11/23/2015

SheetMetalBending

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SheetMetalBending
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Bendingofsheetmetalisacommonandvitalprocessinmanufacturingindustry.Sheetmetal
bendingistheplasticdeformationoftheworkoveranaxis,creatingachangeinthepart's
geometry.Similartoothermetalformingprocesses,bendingchangestheshapeofthework
piece,whilethevolumeofmaterialwillremainthesame.Insomecasesbendingmayproduce
asmallchangeinsheetthickness.Formostoperations,however,bendingwillproduce
essentiallynochangeinthethicknessofthesheetmetal.Inadditiontocreatingadesired
geometricform,bendingisalsousedtoimpartstrengthandstiffnesstosheetmetal,tochange
apart'smomentofinertia,forcosmeticappearanceandtoeliminatesharpedges.

Figure:264

Metalbendingenactsbothtensionandcompressionwithinthematerial.Mechanical
principlesofmetals,particularlywithregardtoelasticandplasticdeformation,areimportant
tounderstandingsheetmetalbendingandarediscussedinthefundamentalsofmetalforming
section.Theeffectthatmaterialpropertieswillhaveinresponsetotheconditionsof
manufacturewillbeafactorinsheetmetalprocessdesign.Usuallysheetmetalbendingis
performedcoldbutsometimestheworkmaybeheated,toeitherwarmorhotworking
temperature.
Mostsheetmetalbendingoperationsinvolveapunchdietypesetup,althoughnotalways.
Therearemanydifferentpunchdiegeometries,setupsandfixtures.Toolingcanbespecificto
abendingprocessandadesiredangleofbend.Bendingdiematerialsaretypicallygrayiron,
orcarbonsteel,butdependingontheworkpiece,therangeofpunchdiematerialsvariesfrom
hardwoodtocarbides.Forceforthepunchanddieactionwillusuallybeprovidedbyapress.
Aworkpiecemayundergoseveralmetalbendingprocesses.Sometimesitwilltakeaseriesof

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SheetMetalBending

differentpunchanddieoperationstocreateasinglebend.Ormanyprogressivebending
operationstoformacertaingeometry.
Sheetmetalisreferencedwithregardtotheworkpiecewhenbendingprocessesarediscussed
inthissection.However,manyoftheprocessescoveredcanalsobeappliedtoplatemetalas
well.Referencestosheetmetalworkpiecesmayoftenincludeplate.Somebendingoperations
arespecificallydesignedforthebendingofdifferentlyshapedmetalpieces,suchasfor
cabinethandles.Tubeandrodbendingisalsowidelyperformedinmodernmanufacturing.

BendingProcesses
Bendingprocessesdifferinthemethodstheyusetoplasticallydeformthesheetorplate.
Workpiecematerial,sizeandthicknessareimportantfactorswhendecidingonatypeof
metalbendingprocess.Alsoimportantisthesizeofthebend,bendradius,angleofbend,
curvatureofbendandlocationofbendintheworkpiece.Sheetmetalprocessdesignshould
selectthemosteffectivetypeofbendingprocessbasedonthenatureofthedesiredbendand
theworkmaterial.Manybendscanbeeffectivelyformedbyavarietyofdifferentprocesses
andavailablemachinerywilloftendeterminethebendingmethod.
OneofthemostcommontypesofsheetmetalmanufacturingprocessesisVbending.TheV
shapedpunchforcestheworkintotheVshapeddieandhencebendsit.Thistypeofprocess
canbendbothveryacuteandveryobtuseangles,alsoanythinginbetween,including90
degrees.

Figure:265

Edgebendingisanotherverycommonsheetmetalprocessandisperformedwithawiping
die.Edgebendinggivesagoodmechanicaladvantagewhenformingabend.However,angles
greaterthan90degreeswillrequiremorecomplexequipment,capableofsomehorizontal
forcedelivery.Also,wipingdieemployedinedgebendingmusthaveapressurepad.The
actionofthepressurepadmaybecontrolledseparatelythanthatofthepunch.Basicallythe
pressurepadholdsasectionoftheworkinplaceonthedie,theareaforthebendislocatedon
theedgeofthedieandtherestoftheworkisheldoverspacelikeacantileverbeam.The
punchthenappliesforcetothecantileverbeamsection,causingtheworktobendoverthe
edgeofthedie.

Figure:266

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SheetMetalBending

Rotarybendingformstheworkbyasimilarmechanismasedgebending.However,rotary
bendingusesadifferentdesignthanthewipingdie.Acylinder,withthedesiredanglecutout,
servesasthepunch.Thecylindercanrotateaboutoneaxisandissecurelyconstrainedinall
otherdegreesofmotionbyitsattachmenttothesaddle.Thesheetmetalisplacedcantilevered
overtheedgeofthelowerdie,similartothesetupinedgebending.Unlikeinedgebending,
withrotarybending,thereisnopressurepad.Forceistransmittedtothepunchcausingitto
closewiththework.Thegrooveonthecylinderisdimensionedtocreatethecorrectlyangled
bend.Thegroovecanbelessthanorgreaterthan90degreesallowingforarangeofacuteand
obtusebends.ThecylindersVgroovehastwosurfaces.Onesurfacecontactsthework
transmittingpressureandholdingthesheetmetalinplaceonthelowerdie.Asforceis
transmittedthroughthecylinderitrotates,causingtheothersurfacetobendtheworkoverthe
edgeofthedie,whilethefirstsurfacecontinuestoholdtheworkinplace.Rotarybending
providesagoodmechanicaladvantage.
Thisprocessprovidesbenefitsoverastandardedgebendingoperation,inthatiteliminatesthe
needforapressurepadanditiscapableofbendingover90degreeswithoutanyhorizontally
actingequipment.Rotarybendingisrelativelynewandisgainingpopularityinmanufacturing
industry.

Figure:267

Airbendingisasimplemethodofcreatingabendwithouttheneedforlowerdiegeometry.
Thesheetmetalissupportedbytwosurfacesacertaindistanceapart.Apunchexertsforceat
thecorrectspot,bendingthesheetmetalbetweenthetwosurfaces.

Figure:268

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SheetMetalBending

Punchanddiearemanufacturedwithcertaingeometries,inordertoperformspecificbends.
Channelbendingusesashapedpunchanddietoformasheetmetalchannel.AUbendis
madewithaUshapedpunchofthecorrectcurvature.

Figure:269

Manybendingoperationshavebeendevelopedtoproduceoffsetsandformthesheetmetalfor
avarietyofdifferentfunctions.

Figure:270

Somesheetmetalbendingoperationsinvolvetheuseofmorethan2die.Roundtubes,for
example,canbebentfromsheetmetalusingamultipleactionmachine.Thehollowtubecan
beseamedorweldedforjoining.

Figure:271

Corrugatingisatypeofbendingprocessinwhichasymmetricalbendisproducedacrossthe
widthofsheetmetalandataregularintervalalongitsentirelength.Avarietyofshapesare
usedforcorrugating,buttheyallhavethesamepurpose,toincreasetherigidityofthesheet
metalandincreaseitsresistancetobendingmoments.Thisisaccomplishedbyawork
hardeningofthemetalandachangeinthesheet'smomentofinertia,causedbythebend's
geometry.Corrugatedsheetmetalisveryusefulinstructuralapplicationsandiswidelyused
intheconstructionindustry.

Figure:272

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SheetMetalBending

EdgeBendingProcesses
Sheetmetalofdifferentsizescanbebentaninnumerableamountofways,atdifferent
locations,toachievedesiredpartgeometries.Oneofthemostimportantconsiderationsin
sheetmetalmanufactureistheconditionofthesheetmetal'sedges,particularlywithregardto
thepartaftermanufacture.Edgebendingoperationsarecommonlyusedinindustrialsheet
metalprocessingandinvolvebendingasectionofthemetalthatissmallrelativetothepart.
Thesesectionsarelocatedattheedges.Edgebendingisusedtoeliminatesharpedges,to
providegeometricsurfacesforpurposessuchasjoining,toprotectthepart,toincrease
stiffnessandforcosmeticappearance.
Flangingisaprocessthatbendsanedge,usuallytoa90degreeangle.

Figure:273

Sometimesthesheetmetal'smaterialispurposelysubjectedtotensionsorcompressions,in
theprocessesofstretchflangingandshrinkflangingrespectively.Inadditiontobendingthe
edge,theseoperationsalsogiveitacurve.

Figure:274

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SheetMetalBending

Beadingiscommonintheedgetreatmentofsheetmetalpartsandcanalsobeusedtoform
theworkingstructureofparts,suchashinges.Beadingformsacurloverapart'sedge.This
beadcanbeformedoverastraightorcurvedaxis.Therearemanydifferenttechniquesfor
formingabead.Somemethodsformthebeadprogressively,withmultiplestages,using
severaldifferentdiearrangements.Othersheetmetalbeadingprocessesproduceabeadwitha
singledie.Inaprocesscalledwiring,themetal'sedgeisbentoverawire.Howthebeadis
formedwilldependonthespecificrequirementsofthemanufacturingprocessandsheetmetal
part.

Figure:275

Hemmingisanedgebendingprocessinwhichtheedgeofthesheetisbentcompletelyover
onitself.

Figure:276

Seamingisasheetmetaljoiningprocess.Seaminginvolvesbendingtheedgesoftwoparts
overoneachother.Thestrengthofthemetalresistsbreakingthejoint,becausethematerialis
plasticallydeformedintoposition.Asthebendsarelockedtogether,eachbendhelpsresistthe
deformationoftheotherbend,providingawellfortifiedjointstructure.Doubleseaminghas
beenemployedtocreatewatertightorairtightjointsbetweensheetmetalparts.

Figure:277

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SheetMetalBending

RollBending
Rollbendingprovidesatechniquethatisusefulforrelativelythickwork.Althoughsheetsof
varioussizesandthicknessesmaybeused,thisisamajormanufacturingprocessforthemetal
bendingoflargepiecesofplate.Rollbendingusesthreerollstofeedandbendtheplatetothe
desiredcurvature.Thearrangementoftherollsdeterminestheexactbendofthework.
Differentcurvesareobtainedbycontrollingthedistanceandanglebetweentherolls.A
moveablerollprovidestheabilitytocontrolthecurve.Theworkmayalreadyhavesome
curvetoit,oftenitwillbestraight.Beams,barsandotherstockmetalisalsobentusingthis
process.

Figure:278

SheetMetalRollForming
Rollformingofsheetmetalisacontinuousmanufacturingprocess,thatusesrollstobenda
sheetmetalcrosssectionofacertaingeometry.Oftenseveralrollsmaybeemployed,in
series,tocontinuouslybendstock.Similartoshaperolling,butrollformingdoesnotinvolve
materialredistributionofthework,onlybending.Likeshaperolling,rollformingusually
involvesbendingoftheworkinsequentialsteps.Eachrollwillformthesheetmetaltoa
certaindegree,inpreparationforthenextroll.Thefinalrollcompletesthegeometry.
Channelsofdifferenttypes,gutters,sidingandpanelsforstructuralpurposesarecommon
itemsmanufacturedinmassproductionbyrollforming.Rollsareusuallyfedfromasheet
metalcoil.Theentryrollissuppliedasthecoilunwindsduringtheprocess.Onceformed,
continuousproductscanbecuttodesiredlengthstocreatediscreteparts.Closedsectionssuch
assquaresandrectanglescanbecontinuouslybentfromsheetmetalcoil.Framesfordoors
andwindowsaremanufacturedbythismethod.Sheetmetalcoilisoftenrollbentintothin
walledpipethatisweldedtogether,atitsseam.Theweldingofthecontinuousproductis
incorporatedintotherollingprocess.Rollformingofchannelsisacontinuousalternativetoa
discretechannelbendingprocess,suchastheoneillustratedinfigure269.Figure279showsa
simplesequenceusedtoproduceachannel.

Figure:279

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SheetMetalBending

Thischannelcouldbeproducedwithapunchanddie.However,inthatcase,thelengthofthe
channelwouldbelimitedbythelengthofthepunchanddie.Rollformingallowsfora
continuouspart,(limitedpracticallytothelengthofthesheetmetalcoil),thatcanbecutto
whateversizeneeded.Productivityisalsoincreased,withtheeliminationofloadingand
unloadingofwork.Rollsforsheetmetalrollformingaretypicallymadeofgreycastironor
carbonsteel.Lubricationisimportantandaffectsforcesandsurfacefinish.Sometimesrolls
willbechromiumplatedtoimprovesurfacequality.

MechanicsOfSheetMetalBending
Tounderstandthemechanicsofsheetmetalbending,anunderstandingofthematerial
properties,characteristicsandbehaviorsofmetal,isnecessary.Particularlyimportantisthe
topicofelasticandplasticdeformationofmetal.Informationonthepropertiesofmetals,with
relationtomanufacturing,canbefoundinanearliersection,(metalforming).Itshouldbe
understoodalsothatsheetmetalbendingproduceslocalizedplasticdeformationand
essentiallynochangeinsheetthickness,formostoperations.Itdoesnotcreatemetalflowthat
affectsregionsawayfromthebend.
Theforcerequiredtoperformabendislargelydependentuponthebendandthespecific
metalbendingprocess,becausethemechanicsofeachprocesscanvaryconsiderably.Proper
lubricationisessentialtocontrollingforcesandhasaneffectontheprocess.Inpunchanddie
operations,thesizeofthedieopeningisamajorfactorintheforcenecessarytoperformthe
bending.Increasingthesizeofthedieopeningwilldecreasethenecessarybendingforce.As
thesheetmetalisbent,theforceneededwillchange.Usuallyitisimportanttodeterminethe
maximumnecessarybendingforce,toaccessmachinecapacityrequirements.
Theimportantfactorsinfluencingthemechanicsofbendingarematerial,sheetthickness,
widthoverwhichbendoccurs,radiusofbend,bendangle,machinery,toolingandspecific
metalbendingprocess.Bendingasheetwillcreateforcesthatactinthebendregionand
throughthethicknessofthesheet.Thematerialtowardstheoutsideofthebendisintension
andthematerialtowardstheinsideisincompression.Tensionandcompressionareopposite,
thereforewhenmovingfromonetotheotherazeroregionmustexist.Atthiszeroregionno
forcesareexertedonthematerial.Whensheetmetalbending,thiszeroregionoccursalonga
continuousplanewithinthepart'sthickness,calledtheneutralaxis.Thelocationofthisaxis
willdependonthedifferentbendingandsheetmetalfactors.However,ageneric
approximationforthelocationoftheaxiscouldbe40percentofsheetthickness,measured
fromtheinsideofthebend.Anothercharacteristicoftheneutralaxisisthatbecauseofthe
lackofforces,thelengthoftheneutralaxisremainsthesame.Fundamentally,toonesideof
theneutralaxisthematerialisintension,totheothersidethematerialisincompression.The
magnitudeofthetensionorcompressionincreaseswithincreasingdistancefromtheaxis.

Figure:280

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SheetMetalBending

Ifarelativelysmallamountofforceisexertedonametalpart,itwilldeformelasticallyand
recoveritsshape,whentheforceisremoved.Inorderforplasticdeformationofmetalto
occur,aminimumthresholdofforcemustbereached.Theforceactingontheneutralaxisis
zeroandincreaseswithdistancefromthisregion.Theminimumthresholdofforcerequired
forplasticdeformationisnotreacheduntilacertaindistancefromtheneutralaxisineither
direction.Thematerialbetweentheseregionsisonlyplasticallydeformed,duetothelow
magnitudeofforces.Theseregionsrunparallelto,andformanelasticcorearound,theneutral
axis.

Figure:281

Whentheforceusedtocreatethebendisremoved,therecoveryoftheelasticregionresultsin
theoccurrenceofspringback.Springbackisthepartialrecoveryoftheworkfromthebendto
itsgeometrybeforethebendingforcewasapplied.Themagnitudeofspringbackdepends
largelyonthemodulusofelasticityandtheyieldstrengthofthematerial.Typicallytheresults
ofspringbackwillonlyacttoincreasethebendanglebyafewdegrees,however,allsheet
metalbendingprocessesmustconsiderthefactorofspringback.

Figure:282

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SheetMetalBending

MethodsOfEliminatingSpringback
Techniqueshavebeendeveloped,inmanufacturingindustry,thatcaneliminatetheeffectsof
springback.Onecommontechniqueisoverbending.Theamountofspringbackiscalculated
andthesheetmetalisoverbenttoasmallerbendanglethanneeded.Recoveryofthematerial
fromspringbackresultsinacalculatedincreaseinbendangle.Thisincreasemakesthe
recoveredbendangleexactlywhatwasoriginallyplanned.

Figure:283

Anothermethodforeliminatingspringbackisbyplasticallydeformingthematerialinthe
bendregion.Localizedcompressiveforcesbetweenthepunchanddieinthatareawill
plasticallydeformtheelasticcore,preventingspringback.Thiscanbedonebyapplying
additionalforcethroughthetipofthepunchaftercompletionofbending.Atechniqueknown
asbottoming,orbottomingthepunch.

Figure:284

Stretchformingisametalbendingtechniquethateliminatesmostofthespringbackinabend.
Subjectingtheworktotensilestresswhilebendingwillforcetheelasticregiontobe
plasticallydeformed.Stretchformingcannotbeperformedforsomecomplexbendsandfor
verysharpangles.Theamountoftensionmustbecontrolledtoavoidcrackingofthesheet
metal.Stretchformingisaprocessoftenusedintheaircraftbuildingindustry.

Figure:285

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SheetMetalBending

SheetMetalBendability
Bendabilityofsheetmetalisthecharacteristicdegreetowhichaparticularsheetmetalpart
canbebentwithoutfailure.Bendabilityisrelatedtothemoregeneraltermofformability,
discussedinthesheetmetalformingsection.Thebendabilitywillchangefordifferent
materialsandsheetthicknesses.Also,themechanicsofthemanufacturingprocesswillaffect
bendability,sincedifferenttoolingandsheetgeometrieswillcausedifferentforce
distributions.
Metalbendingtendstobealesscomplicatedprocessthandeepdrawingintheanalysisof
forcesactingduringtheoperation.Onesimplemethodtoquantifybendabilityistobenda
rectangularsheetmetalspecimenuntilitcracksontheoutersurface.Theradiusofbendat
whichcrackingfirstoccursiscalledtheminimumbendradius.Minimumbendradiusisoften
expressedintermsofsheetthickness,(ie.2T,4T).Thehighertheminimumbendradius,the
lowerthebendability.Aminimumbendradiusof0indicatesthatthesheetcanbefoldedover
onitself.Anisotropyofthesheetmetalisanimportantfactorinbending.Ifthesheetis
anisotropicthebendingshouldbeperformedinthepreferreddirection.Atesttodetermine
anisotropyisdiscussedinthesheetmetalformingsection.
Theconditionofasheetmetal'sedgeswillinfluencebendability.Oftencracksmaypropagate
fromtheedges.Roughedgescandecreasethebendabilityofasheetmetalpart.Coldworking
attheedges,orwithinapart,canalsoreducebendability.Vacancieswithinsheetmetalcanbe
anothersourceofmaterialfailurewhilebending.Thepresenceofvacancieswillreducemetal
bendability.Impuritiesinthematerial,particularlyintheformofinclusions,canalso
propagatecracksandwilldecreasebendability.Pointedorsharplyshapedinclusionsaremore
detrimentaltobendabilitythanroundinclusions.Surfacequalityofthesheetmetalcanmakea
differenceinbendingmanufacture.Roughsurfacescanincreasethelikelihoodofthesheet
crackingunderforce.
Tomitigatetheseproblems,andoptimizethebendabilityofsheetmetal,careshouldbetaken
allthewaythroughthemanufacturingprocess.Highqualitysheetmetalcomesfromhigh
qualitymetal.Effectiverefiningtechniques,alongwithasoundsheetmetalrollingprocess
shouldcloseupvacancies,breakuporeliminateinclusionsandprovideasheetmetalproduct
withasmoothsurface.Edgetreatmentsuchastrimming,orfineblanking,canimproveedge
quality.Sometimescoldworkedareascanbemachinedout.Annealingtheparttoeliminate
regionsofcoldworkingandincreaseductilityalsoimprovesmetalbendability.Bending
operationsaresometimesperformedonheatedparts,becauseheatingwillcausethemetal's
bendabilitytogoup.Sheetmetalmayalso,onoccasion,beformedinahighpressure
environment,whichisanotherwaytomakeitmorebendable.

CuttingAndBendingProcesses
Somemanufacturingprocessesinvolvebothcuttingandbendingofthesheetmetal.Lancing
isaprocessthatcutsandbendsthesheettocreatearaisedgeometry.Lancingmaybeusedto
increasetheheatdissipationcapacityofsheetmetalparts,forexample.Anothercommon
processthatemploysbothcuttingandbendingispiercing.Nottobeconfusedwiththeforging
processofpiercing.Piercingisusedtocreateaholeinasheetmetalpart.Unlikeblanking,
whichcreatesaslug,piercingdoesnotremovematerial.Thepunchispointedandcanpierce
thesheet.Asthepunchwidenstheholethematerialisbentintoaninternalflangeforthe
hole.Thisflangemaybeusefulforsomeapplications.

Figure:286

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SheetMetalBending

MetalTubeBulging
Tubebulgingisasheetmetalmanufacturingprocessinwhichsomepartoftheinternal
geometryofahollowmetaltubeissubjectedtopressure,causingthetubetobulgeoutward.
Theareabeingbulgedisusuallyconstrainedwithinadiethatcancontrolitsgeometry.Total
lengthofthetubewillbedecreasedbecauseofthewideningofthebulgingarea.Thereare
differentmetalbulgingtechniquesemployedinmanufacturingindustry.
Onemaingroupofprocessesusesanelastomerplug,usuallypolyurethane.Thisplugis
placedwithinthetube.Pressureisappliedtotheelastomercausingittobulge.Expanding
outward,theplugbendsthesheetmetaltube.Uponremovaloftheforce,theelastomerplug
returnstoitsoriginalshapeandcanbeeasilyremoved.Polyurethaneplugsaredurableand
willcreateagoodpressuredistributionoverthesurfaceduringbending.Hydraulicpressure
mayalsobeusedtoproducethesamebulgingeffect.Howeverelastomerplugsarecleaner,
easytoremoveandrequirelesscomplicatedtooling.Splitdiesareusedtofacilitatethe
removalofthepart.

Figure:287

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SheetMetalBending

MetalTubeBending
Tubes,rods,barsandothercrosssectionsarealsosubjecttometalbendingoperations.It
shouldberememberedthatwhenbendingametalpart,springbackisalwaysafactor.Several
specialmanufacturingprocesseshavebeendevelopedforthebendingofhollowtubes.These
operationscanalsobeusedonsolidrods.Hollowtubeshavethecharacteristicthattheymay
collapsewhenbent.Tubesmayalsocrackortear,thematerial'sductilityisimportantwhen
consideringtubefailure.
Asthebendradiusgoesdown,thetendencytocollapseincreases.Bendradiusinmetaltube
bendingismeasuredfromthetube'scenterline.Theothermajorfactordeterminingcollapseis
thewallthicknessofthetube.Tubeswithagreaterwallthicknessarelesslikelytocollapse.
Bendingathickwalledtubetoalargeradiusisusuallynotaproblem,asfarascollapseis
concerned.However,aswallthicknessdecreasesand/orbendradiusgoesdown,solutions
mustbefoundtopreventtubecollapse.Onesolutionistofillthetubewithsandbefore
bending.Anothermethodwouldbetoplaceaplasticplugofsomesortinthetube,thenbend
it.Boththesandandtheplasticplugacttoprovideinternalstructuralsupport,greatly
increasingtheabilitytobendthetubewithoutcollapse.
Stretchbendingisaprocessinwhichatubeisformedbyastretchingforceparalleltothe
tube'saxisandasimultaneousbendingforceactingtopullthetubeoveraformblock.The
blockisfixedandtheforcesareappliedtotheendsofthetube.

Figure:288

Drawbendinginvolvesclampingthetubenearitsendtoarotatingformblock.Apressurepad
isalsousedtoholdthetubestock.Astheformblockrotates,thetubeisbent.

Figure:289

Compressionbendingisatubebendingprocessthathassomesimilaritiestoedgebendingof
sheetmetalwithawipingdie.Thetubestockisheldbyforcetoafixedformblock.Awiper
likedieappliesforce,bendingthetubeovertheformblock.

Figure:290

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SheetMetalBending

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