a function
1J
8x \x)
d
= f& = Jf
dzdx
_L Jf >{y\
(_y\ =
3
(z)
K
'
x)
x*
Hence
g = nx^/^j
Similarly
= ^(t\ I = Ît)
dy
\x} x
\x)
we may first take logarithms:
= nloga + log/^;
logw
x:
\x)
nw.
Alternatively, to calculate Sit/cte
and then derive wo
',
_n
ldu
u 8x
IS/
x f dx
We find dfjdx as before.

(6)
Instead of finding the second derivatives and verifying result
easier to proceed as follows. Derive result (a)
Hence
d 2u
8hi
dx*
dxby
x-+y*
Multiply the
first
u +
d2
dx
result (a).
8u
8xz
8x
8 2u
d 2u
8 2u
d 2u
8y
2
dxdy
= (nl)
du
8hi
\-v
y
dy 2
'
dy
by x, the second by y, and add:
(n-1)
\x
y
(n \)nu
d 2u
<
du
= n
dy
8x'
2
[-y
9
2xyy
8xdy
du
'
dx'
* dy 2
^8u
= (n 1)
v
_ U 8u
8xdy
\-v
8y8x
of these equations
x 2a
by
8 2u
wo x, and also wo y:
dy2
du
'\ dx
{-V
y
du\
dy)
I
(6), it
334
(2)
[9.24
Equality of the mixed derivatives. Consider the second derivatives of
u(x, y) at (a, b).
By definition,
u v (x, b) =
tlx
i-
u(x,b + k)-u(x,b)
-
lira
..
u xv (a, b) = lim
.
r-j-
If,.
u(a + h,b + k)u(a + h,b)
[k->0
lim
fc->0
lim lim ^-{u(a + h,b + k)
lim lim <fi(h,
u(a, b
j/7 ,
<p{h, k)
u y (a+h,b)-u "y {a,b)
lim - { lim
ft-0
where
and
+ k) u(a, b)\
'
u(a + h,b) u(a,b + k) + u(a,b)}
k),
w(a + fc. & + &) w(a + /i, &)
w(a, 6-f-&)+'u
>
6)
.
hk
w va.(a, 6) = lim lim <j>{h, k).
Similarly
k-*0
ft->-0
Thus, in calculating the two mixed derivatives, we are considering the limit
of <J)(h, k) in two ways: (i) when k -> 0, and then h -> in the result; (ii) when
h -> first, then k -> 0. It is easy to show that these two limits may be different;
for example, if (J>(h, k) turned out to be {h + k)j{h k), then
h+k
h
- = lim 7=1,
h k h-ôh
,.
lim lim -
A-.-0&-M)
h+k
lim lim - hk
= lim
fc-*0
k
~k
=
-
1.
In general, the result of a double limiting process depends on the order in

which the two stages of the process are carried out. For the case of the mixed
derivatives, we can show that the results will certainly be the same whenever
u^y and u vx are continuous at (a, 6). This condition is satisfied by all 'ordinary'
functions.
Write
f{x)
Then
u(x,b + k)
u(x,b)
*
hk
= f(a + h) -f(a)
= hf'(a + dh) (O<0<1),
$(h y k)
(6.33(1)) applied to f(x) in a ^ x ^ a + h; here 6

as well as a, h, since the former appear as parameters in f(x).
by the mean value theorem

depends on
6,
SinCe
,
f'(x)
we have
<p{h, k)
= u x (x b + k)-ux (x,b)
f
hk
u x (a + 0h,b + k) u x (a + Oh, b)
k
- u yx (a + dh,b + d'k)
by the mean value theorem applied
b
(0
<
9{y)
<
to the function
< y {h,k)
g(b + k)-g(b)
kg'ib
_ uâ + hyb + Oity

_
y {a,
= u mJa + 0'1 h b + Ol k)
t
1)
b + 6^)
{0<d[<
u yx{a + 0h,b + d'k) = u xv (a + 0'1 h
Hence
(O<01 <
+ d^k)
335
1).
b+
k).
If uw uxy are both continuous at (a, b), these expressions tend to u yx(a, b),
uxy (a, b) respectively when h and h tend to zero; therefore u yx (a, b) = u^fo, 6).
,
9.25 Partial differential equations
Their construction.
(1)
A relation between partial derivatives of a

and the
5.12). The
function, perhaps also including the independent variables
function
itself, is
results of 9.24, ex.
called a partial differential equation

(ii)
are examples; the
first,
(cf.
which does not involve
the function / explicitly, can be regarded as the result of eliminating
from the equation u = xnf(yjx). Nos. 10, 13,

Ex. 9 (a) can be interpreted similarly.
Partial differential equations also arise from elimination of parameters from a given function (cf. 5.11).
the arbitrary^ function f
14, 17 in
Examples
Eliminate a and p from y
(i)
= ae pt saipx.
Partial derivatives are appropriate here because

variables t, x.
have
is
a function of two
We
Hence
(ii)
Eliminate a,
b,
cfrom u
a(x + y)
+ b{x y) + abz + c.
= a + b, =
By
-
dx
Since
(o
+ 6) 2 -(a-6) 2 =
The function /(z)
is
4ab,
supposed to possess a derivative.
336
(2) Solutions
[9.25
having a given form.
Examples
u +
T
(m) If
J
'
v
d2
dr 2
r8r
8u
u if (a) u
n is constant.
If u u(r), the equation becomes
find the most general solution
where
(a)
Writing v
dujdr,
From dujdr =
(6)
If u
Bjr,
8 2u
r 2 dd 2
a function of r only;
is
dhi
ldu
dr 2
r dr
0,
jn(w -
r nf(d)
Bjr.
equation can be written

n
1) r
~2
+ nr
+ i {r nf"(d)} -
B -x
trivial case r
0,
J/(0)
n2r n ~ 2f(d) + r n -*f"(d) =
Excluding the
u=
we find (l/v)dv/dr 1/r, logv = logr + O, and v =

u A+Blogr, where A, B are arbitrary constants.
r nf(d), the
i.e.
(b)
0.
(which corresponds to the solution u
0),
= 0,
=
Acoand
Bavund
+
f(d)
u = r n A cos nd + B sin nd)
f"(d)+n*f(6)
so
and
Find a general solution of the form u

where Bis a function of r only and
*(iv)
ex.
(iii),
When u =
JR0, the equation
/d2
= R for the differential equation in

is
a function
ldR\
"
orily.^
Rd @
7*dd 2
'
R \dR\_
1 d2
2+
R\dr r~dr)~ 'dd 2
r 2 /d 2
\dr 2+ r~dr)
1,e
of
becomes
'
The left-hand side is independent of d; the same must therefore be true of the
right-hand side. Since the latter is also independent of r, it must be constant.
Hence each side is constant, say equal to n z
From the right,
j2
_+
and
(if
From
= Acoand+Bainnd.
4=0)
the
!e = o
left,
d2R
dR
dr
dr
+ rr^-r^
2
an equation of Euler's type
(5.61).
The
n2R =
substitution r
-n R =
d2R
dt 2
so
(if
R = Ce nt + De~ nt =
4=0)
f
0,
e*
reduces
0,
Cr n + Dr-.
A solution of this form is said to be separable.
it
to
9.25]
337
A general solution having the form specified is therefore

u = (A coa nd + B8iand)(Cr n + Dr- n
When n =
the corresponding solution
is easily
(n
4= 0).
found to be
u = (Ad + B)(Ologr+D).
Exercise 9(a)
Calculate 8u/8x, du/dy for the following functions u[x, y).
Zx2 -2xy + 5y 2
Calculate
x/y.
u xx u vx u n u yy and verify
,
6 aP + Sxty + y*.
In
a%3
sva.- x {yjx).
log(a 2
+ y2
).
u yx u^for the following.
that
8 e xv
7 xsiay + ysinx.
a function
the following, use the rule for 'function of

the, mixed derivatives are equal.
9 chccch?/.
when
necessary,
assume
that
u
u
If u
If u
If u
10 If
If
11
12
13
14
= f(y/x), prove xux + yu v = 0.

= log (x 2 + y 2 prove uxx + uyv = 0.
= tan- 1 {(x + y) /z}, prove xu x + yuy + zu = 0.
=f(x + ct) + g{x-ct), prove d 2 u/8t 2 = c 2 8 2u/8x 2
= 1/r) {/(c< + r) + g(ct - r)}, prove
),
a 2
If w =/(), where z
15
c 2 3 / ,0u\
is
a function of x and
5 2m
and
I8z\
prove
8 2z
find 8 2 u/8xdy similarly.
16 If
m = x 2 taxi- 1 (y/x) -y 2 tan- 1 {x/y),
calculate xdujdx + y du/dy. [Use 9.24,
ex. (ii)(a).]
17 If t*=/(a;2 + ya ),prove
du
...
(l)
du
=
-x
ox
0;
8y
(n)
'
[Method of
18 If
,.
8x
8x8y
h#
8y
8x
hv
y
8y
u=
82u
(x
(ii) (6).]
+ y)f'(x + y),
l(x
x
x 2u xx + 2xyu xy + y2u yy
= x+y, prove that

V
-{x + y) 2f(x + y),
x
x*u xxx + 3x2yu X9y + 3xy2u xyy +y*u yyy .
calculate
19 If
-2 2vy
m = (y/x)f(x+y) suidf'(x+y) denotes f'(t) when t
xu* +yuy
and
9.24, ex.
d 2u
)f(t)
where
M
mm
xy, prove
8 2u
20 Eliminate a and b from z = ox + by + ab.

21 Eliminate a and p from y = a e -3>, 'cos pa;.
22
fiPMt
338
22 Eliminate a and p from u
t /
z2
23 If
(x +
b)
if
F cos px
if F sin px
satisfies
26 Find F, a function of y only,

Find a solution which vanishes when y
*28 If r
dx
Find u in terms of r
8 2u
if
dx
= / + -f'(r).
r
82u
+-r-r2
0.
8y
xy{x 2 - y 2 )j(x 2 + 2 ) when x, y are not both zero, and/(0, 0)

prove that when x, y are not both zero,
If/(c, y)
_
8x~
(x 2
8f
-y 2
\x 2 + y 2
i.e. /*(<), 0);
and
4x 2y 2
(x 2
+y
8J_
2 2 ]'
8y~~
x 2 -y 2
(x 2
0,
+ y2
2 }'
)
similarly find /((), 0);
hence calculate
/,(ft,o)-/,(o.Q)
lim
=At(M)
/.(o,
i;
)-/,(o,0)
lim
=/TO(00)-
What follows from the restilts of (iii) 1

= x 2 tan- 1 (y/x) - y* tan" 1 (x/y) when x +
*30 Iff(x, y)
/(^0)=/(0 >2/)=/(0,0)
prove that/Ô, 0)
9.3
4x 2 y 2
\x 2 + y 2
hm
(u) calculate
(iv)
find
8y
d u B u
t-t + ^-t
dx*
oy*
and hence that
(iii)
=f(v).
8r
= -y
r
and
(i)
c 2 8 2 u/8x 2 .
J(x2 + y 2 ) and w =/(r), prove that

8r
x
=-
*29
8u/8y
satisfies dhi/Sx 2 + d 2 u/8y 2 = 0.

= 1, and equals sintc when y = + 1.
_ = <^_ + -_j,
satisfies
00)
(2p ctpx).
eliminate the function / from
24 If u, v are functions of x and

25 Find Y, a function of y only,
27 If
[9.3
8z
=
(8z\
yz\
\
prove
'-,
e~ vx sin
The
0,
4= 0,
and
0,
= - l,fvx (0, 0) = + 1.
total variation of u(x, y).
Small changes
9.31 Total variation
by changing x or y alone. When x

and y vary together, a change dx in x and a change Sy in y cause a
given by
change 8u in
Partial derivatives are defined
8u
w(a;
+ &e, y + Sy) - u{x, y).
9.32J
For example, taking u
= xhf and writing h =
8x,k
8y,
339
we have
= (x+h)*(y + k)*-x
= {x* + 2xh + h*) (y* + 3ky* + 3k2y + 8 - x
= 3y + 3*^* + a 8 + 2xy3h + 6a*/ 2M + 6xyhk* + 2xhka
+ y*h* + 3y*h*k + 3yh i k* + h2ks
= 2xy* 8x + Zx*y* 8y + 8x{6xy*k + 6xyk 2 + 2xk* + y*h + 3y*hk
+ Byhk* + hk*} + 8y{3x2yk + 2W}.
Su
2y*
A: )
a: fc
jfc
Hence, in this example, 8u
is
of the form
A8x+B8y+e1 8x + e2 Sy,
where A and B are functions of a; and y, but not of 8x or 8y; and ej, e, are functions
of x. y, 8x, 8y which tend to zero when 8x and 8y both tend to zero.
9.32 Definition of 'differentiable function of (x, y)'
The function u =
u(x, y) is said to
be a differentiabh function of (x, y)
arbitrary changes 8x, 8y in x, y cause a change 8u in

if
Su
u which can be
= ASx+BSy + e^x + e^Sy,
(i)
where A, B are independent of 8x and By but are in general functions

of a; and y, and ev e2 are functions of 8x, 8y (and possibly also x, y)
which tend to zero when both 8x and 8y tend to zero in any manner.
Notice that the changes
be taken equal to zero.
The work
8x, 8y are arbitrary, so
in 9.31 shows that
values of x and y.
a?V
is
On the other hand,
a differentiable function of
the function denned by
8x and k
0, is
not differentiable at
= u[h,k)-u(0,0) =
(0, 0).
For,
^^,
+
h2
if u(x, y)
for all
8y,
8u
and
(x, y)
x*+y*
when x, y are not both zero, and w(0, 0) =

writing h
that one of them can
were differentiable at
k2
we should have
(0, 0)
'
hk(h + k)
fti
+ fei
=^ + Bk +
A ,
el h
+ ei k.
Take k = 0, and let h -> after dividing by h: then we find = A. Taking h =

and letting k -> similarly gives = 1?. Finally, letting h k, the relation
becomes
h = (A+B)h + (e1 + e 2 )h;
and on dividing by h ( 0) and then letting h
A, B are clearly inconsistent.
relations for
-> 0,
we get
= J.+.B. The three
340
Identification of A,
In equation
(i)
B in
put 8y
(i).
then
0;
8u
where e 1 is a function of
We have
[9.33
= A8x + e 1 8x,
x, y,
8x which tends to zero
when 8x ->
0.
8u
Tx
= A+e
A. The left-hand
side tends to dujdx by definition of this symbol (9.21). Hence
A = dujdx. Similarly, B = dujdy, and so (i) becomes
and by
letting dx -> 0, the right-hand side tends to
= ^Sx + ^Sy + eJx + e^y.
8u
This work also shows that

partial derivatives;
u(x, y) is
but
if
a function
the converse
not differentiable at
t*(0, 0)
(0, 0),
Urn
may
is
(ii)
differentiable,
be false, as in the
then
it
possesses
example above:
but
= hm
'
h->-0
h-+0
0,
and similarly m(0,0) exists and has the value 0. See also Ex. 9(6), nos. 8, 9.
Thus (cf. the end of 3.93) derivability and differentiability are not equivalent
'
'
'
'
concepts.
9.33 Small changes
Equation
(ii)
leads to the approximation
Su
when
(iii)
8x,
du
du
dx
dy
.....
R
= ^8x
+ ^-8y
(ni)
8y are small. Comparing this with the corresponding result

we see that
in 3.91 for functions of a single variable,

is
the approximate change in
it
for a change 8x in x,
keeping y constant;
~8y is the approximate change in u for a change 8y in y,

keeping x constant.
(The constancy of
y,
x respectively
vative notation.) Also

first
(cf.
is
3.91) these
order in 8x, 8y respectively.
indicated
by the
partial deri-
approximations are correct to
We thus obtain
9.33]
341
The principle of superposition of small changes.

The change in a function when
both variables alter
variation) is approximately equal to the
(i.e.
the total
sum of the changes arising when
each varies separately, this approximation being correct
to the first order
in these changes.
Example
Estimate the possible error in 8 calculated from
8A in b, c, A. (Cf. 3.91, ex. (iv).)
S = ^bcsmA when
there are
errors 8b, 8c,
= \c sin 4, = iosin^L,
= hoc cos 4,
oA
bince
ob
dc
8S = $csinA8b + %bam.A8c + $bccosA8A.
:.
Division
by S gives the relative

8S
error
S = b + 8c + cot ASA,
8b
from which the percentage
error can be found. The last approximation could be

obtained directly by applying the principle to
u=
and using the
x 5 x 2 sin 30
dS
suppose S is calculated when 6 = 5, c = 2 and

may each be in error by 0*05 and A by 10'. Then
= 2-5, 8b = 8c = 0-05, 8A = 7r/(180 x 6) (working in radians),
c
and the numerically largest possible error

SS
2-5
from which SS
= .
S
illustration,
where 6 and
30,
Su
fact that
As a numerical
A=
= log \ + log b+ log c + log sin A
log^S
^
~
/<M)6
+ ~2
The relative error
0-1.
in
(M)6
is
S is given by
ttV3 \
T080/'
0-04.
Exercise 9(b)
1
Ifpv
= RT where R is constant, find the approximate change in v caused
by small changes
2 If y
8p,
ST in p,
= uvlw, prove
T.
$y^8u 8v_8w
+
u
v
w
y
'
'
If T
Sg in I,
3
81,
2n*J(llg), find
the approximate error in
due to small errors
g.
4 If f(x, y) = xe xv and the values of x and y are slightly changed from

and to 1 +8x and Sy respectively so that Sf, the change in/, is very nearly
3 8x, show that 8y is approximately 2 8x.
5 If z = sin 6 sin 0/sin rjr and z is calculated for the values 6 = 30,
= 45,
^ = 60, find approximately the change in z if each of 6, r/r is increased by the
same small angle a and is decreased by Ja.
,
342
[9.4
6 In triangle ABC, angle A is known accurately, but the measurements of

sides 6, c may be in error by 8b, 8c respectively. Find approximately the error
obtained by calculating the side a from b, c, A. What shape should the triangle
have in order to make as small as possible the
effect of the error 56?
7 The points A and B, at distance a apart on a horizontal plane, are in line

with the base C of a vertical tower and on the same side of (7. The elevations of
the top of the tower from A, B are observed to be a, /3 (a < /?). Show that
BC = a sin a cos /? cosec (ft a).
If the observations of the angles are uncertain by 4 minutes, show that the
maximum possible percentage error in the calculated value of BG is approximately
n>
.
7J
sm(a+yo)
27 sin a cos ft tan (ft a)'
= (xs y 3 )/(x 2 + y 2 ) when x, y are not both zero, and u(0, 0) = 0,

not differentiable at (0,0), but that dujdx, dujdy exist at (0,0) and
*8 If u(x, y)
prove u
is
have the values
+1,-1
respectively.
*9 If u(x,y) = J\xy\, show w.(0,0)

entiable at (0,0).
9.4
w(0,0),
but that u
is
not
differ-
Extensions of 'function of a function'
9.41 Function of
Ifu =
u(x, y),
two functions of t
where x
x(t)
u=
is
and y =
y{t),
then
u(x(t), y{t))
= f(t) of one independent variable t, and its derivamay be obtained directly. However, this substitu-
a new function u
tive du/dt
= /'()
tion for x
and y
is
not always convenient, and
we proceed
indirectly
as follows.
Assuming that
all
the functions concerned are differentiable, a
change St in t causes a change Sx in x and a change 8y in y, which in

turn cause a change Su in u, wheref by 9.32, equation (ii),
Su
Since
functions of
Sy ->
0.
y(t)
x(t),
t
du
du
R
= ^-Sx+^-Sy
+ e^x + e^Sy.
oy
ox
are differentiable, they are certainly continuous
(3.12
and
Therefore ex ->
Su
3.93);
and
hence when St->
e 2 ->
when
= duSx duSy
St
Sx
->
0.
0,
also
Sx->
and
Now
Sy
di^d^'St^^Si^^W
ea are not defined when Sx, Sy are both zero. To cover the case when
(e.g. x = y = ${t) near t = 0, with $(t) as on
Sy for some values of St +
when Sx = = Sy.
p. 64), we may 'complete the definition' by taking ex = 0, e2 =
f ex
Sx
and
Cf. p. 63, footnote.
'
9.42]
and when
Hence
8t
-+
0,
343
the right-hand side tends to
du dx
du dy
dx dt
dy dt
8u/8t tends to this limit,
i.e.
du _dudx
dt~dxTt +
dudy
(lv)
dydi'
may be false if u(x, y) is not differentiate; this is shown by

u x{0, 0) = = u y (0, 0). Putting
x = t, y = t, we have f(t) = u(t,t) = t if t 4= 0, and /(0) = w(0, 0) = 0; hence
f'(t) = 1 for all t, even when t = 0. But when t = 0,
The formula
(iv)
the example already considered in 9.32, where
du dx dudy
+
-f =
dx
dy
dt
0.1
dt
+ 0.1 =
The formula fails because this function u(x, y)
is
0.
not differentiate at
(0, 0).
9.42 Total derivative; application to implicit functions
When* x in 9.41, we have u =
u(x, y)
du _du
dx
dx
where y
y(x); (iv)
becomes
dudy
dydx*
which is sometimes called the formula for the total derivative of u wo x.

It is at this stage that a special notation du/dx for partial derivatives
becomes essential: du/dx means the derivative of the function u(x,y)
in which we have substituted y = y(x) before derivation; du/dx means
the derivative of u(x, y) wo x, carried out asify were constant, where the
substitution y = y(x) is made after derivation. Thus du/dx symbolises
a 'formal' derivation wo x. Similar details of interpretation apply to
(iv);
the reader should thoroughly understand their significance
before proceeding further,
In particular, suppose y
x by *he equation u(x, y)

= 0; (v) becomes
and should do Ex. 9 (c),
1.
defined implicitly as a functionf y(x) of
0.
du/dx
Then
__du
dx
dy
dx
t
no.
is
Assumed
u[x, y{x))
for all x,
and so
dudy
dydx'
du Idu
dx/ dy'
differentiable.
(vi)
344
[9.43
Example
Find dy/dx and d 2 yjdx 2 if x 3 + y 3 = 3xy.
We will find dyjdx (a) by the elementary method of
Derive both sides
(a)
.-.
(y
Taking u
(b)
by
dx
= xz + y3 -3xy,
dy
y-x 2
dx
y2 x
dujdx
(v),
Methods
3a;
dy
x2 y
dx
y2 x
are really the
(a), (6)
y-x 2
-x)-~ =
and
fore
3.41; (6)
wo x, treating i/asa function of x
same
by formula
(vi).
(defined implicitly):
-Zy and
du/dy
3y 2 -Zx. There-
1
_ yx
y 2 x'
process, as the
above working shows;
now have a general notation available to formulate the process (a).

To find d 2yjdx 2 we may either proceed as in 3.53, ex. (iii), or apply formula (v)
but we
u=
to the function
dyjdx*
dx \v 2 -x)
dx 2
dy\y 2 -x)' dx
-2x(y 2 -x) + (y-x 2 ) {y 2 - x) - 2y(y +

2
2
(y*-x) 2
(y -x)
{x 2
+ y- 2xy 2
The numerator reduces
to
(y
d y
dx 2
2xy. Hence
2xy
~ (x-y 2
'
[The work on envelopes in 8.5 could be read at
If
u=
u{x,y)
it
is
two functions of (,
and x =
x(,i}),
find du\d
and
du/drf (or,
this stage.]
tq)
y(i,i),
a function /(, rj) of and

ffl,V)
To
y-x
l
y -x
2xy(3xy x 3 y 3 l),
shows that
-x) + (2x 2y -y 2 -x)(y- x 2 )

3
2
(y -x)
which by the given equation is equal to
9.43 Function of
tj,
then direct substitution
where
u(x(,ri),y((-,7i)).
more
precisely, f^,tf)
and /,(,?/)), we
observe that provided all three functions are differentiable, formula (iv)
9.43]
still
applies, except that the notation in it is
derivatives:
o
du
o
du dx
o o
du
dy \
du
du dx
du dy
dx dq
dy dr)
345
now modified into partial
(vn)
}>
dij
For, the proof of either of results

get (say) dujd!-
we
are keeping
(vii) is
the same as that of
(iv):
to
constant and are thus dealing with
tj
,.
a function of effectively only one variable
Examples
(i)
Ifuis a function
,
By
du
of x
du
vii )>
du
du
du
du
du
e 2 cos rj, prove
du
du\
(a).
du
* dy
Similarly
du
du
du
+ -(-eîn^)
solve these for du/dx, multiply the first
by x, the second by
,
2y,
and add:
fiw
=
dy
dx
du
cHA
= 4e- e|sinw + 2cosw

^ \ 'd
dx
,
e 2 s sin v=-\- 2e 2 s cos
i.e.
du
du
du,
= -(e^cosi;
'S|
dx
To
e 2 Ssin ij,y
^ = -(2eamj)+-(2e*coBi)
which proves
and y, and x
8tt
,/
2
so that
Stt
2e*s
'
|.
'to}}
Remarks
(a) After observing what has to be proved in
to begin directly with the formula
du
dx
(b),
the reader may be tempted
_dudg du dy
~ Mdx + d?idx'
Further progress could then be made only by expressing and tj as functions of

x and y. We should obtain
i
1 log (*
+ 2/ 2 )
and the work could be completed by
tan- 1 (x/y),
direct calculations.
We emphasise that in
346
[9.43
general dg/dx 4= IKdx/dg), etc., so that the preceding steps cannot be short-cut;
here, for example,
= ê _ ^ssin7/,
dx
x*+y 2
while
dx\d
2e*
a
iecosec?7.
2
'
2e 2 siniy
When
deciding on the formula with which to start, we must take account of

the given functional relationships.
(/?) When we have four variables x, y, , 7) connected by two relations, the
symbol dx/d standing alone is ambiguous. It implies that x has been expressed
as a function of and another variable, which could be either rj or y. In the
present case the relations are x = e2 sin i},y = e 2 ^ cos r\, and when a; is a function
of (,?/) the first gives dx/d = 2e 2 sin7/; the second is not used. If instead we
express a; as a function of (,y) by eliminating tj, we find that x = V( e*^~" 2/ 2 )
from which
dx
2g4|
2e4
V(<^-2/
2e 2 fcosec9/.
To distinguish the two meanings we write (dx/d) v

with a similar notation for other partial derivatives.
(ii)
If u
(dx/d) y respectively,
= f(x y,y z,z x), prove

du du du
++ =
8x 8y
0.
dz
Put = x y, 7j = y z, = z x, so that u = f(,ij, )

extended to a function of three functions , tj, of {x, y, z),
8u
dx
du
du
du
du
dy
formula
(vii)
_8ud duty dud

~ 8^dle + '&rjdx + 8^dx
du
du
-*- ,+ *- 0+ se<- l
Similarly
By
~di
>
du
du
du
d7i'
dz~~drf
du
du
di'
The result follows by adding.

Exercise 9(c)
Find du/dt if u = x + y* and x =
by using formula (iv) in 9.41.
%
(6)
Find dyjdxfor the functions

2 (x + y) s = Sxy.
4 x cos y = y cos x.
St 2 ,
4xy, prove
2t s (a)
by
direct substitution;
defined implicitly by the following equations.

3
x5 + y 6
5 f(%y)
*6 If the curves f(x, y) = 0, g(x, y) =

angle tan" 1 {(fx g y -fv gx )/(fx gx +fgv )}.
*7 If x' + y*
^^
dx*
intersect,
2xy(x*y* + 3)
(x-y*)*
5ax 2y 2 (a being constant).
0.
show that they do
so at
'

*8 Jff(x,y)
0,
347
prove that
fyfxx ~ %fxfvfxv +/'/y
_
Show that the curvature
off(x, y)
at
fyfxx
(x, y) is
Qfxfvfxv ~^~fxfyv
(+/>*
9 If u
is
10 If w
= ( a +?7 2 y =
rcos0, y = rsin#, prove
a function of (x,y) and

u(x,y)
and a;
a;
du
du
du
^ by
X
dx
dr
and express du/dd similarly.

11 If u = u(x,y) and = e xy 7/ = x 2 +y 2 express
du/dl-, du/dij, x and y.
12 If u u{x,y) and x =
y = gr/, prove
,
...
du
(1)
13 If w
w(2c,
<ii)
and hence that
and a;
^)
(m)
v
'
du
du
(U) (
2
t?
2
,
t/
find dujdg, Bujdij.
),
2gr},
du/dx, dujdy in terms of
du
du
du
-^ = ^-8g4
prove
aF^+^+^s^V
d 2w
3 2w
dx2
dy2
-H
4(
/5 2w
S 2w\
-\
+ if)\02
dy 2 )
14 If u, v are functions of (x, y) which satisfy
du
dx
and if x
dv
du
dy'
dy
dv
dx'
= r cos 6, y = r sin 6, prove that

d 2u
du
1 du
1 d u
_
2+ rdr + r 2 dd 2 ~'
dr
_ 1 dv 1 du _ dv &n
dr~rdd' rdd~~dr
15 If u
= x nf(ylx,z/x), prove that

9w
dx
16 If x
r cos 6,y
dy
dz
r sin 0, prove
(!),=(!),
-dtod
Q/
Interpret these four partial derivatives geometrically,

dr
to:*
Jdx
I to'
17 In no. 16 find (dxldr) v (dyjdd) x

,
86
(SIand indicate why
348
[9.44

(1)
Euler's theorem on homogeneous functions
We
n in (x, yY in 1.52(4); the

more independent variables.
defined 'homogeneous function of degree
definition extends obviously to three or
// u(x, y) is homogeneous of degree n, then
8u
8u
= nu
x+y
8x * dy
all x, y for which the function u is dijferentiable.
The result has already been verified by direct calculation in
for
9.24, ex.
(ii)
be expressed in the form x nf(y/x): see Ex.

now give a proof based on formula (vii).f
since every such function can
no.
7.
We
Put
tx,
(a),
1 (d),
ty in the definition
u(tx, ty)
n u(x,
y)
of 'homogeneous function'; then
u{,y)
wo
Derive both sides
n u(x,y).
t:
8u8E 8u8v
+ - = ntûix,
diet
y),
dt
8u
+ y
= nt - u(x,y).
n
i.e.
8g
Since
û(g,7])
equation
(a)
Putting
1,
(a)
^jû(x,y)~^ x==,
etc.,
becomes
this
8u
8x
becomes
X
since
8tj
x and
tj
y when
+y
8u
= nu x
,
8y
'
y )'
1.
Example
Obtain the result of 9.24,
ex.
(ii) (6)
similarly.
Derive equation (a) above wo t, applying formula (vii) to each of the functions
8u\8i, 8u\8t]\
I8hjb8i
Le
8 2u d7]\
8 2u
*"
Now put t =
1,
8?
+ 2xy
and the
8 2u
8jd7)
8 2u 8g
+ yi
2
8 u8rj\
d 2u
8t?
result ('Euler's
n(n "
1] 1
U{X V)
'
'
theorem of second order')
t See also Ex. 9(c), no. 15,
and Ex.
9(/), no. 23.
follows,
9.44]
Laplace's equation
(2)
dx*
349
=
'
8y*
Interpreting (x, y) as cartesian coordinates, we investigate what becomes of

this partial differential equation when we change to polar coordinates by the
substitutions
and
a;
= rcos0,
= rsin0. The new
and we have to express

0. We have by (vii):
wo r,
du
= dudx
dr
dxdr
du
Ye
dudx
dx-de
dudy
1
=
dx
The
first
dudy
^8e
we
Solving for dujdx and du/dy,
du
cos
dx
n
sin 0.
.
dy
W
du
rsvci6
-Yx
cmdn
'
find that
du
= sin0
dr
dy
du
-,
dr
du
-\
du
sin 03m
n du
cos a
of equations
du
dydr
independent variables are r

wo x, y in terms of those
partial derivatives of u
0,
dd
cos 6 du
-.
(6)
Kl
dd
shows that the operators djdx and
(6)
sin/9 d
cos0-
dr
dd
have the same effect on u, where on the left u is a function of (x, y) and on the right
has been expressed in terms of r and 0. Using these equivalent operators
(cf. 5.62) to find dhi/dx 2 , we have
it
d u
~
=
2
2
sin0 d\
n d
/
I
dx
cost?
dr
J n
= COS0ICOS0
_sin0^__
2
9a d u
sin 2
dr 2
sin0 d zu\
dd
drdd)
cos ddu
dddr
-H
drdd
Remark (a)
d2u
1
dx2
2sin0cos0S
1
dd2
dr
r2
dd
cos 2 ddu
dd
\d 2 u
d 2u
1
dr2
dy 2
2 sin
cos
du
drdd
r
d2u
r2
cos 2 dd 2u
dd 2
below,
2 sin 6 cos d d2u
AJJ
Adding,
sin d d 2u\
dd
sm 2 dd 2u sm 2 ddu
d 2u
2sin0cos0
dy 2
dr*
d 2u
dd!
1
r2
Similarly, or see
du\
2
n du
n d u
Bind- + cos d
9a dhi
cos 2
sin
dr
dr
du
cose'
i
Bind du
dhi
dr*
dd) \
dr
r2
dd'
\du
.
r 2 dd 2
rdr
(c )
K}
Remarks
(a) Since
\ti
the expression for du/dy is obtainable from that for dujdx by putting
can be found from d 2u\dx2 by the same sub-
for 0. therefore d 2ujdy 2
stitution.
(/?)
The result can be written
\ +
r8r\dr)
(y)
is
The expression on the left-hand
called del or nabla;
V2
is
8 *u
72 dd 2
'
side of (c) is often written

the Laplace operator.
V 2w, where
350
(3)
The wave equation
To
find the general solution of this,
from x, ttou,v by the substitutions u

by Ex. 9 (a), no. 13. We have
dy
dx
and by using equivalent
c%
we change the independent
= x ct,
dy du dydv _
~ dudx + dvdx ~
= x + ct
dy
du
variables
which are suggested
By
dv'
operators,
8\/8y
8y\8 y
dv) \du
= (8
8 y
8 2y
dudv
dv2
'
\8u
dx*
[9.44
du
8v)
Similarly,
dy
= c dy
he
du
8t
By
dv
d2y
and
dt
2
2
(8 y 2 B y
r
2
dudv
\du
ci \
8 2y\
1.
dv2 }
Hence the given equation becomes

dudv
Since this can be written
(IH
8u
we
see that dy/Bv is independent of u (3.82),

only, say By/dv F(v). Integrating wo v,
y
where
g(u) is
an
and
is
therefore a function of v
= jF(v)dv + g(u),
F(v) dv, the

y =f(v)+g{u) =f(x + ct)+g{x ct)t
'arbitrary' function of u. Writing f{v)
general solution
is
where/, g are 'arbitrary' functions.
Example
Find the solution for which y
Since
dy
^ =
ex
and
dy/dt
ex
when t
0.
cf'(x + ct)-cg'(x-ct),
at
we see that when 2 =

V
0,
+ 9&) and
By
= cf'(x) -
cg'(x).
Hence we require
f(x)
+ g(x) = e*-l
and
f(x)
+ g(x) =
and
i.e.
for arbitrary a. Therefore,
f(x)
ex
- g'(x) =
e*,
f(x)
g(x) = -e x + a
c
on solving
e"
f\x)
for f(x), g{x),
+ i(a-l),
g{x)
we
find
1),
required
9.44]
351
and the required solution is
^^1+1)^ + ^1-1)^--!.
Exercise 9(d)*
1
down the expression for
Write
du
du
when u
is
du
2 For any differentiable functions

satisfies
8Hl
<f>{t), tfr(i),
show that u
= x<f>(y/x) + t/r(y/x)
g2u
3 If f(x, y) is homogeneous of degree n in (#, t/), prove that fx{x, y), fv {x, y)
are homogeneous of degree n 1. [Derive /(to, 2y) = < n/(a?,
partially wo x.]
4 If x
constant
rcos#, y
if
rsin0 and u = r B cos0,
dht/dx2 + dhi/dy*
find the possible values of the
[Use 9.44 (2).]
0.
= x3 + Xxy 2 satisfies
Find the value of the constant A if u
dhi
dx2
8
H
dy 2
With this value of A, show that if z =
r nu
0.
where r2
= x2 +
2
,
then
[Express z in polar coordinates.]
6 If z
a function of x and y, and the variables are changed to
is
u=
(where a,
,..
[For
x2
(iii)
7 If x
dz
y
*
dy 2
dx 2
+ 2uv dudv
41 v2
du 2
\
use equivalent operators obtained from
u, v
by
= ax2 fly2
dz\
dz
-2xy
+ =
*dxdy
eu
+ e-v y =
,
d z
8u 2
8 If a?
+ fly2
are constants), prove that
9z
(in)
fl
ocx 2
ev
+ e~M
8%
8 z
1
dudv
dv
ht* 2
du 2
dudv
du
prove
x 8z
2
n d z
2
+ 21 w + v\.
(ii).]
dz
I-
hi
dx
u x2
0%
dx
8y
d 2z
2xv
h
I-
8x8%
= u + v and y = uv, prove

d 2z
8v 2J
d 2z
I
8v 2
(x 2
v
5*z
4:t/)
y)
8y 2
2
dy'
v2
d 2z
* dy 2
'
dvj
352
9 Obtain the solution of d z/dxdy
when x =
0.
and
10 Find the
[Use 9.44(3).]
9.5
when y
general
ainx sin y for which

an odd multiple of \tt.
is
of d 2z/dx 2 8 2z/8y 2
solution
dz/dy
[9.5
= 2siny
sin (x + y) cos (x y).
Differentials
9.51 Definition
Suppose that u(x, y) is a differentiable function of the independent variables
Then the approximation (iii) in 9.33 and the procedure in 3.92 (1) suggest
x, y.
we
that
define du, the differential of u,

'
du
by the exact relation
8u
du
8x
8y
= 8x
+ 8y.
(vm)
is linear in Sx and in 8y
denned whenever both du/dx, dujdy exist.
This definition of the differential of the dependent variable u also defines
the differentials dx, dy of the independent variables x, y. For dx is du when u
is the function x, in which case dujdx = 1 and 8u/8y = 0, and (viii) gives
Thus du
that part of the total variation du which
is
(the 'principal part' of 8u). It
is
dx
Hence dx
Similarly
(viii)
l8x + QSy
Sx.
with the arbitrary increment

Consequently (viii) can be written
8x: the differential of a; is identical
shows that dy
8y.
du
8u
du
= dx + dy.
7
8x.
(ix)
dy
dx
Remarks
(a)
Although dx
we have
Sx and dy
and
(viii)
and
in general e t , e2 are not
(/?)
Su
8y, in general
_
du
4=
8u since by
(ii)
of 9.32
= du + e1 Sx + e2 8y,
both
zero.
We shall see (9.53, Remark) that formula (ix) is more general than (viii).
(y) The partial derivatives dujdx, 8uj8y appear in (ix) as the coefficients of
the differentials dx, dy. For this reason these partial derivatives were (and
sometimes
still
are) called partial differential coefficients.
a function u is to write down the expression (ix) for du.

Contrast this with the process of deriving uwo x (or wo y), in which we merely
write down the expression for dujdx (or dujdy).
(8)
To
differentiate
9.52 Principle of equating differential coefficients
Adx + Bdy = Cdx + Ddy,

B,0,D are functions of the independent variables x, y {or are possibly
constants), then A = G and B = D.
If
where A,
Proof. Since dx, dy are arbitrary, being identical with the increments Sx, 8y
in the given relation and obtain
respectively, we may take dy = 0, dx 4=
= D.
shows
Adx = Gdx, whence C. Similarly, taking dx = and dy
It is essential here for x and y to be the independent variables, otherwise
dx, dy
would not be
arbitrary.
9.53]
353
9.53 Invariance of the expression for the differential

(1) If we interpret the derivatives du/dt, dx/dt, dyjdt in formula (iv) of 9.41
as quotients of differentials, we may multiply both sides of (iv) by dt and obtain
(ix). Now (ix) was proved on the assumption that in u(x,y), x and y are the
independent variables; whereas under the circumstances in which (iv) holds
both x and y are functions of a variable t. It thus appears that (ix) holds more
generally when x, y are themselves functions of an independent variable t.
Next, suppose as in 9.43 that u = u(x, y) has been expressed as a function

f tne independent variables , tj by means of the substitutions
x(g, rj), y = y(g, ri). By the definition of 'differential' applied to the function
(2)
u= f(>V)
=
u=M,V),
du
du
du
8i
Idudx
dv
8udy\
du/dx jr
^[M
du
^+
8x
idudx
,r
dudy\
duldy^
^ V + ^[di
d
dy
^'
onrearran
du
= dx +dy
dx
since
by the
dy
definition of 'differential' applied to the functions
y(i>y)>
dx
8x
x(g,r}),
Thus du is still given in terms of dx and dy by
x=
the formula (ix), jtjst
WERE THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
as if
(x, y)
Remark. In contrast to this result, formula (viii) is false when x, y are not
the independent variables. For, since we are assuming x(, ij) and y(, tj) to be
differentiate functions of (, ij) as in 9.43,
dx
dx
= dx + e^+e^Si}
by
definition of dx;
and
similarly
Sy
The right-hand side of (viii)

du
(dx +
which in general
is
is
= dy+e3 S^+ei Sii.
therefore
+ (dy + e3 8 +
du
ex tg
e 2 8V )
not equal to
8u
du
dx + dy,
dx
dy
y
i.e.
du,
the left-hand side. Thus (ix) is more general than

or not the variables are independent.
23
4 8tj),
(viii)
because it holds whether
GPMI
354
(3)
The above invariance property

u of n variables x,y,z,
holds for the differential
[9.6
du of any
which are themselves differenThe proof would proceed

similarly from the corresponding extensions of formulae (vii) and of the definition of 'differential'. The technical convenience of differentials depends on
differentiable function
m independent variables ,
tiable functions of
...
ij,
, ....
this property; see 9.6.
9.6
Further implicit functions
9.61 Differentiation of equations

Let f(r, s, t) be a differentiable function of the independent variables r, 8, t.
Suppose that functions u = u{x,y), v = v{x,y), w = w{x,y) of independent
variables x, y are such that
f{u,v,w)
for all
x and y
satisfy
for
which the functions are denned. We then say that

w) = 0. For example, if
u, v,
differentiable equation f(u, v,

f(r,s,t)
u=
then
satisfy f(u,v,w)
sinar cosy,
=
v
+ s a -M 2 -l,
ra
w = coax
eiax siny,
0.
substituting for u, v, w in /, we obtain a function of the independent

variables (a;, y) which is zero for all x, y concerned. Hence
On
^
=
8x
and so
By
df
and
= *fdx+?fdy =
dy
= 0,
|
dy
Odx + Ody
0.
8x
the invariance property
we always have
df
8f
8u
8v
8f
+ -^-dw.
df=i-du+-fdv
J
8w
Hence
df
8f
8f
-fdu + -^-dv+^dw =
dw
8v
8u
0.
Therefore, given a differentiable equation involving differentiable functions,

we may differentiate both sides as if the functions in it were independent variables.
9.62 Derivatives of functions defined implicitly
In
this section
we assume
that all functions involved are differentiable.
We
consider general functions rather than specific examples because we thereby

exhibit more clearly the process used, unencumbered by details of calculation.
The following cases are typical.
as determining^ as an implicit
(a) In 9.42 we regarded the equation/(,y) =
for all x for which the functions
function of x, say y = y(x); then f{x, y(x)) -
could also determine a; as an implicit

are denned. The same equation/(a;, y)
function of y.
function of (x, y), say u = u(x,y);
(6) Similarly ,f(x, y, u) = Omay define u as a
and then f(x,y,u\x,y)) = for all x, y concerned. The given equation might
also define y as a function of (x, u), or x as a function of (y, u).
9.62]
The
(c)
pair f(x, u, v)
0, g{x, u, v)
may
be thought of as simultaneous
equations capable of being solved for u and v in terms of

implicit functions u = u(x), v = v(x) for which
f(x,u(x),v(x))
for all
(d)
u=
and
355
g(x, u(x), v(x))
as defining
a;,f i-6.
x concerned.
Likewise the pair of equations f(x, y, u, v)
u(x, y), v
= 0, g(x, y, u, v) =
could define
= v(x, t/).f
Assuming throughout thai these implicit functions actually exist and are
we employ 9.61 and 9.52 to obtain expressions for their derivatives. The results need not be memorised because they can be found in any
particular case by the same methods. The first step is always to differentiate the
differentiable,%
given equation(s).
(a)
From f(x, y) =
we have
so that
dx
dx/ By
as in (vi) of 9.42.
(b)
From f(x,y,u) =
0,
df
df
df
dx
dy
du
=
i-dx+i-dy+du
*
Solving for du,
= --fdx--fdy.
du
Ju
Ju
But
0.
= dx-\
du
dy,
ox
dy
and since (x, y) are the independent variables,
9.52 gives (on equating coefficients
of dx and of dy)
=
?
a
(c)
We have
8f
&f
Of
~-dx + ^-du+^-dv
dx
du
4.
Sy
f
and
/.
So
8g
do
dx
du
dv
-^-dx+~du + ~dv =
and
dv
0.
Solving for du, dv in terms of dx gives expressions for dujdx, dvjdx.

(d) Differentiating,
j-dx +
dx
with a similar equation for
dy in the form
Since
(x, y)
du
g.
dy+^-du + % dv = 0,
%
dy
du
dv
We can solve these for du, dv in terms of dx and
= Pdx + Qdy,
dv
are the independent variables,
du
_ P
8x~
du
'
_Q
&y~^'
= Rdx+Sdy.
we deduce
Sv_
8x~
Tf
'
&>_
dy~
t Other choices are possible, of course.

% General conditions sufficient for this can be formulated.
23-2
356
[9.62
Remarks
(a) The equations
in differentials are always linear, and therefore easilysolvable, whereas the given equations will not in general be linear in the
corresponding variables.
the choice of independent variable(s)
(fi) We have already remarked that
can be made in more than one way. For example, in (d) we can select two
independent variables from among x, y, u, v in 4 C2 = 6 ways, and for each
choice there are 4 equations giving the partial derivatives of the remaining
variables wo these, making a total of 24 such equations. The two equations
obtained by differentiating/ = and g = are symmetrical in the differentials,
and convey all this information. Also see 9.43, Remark (/?).
(y) The reader who nevertheless wishes to avoid differentials can obtain the
results described above by using the obvious extensions of formulae (v) or (vii)
to functions of more than two variables, in the manner that ( vi) was obtained
wo x (using the extension
in 9.42. Thus in (6), by deriving f(x, y, u(x, y)) =
of
(vii)
to a function of three functions of
+ -dudx =
(x, y))
= -A
ox
so that
0,
we have
dx
ju
Examples
(i)
x and
If
u=
sin x shy
and log (x + y) + 2y- Slog z
4, calculate
du/dx when
z are the independent variables.
Differentiating both equations,
du
1
and
x+y
From
the latter
we
cos a;
shydx + smx chydy
{dx+dy) + 2dy
dz
0.
find
dyl-^ + 2| = -dz
\x + y
] dx,
x+y
and on using this to eliminate dy from the former,
du
cos x shy dx + sin x ch y (-dz

\z
^ /(
x + yJ) l \x + y
2J
J
Since (x,z) are the independent variables, du/dx will be the coefficient of dx
in the expression for du, viz.
COS 33 Shi/ -
sinojchy
-r-.
r
l
(ii)
Iff{x,y,z)
prove
dx
dz I8z
dy/ dx
dy
First method.
+ 2x + 2y
and
dx
jdz
1 /
dz
dx
By differentiating the given equation.

8
8
=
+dx + Idy + fdz
dz
dx
dy
0.
(A)
9.62]
357
The expressions dz/dx, dzjdy in the required results indicate that z is an implicit
function of the independent variables x, y. To find them, solve (A) for dz:
= -ffdx-ffdy.
dz
Jz
Jz
Hence
J*
fa
and
ft
8y
Sz
Similarly, the appearance of dxjdy, dxfdz indicates that we regard the same
equation f(x, y, z) = as defining a: as a function of (y, z). Solving (A) for dx,
dx
= - ffdy- ffdz,
Jot
l = JjL
from which
Ja>
dz
fm
The two results now follow.
The preceding is hardly more than a verification of results already stated.
A more subtle use of differentials leads directly to the results themselves.
Second method. Regarding z as an implicit function of (x, y),
/.
dz
= dx + dy.
*
dx
dy
Next, regarding a as an implicit function of (y,z),
dx
dx
dx
By
dz
J
= dy
+ dz.
,
Eliminate dx from these by substituting the second in the

dz
(dz dx
I
dz\
1
\dxdy
dyj
7
dyA
b
'
dzdx
first:
dz.
dxdz
Equating coefficients of dy, dz gives the respective results. Observe that the
function/ does not enter the calculations. For Ex. 9 (e), no. 16 the first method
would be even more prolix.
Exercise 9(e)*
Assume
1
f(x> V> z)
that all the functions concerned are differentiable.
= constant and xyz constant; prove that

_
dx
y(xfx -zfz )
x{yfy -zfz )'
= constant and x* + y* + z a = constant, find dyjdx.

<j>{x,y) = 0; prove that dujdx =
(fx v -<f> x fv )/$ y
= f(x, z) and z = g{x, y), find dyjdx.
2 Iff(x, y, z)
3
u =f(x,y) and
4 If y
5
curve in the
fjx, y, a)
0.
<f>
6 Elimination of
its
tion of 9.43,
Remark
from the equations y =f(x,t),
(/?).
Cf.
and
= <f>(x,y). Prove that fa =

If x = e 2 sin^ and y = e^Gosij,
relation z
given by the equations f(x, y, <x)

gradient is -fjfy
(x, y) -plane is
Prove that
(ft gx -fx gt )[ft
= g(x,t)
leads to the
and fa = g /f
t
t.
prove that (dx/dg) v = 2e 2 Zcosecq. [Notathe direct method shown there.]
358
8 If
under
u = xy and ax + by + cz =
where
1,
a, b, c are constants, find
dujdx
possible meanings.
all
= x 2 + y 2 + z 2 and z = xyt, find dujdx under all possible meanings.

If u = x* + y 3 + z 8 and x 2 + y2 + z 2 = constant, find (du/dx) v
If u = x 3y 2z where # 2 + 2 +z 2 = 3a*/z, calculate (dujdx) y and (dujdx),
9 If u
10
11
at
t/
(1, 1, 1).
12 If/(#, y, z)
Prove that
0,
explain in detail the meaning of the symbols dy/dx, dxjdy.
(l)
(n)
13
Given that p,
v,
14
The
=
dz'
6 are connected by a single equation, prove that

/dp\
where
3*^,
dydz
fy&s
variables
v, 0,
/dv\
fd_6\
are related
(j>
=_x
by pv =
Gv Gv B are constants and Cv Cv = B.

dd d<J>
d6d<j>
= Cv logp + CP log v,
.R0,
Prove that
__dpdv dpdv
~~d6d4>~d^dd'
8p8v~8v8p ~
[The context makes clear that in the left-hand side 6, $ are functions of (p, v),
while in the right-hand side p, v are functions of (0, <j>).]
15 The equation dE = 6d<j>pdv arises in Thermodynamics. If
to be a differentiable function of (0, v), show that
bur variables p,
and deduce that the four
v, 6,
are related
re
<j>
<f>
E is assumed
by two
equations.
Prove that
^
[For
(ii)
put ^ =
"~"
\w/v
V>?/p
6<j> E, show d^ =
\<16
and hence get
00
16 If c,
2/,
{du) v
w,
v are connected by two
{^lv {^)u{^jv
[Write down <Zw, dv and efcc,
relations,
dv
show that
(^)fc)v
Substitute the
first set
in the second,
equate coefficients of dx and of dy.]
Miscellaneous Exercise 9(f)

1
If u
= ylog(y+r)r where r a =
dhi
dx2
2 If x
rcos0, y
x 2 + y 2 prove
dhi
8y2
_ 1
~ y+r'
rsin0, prove
S2
dxdy~
cos 20
r*~'
'
fc)(^)v~
and then

3 If z
f(x, y) + g(t)
where
xy, prove
dz
'
TT
V=
8z
*dy
dx
is
independent of g. Calculate V when f(x,y) = xye x ~v

4 If u = x* y 2 , find a function v(x, y) for which
du
tt
dv
x and
5 If z
),
dx
dz
= /(a; 2 + y 2 + z 2
),
d 2z
X 8y->
^'^dxHy
prove
+ 2" = 4 aj2 +
8^ +
fe
If w = x nf(y(x), prove
(
+ z2 )/^ 2 +
2/
=
+ y
*
dx
If v
= w e^*
61'
+ 2 a + 6/
)
2/
(a:
+ 2 2 + z2 ).
/
nu.
dy
with w as before, prove
x
8 If z
du
dv
=
dy
dx
prove
dz
y.
= f(x 2 + y 2
{l)y
6 If m
and
dx
for all
359
= f(x + y) g(x y),
dv
dv
~ (ax + by+n).v.
+
T
ox yT
dy
prove
z_S 2z\ _ lszy_ldzy

dy 2) ~ \8x)
/S 2
'
\dx*
9 If z
+ y) + yflr(a;
y),
prove
&b 2
10 Find the constant
n if w =
dxdy
J"
e^1
r2 r\
11
w =/(z) where
If
-a;
satisfies
2
,
dhi
dx 2
=
dzz
2
d z
2
a z
dy 2
0.
" satisfies
8r)
dt'
prove zdujdt
_U _
~
tf\z)
and show that
if
dhi
~~dfi'
then/(z) satisfies
12 If
dujdt
w =/(z) and
= a;2 /4, calculate aw/3*, d 2ujdx2 If u satisfies

= A fe-^dz + B, where A, B are arbitrary constants.
of the curve a? 2 tan -1 (y/cc) y 2 tan- 1 (x/y) = c at the
z2
dhi/dx 2 , prove/(z)
13 Find the gradient

general point (rcos0, rsin0).
14
Show that the value
of cPyldx* at the point
x* + yz
= axy + a*
is
(a, a)
7 la.
of the curve
360
15
Find the equations of the tangent and normal at
(i)
f(x,y)
Calculate the lengths of the subtangent
(ii)
16
17
(xlt
yt ) on the curve
0.
and subnormal.
Prove that the curves x + y = e 2x y = xtaxiy cut orthogonally.

If u = u(x, y) and x = a + ht, y = b + kt, where a, b, h, k are constants, prove
2
u = u +
d2
dt
18 If x
rcosd, y
8x
= raind,
wo r,
partial derivatives of u
19 If u = u{x,y)
constant), prove
2
yo 8
h2
and x
d 2u
..
8x 2
8 u
8hi
nll
2hk
dxdy
+ k2
-.
8y z
express {8uj8x) 2 + {8u/8y) 2 in terms of
6 and
r,
6.
cosa-?/sina,
"y
(U)
2/
^sina + ^cosa (where a
is
y -y
8 2u
8y 2
_ 8 2 u 8 2u
~ 8^ + 8i} 2
'
20 If u, v are expressed as functions of (x, y) by the formulae
u-Xv =f(x-Xy),
u + Xv =f(x + Xy),
where A
is
a non-zero constant, prove

8v
8v
8u
8u
= =A
8x
8x
8y
..8 u
8 u
= A -
2
. n
2
and
8y 2
8y
8x z
21 If x = ( 1/u) cos 6, y = ( 1 /u) sin 0, calculate (8x/8u) e and {8u/8x) y and show
that their product is cos 2 6.
If V(x, y) is transformed into a function of (u, 6) by these relations, prove
,
8V
= -w
(i)
.
2
a 8V
8V
sinf
.
cos6'-
8u
8x
80
<")(iT (f) ='feT

22 If x
y=
er* sin 6,
er* cos 0,
23 Writing Q{x,y)
where w
F = F(x,y).
(x, y)
to
(r,
6) in
82u
82u
- x nH(x,y), and changing the

=
transform the equations
y/x, v
x
where
^7
change the variables from
a2w
(w, v)
variables from (x,y) to
a;?/,
8G
8x
Vv
y
80
= nO,
8y
8F
x8x
8F
=
y
8y
b
Hence prove G = x n <f>(y/x) and
.F
0,
^(a^),
where
<j>{t)
and
^(2) are arbitrary differentiable functions of t.
24 If u, v are functions of (x, y)

prove
for all x, y, r
*
&b
which are connected by a relation
av
Sm
_
8x8y~
<f>(u,
v)

*25
(i)
is
w are functions of (x, y, z) which satisfy the relation

prove that the determinant
If u, v,
for all x, y,
z,
du
du
dx
dy
dz
dv
dv
dv
361
<j>{u,
du
dx
dy
dz
8w
dw
dw
dx
dy
dz
zero for all x, y, z.
2
2
2
(ii) If u ax + 2hxy + by + 2gxz + 2fyz + cz has linear factors
= Ix+my+nz, w = Vx+m'y+n'z,
prove
[The functional relation
is
u vw =
0.]
=0.
v,w)=0
(1)
ANSWERS TO VOLUME
Exercise 1(a), p. 10
1
13
- 3 < x < |; (ii)

x = y = $,z = $.
(i)
<x<
2\,
w=
>
x
14
3.
2 6 /(3'V3);
(i)
(4/3 )#f.
(ii)
Exercise 1(b), p. 14
1
x<%, x>B.
4 =f:-i.
7
< < 3, x<l.

< -1, 1 < < 2,
a;
9 x
a;
-1 <#<
2<-l,8>l.
-l<a;<l,
>
a;
3 All
61<a;<2,
jc>3.
a;>3.
10 4
4.
a?.
<
a;
< 3 + V 3 3~V3 < x <
2.
14 No.
11
4i,
15
A=
2,
-|;
= -2,
i>
1,
4=
3,
2, tf
2,
D = - 1.
Exercise 1(c), p. 19
Graph
18 Graph
16
like fig. 9, p. 17.
17
Graph
like fig. 39, p. 79.
19
y>-\; minimum
like fig. 10, p. 18.
at
- 3,
-\).
Exercise 1 (a"), p. 29
E, n;
(i)
O, 2n;
(ii)
(vii)
E, 2n;
(viii)
(i)
(iii)
E;
(iii)
= 0;
a*/ a -2a^+a;-4y = 0;
i
i
y -2xy + x -x
(i)
Homogeneous of degree
5;
(iii)
1;
(iv)
11
(ii), (iii)
(ii)
-;
(i)
m n, and then of degree m.
E;
#;
(ix)
4
2/
(iv)
(v)
O;
(iv)
(x)
(v) neither;
(xi) neither;
0;
-2a^ 2 + a:a -:r =
m+n,
sin (1/x) oscillates between
E;
0.
0;
3xy 2 + 6xy-y* + 2y-
-2;
(vi)
(xii)
0.
(vi) 0.
(ii)
m n;
increasingly often as x approaches 0.
(iii)
not homogeneous unless
Exercise 1(e), p. 34
1
(i)
Raise
Ox
c units;
(ii)
alter y-scale in ratio c: 1;
(iii)
move Op back
c units.
2 Not(-a,0).
5
7 r2
cos20
= a8
3
.
a 2 sin 4(9.
6
8
= at/{l + t*), y = at 2J{l+t*).

r2 sin 20 = 2c2
(' + y 2 3 = 4a*x Vx
Produce r by an amount c; (ii) produce r in the ratio c

initial line clockwise through angle c.
17
(i)
18 Cardioid.
(iii)
rotate
ANSWERS
(2)
5
= \(a + b + c).
By Cauchy, (Za&c) 2 <
p. 35
(Sa 2 & 2 ) (2c 2 ); and Sa 2 6 2
<
(Za 2 ) (S6 2 ) unless
all a's
or all 6's are zero.
7 a
sion
>
(a;
- 4ac < 0; or
- 4x + 12) (a - 2) 2
2
0, 6
2
c>
0,
0;
A=
4,
8,
10 Between
9 Outside -1,3.
8 All values.
Expres-
16.
2, 5.
-l<a;<l, a<-2, > 2.

< x < -I, x < -2.
13
= (6 2 - 4ac) (6' 2 - 4aV), which can be reduced
(ca' - c'a) 2 = (aV - a'b) (be' - b'c).
19 X = ax + hy + g, Y = y-(gh-qf)/(ab-h 2 ); A = 0, ab = h\ a 4= 0.
21 a; = a(2 cos + cos 26), y = a(2 sin - sin 20).
12
a?
16 (oo'-2ac'-2a'c) 2
to
1
2a.
(i)
-1;
(ii)
0;
(iii)
-3.
0; (iv)
6a4
1.
3.
f.
J.
1.
1.
10
0.
11
1.
12
(i)
0;
13
(i)
0; (ii) 1.
14
(i)
osc. fin.
15
(i)
0;
18
-sin*.
(ii)
osc. inf.
1;
go.
(ii)
1.
17 sina.
16 2(p*-q*)JrK
(ii)
osc. inf.
oo.
1
oo.
->
oo.
osc. inf.
3 osc.
1.
oo.
7 ->
fin. 0, 2.
oo.
osc. inf. 0, oo.
8 osc.
fin.
fin.
1.
9 _().
10
->0.
11
->0.
12 osc.
13
14
1.
15
7T.
16 |0 8
17
1.
if a > 6, 6 if 6 > a, 0ifa =

< 1, osc. inf. oo.
18 a
20 If a
#s 1, -> oo; if
22 g(n) has limit
>
6.
19
1.
0.
I.
Miscellaneous Exercise 2(c), p. 58

2
1.
limw n
= -V.
3 + 42 ~.
wn
for all a.
n-*co
9 If
|a|
10 If
|a|
11
(i)
<
<
->
1,
un
-> 0; if
|a|
1,
un
-* 0; if
|a|
mi
(ii)
0,
O is approached.
y = 1 lim [lim{cos(m!7ra;)} 2n ].
curve
12
oo.
> 1, \u n
> 1, \u n -+ oo.
oo, or +oo, depending
jn--oo n-*-ao
along which part of the
ANSWERS
(3)
1
(i)
(i)
(i)
-1/a;
1/(2 V*);
(ii)
n sin"
-1
a;
17 5/V(l-25a;
sec 2 a;.
(iii)
8a;/(l-a; a ) 5 .
(iii)
mw sin" -1 mx cos ma;;
+x
- l/V(a2 -a; 2
2
18 2/(1
).
(i)
l/V(a -a; 2 );
21
(i)
-l/V(a 2 -a; 2 );
8 f\x)
(4aj+17)-*.
(ii)
20
(ii)
F\u).
19 sinâ;.
).
).
27 fr^/a 2*/.
29 {ay-x^Kyt-ax).
<j>\t)
l/V(a2 -a; 2 ).
(ii)
22 a/(a*+x2 ).
30
a^/
(2y+3a^')-
28
-{by fax)*.
31
-l/i 2 .
-(b/a) cot <j>.
34
x-ty + at* =
33 *(2-*8 )/(l-23 ).
32
= cot^;
+ y cosec 2 6 a.
35 x sec 2
(i
sec n+1 a;.
l/(2y + 6);
(i)
IV^J
(iii)
ZOx*(x*-Z); (ii) xj<J(a? + x 2 );

~
nsin w 1 aj cos a;; (ii)
cos ma;;
(iv)
0;
te
+y =
2of + oi3 .
3
-3a: -12a;+4)/(a;
2(a;
3a;(l-a; 2 )-*.
a;2
5 {(1
6
7
11
m( 1
+ 4) s
14
aj
2 )~*
{x sin (m sin-1 x)
+ m( 1 a; 2
cos (m sin -1 a;)}.
10 ^= l,y* = 0,y = 2.
m(m 1) ... (m n+ l)a;m-n if m ^ w, if m < n;
~
(ii) m(m 1) ... (m n+ l)x m n
l)"n!a;~ n (iii)
sin(a; + twr).
13 cos (x + %nn).
m(m 1) ... (m + l)a n (aa; + &) m ~ n unless m is a positive
-nty
(i)
integer less
is 0.
15 o n sin(aa; + 6 + ^n7r).
-4a
18
2o/2/,
20
a;(2aj/ 2
23
+ 2a; + 4)/(a: + l) 8 (a;-2) 2
sin a; x cos a;}/a;8 .
than n, when the result
21
4 sin a; (9 sin2 a; -7).
12
6a:(a:
l/,
8
/t/
19
(ay-x
6uV + 4v"V +tf*>u.
)/(y*-ax), -2a*xy/{y*-ax)*.
-a;8 )/j/(j/ 8 -2aa;2 ), 2aa;*j/(25a2 - 8xy)/(y* - 2ax2 ) 3
- l/(2a<8
(6/a)
17 vu^+iv'u'" +
2
22
).
tan 0, (6sec 0)/(a
25 n cos n#
sec d, w(sin
0).
24
-(6/a)cot0,
y/i,
- (6/a2
(xy-xy)lx3
cos n0 n cos 6 sin n0)
sec 8 0.
cosec 8 0.
26 (a 2 /?r) /r 6
= 2, max.; a; = \, inflex.
= 0, inflex.
2
3 x 1, min.; x = 2, inflex.
4 x = \, max.; a; = If, min.
= a + 2nzr, max. x = a + (2n \)it, min., where n is an integer and a is
5
given by cos a sin a 1 = a b ^/(a* + 6*).
1
x=
1, rain.; a;
a;
a;
ANSWERS
(4)
10
= nn, min.; x = (n + $)n, max.; x \{2n + 1) n, inflex.

\TT + 2nn, \n-\-2mr, max.; x = 2nn \n, min.
x 5, max.; inflexions at oj = 2, 2
x=
i(6 + ^/3), min.; x (6 ^3), max.; a; = 2, inflex.
The value 1 oif{x) is not a minimum value.
11
To a given value of x
6 x
7 x
8
values of
13
(i)2cu.ft.;
15
liy/2.
19 since
21 af-
for
which
<
\x\
there correspond infinitely
many
6.
14
cu.ft.
\AB.
17 Equality.
5=
(ii) 8/tt
2{7Tx)jir
< r(x- 1)
<
when
if
>
0,
a;
4= 1,
7r.
<r<
1.
Exercise 3(d), p. 87
(i)
h;
47rr 2 <Jr.
1-0035.
(ii)
3ah + hs ;
(ii)
p%
when a =
h/a*(a + h);
(iii)
~8p;
(i)
-8T
-dp.
p*
0.
Miscellaneous Exercise 3(e), p. 90
sin (sin x) cos x.
1 a; 2 3a:(l a; 8 )* sin-1 a;.
4 -(& 2 -a 2 )*/(6 + acosa:).
8 a;).
nsec a;/(l+n tan
-2/V(l-a; 2 ).
1/^(1 2 ); because sin -1 V(l # 2 and

- l) n n! {3(a; - 2)-*- 1 + (x + 2)~ n ~ 1}.
i(
6 l/(*+l)V*.
a;
10 (-l)n!{8(x-2)- n
n=
-(-l)- n - 1}
-1
cos-1 a; differ
n>
if
1;
by a
constant.
+ (a;-l)- 2 -8(a;-2)- 1
if
1.
2 n_1 cos (2a; + \nn)
11
31
25 o
0.
-$, 6
= ^.
}]/[l - 2(a> + y) cos {( + y) }].

= 1, min.; = 5, max.
28 None.
29 None.
6c; otherwise, none.
x = 2w/r, min.; x = (2w+ 1) tt, max., provided ad
x a*6*/(a* + 6*)*, max.; = negative of this, min.
26 [2(* + */) cos {(a? + 2/)
30
5 n cos (5a; + tym).
21 d*y/dt*+y
12,13 See 10.43.
27
a;
a;
=f=
a;
32 (27 + 3V78)*,max.; (27-3V78)*,min.

35 x
\tt
<
<
|7r,
fn,
f7r
|7r.
<x<
(i)
Incr. for
<
<
n. Greatest value at
40
39 2ab.
\n
<x<
|7r;
(ii)
\n.
6.
1
\{{x+l)l + {x-l)*}.
4 tana; a;.
2 ^x + \ain2x.
5
^-(sin3aj + 9 sin x).
i-\sm2x.
6 x tan -1 a\
deer, for
ANSWERS
7
a; a
-log(l+a;a ).
(5)
Kl+)* + 2(l+*)*.
a(n+l)~.
n+1
(oaj + 6)
10 4(2
7
^ v cos 2x -cos 4a;).
11
13
-( 1/a) cos (aa; + 6).
16
^tan-^-itan- ^.
18
tan-â + S).
-1/sr.
1
12 -sin (as
+ 6).
v
14 (1/a) tan- 1 (a;/a).
15 sin" 1 (/a).
17
-l/(a; + 3).
19 suvâ;-!).
Exercise 4(6), p. 104

1
i(*-5) + $(*-6)'.
16(
f(a;
Wd+^).
/2a;
7 isin 4 a;.
9 J sin" 1
8 $tan*a\
10 itan-M
3/'
_
9V(9-a;
a;
11
1 .
12
2 )'
X
13
J2+1)a
+ 3)* -6(* + 3)*.
2x2+1
14
9V(* -9)'
a
4(a;
9V(sa + 9)*
Xl
+ l) a
15
7(l
a;
2 )*"
16 secâ;.
17 -J(x*-1).
18 fttaii-*) a .
19 cos-^l-a;).
20 $ sin8 x -\ sin6 a;.
21 sinâ;- V(l
22 sec- 1 a;--V(a:2 -l). 23 ${y/U-y/2).
- 2
).
24 (3V3-1).
25
26
i.
27 ^tan-if.
28 ^.
29
2.
31
Jtt.

1
sin a; a; cos a;.
-x
2 (a:/a)sinaa; (l/aa )cosaa\
cos x + 2a; sin x.
(2
\{x+l){x-5yfax-Z)\
^-(l-a;)^
n+V
'
(n+l)(n + 2)
4/2a; a
+ 2a;sin2a; + cos2a:).
(l-a;) n + 8 .
v
7 a;cos- 1 a;-V(l-a; a ).
'
8
2a:
^(l
+ as^tan2
*.
2a;
9 ^{sin4a: 4a; cos 4a; + 4 sin 2a; 8a;cos2a;}.

10 | cos8 x -cos a;.
12
-1,
a;"
11
a;"
sin ox - cos ax
.
n(n 1)
a-2
(5a* - 60a;
13 -ten.
14 8tt+16.
\x 2 aeo-x x-\*J(x*-
*n
+ 120) sin x - (a;6 - 20a;8 + 120a;) cos x.

15
f.
ANSWERS
(6)
16
17
+ l)(n + 2)(n + 3)'

^x-^^l-xâhx^x.
Aw *'
*
(n
18
20 i(2x 2 -l)am- 1 x + ix^/(l-x z ).
19
2V(l-a 2 )sin~ 1 a; + a:(sin- 1 a;) 2 -2a;.
21
(1
-x^y + Zx^+Ax + B.
Exercise 4 (J), p. 114

1
l/x.
2cota\
9 (loga:-l)/(loga;) 2
sec
a;
7 2/(1
coseca;.
10
1/e.
21 31oga:.
-log (1-3).
24 log(l + a; 2 ).
2
-ilog(3a;
29
-| log cos 3a;.
34
m+
log a;
a:
30
-\ log (3 + 5 cos 2 x).
33 2 log tan \x ; log tan %x.
xQogx- 1).
35 i(loga:) 2
tan a: + log cos a; -|a: 2
37 ^(loga^-fa^logaj + â; 4
36 a;tan- 1 a;-ilog(l+a; 2 ).
38
0.
m + 1/
1 \
41 log 2.
42 l-log2.
43
44
45 &(2e8 +
46
x, log |acosa:
3, /*
39 ilog2.
40 ilogf.
47 A
a;.
l/(jclogc).
12 (l/)loglp e.
16
32 log log x.
sin x) .
4
25 ilog(l+a: ).
27
xm+l
).
- 12* + 7).
28 log sin a;.

log (cos x
(2/sr)loga?.
26 log(3a; -7a; + 5).
31
4 cot
a;
22 log(l+s).
17
23
15 2 sec a;.
14 sec a;.
13 cosec a\
- ljx.
2/cc.
4.
l).
+ 6sina:|; ^)^ + Algt= -2; 3a; 2 log (sin x + 2 cos a;).

3 *.
2 3e
5
8
11
+ 2 cos 2a;).
10 * 2
12 Je2 ".
16 e Biax
15 log(e*+l).
18 ie^cosaj + sina;).
22
e*-&.
m = 3 or - 2.
25
(a;
20
+ n)e
2a;
9 log2.e*
1.
**(l+loga;).
e<
-e cos *sina;.
= 2*^2.
13 --.
4
3 e*(a;+l).
e Sx (3 sin 2a;
7
10
1.
2*^2.
14 2e*.
17
a;
19
&
2*
21
-2 cos 2a;).
- 4a:8 + 6a: 2 -6a; + 3).
e x (sin 2a;
24 a n e
(2a;
*.
26 ^(loga)".
a!
.
+ 6 cos 6a;) =
+ &2 e0a! sin 6aJ + 6), where

2
n
2
2
2
1 = a 6 V( + &
cos 6 sin
( + & )* e sin (6a: + nd).
2
2
28 p = a/(a 2 + 6 2 q = -6/(a2 + 6 2 ); e * (a sin 6a: -6 cos 6a:) /(a + 6 ).
27
eax (a sin 6a:
V(
aa!
),
) ;
ANSWERS
29 e*(&sm&ar + acos&ar)/(a
31
36
(i)
0,
mm.; x =
2,
+&
max.; x
+ Bi + Gt 2
3 e" +
(ii)
30 x
).
3a;
+ ^/2,
(7)
0,
max.; x
= 1/^2,
inflex.
32 rê ".
inflex.
+ A + log + tf(log x)\

a;
Exercise 4(/), p. 124

!
n^-i
(*
+ l)*(2* + 3)*
(3ar-5) 3
'
(ar-2)*(3ar
+ 2)*(2ar
t
+ 5); 2
-r
v
v
/
v
e 3a! sin2a;(5/ar
\2(*-2)
6(3 + 2)
ar
e x sin a; (log a;) 2 { 1
are a,
9)
4
2ar
+3
Zx + 5)
}.
2 + 5/
+ 3 + 2cot2a;).
5 e^*.
+ cot x + 2/(ar log a;)}.

tanar(l/ar+l + 2cosec2ar).
10 (logar)*(loglogar +
M.
log
18
arj
22
|ar+l
a;
23 e\
1.
28 logp.
21 e~ 2
27 logf.
26 log 2.
29 log(p/q).
Exercise 4(g), p. 128

8
(i)
%ch(x + y)-$ch(x-y);
(iii)
ich(a? + y) + Jch(a;-2/).
16 log
24
^ or log
cosech
3.
ar.
22
(ii)
sh (a; + y) + sh (a;
tharsechar.
23
25 cothar.
sech2ar.
27 cosecha;.
28
30 2sharcosar.
31 x ebx {ahx logar +
39 If a
6,
L-^-wJ; if a =
a-b
j
41
43 ch4a; ch2ar.
44 ^ch
char.
52 logth(iar).
b,
29
\ i^-e^+x)
2\2a
j
42 a;-thar.
Ja?+ish2a?.
3
ar
char.
45 ($sh6a:+ish4a; + 3h2a; + a;).

arsha;
(l/ar)ch(logar).
|sechar.
38 enhar.
e<<+*+
40 sh2ar-a;.
47
26
35 ch2ar.
37 21ogchc.
\
2[a
+b
cothar cosecha;.
(1/ar) char}.
32 (charj^logchar + artha;).
36 th3ar.
y) ;
48
arthar
55
1; 1.
46 |(l-l/a;2 ).
logcha;.
49
(ar
l)char 2arsha\
Exercise 4(A), p. 132

2
V(25 + 4ar
24
2 )'
X
^-x)' >
**
1^4?'
<h
GPMI
ANSWERS
(8)
5 $secx,
<
\x\
6 2/(1 -a; 2 ), x
\n.
9 sec x
8 secc.
10 sh-1 *.
16
c'
if
>
tana;
sec x
0,
|seca;|.
if
tana;
<
0.
ch- 1 ^.
11
log {x + <J(x* - a 2 )} + c';
= c - log a;
+1.
4= 0,
log a + Xx + c\
1
(X
^.
20 sin- ^.
17 sh-
18 ch"
23 ch-Ma +
26
l)
(a;>
0).
> 6).
> f).
Jch- !^
25
ix^-a^-^ch.-
ch-M^-ch- ^)1
33 ojth-^ + ilogtl-a;
35
).
isHh-^+^+ilogU-a;2
=
36 c n
xn
share
a
a2
<
38
\x\
<
1;
x n ~ x ch aa;
log^^-|VlO+V2
32
xoh^x- V(* a - 1).
34
i(2a?
a2
logcot(fce-i7r).
0;
>
29
n(w 1)
-\
\x\
1).
(x/a).
+ l)sh- 1 a;-ia;V(aJ 2 + 1).
).
37 2 th- 1 (cot Ja),
27 V 40+f Iog(3 + Vl0).
^Vt^-^+lch-Mfa;).
(i), (ii)
Jsh-^fa:).
22 sh-Ma;+
21
28 ixy/(x*-l) + $ch- l x.
31
19
(a;
c B _a ;
n chax w-x n ~
a:
a2
sh aaH
n(w 1)
a2
1.
Exercise 4(0,' p. 141

1
I log (x - 2) + f log (x + 2) -i log x.
281oe
S
26
a;- 3
15
x-2 x-2
2(x-2)*
ftan-i|-|tan-^.
Jar
log^
^.
B
2
a;
a5+1
log (a? -2)
a;
:l
+ log^.
+l
9 2a
2(# 2)
.
10 log(*-
a;-l
12 31og(a:+l)-21oga:.
14 log (a;2 -a; -6).
13 log(a;-l)-log(4a;-l).
a;
- +t&n- 1 -.
+ 2 V2
V2
a;
ar
15
a;
-l)-ilog(l+a 2 )-itan- 1 a +
5
11
a?
+ x + 1 log (x -1)- 1 log (a; 2 + x +1).
7 log(a
8
1
x-l
x+2 x-l
4 log
6 2
2 21og
- x + 4 logo; -3 log (x +1).
16 7 log (a? +
1)
+ log (a? + 2) - 8 log {2x + 3).
17 2 log a; -2 log (a: -3)
7
-.
X O
18 log(a;-
1)
-log(a; + 2)
+
*T*
1
n_2
ANSWERS
2
19 loga: + --log(a;+ lias
21
3 log x - 1 log (a 8 +
1)
(9)
ar+l
+ 2 tan- 1 a.
22
a;
+ 4 log (a; -2)

C
--Jtan"
23 - 3 log (1 - 2x) + flog (a 2 + 3) + ^-.
24
26
V 3tan_1 (a?V 3 )-V 2tan_1 (a;V2

log(a;-2)-log(a;2 + 4a;-l).
)-
25 | log (a: 2 -3)- log (2x + 3).
27 ^log(a;2 + 2) + -itan-i-^ + Jlog(a 2 -2).

;

i
3 + 2
1
3a;-2
*tr*_.
3 tan-i(* +
ilog^.
4 *logî.
l).
a?
6 |log(9a; 2 -18a; + 25)+^tan-1 |(a;-l).
+ 2x + 2
+3tan~ 1 (a;+ 1).
â _^
log(a; a -a;+l)-ilog(a; a +a;+l) + 3V3tan- 1 (a; + i) + |V3tan- 1 (x-i).
8
5x
x\
1
3a; + 20a;t
1 I,
7 log (1+ x)
9
1ft
12
a;
+ 2 tan- 1 x.
8 %log
8(STto + 5j +^
tan - 1 -
+ 2 tan- 1 2
1-a
l+V2 + a
1+a;
a;2
+
1o e
+ 2tan- 1 ^-l.
*
lV2
g
v
l-a; 2 /
l-a;V2 + 2
\
.
13 iV2{logJ-
a;
14
a:
Exercise
1
loga;-2Va;.
4(fc), p.
150
2 K*+1)*-2V(*+1).
4 fB*-3* + 31og(l+sr*).
6 fz* + fa: + 3cc* + 2a;* + 6a:* + 6a;* + 6 log (* +
7 2{V(2a; +
1)
1)
21og(l+V).
I log
^+
+ 3 log (a?* - 1
4)
~2
).
+ Jx - tan- 1 V( 2x + 1) - tan" 1 Jx}.

24-2
-.
Jd
Kl+*) + f(l+a;)* + l+ + |<l+aj)* + f(l+a>)*.
9 sh- l i(* + 3).

12
ANSWERS
(10)
8
-^ch- 1 {JV 2 (-+
10
sin-i^^.
13 J{x* + l)
11
1 )}-
sin-1
^^.
+ 2dx- 1 x.
a;+ 3
Gx+lty-Ssh- 1
14 Jixt +
15
f V( 2
+ 4a; - 7 - 4 ^2 ch" 1 {J V2(* + 1 )}.

)
2a; 4-
16
Bsin- 1
2j(6-x-x*).
5
18
20
faJixi+V-ldr-ix.
-ish-
23 Ssh- 1 3
19
-2
21
?.
a; +
Sx-3
J^2
7- oV>
sh 1
10
17 V("-
i(a;
+ ch~ 1 x.
+l)*-V( 2 -f
+ ^j.
22 cos"
l)
+ sh" 1
a;.
^^.
14
DTn-1.*V2
24 --sin
1
*+l
V2
^x^-a^-^ch-
25
^V^-^ + i^sin-
27
!^?sh-i5?z5+A(te-6)V(a-fa).
l)
26
-.
1-
28 4(2-5)V(* 2 -5a; + 6)-|ch- 1 (2a;-5).

29
77 /2
- 6x + 1)* + *(2x - 3) V(2a; 2 -6x+l)
(2a: 2
,
30
32
i
,
27B'
og
V
vo*
+>-V
+ 9 )+ v
2( /ff-a) J*sin
31
-
_,( 2
yr
3
2a;
-J- ch"
It)
//!l!, + 9\l
Wm)-
"iV**"
0cos 2 0d0, J2d0, 2O0-a)Jsin0d0.
33 2( - /?) 2 Jsh 2 w ch 2 wdw,
J*2
du, 2(a - /?) Jsh 2 udu.
Exercise 4(/) p. 156

1
-cotlx.
'
1
-logtan(W**)
log(l
7
9
10
12
l+tanja?
\t&n- 1 (2t&n\x).
tan*a;-l+V2
_ log^-^-^
1
-2
or
6 tan -1 (tan \x+ 1).

+ tana;).
log (sin + cos x).
8 |a; + log(sina; + cosa;).
+ sin x + 3) + tan -1 (tan a:+l).
2a; + log (2 cos
a;
a;
11 *tanj*.
-V2sh- {(l/V 3 tan (4 '-^)}3
7
9
13 -|cos a: + f cos 6 a;-^cos 7 a;.
^ sin a; \ sin a;.
1
77
14 tan x 2 cot x -\ cot8 a?.
16 tan 2 x + log cos as.
15
- cosec - sin x.
a;
17 itan 2 a;-|cot2 a: + logtana:.
ANSWERS
18
2 tan ~ 1
(V 2 4811 *)-
20 -^(5 cos 2a; -cos

22
(11)
19 ilogcos2a?.
21 Jg( 3 cos 8a; -4 cos 6a; 12 cos 2a;).
10a;).
i\q{ 1 5 cos 7a; + 42 cos 5a; + 35 cos 3a;)
23 A(^sina; ^sin3a; sin5a; ^sin7a;).
24
R = <J(a? + 6
25
(iii)
2
),
a is given by
tan-
<
4oc,
\J(4ac-b
1
V(4ac-6
a 6
:
iJ.
= a.
Put w
a;
â =
7T~i
62)
8a*
if 6 2
4oc,
1
ctana; + i&
2ctana; + 6-V(& 2 -4ac)
.
2(a a cos
4= 6,
T"
2
'V(6 -4oc)
27 If a
2ctana; + 6
(ii)
(1/6) cottar.
26 If 6 2
28
cos a : sin a : 1
o
2
2ctana; + 6 + V(& 2 -4ac)'
1
\
-1 1/b
-,
-tan a; I;
tan
t,_.0
IOV
^
2a6(a a - 6 2 )
a;
o
2
"
....... .o
x + 6 2 sin2 a;
sin 2a; 2#cos 2).
\x + sin 2ma;,
4m
sin 2ma;,
Aa;
cos 2ma;.
4m
4m
Exercise 4(m), p. 163

1
2
3
+ ^cos a; sina? + j^cosa; aiax + ^x.

\ sin4 x cos x sin2 x cos a; cos x.
Acos B a;
^ cos x
4 i^cos
sina;
sin4 a;
a;
sin
A
A
+ A cos x sin + A cos # A cos
+ A cos sin + A cos sin
4 a;
a;
a;
a;
a;
5 \ sin a; sec 5 a; +
6 f sin8 a; sec 6 a; -^sina; sec4 x

7
11
A-
^7T.
15 i7rara +.
21
23
24
25
26
27
13
16
17
a;
A log tan
(Ja;
+ gfâ;.
+ 4^).
ftf.
10 Tf*
t^W.
14
^TT.
A-
18
0.
=
-nu n _ 1}.
1
=
1/n) ch""
sh x + 1 - 1/n) w n _ 2
,
M n = 1 /) sh"- 1 a; ch a; - 1 - 1/n) u n _ 2
s = 1 /a 2 {aj B-1 (n sin ax ax cos aa;)
n(n 1 s_ 2}.
n-1
2
c n = 1 /a {a;
(aa; sh ox n ch ax) + n(n 1 c_2).
8 n = 1 /a2 {a; n-1 (aa; ch aa; n sh oa;) + n(n 1 _2).
u n = {e sin"- 1 bx(a sin 6a; -n6 cos bx) +n(n- l)6 2w B _ a}/(a 2 + n 2 6 2
Ifm*-1, umn = {xm +\\ogx) n -nu m>n _ 1 }l{m+\y,
if w 4= 1, u-i, n = (loga;) n+1 /(w+ 1); u-i,~ = log log
t
20 w
22
12 ft.
ff^r.
a;
tan x.
A^.
a;.
sin3 a; cos x gfe sin a; cos x
A
+A sin x sec
sin a; sec 8 a; +
(l/a){x n efix
a;
oa!
a;.
).
ANSWERS
(12)
28 1%.
30
8in m_1 x(n sin x cos nx
wm, =
29
m cos x sin nx) + m(m 1) um _
_g_
315-
34 Put y
-%n.
7r-a;.
Exercise 4(w), p. 171
mean*
[*
11.
5
22 If 6
32
33
if
>
>
m odd,
0,
7-1.
*.
8 in.
f.
12 *.
14 \n.
15
*.
16 \e 2
20
21
integral
m
m(m-2)
is 0; if
...
29
a, *.
* even,
"Si-
7r.
(m- 1) (w- 3) ... 1 n
m(m- 2) ... 2
(m-l)(m-3)...(2n-m-3)(2n-m-5)...
47r.
11
(m-l)(m-3)...2
-
']
10 *.
*.
17 2
*.
6 log3.
1.
9 \n.
13
'the integral does not exist
(2n-2)(2w-4)...2
m odd;
-.
2
same with
factor *
in
m is even.
35 in(a + b).
Miscellaneous Exercise 4(o), p. 173
+ flog(2a;+l)-log(a; + 2) + -^tan-i-^.
log (a
+ 4) -log (x -1)
^-r
+ 31og2-flog5.
4 \n-\.
+ %teixi- 1 $x.
+
__ __t,-t-^..
(-l) 2
5 *-*r.
10
11
2a8
logs;
-ia;
i*- t
7 i]og - i
,2aj
a x'
4a 3
- $log (1 + a:) - 4 log (1 +)-& ten" 1 .
12 ilog(aj + 2)-^log(l-a!)-ilog(!B +
13
3).
21og(aj+l)-log(2aj-l)-log(*-l).
14 ilogff [put *
Vtantf].
16 |-log2.
^tan"*
17
- [put x = tan
_L_ /^.3
18 4 tan- 1 a; +
15
8(1
+x z
{(*
^-^j
&].
+ <*)* + (* -a)*}.
/j.
^put u
19
a sin" 1 (a/a) - V(2 - 2 ).
ANSWERS
2
20 Ja (?r-2) [puts
=a
-6a72
a;
-^ loga;
a;
3x^~
8in lx
^(1 + e-^8 =
)
41 \x ~ it sin 4a;
(1
(i)
31
52
~1.
32 log(l + V2).
35 e-*(2sin2a;-cos2a;).
42 J log 2.
(ii)
log2
44
1.
fc2
49 flog 6.
sec a log tan (a 77-)

|
;
|
if a =
77-,
50
ir/</(ab).
integral does not exist.
53
1
1
1/V6) {tan- V6 - tan" i V 6>
55
56
58
A- i log
61
a:(loga;
57
tan2 x].
1 /V 6 )
tan_1 (i V 6 )-
^liOg(l+a)+^îfa=t=0;
2.
59 |7ra3 .
1) =
a;log(ai/e).
60 ^vra8 [put
Put x
a;
|if a
= 1 ecos0.
lira*.
67
We have (m+n) J{m,n) = mJ{m \,n 1) cos ^rwr, hence
66
(m + w)(m + w 2)I(ra,n)
68 ff.
70 w
69
0.
= asin2 0].
65
w!g n
(n 2) sin rar m(m 1)
even,
I(m - 2, n 2).
/{(2+^+l)(w-l?+p+l)...(g+p + l)(p+l)}.
na
^(,a + a2)i n + __
Wn _
2
a;
n odd, u n =
ill
i.
- +
__... + (_
n1 n 3 n
? + -i-
_...
+ (_! )*+ | + _ 1 )i<n+8) log 2

(
= {a sh aa; cos bx + b ch aa; sin bx}j(a 2 + 2 ),

* = {a ch aa: sin 6a; 6 sh ax cos bx}/(a 2 + b 2 ).
73 c
47 (1/^2) log tan ft* -iw).
1.
40 l/V2 + log(tanf?r).
54 -^{3 V2 log ( 1 + V2) - 2} [put cos 20
71
)-
29 ilogf.
39 2-Jtt.
a;
#= |7r,
+ a?a
37 i(a*- l)log(l+a; 2 )-Aa;* + ia;2
0-405.
46 ilog3.
3tt.
34
-log(l-taniaj).
51 If
cot 0.
log sin x) cos + log tan \x;
45
48
V( 1
'
-ch-Ha -*)/(* V2)}.
38 log a; (log log a; -1).
43
23
a;
33 (l/V2)log(l+V2).
36
< ].
)/|6|}.
t = x + 1/x],
+ a;3 (a2 - 2 )"1}.
1 2 )*
~
2 )-*
28 0 2 -0 tan 0- log cos 0, where x

30
[put
1 /a;)
(1/a*) {x(a 2
1
27
a:
2a; 2
^log^-f+lj-jlog^+lj+^tan- 1 ^^, where
25 sh- 1 (a; +
26
^{1 -V(6 -a
21
cos 20].
22 J(ax + x*) + a\og{<Jx + J(a + x)} [put
24
(13)
a
ft
ANSWERS
(14)
74 {a sh ax
sin bx b ch ax cos bx}fta2
{a ch arc cos bx + shax sin bx}j(a
+ b2
);
+ b 2 ).
= \n a; in the first integral.
77 Put y
78 n
/(cos 2 x) dx.
Jo
79
\n\og2.
(ii)

1
a log xdyjdx
2 Tangent to a
4
y"=p
y.
circle is
perpendicular to the radius.
6 y
y.
7 Differential equation of all parabolas with

11 y"'-6y"+Uy'-6y =
3xy' + yly' 3 .
Ox for axis
of symmetry.
0.

1
= fa: 3 + c.
= f* + c.
= 4a!- 1/(23*).
= + c.
4 y
7 y
10
logaj
y*
8 cost/
logy
11
14 (x 2 + 2y + c) (y + ce 2x )
16 xy
(c-6a; 2 )
2/
cc
a?2/
+ c.
1.
%x + c.
= ccosa;.
= x(logx- l).
9
13
15
0.
->
17 v
= x + c.
=
sh(a;
+ c).
y
2
2
y = l + 2x-x
x + y = tan(a; + c).
3
y = xy + c.
tan y
fc.
2xy
(x y) 2
+ c.
= cxy 2
11
x.
2 sin (y/x)
= *ah(log* + c) = i(c aj-l/c 1

(x-y-2) 3 (x + y) = c.
4(x-2) = (x-y-3) log {c{x - 2)}.
2(a;+l) 8 + 3(a:+l) 2 (2/-2) + (2/-2) 3 =
6 y
10
2 x 2 -2xy-y 2
9.
).
x 2 log(cx 2 ).
7
9
- y) 3 (x 3 - 3 = c.
log(x+y) = x-y + c.
j^l+e -**.
(x
c.

1
=
=
e x {x
+ c).
2sina; log (sin a;)
?/
12
2/
15
j/
17
2/
21
a;.
= (loga;) 2 + c. 7 (l + ce *) = 1.
8 y = -x-\.
2
2 =
(c 2tana;) = cos
cosx.
11
= cx e 2x 3
c
10 xy
v
v
2
1
= ce -%e~
14
= Axe- '*.
(c
13
5y) =
2
=
4a;.
=
1/c,
= x + a+be~ x
cx+
16
y
= ca; V(c a + 1), 2 + 2 = 1.
y = cx + c3 4x 3 + 21y 2 = 0; c = -l, -2, 3.
= ca; + sin c; s.s. given parametrically by x = cos c,y = sin c c cos c.
(y-px) 2 = -4j3& 2
2
2/
19
a;
+ c sin
5 2/loga;
18
= f sin3 + ccoseca:.
2 y
a;.
j/
?/
j/
2/
2/
a;.
a?
ANSWERS
(15)
+ ax +
2x
In
2/
= ae nx + be~ nx = a1 ch(wo; + 6 1
= jc4 +1.
6 ax = y 3 + by.
12
4 y = a + be3x
).
= 1+a 2
8 y
2 y2
b.
\ a
= c*+^x + bj
9 y
f /.>*.,=ioh{ 9
m2 =
-l2 cos 2 6
c
y(f!
7 y
= x\
6ch(a; + a).
io
-i)}.
u-
2
2
f-2n c sin 0.
Exercise 5(f), p. 198

1
4
6
7
9
11
13
15
17
20
23
= Ae + Be
2 y = A ix + B e~ 3x
3 y = (Ax + B)e~Sx
x
5 y = A cos 2a; + B sin 2a.
y = Ae**+Be-*
=
{A cos 3a; + B sin 3a;) e" 2 *
t/
8 y = .4 + e"8*.
y = ei x {AGOs{ixy/3) + Bsm(ixj3)}.
a
=
=
=
A 2$.
10 4
2, B
J. = -2, B = -10, O = -21.
\2 A = -l.
z%,B
=
=
=
=
A
-if.
l,B
14 A
C = xts4 = i, B =
16 ^ = 1.
=
A 1.
18 ^ = i B = |.
19 4 = i, B = f.
4 = h B = - 1.
= f, C =
21 .A = .
22 A =
^ = -i,B = -l, C = -2.
24J.=-&.
x
3x .
Exercise 5(g), p. 201
= Ae x + Be* x +3.
2 y = e x {Acoa(x<j2) + Bsin(x<j2)} + 2x+l.
3 y = Ae* x + Be- x +%(2x2 -2x + Z).
4 2/ = Ae x + Beix + 4e* x y = 4{eix + e x -2e ix
5 y = (A+%x) e ix + B e~3x
6 y = e* (J. cos a; + B sin x) +-^(6 cos 3a; 7 sin 3a;).
7 y = e (4cosa; + Bsina;)+-gYr(7cosa; 2sina;).
8 y = Acos4x + (B + %x)aba4x; y = (A+\x)ain4x.
9 j/ = e~ix (3x* + Ax + B).
10 2/ = ^ + Be~ x +%(3x 2 -x).
11 y = tcoa4x+Aco8 2x + (B + %x)am2x.
1
).
7a,
J.
ANSWERS
(16)
= e^ x {AGoa^^lx) + Bsm(^^x)}+-he 2x -ê- 2x

y = Ae** + (B + $x)eix --is (cos2x-3Bm2x).
y = e~ x (A âinx ^co8x)+Be- 2x
y = e x (A + 18x-3x 2 + %x3 + Be* x
y = e~ 3x (x 3 + \x 2 + Ax + B).
y = e-i x {Acoa($j3x) + Bam($j3x)} + e x {\(x-l)+-s (2cosx + 3Bmx)}.
y = e 2x {Ax + B + (3 - 2a; sin 2x - 4a: cos 2*}.
12 y
13
14
15
16
11
18
Exercise 5(A), p. 208

1
a(coapt coant)/(n 2 p 2 ).
2 (ii) x = (at/2n)ain.nt.
= e-Rt 2L (A cos nt + B sin w), where n 2 = 1/LG - i? 2 /4L 2
6 = EC{(CLp 2 - l) 2 + C7 i2 2p 2 }-*, tana = CBp/(CLp 2 - 1).
a 2 (A sin ox fi cos aa:)
_ 0( a 2 (A cos ax+/i sin aa;) +
y ~
{0(-a 2 )} 2 + a 2 {^(-a2 )} 2
(ii)
8 x
'
'
Exercise 5(0, p. 211

1
2
3
4
5
7
9
10
= Ae +Be~ y = sin Ae +Be~

x = A+Be-* + %e ,y = A-Be- 2t +%e
x = A e~ 3t +B e-\ y = A e~ 3t -B e~K
x = f + ie'-f e-<ê-*. = | + ie'-|e-*+-ê- 6
x = Ae3t +(B-t)e 2t -%e y = 2e -2Ae3t -(B + 2-t)e 2t
x = f(e- 2t -e- 3 + sin, y = 2cos*-f(6e- 2t + e-3 ^6
w = e'+a, v = \e +be~ 2t
x = (A-$t 2 )cost + (B + $t)aint, y = (3^1 -f-f 2 )sin< + (^-3)cosf.
u = A cos 0)t + B sin o)t, v = E/H B cos 0)t+ A am. (ot.
a;
'.
2/
' /5
).
Exercise 5(j), P- 216

1
2 y = &x 2 {A + 4:\ogx) + B/x 2

y = x z {A+B log x + i(logx) 3}.
4 y = Axi + B/x-ix 3 -ilogx-%.
y = xi{logx-6) + logx + 6.
y = (l + 2x) 2 {Alog(l + 2x) + B} + ilog(l + 2x) + $.
x = At 2 + B/t 2 + C cos (2 log t) + D sin (2 log *),
= ^4.2 4- B/J 2 - G cos (2 log - D sin (2 log t).
= ^V(l-a; 2 + Ba;- ^^l-xâm^x.
y = Ksh- 1 a;) 4 + A sh" 1 a; + -B.
.
2/
7
8
11
2/
n = -2, a =
4, 6
0;
= ^{^1 + Be- + 1^(4sina;-cosa;)}.

4ir
2/
ANSWERS
(17)
= x{Ae- 2 i* + B).
13 y = e x {A!(x + l) + B}.
2x
x
3
15 y = ^xHog x+Ax^ + Bz3
y = e + (Ax + B)e
y = e*(a;-l + l/a;)+4e-*(a; + 2 + 2/a;) + jB/a;.
a*/(a: 2 + c) = 3a 2 + c.
12 y
14
16
19
Exercise
1
4
7
10
13
16
y = kx + c.
xy = c2
x 2 -y 2 = c.
% = ch(AxB + c).
2x 2 + By 2 = b.
x+ 1 = fte^+i"
2
8
11
14
17
18 Given x
through
20 y
J.
(l+2/' 2 )
2/
A cos -1
a?
+i? sin -1 x
12
= 0.
-y) = 2xy(l +y' 2
2
14
a;
2/
16 tan (y/x)
18 a^
c.
Jfc".
11
log (c/x).
K+c
220
= .4' cos -1 x +B'.
cob-1 x)
= cxe x
0.
log {a;4 (a; a + y 2 )}
2 tan" 1 (y/a;)
c.
15
C2/.
5(/), p.
2
(1 -x )y" = xy'.
9 y
13 2(a;-y) a -2(3a?+2/)+log(2a;-2y-l)
2
(a:
f
7 {xy'-y) 2 + 4y
).
= (a;+c)/(l-ca;).
=
c + tan- 1 (a; + y).
y
tan-1 (y/a:) + 2 log (a; 2 + y 2 =
2
= A cos- 1 x + B(%n
5 y" = 0.
8 y
10
x+J{x 2 +y 2 =
= - 1.
(sh- 1 2/') 2 .
4 a?y + 2/
6 (xy
equation is a quadratic for dy/dx, giving the two directions

Condition for equal roots.
(x, y).
3 Since
kch{(x-c)fk}.
a) 2 +j/ 2 =
a;
12 2a; 2 +2/ 2 = 6.
15 a;8 -3as/ 2 = &.
(i) Differential equation is y/y' yy' = 2a\
a;
and
19 \n, tan- 1
219
5(fc), p.
= Ae*'k
x-J(x 2 + y 2 = c.
a; = 4/(c-Mogy).
2 -*/ 2 =
6.
= +
2 y
= c.
7a;
-%
-6an/ + 4a;--2i/
+ y) \x + c.
= x + c<J(l+x2
1/a? = 2-y 2 + ce~^.
y = (e x + c)ainx.
17 log ( 1
19 y
).
= i + x 2 + ce 2x\
21
22 1/y = 1+cx + logx.
23
24 a.s. y = cx + $c 3 s.s. 4a; 8 + {fy 2 = 0.
25 Q.s. y = cx + e s.a. y = x\og( x/e).
26 y = log(x + a) + 6.
27 y = aah^x + b.
2
2
28 y = x +ox + b.
29 y 2 = aloga; + 6.
30 y = Ae2x + Be~ x
31 y = (Ax + B)e x
x
32 y = Ax + B + Ce*
33 y = (4a;2 + Bx + G) er*.
34 2/ = ^4e + Se- -J(4cos2a: + 3sin2a;).
35 y = Ae 2x + Be* x + e x (2x 2 + 6x + 1).
20 l/y 2
4a!
!,!
= c.
+ c.
ANSWERS
(18)
= Ae x + Be Sx + %x s + %x i + *g-x + $%.
=
38
+ Bx~* - xz
y = e 6 * {A cos 2a; + .B sin 2a;) - \x e6x cos 2a;.
y = x{log x+A cos (log x) + B sin (log a;)}.
y = J.a;+Ba;2 + foa;8{cos(loga;) + 3sin(loga;)}. 41 y = A + B/x.
= ^(loga^+^loga^ + Blogtc + C.
43 y = Ae Biax + Be^ x
2
1
2
))-* - ar( 1 +
1/ = (^4 + Bx) 1 +
4
4t
=
=
Sie'-Be"
2yie'+.Bea;
= J. sin 2* - cos 2t.
a; = 3A cos 2* + SB sin 2<,
2t
it
=
e
2Ae- -Be-' +l6 +
x
y = Ae-it +Be~ +e +%e2t
1
x = logt-At + Bt~ y = Atf+Bt- 1 -!.
= ê +Be-*'cos(JV3 + a + f^).
x = 4e*+.Be-**cos(V 3 *+ a
2 = ^.e*+Be-**cos(4V3 + a + |7r).
2t
a; = 2A e~
+ f {(5 2(7) sin < - (2B + C) cos + Z> e2t
2<
= J.e- +J5cos< + Csin.
52 2/(1 + *) = ax3 + b.
= e x (ax z + b).
_
z'+z = 0; y = a; *(-4cosa; + .Bsina;).
n = -2, z" + 2z' + 2z = e~ x coBx; y = x- 2 e- x {Acoax + (B + %x)8inx}.
For given (x, y), equation is a quadratic inp whose roots have product 1.
2
2
2
2
2
{y + V^ + y - } iy V(* + y - c} = o.
y" - (k + 1) y' + My = A emx
57 f(x) = e x /(a - e x
36 y
37
39
40
42
44
45
46
41
48
49
50
1/
2/
a;
a;
'.
2/
2/
3t
,>t
<
)> 2/
2/
51
53
54
55
2/
56
).
58 y' cos nx + ny minx
fx
I
f(t)cosntdt+nB,
Jo
rx
y' sin wa;
ny cos wa; =
f(t) sin
d<
nA
Jo
59
2/
cos x +
B sin x + x sin + cos x log (cos x).

a;

1
l/(w+l).
sin -1 (2/tt).
fTT, far.
(l/n) 1
^- 1
).
8 h-iU(a* + ah + W)-a}.
-l
< rlog <
1
10
11
16
f(x)
is
eh
\(2a + b).
ft" 1
log {(e - l)/h}.
1.
ina<a;â + A, at a; = 0.
= a, b, c of the curve y = /(a;) are collinear; the curve generally
discontinuous
The points x
has an inflexion somewhere between
a, 6.

1
n-1
cos(2a; +
3 %e* +
î7J-).
2 sin(a; + ^7r)-(3 n /4)sin(3a; + rar).
e- x .
4 i(-
l)
n w!{(a;- l)-"- 1
+ 2(a; + 2)--1}.
-+
ANSWERS
(19)
+ 4nx* + 6n(w - 1) x + 4n(w - 1) (n - 2) x n(n - 1) (w - 2) (w - 3)}.

- 1)" e~" {x* 3m: 2 + 3n(ra -l)x-n{n-l)(n- 2)}.
e x {x*
16
- +
- +
-.).
n1 n 2 n 3 n
n
2 -*[2a-{3n(n - 1) - 4a; 2 } cos (2a; + Jnw)
+ w{12a-2 - (n - 1) (n - 2)} sin (2x + %nn)].
2"- 2{sin (2x + ^nn) + 2" sin (4x inn) - 3" sin (6x $nn)}.
+
+
x-\x* + \x*-\x + ....
2
23
2 s 42
a 2B = 2 2 -H(n-l)!} 2 ,a 2B _1 = 0; _a: 2 + -a-* +
+ ....
23
sinai
(-l)- 1 -*!-*-
[n
9
15
4:)
^2n
cos(x + dh).
+ ^cosa; ... + 1)" sina; + l) n

(
\2ti)
24 cosa? Asina- ...+( 1)"
(2?Z"|~1)!
cosa>4-
l) n+1
sin(a;
(2ra+l)!
(2n)!
+ 0A).
= 1 + x log a
25 a*
(log a) 2
. . .
J!
(n L)l
(log a)"- 1
(log a) a**.
+^
n\

1
max.
2 inflex.
max.
6 inflex.
3 min.
10 First approximation x
fit
1*8849; second
1-8955
==
inflex.
1-895.
= ,
1.
5 log
2.
12
1.
VI. 2
f.
2 12.
-2.
10-1.
6 2a/6.
7r
10
1.
13 e2
1.
11
14 0.
15
/2e.
1.
Miscellaneous Exercise 6(e), p. 252

6
10 e~*.
13
h
(i)
8
g(x)
= a, A(a-) =
-f.
1;
(ii)
h(x)
**r.
1.

1
(a) 0-7750, (6)
(i)
Difference
(i)
0-7828;
dx
(ii)
-<
JiqI+x*
(a) 0-7833, (6) 0-7854.
f00
(ii)
1-07;
(iii)
0-04;
(iv) 1-11.
Jiox*

1
fa
6 a2
2
7
37ra 2 .
i?ra
^7ra2.
f?ra
2
.
9 2-tt.
ANSWERS
(20)
10 fa 2
11
13
(^-V3) a2
17
fTjra*.
21
^7ra
12
(i)
15
ia&w.
i.
19
18
8
22
24 &na*.
57T
(ii)
-L(e6wo -e*).
16 *7rab.
20
U8
jVrf (sec*a-
23
- 1);
â.
1).
25
Exercise
7(rf), p.
csh(sc/c).
2 6a.
oe-!".
6 tan- 1 V2-i7r + V2.

10 (l/2a){r1 V(
8 8a.
279
4 â{(l + 9c/4a)*-
14 (0 + c) 2
-j-(e na
Aa 2 log3.
+^) + a
= l + 2a/r.
15
sh-
1}.
1 (r
1 /a)}.
aV~2logy =
IV 3
13
2?ra.
4a( + 6).

1
47ra
i7rZ
|7ra 2 .
4a
(secia-l).
10
sin a
a sin a
fa
11
(i)
12
47r 2 a 2 &.
13
15
f&na\
16
(ii)
4 A^ra2
3 $7ra 2 .
46
from the centre along the radius of symmetry.
2 3
(fa,0), |7r a .
14 (7ra,fa),
^naK
^n.
Exercise 7(f), p. 292
Ma
pfa2
2
.
7 (i)fMa&;
10 fikfa
Ma
13
pw.
(i)
(i)|Ma 2
|Ma
(ii)
14
|Ma
^Mo
(ii)
2Ma
15
itf(a
+ f^
);
20
(iii)
|P*a
pf(a 2 + & 2 ).
Mr 2
8 Ma&.
(i)Pfa
(ii)
^Mr
11
(ii)ipfa 2
+ c 2 )sin 2 0.
-&ikf& 2 .
M(|a + i^);
19
(i)
ikf(|a 2
18
21
(ii)
12
|M(a 2 + 6 2 ).
M(6 + fa ).
16 ^gMh\
2
(iii) M(a + fc 2 ).
2
^MaK
2
-
22 $7rMa2
Miscellaneous Exercise 7(g), p. 293

5 a(<% th|a), a2 (a tha).
3 -Hna?'
7rc
(4a
6 clog sin \jr.
{& - a + c sh (26/c) - c sh (2a/c)}.
4a\
3n' 3n)
/2a
;
10 (|7raV2,0).
8a
a\
\n' 3n~2}'
12 2na(2a + 7Tb),
^naâ + Znb),
13 -gsna*, -^na*.
ANSWERS
14 7ra*A(n + 2 sin" A)
1
15 fra
7r
18
Ma
21
ifMa2
3
;
+ fna*{2 A
2
)
V( 1
19 -j&af(r 2 + 4fc 2 ).
).
17 (i^Tra),
(fa,0).
- A2
(21)
$Ma2
20 |Afa2 6 2 /(a2 + 6 2 ).

1
2
5
= 8a sin (^-77), if * = when 6 = 0.

x = a(0+sin0), y = a(l cos#), where 6 = 2ijr.
2
2
a
(ar o) + (2/
where a, 6 are arbitrary.
6) = c
=
x 2o(cos + ^ sin
y = 2a(sin ^ ^ cos ^).
*
4 y
log sec x.
ijr),
\jr

1
nd + ^n.
10 r(0+c)
11
12
ce*.
= fc(l-cos0).
r = fcsin^^sintf.
x 2 + y 2 = ky.
13 r
14
16
17
18
= a n sinn0. 9 r = ad + c.
r = asin(0 + c).
r a = & 2 sin20.
15 r3 = 3 sin30.
2
a =
&(ar + 2/).
+
i/(3a; 2 + a = fc(cc a + 2 3
4 rB
\n.
= a.
19
fc
t/
cc
2/ )
1/ )

1
l/p
-l/r
l/a2
= a".
a2 6 2 /^ 2 = a 2 + 6 2 -r 2
r = a{l +sva(0 + c)}.
2 pr"- 1
= 4a 2
r = asee 2 (0+c).
c.
2 atan^.
4acos|0.
6 $aJ(4 + 9i
4 2w
Exercise
8(a*), p.
312
= asinjfl\
* = c^, y =
)*.
11
rcoseca.
12 a2 /3r.
16
-fV2.
17
|V2, -2V2.
18
-i^V^-
20
Circles of radius
21
-Jo.
22 ay
(oa;
+ 6) +
2
4 (l/c)sech 2 (a;/c).
10 2rV(r/a).
= 1 -e 2 + l 2 /p*.
r 2 + 3p 2 = o 2
r = acos(0+c).
3 2l/r
c.
clog sec ^.
15
AV 6
fc.

(a
h8
__cos
0,
n 2 h%
\
_^-^-sin8 0j.
1.
a
6
-; pat (0,-6).
7 fa.
Exercise 8(/), p. 326

1
y+l = 0.
= iv 2 /g %gz 2 /v 2
4x
y
2 4x3 + 9i/ 2
0.
bounding parabola
for projectiles
with
initial
speed v.
s
ANSWERS
(22)
5 xy = c.
+ t/* = a*.
2- 2 2 =
2
2
4a
c
{a;
+y
+ (y - c) 2 }.
y = (which is also a cusp locus).
(which are also cusp loci).
a; = 0, y =
2
2
= - ia* (9< + 2), y = a*(32 + 1).
a;*
(a;
11
12
14
17
18
+ t/* = a*.
= a( 1 + cos 0).
a;*
8 r
a:
=
a =
c =
x =
15 x
16
= f# + 3)/; (* + </)*-(- 2/)* = 2a*.

8
{(a + b )/a} ch t,y = - {(a 2 + 6 2 )/6} sh ; (aa)* - (by)* =
a, y = achtf; y = ach(x/a).
acos(l + 2sin 2 ), y = asin<(l + 2cos 2 *); (a; + j/)* + (x
c(3*4 +l)/* 3 ,
2
(a 2
+ 6 2 )*.
t/)*
2a*.
Miscellaneous Exercise 8(g), p. 326

1
6,
6 + %n, 6 + in.
0,
tan- 1 </2,
tt
+ tan" 1 J2.
4 r
ae* e%
10
= f'(fr) sin ^;
2
= fa(tan^)*.
a; = a(5-tan ^) V(tan#%
2 =
8 4r
Jâsinf^; 32a.
3p 2 + 16a 2 12?ra2
x = a(sin 22 + 2 sin t), y = a(cos 22-2 cos t).
14
{(l-n
17
18 a;
?/
+ 2 + 2aa;-*at/+10a = 0.
=
=
a(0-sin0)
a;
0;
*(l + cos0)--2/sin0-a0(l+cos0)
y
(x + a) 2 + y 2 = 6 2 2/ = a ch (6 + aj/o).
Cycloids a; = 6 + a(0 - sin 6), y = \a( 1 - cos 6)
parabolas (x b) 2 = 4a(t/ a).
25 (a; 2 + 2 2 = 16c 2a^.
24 -3^/2,-^^/5.
aV=l + 6e
6 aaVd^-
= /'(^) cos
ijr,
dyjdijr
19
21
22
23
a:
)r
+n
a }*/{(l-n )r
+ 2n
12
}.
= r n +\
+ 2 = a2
= -a(l + cos0).
2
a.
16 a np
2/
aa!
j/ )

1
2 l/y,-x/y 2 .
6x-2y. -2x+l0y.
4 -y/xj(x 2 -y 2 ), l/J(x 2 -y
6 6# +
8 y
6?/, 6a;,
e xy
15 J
r(z)
v
'
^
,
8x8y
6y.
xy) e xv ,
+/
J
'
(z)
2x/(x 2
).
j/sina;,
e xv .
cosy + cosa;,
2yj(x 2 + y 2 ).
ajsiny.
16 2u.
8x8y
c 8t
8z
dz
8z 8z
+ 5 + 55-
_
21
8 2y
By
^ = 1-
8y 8x
^ (e1 -* - ez+v sin

+ B e~* u =
16*
27 ^lcosc + Bsinc<.
29 (ii) 0, 0; (iii) +1, 1; (iv) the mixed
x = and y = 0.
^. e vy
),
2xy 9 , 3x*y\
8x8y
26
+y
9 ch a; ch y, sh x sh y, ch a; ch y.
J^L
w|(.+^n-+>.
&c 2
a;.
28
A + B]ogr.
derivatives are not equal
when
'
ANSWERS
(23)

1
R (?-?*)
-^-rJsi--Sg).
-0-006a.
C=
6 {(6-cco8^)(y6 + (c-6cos^)<Jc}/V(6 2 + c 2 -26ccos^);
\u.

1
368
+ 24<6
x(2ay*- x*)
.
(x
cos y y cos a;
16
ox
y(y
- 2aa; 2
du
du^^du
dx^~^ dy' ^ dx~^ By'
^?tt^
-y/x.
sina + ajsiny
10 a;dy
+ y) z -x'
du
du
du du
du
du
= ye
+ 2x = xe + 2y
y
dx
d
dy
d
11
^
xv
xv
-y/r*, -rsintf.
dr\
37)
17 r/J(r*-y*), xsec*d.

1
0;
(i)
(ii)
fit;
4+1.
10 z
2 Use Euler's theorem of second order.
0.
(iii)
53.
9 z
(1
+ cos a;) cos?/.
= f(x + y)+g(x-y)- %8in(x-y) cos (x + y).

zfx~ xfz
fx ~^~fz9x
'
\OXj
2x,
\OX/
yz
10 3a:(a;-z).
= 2x-
2x + 2yzt, (~-\
\ X/
vt
11
ldu\
\dx/
~fz9v
zt
(du\
y,
= y-
\dx)
2, 1.
Miscellaneous Exercise 9(f), p. 358

3
12
15
xy(x + y)
~
ex v.
4 2xy + c.
-\xt-*f\z),\t-y{z).
(* -*!)/(!,
(i)
x)
10
+ (y - yj/^,
x)
-f.
(20-tan0)/{(7r-20)tan0-l}.
13
0;
( - x i)M x v
+
22
21
^\S0/
23
dd*
dr
24 Derive
25
(i)
25
(2/
- 2/i)
f/J
-yfvffxi -yfx/fv
(")
Use
96
11.43,
partially
wo x and wo
Theorem
y,
tt 2 COS0.
-COS0,
8H
it =
0,
8F
=
-
0.
then eliminate 0
: <j)
v.
I.
GPMI
xxi
INDEX TO VOLUME
Numbers
* means 'Also
refer to pages.
see this entry in the
Absolute value, 5
Angle
between curves, 218
vectorial, 32
a.p.
arithmetical progression
Approximation to f(x)
quadratic, 230
Arc-length, 276, 278, 296
Area, 95, 98, 255
between curves, 269
generalised, 270
of closed curve, 270

of conical surface, 280
of sector, 271, 272
of surface of revolution, 281
sign of, 269
Arithmetic mean, 8, 9
Astroid, 279
17,
Auxiliary equation, 196
Bateman, E. H., 247
Coincident points, 244

Complementary function
Complete primitive, 179
Completing the
definition,
(c.f.),
193
48
square, 11
interest law, 118
Concavity, 242
Constants, 3
arbitrary, 94
Contact of mth order, 243
Continuity, 45, 47, 48
at a point, 46, 329
in an interval, 47
Convergence to a limit, 40
Coordinates
cartesian, {x, y), 31
(r, 0), 32
Curvature, 307, *
centre of, 314, 323
circle of, 314, 325
mean, 307
radius of, 308, 323
polar,
Curve
continuous, 45
Bernoulli's
differential equation, 187
inequality, 7
Bound, lower, upper, 223
Boundary
Index of Vol. IV.
Compound
227
polynomial, 231
linear,
Asymptote,
conditions, 199
plane, 30
unicursal, 30
Cycloid, 30
Cycloidal pendulum, 31
Branch, principal, 24
D, 38, 201
Degree of
Cardioid, 33
differential equation, 178
Catenary, 298
Cauchy's
homogeneous function, 27
polynomial, 20
inequality, 14
mean
value theorem, 248

remainder, 235
Central orbits, 192
Centre of
curvature, 314, 323
mass, 282
Clairaut's equation, 189, 322
192
notations for, 38, 70, 237, 331

partial, 330,
total,
193
Circle of curvature, 314, 325

Circular functions, 125
Coefficients of
mixed, 334
nth, 236
332
second, 70, 332
Centroid, 283, *
c.F.,
Del, V, 349
Derivative, 38, 60
differential equation,
343
Derivation, 61
logarithmic, 120
rules of, 62
Derived function, 61
Descartes, 31
25-2
INDEX
xxii
Differential, 88, 352
invariance
second, 89
of, 88,
Evolute, 323
arc-length of, 324
exp, 208, *
353
Differential coefficient(s), 88
partial, 352
Exponential
function, 116
limit, 122
principle of equating, 352

Differential equation(s), 71, 177
Bernoulli's, 187
Clairaut's, 189, 322
degree
of,
Family of curves, 218, 318

Function, 4, 329
and formula, 4
and graphical representation, 27
defined parametrically, 68
of a function, 63, 331
of two functions, 342, 344
178
Euler's, 211
homogeneous, 182
194
order of, 178
ordinary, 178
partial, 178, 335
Riecati's, 217
simultaneous, 209
Differential geometry, 296
linear. 185, 192,
Function (properties)
bounded, 44
continuous, 46, 223, 329
derivable at a point, 60
derivable in an interval, 61
Differential relations, 297, 300

Differentiation
differentiable, 89, 339
and
derivation, 89, 352

of equations, 354
Discontinuity, removable, 48
Discriminant, of quadratic, 11
e,
57,
even, 22
homogeneous, 27, 29
increasing at a point, 74
increasing in an interval, 83
integrable, 258
many -valued, 24
monotonic, 55, 83
odd, 22
112,*
Electric circuit, 209
Elimination, *
of functions, 335
of parameters, 177, 179, 335
Ellipse, reflector property, 303
Ellipsoid, 274, 291
periodic, 23
single-valued, 24
unbounded, 44
Envelope, 319
of normals, 323
Epicycloid, 37
Equating
coefficients, 137,
Equation(s)
algebraic, 226
354
298
parametric, 30
(p, r), 304
(p, xjr), 306
Equations, approximate solution, 244,
247,*
Equiangular spiral, 302
Equivalent operators, 204, 212, 349
Error
in Newton's method, 245
percentage, 341
relative, 341
differentiable,
intrinsic,
Euler's
differential
Function(s) (special)
circular, 66
elementary, 236
exponential, 116
growth, 118
hyperbolic, 125
inverse circular, 24, 66
inverse hyperbolic, 130
logarithmic, 113
xm 65
,
Function
(types)
algebraic, 21
explicit, 21
implicit, 21, 67, 343,

inverse, 22, 64. 72
354
polynomial, 20, 90
rational, 20,
90
transcendental, 22
Functional notation, 4, 330
Fundamental theorem of the integral
calculus, 264
constant y, 123, *
'homogeneous'
Extremum, 75
equation,
211
theorem on homogeneous functions,

348
General solution (o.s.), 179

Geometric mean, 8, 9
g.f. = geometrical progression
INDEX
Graphs
inadequacy
of.
27
polar, 33
sketching
179
of, 15, 19,
21
G.s.,
Iteration, 245
Half-line, 33
Hardy, G. H., 83
Harmonic mean, 8
Harmonic motion
damped, forced, 208
Lagrange's
mean value theorem, 226
remainder, 235
Laplace transform, xvii
Laplace's
equation, 349
operator V 2 , 349
simple, 191
Hermite, 142
l'Hospital's rules, 249
Hypocycloid, 37
Leibniz, theorem
product, 237
Indeterminate forms, 249

Inequalities, 6
quadratic, 11
and the mean value theorem, 228
Inequality
Bernoulli's, 7
Cauchy's, 14
logarithmic, 121
of means (A ^ O ^ H), 8
triangle, 5, 8
tha;
2x/n
< x < sh.x < cha? (x > 0), 130

< sin* < x < tan 38, 84
a:,
Infinity, tends to, 43, 45, 51

of, 80,
on nth derivative of a
Lemniscate. 34
Length of
curve, 276
normal, 217, 303
tangent, 217, 303
Limacon, 33
Limit, 38, 41, 329
attained, unattained, 39
Limit of
an , 52
anln, 53
an\n !,
Inflexion
point
xxiii
of transcendental functions, 151

range of, 96
variable of, 97
Interval, closed, open, 3
Inverse curves, 304
Involute, 325
54,
n r an 55
,
242
stationary, 80
Initial
conditions, 199
31
Integer, 2
Integrable (in sense of Biemann), 258
Integral
line,
definite, 96, 258, 262

generalised, 165
258
165
improper, 165
principal value of, 169
Integrals, standard, 134
Integrand, 93
Integrating factor, 186
indefinite, 93,
Integration, 93, *
approximate, 266
of variable (see 'by sub-
stitution')
by decomposition, 94
by parts, 105, 108
by special method, 170
by substitution, 100, 102,
limits of, 96
of algebraic functions, 145

of rational functions, 136
x,
122
intersections of a family, 322
infinite,
by change
+ l/n), 57
(l+xjn) n 122
x-p log x, xp log
sh x\x, 130
sina/ar, 39, 298
tha:/a;, 130
xm e- x, 122
Limiting
(l
sums, 262
Limits
of integration, 96
properties of, 41
Logarithm, hyperbolic,
natural, 113
Logarithmic
derivation, 120
inequality, 121
Maclaurin's theorem, 232
170, 265
Maximum, 74
Mean
arithmetic, 8, 9
geometric, 8, 9
harmonic, 8
Napierian
or
INDEX
xxiv
Mean value theorem
Partial derivatives, 330

of second order, 332
Partial fractions, 136, *
Cauchy's, 248
first, 82,
226
second, 230
Particular
for integrals, 229
integral, 179
Means, theorem of the, 9

M.I., 287
solution (p.s.), 179

Pedal equation, 304
Period, 23
Periodicity, 22
Perpendicular axes, theorem
Point of inflexion, 80
Minimum, 75
Modulus of x y
Moment
\x\,
of inertia
5
(m.i.),
287
Monotonic
function, 55, 83
decreasing, 56
increasing, 55
wth derivatives, 236

Nabla, V, 349
Napier, 113
Negative definite, 14
Neighbourhood, 41
Newton's
formula for p, 316
law of cooling, 118
Newton's method of solving equations,
244
refinement of, 247
Number,
algebraic, 22
complex, 197, *
geometrical representation
Polar
coordinates (r, d), 32
equation, 32
subtangent, etc., 303
Pole, 31
Polynomial, 20, 90
homogeneous, 26
Positive definite, 13
Positive tangent, 296
(p, r) equation, 304
(p, i/r) equation, 306
Primitive function, 93, 258
Principal
branch, value, of a function, 24

value of a definite integral, 169
Proper parametric representation, 30
Proportional parts, rule of, 253, *
p.s., 179
Quadratic
function, sign of, 11
inequalities, 11
natural, 1
rational, 1, 2
real, 2
signed, 1
transcendental, 22
Radius
Numerical value, 5
0, 233
Operator D, 201
Orbits, central, 192
Order of a differential equation, 178

Order symbol 0, 233
Ordinary differential equation, 178
Orthogonal trajectories, 218, 302
Osborn's rule, 128, *
Oscillate finitely, infinitely, 44
damped,
forced,
208
Osculate, 313
Osculating
314
313
free,
of curvature, 308
of gyration, 287
vector, 32
Range of integration, 96
Ray, 33
Recurrence formula, 59, 239
Reduction formula, 107, 144, 158
Remainders
Taylor's
theorem,
in
235
Resonance, 208
Riccati's equation, 217
Riemann, 258
Rolle conditions, 225
Rolle's theorem, 224
for polynomials, 90,
Routh's
rule,
292
circle,
line,
291
of, 1
irrational, 1, 3, 22
Oscillations,
of,
Pappus, theorems of, 284

Parallel axes, theorem of, 290
Parameter, 30
Parametric equations, 30, 68
Schldmilch's remainder, 235

Separable
solutions, 336
variables, 180
Sequence, 51
terms of a, 51
INDEX
Shift theorem, 202
Sign conventions, 276, 296

Simple harmonic motion, 191
Simpson's rule, 267
Singular
point, 320
solution (s.s.), 179, 189
Small changes, 85, 340
superposition of. 341
Spheroid, oblate, prolate, 274
XXV
Transcendental
functions, 22
numbers, 22
Trapezium rule, 266
Trial exponentials, 197, *
Triangle inequality, 5, 8
Trochoid, 34
Turning
point, 75, 241
value, 75
Spiral
equiangular, 302
of Archimedes, 302
s.s., 189
Stationary
point, 77
inflexion,
80
Steadily decreasing, increasing function,
55
Subtangent, 217, 303
Subnormal, 217, 303
Sums
lower, upper, 257
limiting,
262
Surds, 2
Surface, 331, *
of revolution, 281
System of curves, 218
Symbolic D, 201
Tangent to a curve, 40
Tangential polar equation, 306
Taylor's theorem, 231, 234
Terms of a sequence, 51
Torus, 285
Total
degree of a polynomial, 26
derivative, 343
variation, 338, 341
Touch, for curves, 243
Tractrix, 279
Unicursal curve, 30
Variable(s), 3
dependent, independent,
of integration, 97
Variation, total, 338, 341
Vectorial angle, 32
3,
329
Volume of solid
of known cross-section, 273
of revolution, 274
Wallis's method, 264
Wave equation, 350
wo, xix, 61
Wronskian, 222
+ 0, 39
x-> a + a, 40
a?->
(also see 'infinity')
(also see 'infinity')
1*1,5
y', y", etc., 38, 70
y, y, etc., 71
Vu
y, etc.,
y, 124,
307
71, 2,*
p, 308
(/>, 300
f, 296
k,
V, V*, 349
237
EC
V
* *
1
I I
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Bentley House, 200 Euston Road, London, N.W,
American Branch:
32 East 57 Street,
New York
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
22, N.Y.

Pure Mathematics For Sixth Forms Vol.1

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Pure Mathematics For Sixth Forms Vol.1

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

CAMBRIDGE

London B.Sc. General Degree and

for any first-

year degree courses containing subsidiary pure

the General Degree

matics required by the recently introduced

Mathematics of the Mathematical

This book does not assume a complete mastery

work, and much of

the pure mathematics

Natural Sciences, as well as for the mathematics

subject in a serious fashion and this

beyond the requirements of the

By a natural division the subject-matter

two volumes which,

occasional cross-references , can be used inde-

pendently as separate text-books

Calculus and differential equations, with appli-

cations to topics such as areas,

geometry of plane curves,

Algebra and convergence, trigonometry and

two and three dimenmethods are

'exercises for the reader', often with hints for

Each chapter includes a Miscellaneous

Exercise for revision purposes.

8EDGLEY PARK COLLEGE

due for return on or before the

8EDGLEV PARK COLLEGE.

American Branch: 32 East 57th

Road, London, N.W.

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Printed in Great Britain at the Univernity Pf688t Cambridge

References and Abbreviations

Chapter 1. Review of Some Facts, Definitions

Numbers, variables and functions

1.22 Arithmetic, geometric,

Quadratic functions and quadratic inequalities

1.62 Polar coordinates, p. 31

1.63 Polar equation of a curve, p. 32

some examples from previous work

2.11 dt/fdx, p. 38.

2.12 em x/x, p. 38.

The general idea of a

2.21 Informal definition;, p. 40.

general properties of limits

in which a function can behave

2.61 Definition, of continuous function', p. 45, 2.62 Some

2.65 Another property of continuous func-

Functions of n: some important limits

2.76 Further examples, p. 55.

2.77 Monotonic funct ions,

Miscellaneous Exercise 2(c)

2,73 a n ,%, p. 53.

The Derivative. Some Applications

The derivative of a function of one

3,11 Definitions, p, 60,

A derivable function is continuous,

Hum, product, quotient function of a function

Derivatives of some well -known functions

circular functions, p. 66.

and functions defined parametrically

a function defined implicitly, p. 67.

Derivatives of second and higher orders