Principle of Petroleumgeoogylecture Notes

2012
Principles of Petroleum Geology
Dr. ADEL AL-MATARY

adelalmatary@Yahoo.com
SANAA UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
EARTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES DEPT.
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
DR. A. AL-MATARY
MARS, 2012
SANAA UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
DR. A. AL-MATARY
MARS, 2012
I.
INTRODUCT ION
II.
THE ORIGIN OF PETROLE UM
III.
PRINCIP LES OF ORGANIC CHE MIST RY
IV.
PETROLE UM COMP OSIT ION
V.
PETROLE UM SOURCE ROCKS
VI.
PETROLE UM MIGRATION AND ACCUMULAT ION
VII.
PETROLE UM RESERVOIR
VIII.
THE POROS ITY AND PERMEABILITY
IX.
PETROLE UM TRAPS
X.
SUBS URFACE ENVIRONME NTS AND THE IR EFFECTS ON HYDROCARBON.
XI.
EXP LORATION FOR PETROLE UM
XII.
DRILLING: BASIC.
SANAA UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
DR. A. AL-MATARY
MARS, 2012
1. IN TRODUC TION
1.1 HISTORICAL PREVIEW
Petroleum products have been used for at least 8000 years, for example:
Herodotus 450 BC natural seeps
Egyptians mummification/ Victorian medication
Ancient Greece everlasting flame in the sacred Oracle at Delphi
Persian Temples built around natural gas sources
Early uses: medication, waterproofing, warfare
Up to mid 19th century: all oil produced from seeps, shallow pits and hand dug shafts
James Young: extracted oil from carboniferous shales, Scotland 1847: oil-shales
1st Natural gas: Sichuan Province China several thousand years ago
1st oil-seeking well = Pechelbronn, France, 1745
1st well to produce oil: Oil creek, Pennsylvania by Colonel D
The demand for oil products increased greatly by WWI (1914-18). By 1920 the oil industry dominated by
the seven sisters. Post WWII, oil companies began to risk profits from one productive area to explore
for another. By the 1960: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) formed in Baghdad
(Iraq) with main objective: control the power of the independent oil companies by price control &
appropriation of company assets.
1.2 THE SCIENCE OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY:

The science of petroleum geology has a strong relationship with the following sciences:
Chemistry
o Geochemistry is a major component of petroleum geology
Detailed knowledge of the mineralogical composition of rocks reservoir quality
Pore-fluid chemistry reservoir degradation/ enhancement
Organic geochemistry: biomarkers, fingerprinting
Physics
o Geophysics contribute to
Understanding the earths crust
Understanding the structures involved in trapping: folds, faults
Identifying the position of such traps: magnetic, gravity, seismic
Understanding the wells: wireline logs, lithology, porosity.
Biology
o Study of fossil life: Paleontology contributes
Dating/ stratigraphic characterization
Environmental characterization (fossil environments, palaeoecology)
Biochemistry: transformation of plant and animal tissues into Kerogen and through
to oil and gas.
1.3 PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY:

It is the application of chemical principles to the study of the origin, migration, accumulation, and
alteration of petroleum (oil and gas) and the use of this knowledge in exploring for and recovering
petroleum. Anyone who uses petroleum geochemistry must be familiar with basic chemical terminology.
Before we discuss these basics we should first know the origin of the petroleum and what is the
acceptable theory.
4
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DR. A. AL-MATARY
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2. THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM:

There are two basic theories about the origin of petroleum generation:A) Inorganic ones (Abiogenic theories) which include the following theories:a. Cosmic theory
b. Alkali metal theory
c. Volcanic theory
d. Chemical theory and the
e. Magmatic theory
Those theories are based on the following factors:1) The presence of huge quantities of hydrocarbon gases around the earth and other planets.
2) The emanation of hydrocarbon gases while volcanic eruptions.
3) The presence of solid hydrocarbon materials filling in dikes and near hydrothermal springs.
B) Organic or biogenic theory (animal and plant theory).

More than 100 years of investigations and research have demonstrated that the bulk of the worlds
petroleum originated from the decomposition of the organic matter deposited in sedimentary basins.
More than 75% of the worlds conventional and heavy oils were generated from Jurassic or Cretaceous
source rocks. The remainder originated mostly from the Tertiary and the Devonian-Carboniferous of the
Paleozoic. These also were the periods of highest organic carbon deposition on the continents.
Also this theory is based on the following factors:1) 99% of petroleum deposits in nature are found within sedimentary rocks. Microorganisms and plant
tissues are buried within those sediments while sedimentation.
2) Porphyrin pigments, paraffin's and nitrogen, which are only found in cells of organisms and plants,
makes a part of the petroleum composition.
3) Petroleum and living organisms are both characterized by the presence of optical activity, due to the
presence of organic Cholesterol within its composition.
Oil and gas originate from organic matter in sedimentary rocks. Dead vegetation in the absence of oxygen
ceases to decompose. It accumulates in the soil as humus and as deposits of peat in bogs and swamps.
Peat buried beneath a cover of clays and sands becomes compacted as the temperature, weight and
pressure of the cover increase, and water and gases are driven off. The residue, ever richer in carbon,
becomes coal. In the sea, a similar process takes place. Of the marine life that is eternally falling slowly to
the bottom of the sea, vast quantities of it are eaten, some is oxidized, but a portion of the microscopic
animal and plant life escapes destruction and is entombed in the mud on the seafloor. The organic debris
collects at the bottom and is buried within a growing buildup of sands, clays and more debris until the
thickness of sediment attains thousands of feet. Bacteria takes oxygen from the trapped organic residues,
breaking them down molecule-by-molecule into substances rich in carbon and hydrogen, and the extreme
weight and pressure of the mass compacts the clays into hard shales.
Origin of Gases
The following are the generally accepted theories for the origin of gases. Methane is formed by bacterial
decay of organic material; it is a major product of the diagenesis of coal and is given off from all forms of
organic matter during diagenesis. It is the most common hydrocarbon in subsurface waters and is an end
product of petroleum metamorphism. When heated, kerogen in shales from gas-producing areas gives off
much greater quantities of methane as compared to the kerogen of shales from oilproducing areas.
Hydrogen sulfide originates from the reduction of sulfates in the sediments and from sulfur compounds in
petroleum and kerogen. Carbon dioxide is derived from the decarboxylation of organic matter, and from
HCO3 and CaCO3. Nitrogen is derived from the nitrogen in organic matter and from trapped air. Helium is
derived from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. During the oil genesis and coalification
process, the order of generation is generally nitrogen, CO2 and methane.
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Source of Petroleum
Petroleum originates from a small fraction of the organic matter deposited in sedimentary basins. Most of
the organic matter is the remains of plants and animals that lived in the sea, and the rest is land-delivered
organic matter carried in by rivers and continental runoff, or by winds.
Living organisms are composed of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (fats) and lignin in varying
amounts. These compounds are degraded by micro-organisms into the monomer sugars, fatty acids, etc.
These immediately condense into nitrogenous and humus complexes -- progenitors of kerogen.
Some hydrocarbons are deposited in the sediments, but most form from thermal alteration at depth. Lipids
are closest to petroleum in composition among the major life substances (Figure 1). Lipids (fats and
hydrocarbons) are most concentrated in the lowest forms of life (Figure 2).
Substance
Elemental Composition in Weight (%)

C
Carbohydrates
44
50.0
---
---
Lignin
63
31.0
0.1
0.3
Proteins
53
22.0
2.0
16.0
Lipids
80
10
10.0
---
---
82-87
12-15
0.1-2.0
0.1-5.0
0.2
Petroleum
Figure 1: Average Chemical Composition of Natural Substances
Petroleum contains traces of several substances that could have come only from living organisms.
Examples are:
Porphyrins related to hemin and chlorophyll
Optically active compounds (they will rotate the plane of a ray of polarized light)
Structures related to cholesterol, carotene and terpenes
A predominance of odd-numbered paraffin chains
Carbon isotope data suggest that the lipids of plants are an important source of petroleum. Normal
(straight chain) paraffins in crude oil sometimes show a predominance of odd numbered chain lengths.
This odd-numbered chain length has a biochemical origin and tends to predominate in the high molecular
weight in oils, derived from continental or near-shore organic matter, and in the low ranges for marine
organic matter.
Coals, kerogen, asphalts, and petroleum all originate from organic matter deposited with sediments.
Differences are due to different source materials, dispersal and environments of deposition and diagenesis
(Figure 2-40). The biological origin of these fossil fuels is proven by their chemical composition and
physical structure containing remnants of living organisms.
SANAA UNIVERSITY
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Coals
Massive land
plants
algae, plankton,
spores, resins
Concentrated
as aromatic
HMW humus
Concentrated as
jelly like slimesapropel
Peat
Lignite
Bituminous Coal
Anthracite
Canels
and
Torbanites
Dispersed
Organic Matter
Land and marine
organic matter
deposited with
inorganic sediments
Absorbed on mineral
matter as aliphatic
LMW humus
Kerogen
Bitumens
Selective
fraction(>1%)
of organic matter
Dispersed lipids
carried by
migrating waters
to reservoirs
Petroleum
Waxes
Asphalts
Asphaltites
Pyrobitumens
Figure 2: Origin of Organic Matter Deposited with Sediments
3. PETROLEUM COMPOSIT ION:

The word petroleum originates from the Latin petra (rock) and oleum (oil). Petroleum is a form of
bitumen composed of hydrocarbons and existing in the gaseous or liquid state in its natural reservoir.
Petroleum is composed almost entirely of the elements hydrogen and carbon, which is in the ratio of
about 1.85 hydrogen atoms to 1 carbon atom in crude oil. The minor elements sulfur, nitrogen, and
oxygen constitute less than 3% of most petroleum. Traces of heave metals such as vanadium and nickel
are present (Figure 3). Increases in the minor elements lowers the value of crude.
Components
Carbon
Hydrogen
Sulfur
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Oil
84.0
13.0
2.0
0.5
0.5
100.0
Asphalt
83
10
4
1
2
100
Kerogen
79
6
5
2
8
100
Figure 3: Chemical Composition of Oil, Asphalt and Kerogen
Although the transformation process is very complex, with many details still poorly understood, it is
known that organic debris derived from plants and algae is best preserved in fine-grained sediments
deposited in the absence of oxygen. Most of this organic matter is transformed during diagenesis into very
large molecules, the largest of which are called kerogen.
3.1. THE H YDROCARBON GROUPS AND THEIR CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

In chemical terms a hydrocarbon is a compound containing only the elements carbon and hydrogen.
Petroleum and natural gas are themselves often referred to as "hydrocarbons," but that usage is incorrect
term from the chemist's point of view because those materials often contain substantial amounts of
nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, trace metals, and other elements.
Simply, Hydrocarbon is composed of hydrogen (H) and carbon (C) in the following states:
1- Gases: dry (methane) and wet (ethane, propane)
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2- Liquids: oil, crude

3- Solid: plastics, asphalt, coals, kerogen
Hydrocarbon molecules occur in different structural forms with the following names:
Alkanes are open-chain with single bonds between the carbon atoms; cycloalkanes are alkane rings;
alkenes contain one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms; and arenes are hydrocarbons with
one or more benzene rings.
Wellsite chromatographs are capable of detecting C1to C5. If further analysis is necessary, this will
usually be done during testing when gas samples are taken downhole using a test tool. Figure (4)
illustrates hydrocarbons that are commonly detected at the wellsites.
Name
Chemical
Formula
Nethane
Ethane
Propane
n-Butane
iso-Butane
n-Pentane
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
C4H10
C5H12
Physical State
at 60oF and
1465 psi
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Liquid
Molecular
Weight
16.04
30.07
44.09
58.12
58.12
72.15
Boiling Point
(oC) at Normal
Conditions
-161.4
-89.0
-42.1
0.55
-11.72
36.0
Crude oil can be subdivided into the following three major groups:1. Paraffins or Alkanes:
- Are saturated hydrocarbons with a general formula (Cn H2n+2)
- For values n <5 they are gaseous at standard T and P.
- For values n=5 (pentane, C5 H12) through to n=15 the paraffin are liquid at normal temperatures and
pressures.
- For values n>15 they grade from viscous liquids to solid waxes.
-Two types of paraffin molecules are present within the series, both having similar atomic composition
(isomers), but different structure which increases in molecular weight along the series by addition of
CH2a) straight-chain molecules.
b) branched-chain molecules.
The normal straight chain molecules dominate over the branched-chain structures and have higher boiling
points.
-paraffins are the major constituents of hydrocarbon gases.
-they are quantitatively significant in light gasoline and kerosene oils making up to 30% & 25% of the oil
respectively.
Saturated hydrocarbons: is one in which the valence of the carbon atoms is satisfied by single bonds.
Isomers: are substances of the same composition of paraffins butt have different molecular structure and
therefore different properties.
-The methyl group (CH3) can replace one or more of the hydrogen atoms of the paraffin series to produce
for example Methyl /pentane CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3-CH3
-The isomers numbers increase with increasing length of the chain.
2. Naphthenes (cycloparaffins or cycloalkanes)
-The general formula of this group is Cn H2n
-The valences between the carbon atoms are satisfied by single bonds, they are called (saturated
cycloparaffins) or saturated carbon ring compounds.
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-Naphthens like Paraffins in physical and chemical properties, but they are more stable.
-Unlike the Paraffins they are liquid at standard temperatures and pressures.
-They make up about 40 percent of both light and heavy crude oils
-The simplest kind of Naphthens is the Cyclopropane C3 H6
-Cyclobutane, cyclopentane and cyclohexane are more abundant in the Naphthens.
3. Aromatics or arenes:
-are the third major group of hydrocarbons commonly found in crud oil.
-their molecular structure is based on a ring of six carbon atoms, general formula Cn Hn. (under saturated
hydrocarbon compounds).
-They are liquid at standard T. and P. (boiling point of benzene at 80. 5 C).
-They are present in relatively minor amounts 10% in light oils, but increase in quantity with decreasing
API gravity to over 30% in heavy oils (highest in lubricating oils, lowest in gasoline)
-the simplest member of this group is benzene (C6H6).
-The alkyl benzene series which includes ethyl benzene (C6H5, C2H5) and toluene (C6H5, CH3) is one
of the major series of the aromatic compounds formed by substituting hydrogen atoms by paraffin
-Another series is formed by straight or branched chain carbon rings (naphthalene) C10 H8, Anthracene
(C14H10).
-Aromatic hydrocarbons include asphaltic compounds; these compounds are divided into the resins
which are soluble in n-pentane and the asphaltenes, which are not.
-Toluene (C6H5CH3) is the most common aromatic component of crude oil, followed by the xylenes
(C6H4 (CH3)2) and benzene.
4. Other compounds:
crude oil contain many different compounds that contain elements other than C and H, such as O, N and S
and other rare metal atoms, commonly nickel and vanadium.
- Oxygen: Oxygen compounds range between 0.06-0.4% by weight of most cruds.
-it also includes acids, esters, ketones, phenols and alcohols.
-The acids are especially common in young, immature oils and include fatty acids, naphthenic and
carboxylic acids.
-The presence of Steranes in some crudes is an important indication of their organic origin.
- Nitrogen: Nitrogen compounds range between 0.01-0.9 % by weight of most crudes.
-Sulfur: range from 0.1-7% by weight in crude oils.
Crude oil dissolved in the following solvents:- Ether, Acetone, Benzene, Chloroform and Boiling
alcohol.
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3.2. NATURAL GAS LIQUID (NGL)

This gas is classified into
- Organic origin: Hydrocarbon Gases Methane (dry), Ethane (wet), Propane, Butane
- Inorganic origin: Inert Gases Helium, Argon, Krypton, Radon, Nitrogen, Also Carbon dioxide
and Hydrogen sulphide
Element
Crude Oil, % by
weight
Natural Gas, % by
weight
82-87
65-80
12-15
1-25
0.1-5.5
0-0.2
0.1-1.5
1-15
0.1-4.5
10
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Avearge molecular composition of

crude oil
Molecular
Type
% by
Weight
Paraffin
30
Natural gas composition
Molecule
% by Weight
Methane (CH )
88
Ethane (C H )
Propane (C H )
8
Butane (C H )
Naphthene
49
Aromatic
15
Asphaltic
10
3.3. CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE OILS:

Crude Oil: a mixture of hydrocarbons that existed in the liquid phase in natural underground reservoirs
and remains liquid at atmospheric pressure after passing through surface separating facilities
Highly variable in composition and in appearance
Primarily carbon, hydrogen and minor oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, vanadium, nickel
Color: yellow, green, brown to dark brown & black
Oil at the surface tends to be more viscous, most oils are less dense than water: generally
measured as the difference between its density and that of water:
Thus light oils have API < 10 and heavy oils are denser than water.
Many schemes have been proposed to classify the various types of crude oils. The classification fall
into two categories:1. Those proposed by chemical engineers interested in refining crude oil, and concerned with the
quantities of the various hydrocarbons present in crude and their physical properties, such as viscosity and
boiling point. For example, the n.d.m. scheme is based on refractive index (n), density (d), and molecular
(weight %).
2. These proposed by geologist and geochemist as an aid to understanding the source, maturation, history,
or other geological parameters of crude oil occurrence.
Those schemes are concerned with the molecular structures of oils, because these may be keys to their
source and geological history.
One of the first schemes was developed by the Bureau of Mines (Smith 1927; Lane and Garton (1953). It
classifies oil according to their distillation fractions at different Temperature and pressures into:a)
Paraffinic
b)
Naphthenic and intermediate type
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- Shanen (1945) Proposed a Schema that included asphaltic and aromatic types of crudes.
-Tissot and Welte (1978) developed a new schema based on the ratio between Paraffins, Naphthens, and
aromatic including asphaltic compounds.
Classification of Oils (after Tissot and Welte, 1978)

Correlation Index (CI): is a number whose magnitude indicates certain characteristics of crude-oil
distillation fraction. The Paraffinic value is 0, The benzene value is 100. The lower the CI values of an
analysis fraction, the greater the concentration of paraffin hydrocarbons in the fraction. The higher the CI
value, the greater the concentration of naphthenic and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Factors Which Affect The Crude Oil Gravity
The following factors are interrelated in complex manners. Taking each separately is a rough
generalization.
1- Formation temperatures and pressures are very influential. If temperatures and pressures are high,
hydrocarbon gravity is usually high.
2- Geological Age (maturity). Older rocks tend to have higher gravities, but many Tertiary rocks
have API of 40+ (e.g. the North Sea). Many Paleozoic rocks have API gravities of +20.
3- Depth of Burial. Deeper the reservoir, higher the gravity. The deepest well tend to produce gas.
4- Basinal Position. Gradients range from high at the center to low at the edges.
5- Tectonism. High gravities are more common in regions of high stress.
6- Salinity. Marine sources tends to have higher gravities than fresh/ brackish sources.
7- Sulfur Content. Content is high in low-gravity crudes. Main variations are regional, e.g., Middle
East crudes are high in sulfurs, Nigerian and Libyan crudes are low.
8- Lithology. No apparent relationship.
12
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Properties of liquid petroleums reflecting variations in composition and gravity are illustrated in the
following table:
Properties
Low API
Gravity
Remarks
Viscosity
High
API
Gravity
low
high
Color
light
dark
Fluorescence
yellows
browns
Refractive Index
Flash and burn points
1.39
low
1.55
high
Temperature sensitive. Inverse measure of ability to

flow. Not pressure-sensitive.
Yellow, red brown to black by transmitted light
(usually green by reflected light).
White-yellow through yellow and brown. Described
as color, intensity and hue.
Determined with Abe refractometer
Cloud and pour points
-70F to +110F
high
low
Noncompressible as far as logging is concerned.
Dependent on compostion.
Coefficient of Expansion
Density
low
>50F
high
API gravity= (141.5/SG(60F)) 131.5
Normal Range = 16 to 50 API gravity.

Odor
Optical activity
Wax content
SG water = 1 = 10 API at 60F

Paraffin and naphthene crudes smell like creosote.
Aromatics - unpleasant. Sulfur compounds very unpleasant.
Rainbow effect. Due to cholesterol (an alcohol C26H45OH). Mainly in
intermediate distillation range (boiling point 200F to 300F)
Related to pour points and viscosity range 0.5% to 45%; manly 7% and
consists mainly of normal paraffins. No low wax paraffin crudes have been
found but there are some high waxes, naphthene crudes (NB ceresin). Wax
content apparently high in oil from fresh water/brackish source.
Table : Properties of Liquid Hydrocarbons
(1) Specific gravity (s. g.), API degree

The density of oil may be measured as the difference between its specific gravity and that of water. Its
often expressed in gravity units defined by the American petroleum Institute according to the following
Formula:API =
141.5___________ -131.5
Specific gravity 60 / 60 F ()
Where 60/60 F is the specific gravity of oil at 60 F Compared with that of water at 60 F .
*. API gravity is inversely proportional to density light oils have API degrees of over 40 (0.83 s. g.).
Heavy oils have API gravities of less than 10 (1.0 s. g.)
Oil viscosity and API gravity are inversely proportional to one another.
0.73 - 0.82 s. gr.
Very light oil
> 40
API
0.82 - 0.88 s. gr.
Light oil
40 -30 API
0.88 - 0.92 s. gr.
Med. oil
30 - 20 API
0.92 1.0
s. gr.
Heavy oil
< 20
API
- The Formation gas -oil -ratio: is the number of cubic meter of gas per barrel of oil as found in the
reservoir.
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- The Formation Volume-Factor: The factor that must be applied to a barrel of stock- tank- oil to
convert it into an equivalent amount of reservoir oil (range between 1.14 - 1.6).
- The Shrinkage factor: The factor that must be applied to a barrel of reservoir oil to convert it into an
equivalent amount of stock- tank oil (0. (0.66 - 0.88).
3.5. THE DISTILLATION AND USES OF PETROLEUM:

Both bitumen and petroleum contain a very large number of different chemical compounds. Some of
these are present in relatively large quantities, while others are only trace contributors. In order to
investigate the individual compounds present, we first separate a crude oil or bitumen into several
fractions having distinct properties.
Distillation is the principle method for separating crude oil into useful products. Today a modern refinery
distills thousands of barrels of oil a day through continuously operating distillation flask.
The following tables show the main products of distillation and important properties of them. The
composition of a typical 35 API gravity oil is given in the following table (Hunt, 1996).
Molecular size
Gasoline (C5 to C10)
Kerosene (C11 to C15)
Diesel fuel (C14 to C15)
Heavy gas oil (C19 to C25)
Lubricating oil (C26 to C40)
Residuum (> C40)
Total
Molecular type
Paraffins
Naphthenes
Aromatic
Asphaltic
Total
Volume percent
27
13
12
10
20
18
100
Weight percent
25
50
17
8
100
The properties of petroleum products and water are in the following table:
Product
API gravity
Specific gravity
Viscosity (millipoise)
Gasoline (C5 to C10)
60
0.74
Kerosene (C11 to C15)
50
0.78
20
Diesel fuel (C14 to C15)
45
0.79
100
Lubricating oil (C26 to C40)
30
0.85
500
Residuum (> C40)
10
> 105
Water
10
10
14
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The Properties of Some Crude Streams are in the following Table:
4. HOW OIL FORMS:

The organic theory of petroleum origin is based on the accumulation of hydrocarbons from living things
plus the formation of hydrocarbons by the action of heat on biologically formed organic matter.
Only about 2 percent of the organic matter dispersed in fine-grained rocks becomes petroleum, and only
about 0.5 percent of it ends up in a commercial reservoir accumulation. This emphasizes the inefficiency
of the origin, migration and accumulation processes of hydrocarbons.
The ratio of dispersed hydrocarbons to reservoired hydrocarbons is about 200 to 1 on a worldwide basis,
partly because the volume of potential reservoir rock is small compared to total sediments in the earth's
crust.
Petroleum is found from the Precambrian to the Pleistocene (Figure 2-41), but is increasingly abundant in
the younger sediments for several reasons:
Older oil fields are increasingly destroyed over geologic time
An increase in continental margins and restricted basins occurred when the continents split during the
Jurassic.
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4.1 THE FIVE MAIN COMPONENTS OF PETROLEUM ACCUMULATION

1. Must be an organic-rich source rock to generate the oil/ gas
2. The source rock must have been heated sufficiently to yield its petroleum
3. There must be a reservoir to contain the expelled hydrocarbons. This must have:
a. Porosity, to hold the hydrocarbons
b. Permeability, to allow fluid flow
4. The reservoir must be sealed by an impermeable Cap Rock to prevent upwards escape of the
hydrocarbons to the earths surface
5. Source, reservoir and seal must be arranged in such a way that the petroleum is Trapped
In addition to the five components, further events are essential:
a. Timing: no trapping unless the traps are present when migration is occurring
b. Maturation: no petroleum if the source rock OM does not mature
c. Migration: no accumulation if the petroleum doesnt migrate
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5. Introduction to Petroleum Geochemistry

5.1. Sources of Petroleum
5.1.1. ORGANIC MATTER TYPE
Because oil and gas are generated from organic matter in sedimentary rocks, we need to understand how
this organic matter came to be preserved in the rocks. Preservation of organic material is actually a rare
event. Most organic carbon is returned to the atmosphere through the carbon cycle; less than 1% of the
annual photosynthetic production escapes from the carbon cycle and is preserved in sediments. Oxidative
decay of dead organic matter is a highly efficient process mediated largely by microorganisms.
Petroleum originates from a small fraction of the organic matter deposited in sedimentary environments.
Out of the average source rock, 99% is mineral matter and 1% organic matter. Of this organic matter,
90% is kerogen and 10% bitumens. This organic matter is usually a combination of marine- and
terrestrially-derived organic (plant) and zooplankton (animal), which constitutes more than 95% of the
life in the oceans. Terrestrial organisms are mainly wind-blown spores and pollen, along with some
woody debris from rivers and swamps.
All living matter is composed of four main constituents, lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and lignins.
Lipids These cover all organism-produced substances that are practically insoluble in water. This
encompasses fatty substances such as vegetable oil, waxes and animal fats. Lipids are structurally very
similar to the non-aromatic NSO compounds. Lipids are one of the main sources for petroleum.
Proteins These are high-order polymers made from individual amino acids, and account for most of the
nitrogen and sulfur compounds in organisms. Therefore, most nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds
found in petroleum are derived from proteins.
Carbohydrates
This is a collective name for individual sugars and their polymers. The name is derived from the formula
Cn(H2O)n, which suggests hydrated carbons. Carbohydrates are not important sources for petroleum.
Lignins These are widespread in plants and are characterized by their aromatic (phenolic) structures. They
are high molecular weight structures (polyphenols). The aromatic content of petroleum is derived from
this group.
5.1.2. ORGANIC MATTER RICHNESS:
Studies of present depositional environments show that the optimum requirements for accumulation and
preservation of organic matter include:
A large supply of organic matter
An intermediate rate of sedimentation of fine-grained material
An oxygen-poor environment to reduce oxidation and aerobic microbial degradation of dead organic
matter
Continental margins have all the requirements for organic accumulation. Deltaic deposits have a rapid
sedimentation rate, but it is also an aerobic environment causing degradation of the organic matter. The
benthonic zone of the continental margin has an anaerobic environment, but little organic matter or
sedimentation. Therefore, within the continental margins, only certain areas (lagoons, estuaries, deep
basins within the margin) have both organic contributions, sedimentation and a reasonable anaerobic
environment.
In order for organic-rich rocks to be formed, significant amounts of organic matter must be deposited and
protected from diagenetic destruction.
The three primary factors influencing the amount of organic matter in a sedimentary rock are
productivity, preservation, and dilution.
Other factors are important such as:
Grain size
Sedimentation rate
Oxidation/Reduction
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5.1.3. Kerogen
It is a fine-grained, generally amorphous organic matter found principally in argillaceous sediments, such
as clays.
* It generates crude oil when heated sufficiently.
* It is insoluble in normal petroleum solvents.
* It is of no commercial significance except where it is so abundant (greater than 10%) as to occur in oil
shale.
As organic matter matures from biopolymers (lipids, lignins, etc.) to something called geopolymers
(nitrogenous and humic complexes), it is called kerogen.
It is best described as a heterogeneous, highly polymerized organic material, with a large amount of interbound aromatic rings. The average chemical composition of kerogen is as followed: Carbon 75%,
Hydrogen 10%, N, S, O etc 15%.
There are three major types of kerogen , each dependent on the type of source material.
a. Type I Kerogen: Algal chemically:This type of kerogen is characterized by having a high initial hydrogen to carbon atomic ratio (H/C) of
1.5 or more, and a low oxygen to carbon atomic ratio (O/C) of less than 0.1. Type I kerogen has a
hydrogen index greater than 300 and an oxygen index less than 50. Its primary source is from algal
sediments, such as lacustrine deposits. Type I kerogen is also called alginite kerogen, containing high
concentrations of alkanes and fatty acids. It is the best source for oil-prone maturation, but unfortunately
it is very rare.
1. Very rich in hydrogen, low in oxygen.
2. Contain lipids, oils, fats and waxes which are abundant in marine and freshwater algae.
3. Tend to generate oil when heated sufficiently.
4. Present in many clays.
5. Tend to occur in marine environments.
b. Type II Kerogen: Liptinic:This type of kerogen has a relatively high H/C ratio (1.0 to 1.4) and a low O/C ratio (0.09 to 1.5). Type II
kerogen has a hydrogen index between 200 and 300, and an oxygen index between 50 and 100. It consists
of abundant moderate length aliphatic chains and naphthenic rings. Ester bonds are common and sulfur is
present in substantial amounts. Type II kerogen is also called exinite, and is usually associated with
marine sediments, where autochthonous organic matter (bacteria, phytoplankton and zooplankton) have
been deposited in a reducing environment. It is a good oil or gas prone kerogen. It is more common than
alginate.
1. Rich in aliphatic compounds with an H: c ratio >1.
2. Formed from algae detritus and zooplankton and phytoplankton.
3. Can generate both oil and gas when heated sufficiently.
4. Tend to occur in marine environments.
c. Type III Kerogen: Humic:This type of kerogen has a relatively low H/C ratio (usually < 1.0) and low O/C ratio (0.2 to 0.3). Type III
kerogen has a hydrogen index below 300 and an oxygen index above 100. It contains an important
proportion of polyaromatic nuclei and heteroatomic ketone and carboxylic acid groups. Aliphatic groups
are a minor constituent, usually consisting of longer chains originating from higher-order plant waxes.
The main source of this type of kerogen are continental plants found in thick detrital sedimentation along
continental margins. This type of kerogen is also called vitrinite. It is less favorable for oil generation, but
will provide a source rock for gas.
1. Low H: C ratio (< 0.84).
2. Low in aliphatic and rich in aromatic compounds.
3. Produced from the lignin of higher woody plants.
4. Can generate gas only when heated sufficiently.
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Tend to occur in continental environment (fluvial and deltaic ones)
A Type IV kerogen also exists, which is known as inertinite. This type of kerogen is usually
associated with coal or organic matter that has been greatly oxidized.
All kerogen types experience chemical alteration during maturation. This results in the formation of
petroleum, and generally begins with the loss of oxygen, followed by hydrogen, to arrive at a form of
hydrocarbon. The terms sapropelic and humic organic matter are often referred to when using
visual descriptions of kerogen. Humic material is thought to be derived from plant matter, while
sapropelic material originates from algae or plankton.
Table (
): Classification of Organic Matter in Coals and Sedimentary Rocks.
Coal maceral groups

Kerogen Types
H/C
O/C
Source
Sapropelic
Liptinite (exinite)
Fluorescent Amorphous
I
II
1.9-1.0
1.5-0.8
0.1-0.02
0.2-0.02
Marine, lacustrine,
Terrestrial
Humic
Vitrinite
Inertinite
Nonfluorescent Amorphous
III
IV
1.0-0.5
0.6-0.1
0.4-0.02
0.3-0.01
Terrestrial and Recycled
VAN KREVELEN DIAGRAM :

The atomic H/C versus O/C diagram was developed by van Krevelen (1961) as a simple rapid method for
the following the chemical processes that occur during coal maturation (coalification).
In 1974, Tissot et al. adopted this diagram to follow chemical changes in kerogen with the depth and
increasing thermal stress. They analyzed kerogen from shale samples taken at different depths fro C, H
and O and calculate the atomic H/C and O/C ratios. When these were plotted on the van Krevelen
diagram, they showed three distinct maturation pathways. The kerogen in these pathways was defined as
types I, II, and III.
Figure below also shows a type IV kerogen, which is mainly reworked and highly oxidized organic
matter. Jones (1987) classified it as being in his type D organic facies. This type does not generate
hydrocarbons, except possibly small amount of methane.
We know that kerogen follow distinct pathways through maturation (Van Krevelen Diagram)
They change both physically and chemically
The reactions are temperature dependent
We need therefore to estimate the Thermal Maturity of a kerogen to know:
Could it generate oil?
Has it generated oil?
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6. PETROLEUM SYSTEM:
The petroleum system includes all the components of the generation, migration and accumulation of
petroleum, which are:
2- Source rocks
3- Migration paths
4- Reservoir
5- Seal
6- Trap
6.1 FORMATION OF AN OIL ACCUMULATION:

1. Burial of adequate organic source material.
Most petroleum is derived from the accumulation of trillions of individual microorganisms.
2. Burial to the appropriate depths.
Depths of 2-6 km and temperatures of 60-160 C.
3. Presence of a reservoir-quality rock.
A porous storage space. Sandstone and limestones are the most common reservoir rocks.
Presence of an adequate seal
A seal is an impermeable bed (such as shale or a bed of salt) that sits on top of the trap and
prevents the hydrocarbons rising any further.
4. Presence of a trap
In order to prevent the hydrocarbons rising to the surface and escaping they must be caught
in a confined space, termed a trap. i.e. the source, reservoir and seal must be arranged in
such a way that the petroleum is trapped.
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7. PETROLEUM SOURCE ROCKS

A petroleum source rock is defined as any rock that has the capability to generate and expel enough
hydrocarbons to form an accumulation of oil or gas.
A potential source rock is one that is too immature to generate petroleum in its natural setting but will
form significant quantities of petroleum when heated in the laboratory or during deep burial.
An effective source rocks is one that has already formed and expelled petroleum to a reservoir.
Techniques for recognizing source rocks include study the quantity, quality, and maturation level of
organic matter in rocks associated with petroleum production.
6.1. QUANTITY OF ORGANIC MATTER:

It is usually expressed as total organic carbon (TOC). It is important to determine the minimum TOCs
observed in rocks of varying lithologies that may generate and expel oil and gas.
The quantities of TOC in rocks are closely related to sediment particle size. The increase in TOC with a
decrease in sediment grain size was first recognized by Task et al (1932).
Lewan (1987) found that the minimum TOC required to expel generated oil in hydrous pyrolysis
experiments was between 1.5 and 2%.
6.2. QUALITY OF ORGANIC MATTER:

The most important factor controlling the generation of oil and gas is the hydrogen content of the organic
matter (OM). The quantity of petroleum generated and expelled increase as the atomic hydrogen-tocarbon (H/C) ratio of the OM increases.
Nearly all OM may be classified into two major types: sapropelic and humic. The sapropelic refers to the
decomposition and polymerization products of fatty, lipid organic materials such as spores and planktonic
algae deposited in subaquatic muds (marine or lacustrine). Sapropelic OM shows high atomic (H/C) ratio
in the range from 1.3 to 2.0.
The humic refers to products of peat formation, mainly land plant material deposited in swamps in the
presence of oxygen. Peat has an H/C ratio around 0.9, which is borderline for being an important
progenitor of oil.
6.3. MATURATION OF ORGANIC MATTER:

The maturity of a source rock is a measure of the degree to which reactions have proceeded in the
generation of petroleum products from organic matter.
4.2.2. DIAGENESIS OF ORGANIC MATTER

When preserved organic matter is buried, it undergoes three phases of alteration.
Diagenesis: occurs at normal temperatures and pressures within the top few meters of the sediment
column. Organic matter may be subjected to bacterial decay, oxidation, dehydration, and decarboxylation.
Thus H2O, CO2, and biogenic methane (CH4) may be expelled. The result is Kerogen. Clay
compaction, at the same time, rapidly reduces porosity from some 60% to 40%.
Catagenesis: occurs as temperatures increase to about 250C. Kerogen generates oil and gas. Shale
porosity decreases to about 10%.
Metagenesis: occurs above 250C. On the threshold of metamorphism, kerogen consists now of little
more than carbon (graphite). Catagenesis is obviously of critical importance and must be examined in
more detail. The first major factor to consider in Catagenesis is the nature of the kerogen.
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The earliest stage of hydrocarbon generation occurs during diagenesis. Certain microorganisms, called
methanogens, convert some of the organic debris to biogenic methane. Formation of biogenic methane
has been recognized for a long time, but only within the last few years have we realized that in many
areas a large portion of the natural gas reserves are biogenic.
As burial depth increases, porosity and permeability decrease, and temperature increases. These changes
lead to a gradual cessation of microbial activity, and thus eventually bring organic diagenesis to a halt.
As temperature rises, however, thermal reactions become increasingly important. During this second
transformation phase, called catagenesis, kerogen begins to decompose into smaller, more mobile
molecules. In the early stages of catagenesis most of the molecules produced from kerogen are still
relatively large; these are the precursors for petroleum, and are called bitumen.
In the late stages of catagenesis and in the final transformation stage, called metagenesis, the principal
products consist of smaller gas molecules.
6.4 PRINCIPAL STAGE OF OIL GENESIS

Rapid emission of volatiles (carbonization jump)

Sapropelic sediment maturation very different from the smooth conversion of coals (increase in
rank)
Dispersed OM undergoes smooth carbonization to 2000-2200m (losing side chains: dehydration,
decarboxylation)
Then: sharp, stepwise loss of H, C, and volatiles between 2200-3500m
6.4.1 OIL WINDOW

A range of temperatures through which oil generation can occur
Below 60C: sediments are immature
Above the critical temperature (Approx 120C): sediments are post-mature
Assumes that no migration of the oil has occurred (I.e. into lower temperature regimes)
-Major oil generation commences at about 60C reaches an optimum at about 120C and thereafter
declines to be replaced by gas generation.
-Oil generation totally dies out at about 150C and gas generation at about 250C. Therefore its
important to know the thermal maturity of source rock.
The Oil Window

The formation of oil from kerogen depends on the amount and type of source material present in the
sediments and the thermal history of the kerogen. It has been conclusively determined that temperature is
the most important factor affecting the generation of oil and gas from organic matter. During the
generation of petroleum from kerogen, both temperature and time play key roles. Kerogen, exposed to
relatively high temperatures for a short period of time, will mature to about the same extent as kerogen
which is exposed to relatively low temperatures for a longer period of time. Thus, the time and
temperature history of a kerogen determines occurrence and depth at which kerogen generates oil or gas
or both.
The depth range over which oil generation occurs (Figure 7-3) is known as the oil window. This oil
window is usually different for most sedimentary basins. It may cover several thousand meters or may be
confined to less than a thousand meters. The depth range for the oil window is mainly a function of the
past geothermal gradient and is similar to the present geothermal gradient if the subsidence history is
continuous. If this assumption is correct, then the oil window can be estimated from the current downhole
temperatures. However,
if the tectonic history of the basin has been active, then such assumptions can lead to gross errors. The
determination of the oil window is best performed by geochemical means using T(max), bitumen
extraction, gas chromatography and optical methods such as vitrinite reflectance.
In the search for petroleum reservoirs, accurate determination of the oil window is important, because if
an organically rich, oil-prone, source rock has not reached the oil window range of temperatures, it will
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not generate oil. Determination of the geologic time at which oil was generated within a reservoir is an
important factor in evaluating the possibility of the presence of suitable structures to accumulate and trap
the oil. If the generation of oil occurred prior to the formation of suitable reservoirs and traps, the
likelihood of finding commercial quantities of oil is less certain, than if the reservoir and
trap existed prior to the generation and migration of the oil. Petroleum is found from the Precambrian to
the Pleistocene, but is increasingly abundant in younger sediments. There are several reasons for this, the
most notable are:
1. Older oil fields are increasingly destroyed over time.
2. The continental split during the Jurassic caused an increase in continental margins and restricted basins.
The principal zone of oil formation during the thermal generation of petroleum hydrocarbons
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Methods Of Source Rock Evaluation

What techniques exist to allow us to assess kerogen maturity both at present day and in the geological
past?
Elemental composition (C, H, O)
Thermal Alteration Index (TAI)
Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro)
Time Temperature Index (TTI)
Extraction of bitumen
Rock Eval Pyrolysis
Sterane Isomerisation (DOI)
6.5.1 THERMAL ALTERATION INDEX:
Colour of microscopic kerogen indicative of degree of Catagenesis
During Diagenesis:
Alginites, liptinite, vitrinite = green/yellow
Represent the colour of living organisms
During Catagenesis
Colours darken passing through stages of gold, orange, brown and ultimately black
Staplin: colours based mainly on spores and pollen where possible
Process became known as Spore Darkening and ultimately Thermal Alteration Index
Scale has 5 stages from immature to mature
Oil generative zone= golden brown through brown stages
TAI oil generative zone = approx. 2.6 3.2 depending on the lab used
6.5.2 VITRINITE REFLECTANCE
Considered to be more reliable and less subjective than TAI
Vitrinite: coal maceral
Used for a long time to estimate coal rank (= maturity)
Since vitrinite in coal is the same as vitrinite in kerogen: technique applied to petroleum studies
Technique:
Illumination of a vitrinite particle
Determination of the percentage of light that is reflected
The higher the maturity: the higher the reflectance value
Ro = 0.6 to 1.2 commonly cited as the principal zone of oil formation
Using Ro to illustrate generation efficiency:
Assume 90% of oil generation occurs in the principal zone
Ro principal zone = 0.6% - 1.2%
Ro can be plotted against the fraction of oil generated (calculated)
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Correlation of TAI and Ro

Ro
TAI
0.3
2.0
0.4
2.25
0.5
2.5
0.6
2.6
0.7
2.7
1.00
2.9
1.30
3.2
1.50
3.5
2.0
3.7
3.0
3.9
4.0
4.0
5.0
4.0
6.5.3 THE TIME TEMPERATURE INDEX: TTI

Begin by reconstructing the depositional and tectonic history of the sedimentary layer of interest
(source rock).
Best done by plotting Burial depth against Age
Example
Consider a Lower Cretaceous source rock deposited 125Mya at the sediment surface.
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Since deposition it has had the burial history detailed in the following plot:
Plot the temperature variation with depth at 10 intervals, the geothermal gradient: assume 10C
km-1
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6.5.4 COMPARISON OF TTI WITH RO AND TAI

Commonly (in good work) these three parameters are used to cross-correlate: quality control
Allows us to construct the TTI oil generation window
Stage
TTI
Ro
TAI
Onset of oil generation
15
0.65
2.56
Peak oil generation
75
1.00
2.9
End of oil generation
160
1.30
3.2
Upper TTI limit for occurrence of API 40 oil
500
1.75
3.6
Upper TTI limit for occurrence of 50 API oil
1000
2.0
3.7
Upper TTI limit for wet gas
1500
2.2
3.75
Upper TTI limit for dry gas (methane)
65000
Liquid Sulphur in Lone Star Baden #1 (below

dry gas limit)
972000
5.0
4.0
Stage
TTI
Ro
TAI
Onset oil generation
15
0.65
2.65
Peak oil generation
75
1.00
2.9
End oil generation
160
1.30
3.2
End wet gas generation
1500
2.2
3.75
End dry gas generation
65000
6.5.5 ROCK-EVAL PYROLYSIS :

Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis techniques are performed directly on rock samples and offer the major clues in the systematic
analysis of kerogen when using a large number of samples. The Rock Eval instrument provides a fast
determination of the type and evolution stage of kerogen, together with a direct evaluation of hydrocarbon
source potential. The type and quality of kerogen are usually interpreted on a graph derived from the
traditional Van Krevelen Diagram, by replacing the H/C and O/C ratios with the hydrogen index (HI) and
the Oxygen index (OI). The hydrogen and oxygen indices show a good correlation with the H/C and O/C
respectively. However, the indices can be influenced by low organic content and mineral matrix. In these
cases, it is advisable to use pyrolysis as a screening technique and to check any correlation with a kerogen
elemental analysis. The total hydrocarbon source potential, expressed in kg/ton of rock, is also obtained
directly from pyrolysis.
The maturation stage is usually obtained from T(max) (the temperature corresponding with the peak of
kerogen pyrolysis). This parameter, measured on the bulk of the kerogen, has proved to be among the
most reliable for characterizing thermal evolution. It is particularly valuable in the case of planktonic
kerogen (Type I or Type II), where vitrinite is often scarce or absent. In addition, a composite T(max)
diagram allows a visualization of the type and maturation of the kerogen.
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Being fast and cheap, this type of analysis can be carried out in the laboratory or at the wellsite at selected
depth intervals and the results plotted on a geochemical log, which will show hydrocarbon source
potential and maturation. This log can also be used as a screening method for the selection of samples to
be analyzed by more sophisticated techniques. In addition, the geochemical log provides excellent
geological/geochemical correlation between different wells drilled in the same area. It can also offer an
approach
to the identification of facies changes across a basin. Several versions of rock pyrolysis allow the trapping
and subsequent chromatograph analysis of free hydrocarbons or hydrocarbons generated by pyrolysis, or
both.

Commercial technique developed by IFP to determine elemental compositions of kerogen

Sample of source rock is placed in heating chamber
Undergoes staged heating events to release components
Pre-existing HCs volatilized at 300 C
o Carried to detector
o Produces peak P1 of total area S1
Kerogen remaining is converted to HC components by heating to 550 C
CO2 produced by the pyrolysis up to a temp of 390 C
Maturation parameters are calculated from combinations of P1, P2, P3, S1, S2, and S3. Primary
parameters calculated are H-index, O-index, and Production index.
6.5.6 STERANE ISOMERISATION:
Steranes: common in source rocks
Remnant biomarkers: produced as sterols by biological processes and rearranged to sterane forms
in the source rock.
What characteristic allows them to be used as thermal maturity indicators?
Two structural isomers of sterane exist
S-form
R-form
The changeover from one form to another is temperature dependant.
Calculating ratios of one isomer to the thermally produced other: degree of isomerisation
DOI = assessment of maximum temperatures reached
Thus = thermal maturity
7. PETRO LEUM MIGR ATION

Oil and gas dont generally originate in the rock in which they are found, but they must have been
migrated into the reservoir rock from elsewhere.
7.1 EVIDENCES OF MIGRATION:

1) Hydrocarbons invaded the reservoir rock after considerable burial and raised temperature.
2) Oil and gas are found in solution pores and fractures that must have formed after burial and
lithification of the
host rock.
3) Oil and gas are trapped in the highest point of a permeable rock unit, which implies upward and lateral
migration.
4) Water, oil and gas occur in pores, permeable reservoir rocks stratified according to their relative
densities, this stratification implies that they were and they are free to move vertically and laterally within
and across the reservoir rocks.
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These observations Leeds to the conclusion that hydrocarbon migrate into the reservoir rocks at a
considerable depth below the surface and sometime after burial.
7.2 TYPES OF MIGRATION

A. Primary migration: is the emigration of hydrocarbon from the source rock (clay, shale) to the
reservoir rocks (generally sandstone, limestone, Dolomite).
B. Secondary migration: is the movement of oil and gas within the reservoir rocks due to differences in
their densities. This migration occurs when petroleum is clearly identifiable as crude oil or gas.
The various theories of the primary hydrocarbon migration may be grouped as follows:
I. EXPULSION AS PROTO-PETROLEUM: The emigration of hydrocarbons occurs while they are in the form
of ketones, acids, and esters which are soluble in water.
II. EXPULSION AS PETROLEUM:
A. In aqueous solution (hydrocarbon emigrate from the source rock fully formed yet dissolved in water).
1. Derived from compaction.
2. Expelled from clay.
3. Dissolved from meteoric flushing.
Solubility of hydrocarbon at the surface is negligible, but it increases in the subsurface by
increasing temperature or the presence of micelles.
B. Expulsion as petroleum within micelles: Micelles are colloidal organic acid soaps whose molecules
have hydrophobic (water in soluble) and hydrophilic (water soluble) ends. Their presence may thus
enhance the solubility of hydrocarbon in water.
C. Expulsion as petroleum :( Globules of oil in water, water wet).
D. Expulsion as petroleum (continuous phase, oil wet).
III. EXPULSION OF OIL IN GASEOUS SOLUTION:
Gases may play a directly role in oil migration. Hydrocarbon gases in deep wells are known to
carry oil in gaseous solution. Oil condenses when temperature and pressure drops as the
hydrocarbon gases are brought to the surface. The presence of C02 have considerable influence on
hydrocarbon migration, it lowers the viscosity of oil, thus increasing its mobility.
Proposed separation of petroleum

components
during
secondary
migration
as
a
result
of
chromatographic
effects.
Polar
compounds interact more strongly
with water and rock minerals and thus
move more slowly than hydrocarbons.
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Migration path
Source
rock
8. THE RESERVOIR:
One of those five essential prerequisites for a commercial accumulation of hydrocarbon is the existence of
a reservoir.
THE RESERVOIR: is the place of accumulation of hydrocarbons. Any rock may act as a reservoir for oil or
gas if this rock has porosity and permeability.
CAPACITY OF THE RESERVOIR: How much hydrocarbon can be hold in the reservoir. The amount depends
on porosity and permeability.
In practice Sandstones, Limestones, Dolomites, Conglomerates and Breccias contain the major known
reserves. Shales, Igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as reservoir rocks under special conditions (if
they contain porosity and permeability).
8.1 COMPOSITION OF OIL- AND GAS-BEARING ROCKS

A leading role in the rockwaterorganic matter system belongs to rocks. The rocks containing oil and
gas alternate in the Earths crust with the rocks that do not contain hydrocarbons. The former rocks are
called petroleum sequences or petroleum systems. Such sequences in the sedimentary cover comprise a
relatively limited combination of rocks, but form numerous diverse combinations. Eremenko and
Ulyanov (1960) identified 15 individual lithofacies among the sedimentary rocks:
1. Limestones, dolomites.
2. Limestones and dolomites with clay (shale) interbeds.
3. Limestones and dolomites with sand (sandstone), and clay (shale) interbeds.
4. Clays (shales) with limestone interbeds and lenses.
5. Clays (shales) and sandstones (sands) with limestone (dolomite) interbeds.
6. Clays with limestone (dolomite), sandstone (sand), and marl interbeds.
7. Clays (shales) and marl with sandstone and sand interbeds.
8. Clays (shales) with sandstone and sand interbeds and lenses.
9. Clays (shales) with sand, sandstone, and conglomerate interbeds.
10. Sandstones with conglomerate interbeds.
11. Sandstones and sands.
12. Coaliferous sediments.
13. Salt- and gypsum-bearing sediments (evaporites).
14. Variegated (showing variations of colors or tints) sediments.
15. Flysh facies.
It terms of their occurrence, Bakirov (1976) subdivided petroleum sequences into:
(a) Regional (i.e., developed within the entire petroleum provinces or their major regions),
(b) Subregional (i.e., developed within individual areas of petroleum provinces or regions)
(c) Zonal (occurring in an oil and gas generation zone), and
(d) Local (found within individual oil or gas fields).
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8.2 RESERVOIR ROCKS

Oil and/or gas reservoir rock is understood as not only a rock that can contain but also yield these fluids
during the development and production in a given temperaturepressure and geochemical
(physicochemical) environment. The latter statement is very important in preventing a researcher from
using the various reservoir-rock properties obtained in the laboratory.
Important characteristics of reservoir rocks are their capacity to contain certain volume of oil and/or gas
and their capacity to yield oil and/or gas. The first characteristic is defined by porosity and the second one
by permeability.
8.3 POROSITY:
Is the proportion of void space in the material- holes or cracks, unfilled by solid material, whether within
or between mineral grains. Porosity may be expressed either as percentage or as an equivalent decimal
fraction. The pore space may be occupied by fluids or gases or both, or they may be empty.
POROSITY () % = Pore Volume X 100
Bulk Volume
Phi () % = Bulk Volume (Vb) - Solid Volume (Vs)
Bulk Volume (Vb)
A significant influence on the interrelation between the rocks and fluids is the specific surface area. In
clastic rocks, the specific pore surface area is inversely proportional to the grain size as follows:
Sp = 6(1- ) /d
Where Sp is the specific pore surface area (cm2/cm3), the porosity (fractional), and d the average grain
size (cm).
The density of sedimentary rocks ranges from 1.7 to 2.6 g/cm3. In clastic rocks, density is inversely
proportional to porosity (Fig.).
Fig : Relationship between porosity and density (In: Eremenko and Chilingar, 1996)
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8.3.1 PORES TYPES

Pores are of three morphological types:a. Caternary Pores.
b. Cul- de sac Pores or Dead end Pores.
c. Closed Pores.
Absolute Porosity (Total Porosity): is the total porosity of the rock, despite whether the pores are
connected or not, it enclosed (a + b +c).
Effective Porosity: The porosity due to the interconnection of pores (Permeability).
In Caternary pores hydrocarbons can be flushed out by natural or artificial water or gas drive.
Dead end pores are unaffected by flushing, but may yield some oil by expansion as reservoir
pressure drops.
Closed Pores are unable to yield hydrocarbons.
The Size, Geometry of the pores and the diameter and tortuosity of the connecting throughout
passages all affect the productivity of the reservoir.
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8.3.2 POROSITY TYPES:

Several schemes have been proposed to classify porosity types (Robinson, 1966; Leverson, 1967;
Chouqette & Pray 1970).
Two main types of porosities that can be defined according to their time formation are:
I. PRIM ARY POROSITIES:
Are those pores which are formed during sedimentation and lithification of sediment.
a. Intergranular or interparticle pores: They are present in all sediments and are quickly lost,
especially in clays and carbonate sands because of compaction, primary porosity is often conserved
in sandstones.
b. Intragranular, or intraparticle pores: Are generally found within the skeletal grains of carbonate
sands, and are often dead end pores.
The original depositional factors of a reservoir affecting the intergranular type of primary porosity are:
1) Average grain size of particles.
2) Surface roughness of grains.
3) Sorting of the grains.
4) Angularity or sphericity of the grains
5) Present or absence Of ductile materials, particularly clays.
6) The degree of packing and grain orientation.
II. SECONDARY POROSITIES:

Porosity that is formed after sediment deposition and lithification.
Types of secondary porosity:A. SOLUTION POROSITY: porosity that is caused by the solution of the rock materials.
1. Moldic porosity: is a fabric- selective porosity (only the grains or only the matrix has been leached
out).
2.Vugy porosity:- vugs are pores whose boundaries cross - cut grains, matrices and / or cement,
vugs thus tend to be larger than moldic pores, with increasing size Vuggy porosity changes into
cavernous porosity.
B. INTERCRYSTALLINE POROSITY: The replacement of Calcite crystals by dolomite crystals. Dolomite of
calcite can cause a 13% shrinkage porosity of the original bulk volume thereby increasing porosity
C. TECTONIC POROSITY (FRACTURE POROSITY): Porosity due to tectonic deformation of the rocks. It is
important for enhancing permeability.
D. DIAGENETIC POROSITY:
Porosity due to diagenetic processes.
8.3.3 DIAGENETIC FACTORS AFFECTING POROSITY:

1. Burial depth.
2. Geothermal gradient.
3. Chemical composition of formation water which may be important in precipitating some minerals and
cements.
4. Tectonic forces which could cause fracture porosity.
5. Circulating of ground water (Leaching of some grains and cement).
6. Formation of diagenetic clay minerals.
7. Early migration of petroleum into a reservoir which could preserve porosity.
8. Dolomitization 2Ca CO3 + Mg Cl2 ------> Ca Mg (CaCO3)2 + Ca Cl2.
9. Degree of cementation.
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8.3.4 POROSITY MEASUREMENT:

Porosity may be measured in three ways:
1) Directly from cores using the Washburn - bunting method or boils law method.
Gas expansion technique % = Volume of gas extraction X 100
Bulk volume of the rock
2) Indirectly from geophysical well-logs
% = ma - b
ma - f
ma = density of the dry rock g/cm3
b = bulk density from log
f = density of the fluid
= Porosity
Sandstone (density = 2.65g /cm), Limestone (density = 2.71g /cm), Dolomite (density = 2.87 g /cm)
3) From seismic data
O = t log - t ma
tf - ma
t log = Interval transit time (from log)
t ma = Velocity of the rock at (0 porosity)
t f = Velocity of pore fluid
Velocities of some rocks and porefluid:Sandstone = 18000 - 21000 ft/s, Limestone = 21000 - 23000 ft/s, Dolomite = 23000 ft/s, Anhydrite =
20000 ft/s, Halite = 15000 ft/s, Fluid = 5300 ft/s.
Porosity
0-5%
5-10%
10-15%
15-20%
20-25%
Negligible
Poor
Fair
Good
Very good
8.4 PERM EABILITY

Is the ability of fluid to pass through a porous material, or the property that permit the passage of fluid
through the interconnected pores of a rock. (Its effective porosity).
A rock is termed permeable if an appreciable quantity of fluid will pass through it in a short time; it is
termed as impermeable if the rate of passage is negligible.
The unit for Permeability is the Darcy or the millidarcy.
If the rock has:Less than 1 md permeability, then its permeability is termed as poor.
1 - 10 md (k) fair.
10 - 100 md (k) good.
100 - 1000 md (k) very good.
8.4.1 TYPES OF PERMEABILITY:
1) Absolute Permeability (specific permeability):
When a single fluid phase completely saturates the pore space.
2) Effective Permeability:Is the permeability that refers to saturations of less than 100%. The term Kw, Kg, Ko are used to
designate the effective permeability that refers to saturation with respect to water, gas, and oil
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respectively. Effective permeability ranges between (0 and 1) at 100% saturation, but the sum of
permeabilities to 2 or 3 phases is always less than 1.
3) Relative Permeability:Is the ratio of the effective permeability for a particular fluid at a given saturation to the absolute
permeability, it ranges between (0 - 1).
for oil
kro = ko / k
for gas
krg = kg / k ,
for water
krw = Kw / k
K = Absolute permeability.
Kr = Relative permeability.
Kg = Effective permeability at 100% gas saturation.
Ko = Effective permeability at 100% oil saturation.
Kw = Effective permeability at 100% water saturation.
8.4.2 PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENT:
Permeability can be measured
1) In labs from cores.
2) Can be estimated from well logs.
Different methods are used to determine permeability. Liquid or gas with known viscosity is pushed
through a cleaned core sample.
The unit of the permeability is the Darcy which is defined as the permeability that allows a fluid of 1
centipoises (cp) viscosity to flow at a velocity of 1 cm /s for a pressure drop of 1 atm / cm. (md = 1 / 1000
from the Darcy).
Darcy's Law
Q = K (p1 - p2) A
L
Q = flow rate, (p1 - p2) pressure drop cross the sample,
A = cross sectional area of the
sample, L = length of the sample and = viscosity of the sample.
Darcy's law is only valid when:
1) There is no chemical reaction between the fluid and the rock.
2) Only one fluid phase completely filled the pores.
Permeability is seldom the same in all direction within a rock. Vertical permeability is lower than
horizontal permeability. Thus core plugs, from both directions are used for the measurement of
permeability.
8.5 CORRELATION BETWEEN POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY:

Correlation between the two major reservoir parameters, porosity and permeability, is a difficult task.
Permeability correlates most closely with the size and shape of pores, whereas porosity does not depend
on the pore size. Numerous attempts have been undertaken to theoretically determine the correlation
between the porosity and permeability.
A very good correlation between the porosity and permeability was established by Chilingarian et al.
(1992) by introducing two additional variables, irreducible fluid saturation and specific surface area.
If fractures form in an anisotropic (laminated) medium, its permeability will differ in different directions.
Moreover, in some cases both porosity and permeability near the fracture may significantly decrease.
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Fig. . Permeability and porosity across a fault zone (after Antonellini and Aydin, 1994). (Courtesy of
the American Association of Petroleum Geologists.)
8.6 OIL AND GAS RESERVOIR

The natural subsurface reservoir is a container of oil, gas, and water where they can move, and its shape is
determined by the relationship between the reservoir rock and its surrounding poorly permeable rocks
(Brod, 1950, 1957). Levorsen (1967) defines the subsurface reservoir as only that part of the reservoir
rocks where the oil and natural gas can form an accumulation. Many authors tend to tie the notion of oil
and gas reservoir to its content of hydrocarbons (Trofimuk et al., 1980; Kuznetsov, 1992). This appears
redundant to the writers because the presence of oil or gas is not a vital property of the subsurface
reservoir. The natural reservoir remains as such regardless of the type of the contained fluids, or even if it
is dry.
As for the reservoirs, the writers agree with Kuznetsov who stated that they possess two important
attributes: spatial limitation (which determines the volume and boundaries of the reservoir), and an
internal structure that defines the type and nature of inter-reservoir migration
Indeed, these properties should be included in any definition of the reservoir as well as in the
classifications being developed. Some attempts have been made to classify the oil and gas reservoirs on
the basis of their relative size (local, zonal, basin-wide, regional, etc.) or their absolute size:
Three types of reservoir limitations can be identified:
Reservoir roof
Lateral, and
Reservoir base (bottom).
The reservoir roof (top) may cover the reservoir
(1) in normal stratigraphic succession,
(2) with some depositional hiatus, and
(3) may change its age along the strike
Lateral limitations are caused by lithologic alterations (including cementation) and the permeability.
Small accumulations may be laterally limited by faults. This is possible, but not typical, for the larger
reservoirs, because the fault zones in their evolution can become migration paths for various fluids (oil,
water, or gas). Fault zones are actually communication windows with the other reservoirs.
The importance of the presence of the base (bottom) as a necessary reservoir component was not always
clearly recognized, because it was believed that the accumulations were formed exclusively by the
buoyancy (Archimedes forces). One must always keep in mind that the reservoir is an inseparable part of
the hydrodynamic system. This system may be open or with a restricted communication to the surface
(artesian), or of elision type (i.e., with an inverse pattern of hydrostatic pressure). It is not possible for
such energy system to exist without a base (bottom).
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The following features are used in describing a reservoir:

(1) Type of the reservoir rock comprising the reservoir;
(2) Relationship between the reservoir and the surrounding impermeable rocks;
(3) Reservoir capacity; and
(4) Depositional environment.
8.7 PRODUCTION METHODS

Hydrocarbon may be produced by several mechanisms. Three natural drive mechanisms can cause oil or
gas to flow up to the well bore.
1) Water drive: Is the flow of oil or gas from the reservoir rock to the well bore, when the trap is
opened during drilling or production, due to the hydrostatic head of water. The degree of water
encroachment and pressure maintenance will depend on:
a. The size of the aquifer
b. The productivity of the aquifer.
As the field is produced, water invades the lower part of the trap to displace the oil. Because adjacent
beds seldom have the same permeability water encroachment advances at different rates (Water fingering,
Water coning) this depends on:
1. Rate of production 2. Ratio between vertical and horizontal permeability.
Water drive mechanism is generally the most effective one, with a recovery factor up to 60%.
2. Gas cap drive (saturated reservoir)

The reservoir contains oil and gas. As production begins the drop in pressure causes gas dissolved in
the oil to come out of solution, this new gas moves upward to the gas cap and expand to occupy
the pores vacated by the oil.
Pressure and oil production drop steadily.
Ratio of gas to oil increases.
Recovery factor range between (25 - 50 %).
3. Dissolved gas drive, or solution gas drive (understated reservoir)
This type of drive occurs in oil fields that initially have no gas cap.
As production begins, pressure drops and gas bubbles out of the oil and expand, forcing the oil to
come out of the pore system and towards the borehole (maintaining reservoir pressure).
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As time passes these gases may form a gas cap in the crest of the reservoir (This point is termed as
the (critical gas saturation). care must be taken to avoid this situation by:
1. Maintaining a slow rate of production.
2. Injection the produced gas to maintain the original reservoir pressure.
Recovery factor range between (7 - 15 %).
8.8 ARTIFICIAL LIFT AND ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

Not all fields produced by natural drive mechanisms and even these natural drive mechanisms do not
recover all the oil. Artificial methods are used to produce and to enhance production from fields
lacking natural drive.
Enhanced methods increase the recoverable reserves.
A well will flow to the surface naturally if the static pressure at the bottom of the well exceeds the
pressure of the column of mud and the frictional effect of the borehole.
In many cases (depleted reservoir, low pressured reservoir) the well will not flow naturally, thus
several secondary recovery programs are then used to maintain or reestablishing the original
reservoir pressure such as (gas injection, liquid injection, or detergent injection).
9. CAP ROCKS OR SEAL

For a long time, the only force causing the movement of oil and gas in the subsurface was believed to be
buoyancy. If so, then to form oil and gas accumulation, their migration paths must have been stopped by a
roof, i.e., caprock (seal). Clays, shales, carbonates, evaporites, and their combinations can form caprocks.
caprocks are any rocks that prevent the upward migration of hydrocarbons from the trap to the earths
surface. Cap rocks must present very low permeability vertically, and horizontally.
9.1 ROCKS THAT MAY ACT AS CAP ROCKS ARE:

a) Shale, b) Claystones, c) Siltstones, d) Evaporites (Halite, Gypsum, Anhydrite)
e) Massive limestones, dolomites and sandstones f) Massive igneous and metamorphic rocks (when not
fractured). g) Sealed faults. h) Diagenetic processes may form impermeable rocks that can prevent the
movement of fluid and gases out of the reservoir rock.
Water: Water prevent the downward flow of hydrocarbon in the dip direction of strata, thus the
hydrocarbons remains in the trap
9.2 TYPES OF CAPROCKS

Type I caprocks are typical for argillaceous sequences in a state of continuing compaction; they are
developed in areas of young subsidence of Earths crust, with abnormally high pore water pressure.
Sealing properties of these rocks are determined by the amount of capillary pressure at the contact of the
reservoir and caprock, the pore pressure of water saturating the caprock, initial pressure gradient of water
and the variation of hydraulic forces in the section.
Type II caprocks are associated with rocks compacted beyond the plasticity limit and having lost ability
to swell on contact with water. Such rocks do not contain swelling clay minerals, and interstitial water
contains surfactants. Consequently, pore water in these rocks does not have initial pressure gradient. This
type of caprocks is encountered mostly in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments of young and old
platforms.
Type III caprocks are typical for rocks with a rigid matrix and intense fracturing. Such caprocks are
mainly developed over the old platforms in regions of low tectonic mobility, with no detectable
hydrodynamic breakdown of the section. Formation water potential in such regions is practically equal
throughout the section and corresponds to the calculated hydrostatic potential.
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10. THE TRAPS:

Trap is part of the subsurface reservoir where an oil or gas accumulation can form and be preserved. Its
parameters include the reservoir type, reservoir-rock type, conditions of its formation, structure, and
capacity. In a special case where the reservoir is lithologically limited from all directions, its parameters
may coincide with those of the trap (i.e., the entire reservoir is represented by a single trap).
Thus trap is the place where oil and gas are barred from further movement (after leverson, 1967) only
after drilling and testing is known whether the trap contains oil or gas.
10.1 NOMENCLATURE OF A TRAP :1) CREST OR CULMINATION: The highest point of the trap (anticline).
2) SPILL POINT: The lowest point at which hydrocarbons may be contained in the trap, it lies on a
horizontal contour termed as the spill plane.
The structurally lowest point in a trap has been filled to its spill point, further storage or retention of
hydrocarbons will not occur for lack of reservoir space within that trap. The hydrocarbons spill or leak
out, and they continue to migrate until they are trapped elsewhere.
3) CLOSURE: The vertical distance from crest to spill plane. In areas of monoclonal dip the closure of a
trap may not be the same as its structural relief.
4) THE PAY ZONE: Is the productive zone within the trap.
5) THE GROSS PAY: The vertical distance from the top of the reservoir to the oil- water-contact, the
thickness of this zone may vary from 1m
to several hundred meters. The gross pay does not
necessarily consist of productive reservoir.
6) NET PAY: Is the cumulative vertical thickness of a reservoir from which petroleum may be produced.
7) OIL-WATER-CONTACT (OWC): Is the deepest level of predicable oil.
8) GAS- OIL-CONTACT (GOC): Is the deepest level of producible gas.
9) GAS-WATER-CONTACT (GWC): Is the deepest level of producible gas.

The evaluation of these surfaces is essential before the reserves of a field can be calculated (Welllogging).
Where oil and gas occur together in the same trap the gas overlies the oil because it has a lower
density.
Whether a trap contains oil and/or gas depends on both chemistry and degree of maturation of the
source rock and on temperature and pressure of the reservoir itself.
Fluid contacts in a trap are generally planer, but they are always not horizontal, early recognition of
a tilted fluid contact is essential for the correct evaluation of the reserve.
Correct identification of the cause of the tilt is necessary for the efficient production of the field.
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Tilted contacts in the trap are due to:

1) Hydrodynamic flow of the bottom waters leads to a displacement of the hydrocarbons from the crestal
to the flank position.
2) Cementation beneath an oil zone, while it is halted in the trap itself, then tilting.
3) Change in facies (Change in grain size across the reservoir causes a tilted contact, capillary pressure
increase with decreasing grain size allowing a rise in the Oil-Water-Contact).
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10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TRAPS

Hydrocarbon may be trapped in many ways. Several schemes have been drawn up to attempt to classify
traps (Clapp, 1910, 1929; Lovely 1943; Hobson and Tiratsoo 1975, Leverson 1975).
The following is a crude classification of hydrocarbon traps based on previous schemes.
I. STRUCTURAL TRAPS:
a. Fold traps
a1. Compressional anticlines
a2. Compactional anticlines
b. Fault traps
II. DIAPIRIC TRAPS:
a. Salt diapers
b. Mud diaper
III. STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS:
A. Unassociated with unconformities
a. Depositional
a1. Pinchouts
a2. Channels
a3. Bars
a4. Reefs
b. Diagenetic
Porosity and or/ permeability transition.
B. Associated with unconformities
a. Supraunconformity
a1. Onlap
a2. Strike valley
a3. Channel
b. Subunconformity.
b1. Truncation
IV. COMBINATION TRAPS
V. HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS
I. STRUCTURAL TRAPS: Are those traps whose geometry was formed by post depositional tectonic
modification of the reservoir rocks (folding, faulting or both).
a1. Compressional Anticlines:Anticlines whose geometry was formed by compression and are most likely to be found in or adjacent to
subductive troughs, where there is a net shortening of the earths crust. One of the best-known oil
provinces with production from compressional anticlines occurs in Iran, near the foothills of the Zagrous
Mountains (giant fields). A second major hydrocarbon province with such anticlines occurs in the tertiary
basins of California / USA.
b2. Compactional Anticlines:
Traps whose geometry was formed by crustal tension. where crustal tension causes a sedimentary basin to
form, the basin floor is commonly split into a mosaic of basement horsts and grabens. Sediments infilles
this irregular topography to produce anticlines in the sediment cover above the deep seated horsts
(Closure may be enhanced by compaction and sedimentation). Examples of oil fields trapped in
Compactional anticlines occur in the North Sea.
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B. Fault and Fault related traps:

Are traps whose geometry was formed due to faulting. Faulting plays an indirect but essential role in the
entrapment of many fields. Relatively few discovered traps are caused only by faulting. There are many
traps (Structural, Diapered ones) which are related to transverse faults (Wrench faults) and tensional
faults (Growth faults).
It is important to know whether a fault acts as a barrier (seal) to fluid or gas movement or whether
it is permeable (not seal).
a. Where the throw of the fault is less than the thickness of the reservoir, it is unlikely to seal.
b. Faults in brittle rocks are less likely to seal than those in plastic rocks.
c. Faults in lithified rocks may be accompanied by extensive fracturing, which may be permeable and
thus faults are unlikely to seal. Sometimes those fractures may later be cemented and become
impermeable (faults then seal).
d. In unlithified sands and shales faults tend to seal, particularly where the throw of the fault exceeds
reservoir thickness.
e. Clay caught up in a fault plane can act as a seal, even when two permeable formations are faulted
against each other. This phenomenon is known from areas of overpressured sediment such as the Niger
delta.
II. DIAPIRIC TRAPS

Traps that are caused due to the upward movement of sediments that are less dense than those
overlying them (generally Salts and overpressured clays). Salt has a density of about 2.03 g/cm3.
Recently deposited clays have densities less than that of salt. Salt and overpressured clays tend to
flow up through the denser overburden at depths ranging between 800-1200m. This movement
may be triggered tectonically, and the resultant structures may show some structural alignment.
In some instances the salt may reach the surface, forming sinkholes in humid climates and salt
glaciers in arid climates (Salt movement or halokinesis).
Salt and mud diapiric traps are easily located by gravity or seismic methods.
Oil and gas may be trapped by salt movement in many ways:
1. Over the crest of the salt dome or around the flanks of the dome.
2. By faulting both sediment against sediment, or sediment against salt.
3. Diagenetically due to the upward movement of salt through limestone and dolomite rocks.
4. When salt moves up close to the earths surface, its crest may be dissolved by meteoric water.
Overlying sediments may collapse into the vacated holespace forming collapse breccias that may act
as petroleum reservoirs.
5. Overpressured clays and shales may generate hydrocarbon traps in analogous ways to those
previously described for salt domes.
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III. S TRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS

Traps that occur due to changes in lithology.
These changes may be the result of:a. original depositional changes of the rock, as with a reef or channel.
b. post depositional changes, as with truncation or diagenetic traps.
Stratigraphic traps are less well known and harder to locate than structural traps, their formation
processes are even more complex.
A: Traps unassociated with unconformities:
1) Channel:
A channel is an environment for the transportation of sand, which may or may not include sand
deposition. Channel deposits thus may act as a permeable barrier, trapping hydrocarbons in adjacent
porous beds.
Channel traps are not the host for giant oil accumulation because:
a. the thickness and extension of the trap is limited(15m thick, 1,5km long).
b. only part of the channel is actually reservoir and the second part is made of a clay plug.
2) Barrier sand trap:
Barrier bar sand, sheet and shoestring traps occur as an integral part of major regressive - transgressive
cycles, sands are thickest and best developed in the regressive phase and tend to occur only as discrete
shoestring during the transgressions.
Marine barrier sand often make excellent reservoirs because of their clean, well-sorted texture.
(Regressive sands tend to make the best traps). They may form giant fields (tens of km long, tell 10km
width with thickness up to tens of meters).
3) Pinchout traps:
Are traps that are formed due to Stratigraphic and structural processes (needs some closure in both
directions along the paleostrike).
4) Reefs (Carbonate buildups):
Are mounds or ridge-shaped organic structure which is built by calcareous organisms. They are wave
resistant and stand in relief above the surrounding sea floor.
Is one of the most important types of Stratigraphic traps. They can reach several km in diameter
and several hundred of meters in thickness.
They developed as domal (Pinnacle) and elongated barrier antiforms.
They may or may not contain hydrocarbon accumulations.
Reef hydrocarbon Provinces exist around the world (Arabian Golf, Western Canada, Mexico,
Phlilipinian, and Australian).
5) Diagenetic Traps:
Are traps that are formed due to diagenetic processes. Diagenesis plays a considerable role in controlling
the quality of a reservoir within a trap. (Solution can generate and enhance secondary porosity, while
cementing can destroy it).
Cemented zones generated by diagenesis may inhabit further migration of oil or gas or both.
Hydrocarbon may be trapped in zones where solution porosity has locally developed in a
cemented rock.
Secondary dolomitization can generate irregular diagenetic traps (Dolomite of limestones can
cause 13% shrinkage porosity).
As oil migrates to the surface, it may be degraded and oxidized by bacterial action. If it reaches
the shallow zone of meteoric water, then it will be able to form diagenetic traps.
B: Traps associated with unconformities:
1. Supraunconformity: (Traps that occurs above unconformities)
Includes reefs and various types of terrigenous sands such as:
a. Sheet b. Channel
c. Strike valley d. Reefs.
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a. Sheet: Are Shallow marine or fluvial sand may on lap a planner unconformity, a Stratigraphic trap
may occur, where these sands are overlain by shale and where the sub-unconformity rocks are also
impermeable.
b. Strike valley:- where an un conformity is irregular (due to weathering of rocks of different hardness),
sand often infill valley cut causing a trap.
2. Subunconformity (Traps that occurs below unconformities)
Are traps beneath unconformities where porous permeable beds have been truncated and overlain by
impermeable clay.

In many instances a seat is also provided by impermeable strata beneath the reservoir.

Most truncation traps have had their reservoir quality enhanced by epidiagenesis.

(Channel, bar, reef and diagenetic traps occurs in both conformable and unconformable
sequences.

Channels, bars and reefs often overlie unconformities, while diagenetic traps underlie them.

A large percentage of the known global petroleum reserves are trapped adjacent to worldwide
unconformities and source rock of late Jurassic - to mid Cretaceous age.
IV. COMBINATION TRAPS

Are traps that are formed by a combination of two or more forces (such as Structural, Stratigraphic,
hydrodynamic).
Combination of structural and stratigraphic traps is common, while structural -hydrodynamic and
stratigraphic-hydrodynamic traps are rare. Folded and faulted unconformity traps .Faulted diapiric
anticlines.
V. H YDRODYNAMIC TRAPS:
Where water is moving hydrodynamically down permeable beds, it may encounter upward moving
oil, when the hydrodynamic pressure of the water exceeds the force of the oil, the oil will be
restrained from upward movement and will be trapped within the bed without any permeability
barrier.
Hydrodynamic flow of water in a permeable bed is essential to prevent the upward migration of oil
or gas to the surface, the oil may be trapped in flexures which lack vertical closure.
Oil or gas will generally move upward along permeable carrier beds to the earths surface except
where they encounter a permeability barrier, structural or stratigraphic beneath which they may be
trapped.
Pure hydrodynamic traps are very rare.
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Gas
Oil
Oil
Oil
Water
Salt Diapir
Fault
le
Im Water
pe
rm
Gas
eab
le
Oil
Gas
Oil
Water
Im
pe
rm
e ab
Im p
erm
Gas
Water
Im
per
me
abl
e
eabl
Oil
Impe
Water
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Water
rmea
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a)
Mudrock
Gas
Gas
Oil
Impermeable
Beds
Oil
Oil
Water
Sandstone body
Water
A "multistorey" sandbody
formed by paleochannel
sandstone bodies
b)
Gas
Oil
Water
Mudrock
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11. THE SUBSURFACE ENVIRONMENT AND THEIR EFFECT ON THE

HYDROCARBONS
The Subsurface environment can be subdivided into the following major parameters:1. Subsurface Water
2. Subsurface Temperature
3. Subsurface Pressure
4. Subsurface Fluid dynamics
11.1 SUBSURFACE WATER

Petroleum geology largely concern with the study of fluids, not just the oil and gas with which they are
associated and through which they move.
Two types of water can be recognized in the subsurface by their mode of occurrences:1. Free water: Water that is free to move in and out of pores in response to pressure differential.
2. Interstitial water: or irreducible water: Water that is bonded to mineral grains, it resists displacement
by invading hydrocarbons, because it occupies pore space too fine for the hydrocarbons to enter and may
be even adhere to the surface of the rock grains themselves as a discrete film of water. This water cannot
be removed during the production of oil or gas from a reservoir.
11.1.1 ANALYSIS OF SUBSURFACE WATER
Subsurface water is analyzed for several reasons:a. The measurement of the resistivity of formation water (Rw) is essential for the accurate assessment of
(Sw) and hydrocarbon saturation (So = 1 -Sw).
b. Resistivity water (Rw) is closely related to salinity, salinity varies both vertically and laterally across a
basin.
c. Salinity increases with proximity to hydrocarbon reservoir. Subsurface waters contain traces of
dissolved hydrocarbon gases, whose content increases with proximity to hydrocarbon accumulations.
Subsurface water can be analyzed in two ways:a. Measuring the total concentration of solid (TCS), or total dissolved solid chemicals in water (TDS),
which is the sum of concentration of all dissolved chemicals in water.
The Quantities of impurities and what these impurities are, is very important for the acceptance of waters
as drink waters or not. (Drink water have salinities of 500 - 1000 ppm, 2000 ppm might be acceptable,
above 2000 ppm unacceptable).
b. Salinity can be calculated from resistivity waters (Rw) by using the Spontaneous - Potential (Sp) Curve
Sp = - K log aw/amf
Knowing the formation Temp., the static Sp a shaly formation can be transformed into resistivity ratio;
aw, amf (chemical activity of the formation water and mud filtrate).
K = 61 + 0.133 Tf (F)
K = a coefficient proportional to the absolute temp (K= 71 at 77 F and varies with temp). Samples can
be obtained from (DST) or during production
11.1.2. GENESIS OF SUBSURFACE WATER
For Types of Subsurface water can be defined according to their genesis:1- Meteoric water
2- Mixed water
3- Juvenile water
4- Connate water
1) Meteoric water: are waters that occur near the surface of the earth and are caused by infiltration of
rainwater. The salinity of those waters is naturally negligible and they tend to be oxidizing. They are often
acidic because of dissolved humic, carbonic and nitrous acids from the atmosphere and soil, although they
may quickly become neutralized in the subsurface, especially when they flow through carbonate rocks
H2C03 + CaC03 --->Ca (HC03)2
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2) Connate water: are waters which have been buried in a closed hydraulic system and have not formed
part of the hydraulic cycle for a long time. It differs from Seawater in concentration and chemistry.
3) Juvenile waters: are waters of primary magmatic origin. It is difficult to prove that such hydrothermal
waters are indeed primary and have received no contamination from connate waters.
4) Mixed waters: are waters which may be produced by the confluence of meteoric, juvenile or connate
waters. In most basins a transition zone exists between the surface aquifer and the deeper connate zone.
11.1.3 CHEMISTRY OF SUBSURFACE WATERS
When studding the chemistry of subsurface waters, the four characteristics should be considered:
a) EH (Oxidation Potential)
b) PH (Acidity or alkalinity of water).
c) Concentration
d) Composition
A) EH AND PH OF WATER:-
Rainwater is oxidizing and acidic. It generally contains Oxygen, Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide in
solution, together with ammonium nitrate after thunder storms.
As rainwater percolate into the soil, it undergoes several changes (It becomes meteoric water) and
it tend to be reducing as it oxidized organic matter.
PH - of meteoric water may remain low in swampy environments because of the humic acids, but
it increases in arid climates. While flowing deep in the subsurface they dissolved salts and
increase in PH (become alkaline).
Deep connate waters show a wide range of EH and PH values depending on their history and
particularly on the extent to which they have mixed with meteoric waters.
Oil field brines tend to be alkaline and strongly reducing (important for hydrocarbon generation).
The EH and PH of pore fluids control the precipitation and solution of clays and other digenetic
mineral cements
Fig. Eh pH graph showing the approximate distribution of the various types of subsurface fluids.
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B) CONCENTRATION OF SUBSURFACE WATER
Measuring the concentration of salts in subsurface waters is important for:

a. Well evaluation
b. The data can be used as an exploration tool
c. To determine the quality of water.
Average Seawater salinity is approximately 35.000ppm (35 %)
Values of concentrations in subsurface waters range from about 0 ppm for fresh meteoric waters
up to 642-798 ppm for the saline dolomitic aquifer.
The dissolved solid content of most connate waters seldom exceeds 350 000 ppm. Dead Sea
(300 000 - 320 000 ppm) Na -Mg - Ca - Cl Type.
In sands the salinity of connate waters generally increases with depth at rates ranging from 80 300 mg /L per m, due to salt sieving. As water moves upward through compacting sediments the
shale prevents the salt ions from escaping from the sands, shales may behave like semi permeable
membranes.
Decreasing salinity with depth is noted in overpressure zones.
In shales, the increase in salinity with depth is less marked, the salinity of sand is often three times
that of shales, with which it may be interbeded.
Meteoric water may sometimes be trapped beneath an unconformity and is thus preserved as a
paleoaquifer; beds above the unconformity have salinities of 60 000 ppm, beneath it 20 000 ppm;
then gradually increasing to over 40 000 ppm.
C) COMPOSITION OF SUBSURFACE WATER
Subsurface waters contain varying concentrations of inorganic salts together with traces of organic
compounds, including hydrocarbons.
Meteoric waters differ from connate waters not only in salinity but also in chemistry; it has higher
concentrations of bicarbonate and sulfate ions and lower amounts of calcium and magnesium.
These differences are the basis for the classification of subsurface waters proposed by Sulin (1946),
which has been widely adopted by geologists
Connate waters also contain traces of dissolved hydrocarbons. These data are of great significance
because:
a. They raise the possibility of regionally mapping dissolved gas content as a key to locating new oil and
gas fields.
b. These data give clues on the problems of migration of oil and gas.
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11.2 TYPE OF SUBSURFACE ENVIRONMENTS:

Based on studies in the Gulf of Mexico and the Mackenzie delta Overton (1973) and Van Elseberg (1978)
have defined four major subsurface environments:
Zone 1: surface to depth of about 1 km: Zone of circulating meteoric water, salinity fairly uniform.
Zone 2: depth of about 1-3 Km, salinity gradually increases with depth. Saline formation water ionized.
Zone 3: depth greater than 3 km: chemically reducing environment in which hydrocarbons form. Salinity
uniform with increasing depth; may even decline if over pressured.
Zone 4: incipient metamorphism with recrystallization of clays to micas. Salinity tend to increase from
the margins of a basin towards its center
11.3 SUBSURFACE TEMPERATURE

11.3.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES
Temperature increases from the earths surface toward its center.
Bottomhole temperatures (BHTs) can be recorded from wells and are generally taken several times
at each casing points. As each log is run, the BHT can be measured. Several readings at each depth
is important because the mud at the bottom of the hole takes hours to warm up to the ambient
temperature of the adjacent strata. Thus BHTs are recorded together with the number of hours since
circulation.
Figure: - BHT builds -up curve. Graph shows how true bottom hole temperature. It can only be
determined from several readings taken many hours apart.
The true stabilized temperature can be determined from the Horner plot (Fertl and Wichman, 1977).
In this method the recorded temperature is plotted against the following ratio:
_ t__
(t + t)
Where t = number of hours since circulation and logging, t = hours of circulation at that depth.
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Figure . Horner plot showing how true bottom hole temperature can be extrapolated from tow readings.
Figure . Depth-Temperature graph showing how the top of the oil generation zone increase with
increasing geothermal gradient.
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Once several corrected BHTs have been obtained as a well is drilled, they can be plotted against depth to
calculate the geothermal gradient (Fig. above). These values range from approximately 1.80C/100 m to
5.50C/100m. The global average is about 2.60C/100m.
When several BHTs are plotted against depth for a well they may show that the geothermal gradient is
not constant with depth. This discrepancy is generally caused by variations in the thermal conductivity of
the penetrated strata.
This relationship may be expressed as follows:Heat flow = geothermal gradient X thermal conductivity of rock
Table. Shows the thermal conductivity of various sediments. Where sediments of different thermal
conductivity are interbeded, the geothermal gradient will be different for each formation.
Lithology
Halite
Anhydrite
Dolomite
Limestone
Sandstone
Shale
Coal
Thermal conductivity
5.5
5.5
5.0
2.5-3.5
2.6-4.0
1.5-2.9
0.3
11.3.2 LOCAL THERMAL VARIATIONS:

Once the isotherms for a well have been calculated, extrapolating them across a basin is useful. The
isotherms are seldom laterally horizontal for very far because of the following three factors:
1. Nonplanar geometry of sediments.
2. Movement of fluids
3. Regional variations in heat flow.
When strata are folded or where formations are markedly lenticular, anomalies are likely to occur in the
geometry of isotherms. Isotherms dome up over salt diapers because of the high thermal conductivity of
evaporates.
A mud diaper of high porous clay has an anomalously low thermal conductivity the isotherms within the
clay will be closely spaced and depressed over the dom.
Extensive over pressured clay formations act as an insulating blanket, trapping thermal energy and aiding
source maturation.
Fluid flow is an additional cause at anomalous isotherm where water are rapidly discharge to the surface,
along open faults for example, isotherms are drawn upward.
Abnormally high heat flow occurs along mid ocean ridges and intracrationic rifts, where magma is rising
to the surface and the crust is thinning and separating. Conversely, heat flow is abnormally low at
convergent plate boundaries, where relatively cool sediments are being sub ducted into the mantle.
Regional variations in heat flow affect petroleum generation:

Oil generation occurs between temperatures of 60 and 120 C. In areas of high heat flow and hence high
geothermal gradient, the optimum temperature will be reached at shallower depths than in areas of low
heat flow and geothermal gradient.
Note also the effect of low conductive formations. With their high geothermal gradients they raise the
depth at which the oil window is entered thus oil generation begins at greater depth in subductive troughs
than in rift basin.
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11.4 SUBSURFACE PRESSURE

11.4.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES
Pressure: is the force per unit area acting on a surface measured in (kg/cm) or in pounds per square inch
(psi).
Over burden pressure (confining or geostatic pressure) consists of lithostatic pressure & fluid pressure
Fluid Pressure: consists of hydrostatic & hydrodynamic pressure
Lithostatic pressure: The combined weight of formation solids and fluids in the formation exerts a total
pressure. This overburden pressure increases with depth.
S= P + O
Where
S = overburden pressure.
P = lithostatic pressure.
O = fluid pressure
psi = pound per square inch.
11.4.2 MEASUREMENTS OF SUBSURFACE PRESSURES :
Measurements of subsurface pressures can be measured in many ways:
1. Before a well is being drilled.
a. From velocities calculated from seismic data.
b. Velocity generally increases with depth as sediments compact.
c. A reversal of this trend may indicate under compacted and hence over pressured shales.
2. While a well is being drilled. A number of parameters may indicate abnormal pressure. These
parameters include:
a. rapid increase in the rate of penetration
b. rapid increase in the temperature of the drilling mud
c. decrease in the density of shale cuttings.
A useful method to indicate abnormal pressure is the (d) exponent of (Jordan and Shirley 1966). This
method takes into account that the penetration rate of the bit reflects:
a. The degree of compaction of sediments
b. The weight on the bit
c. The rotary speed.
d - Exponent = log (R/60 N)
log (12w/10D)
Where R = Rate of penetration (ft/h)
N = Rotary speed (rpm)
W = Weight on bit (lb)
D = Diameter of borehole (in)
The d exponent is plotted against depth as the well is drilled. It will decrease linearly until reaching the
top of abnormal pressure, and then it will increase. When these methods suggest that an over pressured
zone has been penetrated, it is wise to stop drilling and run logs.
3. After drilling a well: pressure can be measured by several methods:
b. With a pressure bomb, in which pressure is recorded against time.
c. The drill stem test (DST) in which the well is allowed to flow for several short periods, while
the pressure is monitored.
d. Using wireline tools (well logging).
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LITHOSTATIC PRESSURE:The pressure caused by the rock weight, which is transmitted through the subsurface by grain-to-grain
contacts. the lithostatic pressure gradient varies with:
a) Depth
b) The density of the overburden
c) The extent to which grain-to-grain contacts may be supported by water pressure. It often averages
about 1psi/ft.
PORE PRESSURE (FLUID PRESSURE):
Pore pressure is that exerted by fluids contained in the pore space of the rock. It is the strict meaning of
what is generally referred to formation pressure. All rocks have porosity to some extent. If permeability
also exists and formation pressure is greater than mud hydrostatic pressure, pore pressure will tend to
flush fluids out of the pore space and into the wellbore.
In impermeable formations (such as shales), only the fluids in the formation immediately adjacent to the
borehole will enter; pore pressure, therefore, will be confined and will produce sloughing or caving.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE:
It is the pressure which exists due to the unit weight and vertical height of a column of fluid. Size and
shape of the fluid have no effect.
P = 0. 0519 X W X D
Where:
P = hydrostatic pressure (psi)
W = mud weight (ppg, pounds per gallon)
D = vertical depth (ft)
The second type of fluid gradient is the hydrodynamic pressure gradient, or fluid potential gradient, which
is caused by fluid flow. When a well is drilled, pore fluid has a natural tendency to flow into the well
bore. Normally, this flow is inhibited by the density of the drilling mud.
Hydrostatic pressure in excess of formation pressure will cause gas or oil to be flushed back into the
formation being penetrated either at the bit or just ahead of it. This flushing occurs at all times whether
marginally or greatly overbalanced. If circulation is lost, the cuttings and drilling fluid and any oil or gas
they may contain will be lost.
Fertel and Chilingarian (1976) have listed 13 possible causes of over pressure.
Only the more important causes will be listed here:
1. Artesian
2. Structural
3. Compactional
4. Diagenetic
Structural deformation can cause overpressure in several ways. At the simplest level a block of sediment
can be raised between two sealing faults and, if fluids have no other outlet, the pore pressure will be
unable to adjust to the new lower hydrostatic pressure.
In more complex settings compression of strata during folding can cause overpressure if excess fluid has
no means of escape. This situation is most likely to happen when permeable strata are interbedded with
evaporites. The evaporites can be involved in intense compression, deforming plastically and preventing
excess fluid from bleeding off through fractures or faults.
The third and perhaps most common type of overpressure is caused by compaction, or lack of it. This
flowage causes growth faults and clay diapers, which can form important hydrocarbon traps.
A fourth cause of overpressure is mineralogical reactions during diagenesis. A number of such reactions
have been noted, including the dehydration of gypsum to anhydrite and water and the alteration of
volcanic ash to clays and carbon dioxide.
Finally, over pressuring can be caused during production either by fluid injection or by faulty cementing
jobs in which fluids move from an overpressured formation to a normally pressured one.
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11.5 SUBSURFACE FLUID DYNAMICS

11.5.1 PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS:
Temperature and pressure in the subsurface have been reviewed separately they are now examined
together. From the laws of Boyle and Charles, the following relationship
Pressure X Volume = Constant
Temperature
This basic relationship governs the behavior of fluids in the subsurface, as elsewhere and is
particularly important in establishing the formation volume factor in a reservoir.
For a given fluid at a constant pressure there is a particular temperature at which gas bubbles out
of liquid and at which it condenses as temperature decreases. Similarly, at a uniform temperature
there is a particular pressure at which liquid evaporates as pressure drops and gas condenses as
pressure increases.
A pure fluid may exist in either the liquid or gaseous state, depending on the pressure and
temperature. Above the critical point (c) however, only one phase can exist.
Subsurface fluids are mixtures of many compounds connate water contains traces of hydrocarbons
in solution; petroleum is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons in liquid and / or gaseous
states.
Fig. pressure-temperature graph showing phase behavior for hydrocarbons of different gravity.
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Fig. Phase Diagram and Chances to Find Petroleum
Fig. generation of petroleum versus temperature

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11.5.2 POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY VERSUS DEPTH OF BURIAL

Porosity and permeability of the uncompacted rocks decreases, and density
increases with depth.
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12. EXPLORATION FOR PETROLEUM;

Geological prospecting includes
1) Studying the geology of the area
2) Identification of the inclination of formation
3) Characterization of the physical and chemical properties of the different rocks
4) Identification of geological structures in the subsurface and its dimensions
5) Identification of faults, folds, joints and fractures
6) Drawing cross-sections
7) Drawing contour structural, thickness and porosity maps .
12.1 THE TOOLS OF SUBSURFACE ANALYSIS

Facies analysis of subsurface data depends on tools which delimit of surfaces and provide clues as to the
sediments they contain:
Well logs
Cores
Seismic
Gravity & magnetic
12.1.1 WELL LOGS:
Great vertical resolution
Delimit bounding surfaces
Establish lithology of sediments penetrated
Resistivity Logs
Spontaneous Potential (SP) Logs
Gamma Ray Logs
Neutron Logs
Density Logs
Sonic (acoustic) Logs
1. RESISTIVITY LOGS
The most commonly used logs:
Measures resistance of flow of electric current
Is function of porosity & pore fluid in rock
Frequently used to identify lithology
2. SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOGS
Next most common log
Measures electrical current in well
Result of salinity differences between formation water and the borehole mud
Separates bed boundaries of permeable sands & impermeable shales.
3. GAMMA RAY LOGS
Records radioactivity of a formation
Shales have high gamma radioactive response
Gamma ray logs infer grain size (and so subsequently inferred depositional energy)
Gamma ray logs are most commonly used logs for sequence stratigraphic analysis
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4. NEUTRON LOGS
Measures porosity of formation
Uses quantity of hydrogen present
Measures lithology when used with Density Log
5. DENSITY LOGS
Measures formations bulk density
Used as a porosity measure
Differentiates lithologies with Neutron Log
Used with Sonic Logs to generate synthetic seismic traces to match to seismic lines
6. SONIC (ACOUSTIC) LOGS
Measures of speed of sound in formation
Tied to porosity and lithology
Used with Density Logs to generate Synthetic Seismic traces to match to Seismic lines
12.1.2 SEISMIC AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Great lateral continuity and resolution
Define gross sediment geometry
The boxes below show the principle definitions and key concepts of sequence stratigraphy:
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Fig. Sequence Stratigraphy as a tool for exploration of hydrocarbons.
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Seismic stratigraphy emerged in the 1970s with the work of Vail (1975) and Vail et al. (1977). This new
method for analyzing seismic-reflection data stimulated a revolution in stratigraphy,
Seismic stratigraphic interpretation used to:
Define geometries of genetic reflection packages that envelope seismic sequences and systems
tracts
Identify bounding discontinuities on basis of reflection termination patterns and continuity
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12.2 DRILLING OPERATIONS IN A FIELD DEVELOPMENT

DATA EXCHANGE
EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION (E&P)
NAVIGATION AND GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS
DATA COLLECTION
Drilling Operations
Searching for Hydrocarbons
S eismic Surveying
Procurement of acreage
Well Planning
Exploration Drilling
Interpretation of drilling results
Well Planning
Apprailsal Drilling
Field P lanning
Well Planning
Development Drilling
Field P lanning
Well Planning
Start of Field Production

Reservoir Management
Production Drilling & Workover

Field Planning
W ell P lanning
End of Field Production

Abandonment
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12.2.1 DATA EXCHANGE
12.2.2 EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION (E&P)

DATA EXCHANGE AND ANALYSIS
P o s i tio n i n g s y s t e m
D a t a C o l le c tio n
O u tcro p s
B o re h o les
G ra v i M a g
W e l l in f o : L o g s C o r e s e tc
S e is m ic :
2 D /3 D
P r o c e s s & I n te r p r e t
W e ll in f o r m a t io n
S e d i m e n t o lo g y
F a c ie s , P a la e o
S o u rce
& m a tu r it y
F lu i d s
S e is m ic i n f o r m a t io n
S t r u c tu r e
F a u lti n g
U n c o n f o r m it ie s
T e c to n ic h i s t o r y
D e p th s & V o l u m e s
P r o s p e c t d e f in i tio n
W e l l lo c a tio n
D r il lin g r e s u lt s
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12.2.3 DATA COLLECTION

Geophysical Data
o Seismic Survey Design and Acquisition
o Seismic Data Processing
Subsurface Data
E nergy
source
s tr ea m er
se a
r o c k la y e r 1
r o c k la y e r 2
r o c k la y e r 3
O il
r oc k la ye r 3
A c o u s t ic w a v e s p r o p a g a t e t h r o u g h t h e e a r th s
s u r f a ce la y e r s a n d a r e r e fle c t e d b y r o c k b o u n d a r ie s
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Subsurface data collection

Various downhole tools are used to analyse fluid/rock properties
Logs:
Porosity, permeability, density, velocity, resistivity, neutron and gamma activity, bed dip, mineral
content, grain size and sorting
Cuttings:
HC shows, fossils, minerals
Cores:
Palaeontology, facies, lithology, mineralogy, fluids, TOC and all physical properties
Geological and Geophysical Interpretation
Logs
Cutting material
Repeated Formation Tests (RFT)
Core Analysis
12.3 PLAY AND PROSP ECT DEF INITION

A Play is a hypothetical geological framework that contains all the elements necessary to find petroleum
A Prospect is a particular example of:
A pre-conceived play type, or
An entirely new play that is invented to describe the particular observed data
Minimal components of a structural prospect will be a Depth map at or near the top of reservoir
formation interval showing:
Faults through the reservoir
Structural roll-overs
Critical closure points
Spill point
Geology and Geophysics in the Well Design

The well prognosis will attempt to provide the following details:
Total depth
Lithology
Pressure
Prediction of oil and/or gas
73
SANAA UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
DR. A. AL-MATARY
MARS, 2012
Well Site Geology:

During the drilling operation the geologist job is to ensure proper testing of HC shows and to observe if
the formation drilled is according to the drilling prognoses
Analysis of the cuttings
Gas determination from the drilling mud
Wireline logs
Core sampling
Drill stem testing
Hydrocarbon Evaluation
Each sample is examined under ultraviolet light for evidence of fluorescence. Ultraviolet light (wave
length 3600 =3.6%10-7m) causes fluorescence of almost all crude oils over the entire range of gravities.
The colour of fluorescence is generally characteristic of the gravity of the crude oil:
THE END
DRILLING OPERATIONS, CORING OPERATIONS AND ANALYSIS, AND BASIN ANALYSIS WILL
BE GIVEN IN ADVANCED COURSE.
WITH MY BEST WISHES
74

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2012

Principles of Petroleum Geology

Dr. ADEL AL-MATARY

THE ORIGIN OF PETROLE UM

PRINCIP LES OF ORGANIC CHE MIST RY

PETROLE UM COMP OSIT ION

PETROLE UM SOURCE ROCKS

PETROLE UM MIGRATION AND ACCUMULAT ION

THE POROS ITY AND PERMEABILITY

SUBS URFACE ENVIRONME NTS AND THE IR EFFECTS ON HYDROCARBON.

EXP LORATION FOR PETROLE UM

1.2 THE SCIENCE OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY:

1.3 PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY:

2. THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM:

B) Organic or biogenic theory (animal and plant theory).

Elemental Composition in Weight (%)

Figure 1: Average Chemical Composition of Natural Substances

Figure 2: Origin of Organic Matter Deposited with Sediments

3. PETROLEUM COMPOSIT ION:

Figure 3: Chemical Composition of Oil, Asphalt and Kerogen

3.1. THE H YDROCARBON GROUPS AND THEIR CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

2- Liquids: oil, crude

3.2. NATURAL GAS LIQUID (NGL)

Avearge molecular composition of

Natural gas composition

3.3. CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE OILS:

Classification of Oils (after Tissot and Welte, 1978)

Temperature sensitive. Inverse measure of ability to

Cloud and pour points

API gravity= (141.5/SG(60F)) 131.5

Normal Range = 16 to 50 API gravity.

SG water = 1 = 10 API at 60F

(1) Specific gravity (s. g.), API degree

3.5. THE DISTILLATION AND USES OF PETROLEUM:

Gasoline (C5 to C10)

Kerosene (C11 to C15)

Diesel fuel (C14 to C15)

Lubricating oil (C26 to C40)

Residuum (> C40)

The Properties of Some Crude Streams are in the following Table:

4. HOW OIL FORMS:

4.1 THE FIVE MAIN COMPONENTS OF PETROLEUM ACCUMULATION

5. Introduction to Petroleum Geochemistry

Tend to occur in continental environment (fluvial and deltaic ones)

): Classification of Organic Matter in Coals and Sedimentary Rocks.

Coal maceral groups

VAN KREVELEN DIAGRAM :

6.1 FORMATION OF AN OIL ACCUMULATION:

7. PETROLEUM SOURCE ROCKS

6.1. QUANTITY OF ORGANIC MATTER:

6.2. QUALITY OF ORGANIC MATTER:

6.3. MATURATION OF ORGANIC MATTER:

4.2.2. DIAGENESIS OF ORGANIC MATTER

6.4 PRINCIPAL STAGE OF OIL GENESIS

Rapid emission of volatiles (carbonization jump)

6.4.1 OIL WINDOW

The Oil Window

Methods Of Source Rock Evaluation

Correlation of TAI and Ro

6.5.3 THE TIME TEMPERATURE INDEX: TTI

6.5.4 COMPARISON OF TTI WITH RO AND TAI

Onset of oil generation

Peak oil generation

End of oil generation