Literature Review of College Access Programs Effectiveness in Academic

and Non-Academic Skills Training

Natalie C Dunn
Western Oregon University
ED 633

Introduction
College Access Programs have been identified as one of the most effective
outreach initiatives to create postsecondary opportunities to underrepresented student
populations. College Access or pre-college programs were formulated during President
Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty in the mid-1960. The Higher Education Act of
1965 established federal guidelines for need-based student aid, grants, work-study, and
loan programs. Its purpose was to aid in strengthening minority-servicing institutions
and encouraged access to high education for low-income students (Edwards, 2013).
According to US Department of Labor research study in 2006, 90% of career path
jobs in the United States that lead to self-sufficiency in the 21st century will require some
form of postsecondary education. By 2018, it estimated that 62% of the jobs in the
United States will require a college education, and that over half of those jobs will require
a four-year degree. (Dyce, Alfold, Long 2013)
Thekeycomponentsofcollegepreparationoraccessprogramsincludearigorous
academicprogram,accesstotimelyandrelevantmaterials,andadequatesupport
structures.Theseprograms assist the students with researching colleges, writing essays
and letters, completing college and financial aid applications (Bloom, 2008).
TypesofCollegeAccessPrograms

Therearethreetypesofcollegeaccessprograms.iTherearefederalgovernment

programs,communitybasedprograms,andcollegecampusbasedprograms.Itis
importanttoacknowledgehybridprogramscreatedasthecollegeaccessandcollege
preparednessprogramshaveevolvedovertheyears.

Throughoutlast30yearsofnationalandstateeducationalreformsmandating
rigorouscourses,highstakestestingandaccountability,littlehasimproved.College
readinessratesarestilllow,studentdropoutratesarehigh,andtheachievementgapis
presentandwide.(BarnesandSlate,2014)Researchstudieshaveattemptedtoevaluate
collegereadinessprogramsacrossthecountry.Bothfederalandstategovernment
agenciesareconstantlycreatingassessmenttoolsbasedonsurveysofeducational
leadership,teachers,andthepublic.Programmodelsareevaluatedoneffectiveness
throughreviewsofstandardizedtests,AdvancedPlacementscores,andother
measurementsattendedwhileattendingK12schools.
However,thedebatecontinuesontheseprogramseffectiveness,successes,and
outcomes.Itisnotpropertocontinuetoidentifytheeffectivemodelforcollege
readinessuntiladdressingthefollowingareas:(1)acknowledgingtheinfluenceofnon
academicskillsoncollegeaccessprogramsand(2)examiningcurrenteffectivenessand
assessmentmodelsforcollegeaccessprogramsand(3)finallyidentifyingskillsthatare
specifictoacademicachievementversuscollegereadiness.InthispaperIhave
reviewedtenarticlestobringawarenesstotheinfluenceofnonacademicskillsandthe
effectivenessandassessmentmodelattemptingtoevaluatecollegeaccessprograms.
BuildingCollegeGoingCapital
Mostcommongoalsandcomponentsofcollegeaccessprogramsinvolve
promotingcollegeattendance,collegeawareness,collegeexposure,buildingofstudent
selfesteem,increasinghighschoolretention,andcompletionofhighschool.Research

studiesoverlappedintheirthoughtsaroundcollegegoingcapital.However,itwasclear
thattheirresearchoutcomesincorporatedworkingwithfirstgenerationstudentsbeyond
academicperformance.
Theframeworkforthesecollegeaccessprogramsfocusesontheindividual
learners(theirexperiences,backgrounds,talents,interests,andneeds)(Hewettand
Rogers,2003).Dr.TaraYossi(2005)identifiedsixtypesofcommunityculturalwealth
thatareculturallyvalidatingstrengths:aspirationalcapital,familialcapital,socialcapital,
linguisticcapital,resistantcapital,andnavigationalcapital.Thisresearchisthe
frameworkforfurtherdiscussionfornonacademicskillstraining.Yossisdefinitionof
communityculturalwasmentionedasapartofDr.EricaK.Yamamurasworkinthe
SouthTexasarea.
ResearchbyDyce,Alfold,andLong,surveyed75parentsand76studentsonthe
aspirationsofattendingcollege.Theyparticipatedinathreeyearintensivecollege
accessprogrambasedonacademicenrichment,leadershipdevelopment,andfamily
involvement.Apseudonymwasusedforthisproject.Fordemographics,only55of76
studentsmadeittotheprogram.42%oftheserespondentswereblack,24%were
Hispanic,22%wereWhite,and7%identifiedasmultiracial.Therewasareviewof
transcriptsandthestudentsgradepointaverageswere4.05.0(34%),3.03.9(38%),and
below3.0(28%).Aspirationcapitalistheabilitytomaintainthehopesanddreamsfor
thefuture,eveninthefaceofrealandperceivedbarriers.Collegeaccessprogramsmust
provideacademic,socialandemotionalsupport,familyinvolvementinitiatives,
leadershipdevelopmentandservicelearning.Longtermsupportofthesefirstgeneration

studentscannotendwithgraduatingfromhighschool.Thus,providinginformationto
notonlythestudentparticipatingbutmanagingformalandinformaldiscussionswith
familymemberswouldleadboth(parentsandfirstgenerationstudents)towardscollege
aspirations(Dyce,Albold,andLong156)
Socialcapitalisaspecificknowledgeorstrategiesthatcanbeappliedtothe
processthatleadstocollegeenrollment.Thesethemesdrawmerittoengagefirst
generationstudents,theirparentsandotherstocreateacurriculumfilledwithactivities
bothtrendingwithacademicandnonacademicskills.Thesenonacademicskillswould
providemoreexperiencesandengagementtogobeyondattendingpostsecondary
institutionandallowthefirstgenerationstudentstolearnhowtheworldworks.
Dr.JaniceBloomsurveyed13studentsfromdifferentsocialclassesandracial
backgroundsgoingthroughthecollegeapplicationprocessduringtheirsenioryearin
highschool.Ratherthangivingmotivationalspeeches,thecollegeaccessprogram
directorsshouldbeengagingfirstgenerationstudentstobuildtheirknowledgethrough
theirownexperiencebutalsowideningtheirrangeofcontext.Itisaseriesofpersonal
experiencesofcollegecampusesbuildoverlongperiodoftime.Itisbuiltthroughvisits,
summerprograms,connectionswithfamilyandfriendsstretchingoverstudentslifetimes
andutilizedinincreasinglyintensewaysastheyenterhighschool.(Bloom2008)
Bloomalsostatedthatcollegeaccessprogramsareunabletoaddresssomethebarriers
suchascollegecostsandchangelargerissuesaroundsocialinequities.(2)
Inacohortstudyconductedinvolving187GEARUPstudentsin4different
schooldistrictsthroughoutthestateofColorado,socialandculturalcapitalsarecrucial

forcollegeattendance.70.1%(131)oftheparticipantswereLatino/a,28.9%(54)were
identifiedasWhiteand0.5%(1)identifiedasother.Oneparticipantdidnothave
ethnicityinformation.Thedefinitionofsocialcapitalwascitedasspecificknowledgeor
strategythatcanbeappliedtotheprocessthatleadstocollegeenrollment.Researchers
identifiedfivecriticalelementsofcollegepreparationprogramsandsixadditional
elementsasimportanttocollegepreparationprograms.Thefivecriticalelementswere
collegevisits,promotingrigorouscoursework,parentalinvolvement,andbeginning
collegepreparationinthe8thgrade.Thesixadditionalelementsidentifiedincluded:
collegeawarenessorexposure,goalofpromotingacademicskills,parentcollege
awareness,parentassistancewithfinancialaidformsandinvolvementinstudent
activities,SAT/ACTtraining,andtuitionreimbursement.Again,furtherseparation
wouldoccurtodivideactivitiesthataretaskspecificaroundattendingcollegeand
futureplanningversusactivitiesdesignedtowelcomefirstgenerationstudentsintoa
collegeenvironment.Tutoringandmentoringweresegmentedasacademicperformance
activities.However,tutoringandmentoringwerenotfoundtobesignificantlyrelatedto
collegereadiness.(CatesandSchaffle,2011)
Culturalcapitalisbasicinformationonthenormsandexceptionsintheprocessof
collegeselection.CulturalCapitalincludesmaintainingacademicknowledgeaswellas
culturalvalues.(Hemings,2007)Culturalcapitalisalsoknowntotakeformof
educationalcredentials,andultimately,tocareerandsocialsuccess.(BarnesandSlate,
2014)

Dr.EricaYamamurafacilitatedfivefocusgroupsof123individualsrepresenting
schooladministrators,teachers,parentsandstudentsintheBorderlandValleyinSouth
Texas.Eachfocusgroupconsistedof6communityleaders,7collegetrackstudents,4
noncollegetrackstudents,4Superintendents,8Teachers/Counselors,and5parents.
Yamamuraconsideredifthereacommunityresponsibilityforcollegereadinessand
describedthissenseofcommunitythroughborderlandculturalwealth.Cultural
wealthcanmirrorthediscussionaroundcapitalandassistwithdevelopingacollege
goingculture.Culturalwealthisculturalassetspresentintheregionthatwhen
cultivatedandtappedintoeffectivelycanimprovecollegepreparationandaccess.
(Yamamura,2010)
Activitiesinvolvingcollegeaccessprogramparticipantsalongwiththeirparents
andsiblingswillallowforfurtherdiscussionsdevelopingfuturegenerationsattending
college.YamamuraalsointegratedChicanafeministtheoryintoherresearchto
acknowledgethecommunitysculturalwealth.SheidentifiedfiveroleswithinChicana
feministtheory(1)respeto(respect)(2)confianza(mutualtrust),(3)buenejemplos
(exemplarymodels),(4)consejos(narrativestorytelling)and(5)testimonies
(testimonials). Thereweretwoareasofacademicskillsupportneededtoassistfirst
generationstudentsadapttoadiversecollegeenvironmentwereeffectivecommunication
skillsandtraining.Ifthesestudentswereunabletobuildtheseskillsalongwithastrong
senseoftheirLatino/acultureandheritageandthismayinhibitandcausethemtobeless
comfortablewhentheculturalfabricchangeswhenattendingcollege.Inordertobuild
collectiveresponsibilityfor

InastudycompletedbyKathleenLByrdandGingerMacDonaldin2005,eight
participantsvolunteeredinstructured3060minuteinterviewsinastudytolearnwhatit
meanstobecollegeready.Thesefirstgenerationstudentparticipantswerejuniorsor
seniorshavingearnedanAssociatesofArtsdegreefromacommunitycollegeandwere
atleast25yearsofageorolder.Tenthemesemergedandwereorganizedintothree
categories.Threecategorieswereidentified(a)skillsandabilitiesperceivedasimportant
forcollegereadiness(withthemesofacademicskills,timemanagement,goalfocus,and
selfadvocacy,(b)backgroundfactorsandlifeexperiencesthatcontributetocollege
readiness(withthemesoffamilyfactors,careerinfluences,financialconcerns,and
collegepreparation)and(c)nontraditionalstudentselfconcept(withthemesofself
concept,collegesystemandirrelevantinformation).Onethemeidentifiedascriticalin
thisstudywasthestudentsabilitytoadvocateforthemandlearntonavigatethrough
collegesystem.Thisnonacademicskillsetallowsforfirstgenerationstudentthe
abilitytoapproachprofessors,seekoutadvisors,anddeveloptheirownsenseofbeinga
capablecollegestudent.Theynotatedthatunderstandingofcollegereadinessmust
includeskillsnotmeasuredbystandardizedtests.(ByrdandMcDonald2005).
Evaluation/AssessmentofProgramEffectiveness
ProgramEffectivenessiscriticalforthosewithintheprogramalongwithexternal
stakeholders.Firstgenerationstudentsandprogramsassistinginimprovingcollege
enrollmenthavebeenevaluatedonfundamentalstatisticaldata:standardizedscoressuch
asSATorACT,highschoolgrades,andAdvancedPlacementscores.Anissue
identifiedinsomeresearchstudiesinvolvingfirstgenerationcollegeaccessprograms

involvesmonitoringprogramevaluations.Insomecasestheonlyestablishedevaluation
toolsinvolvedreviewingtheattendancelogsoftheparticipants.Itiscriticalthatcollege
accessprogramsmovebeyondattendancelogsandcreatelongtermtrackingforcurrent,
active,inactive,anddropoutsoftheprogram.
However,manyfactorshavebeenshowntorelatetosuchoutcomesofacademic
achievementwhichcanthreatenthevalidityofstatementswemaywishtomakeabout
testscoresandtheirimpactoncollegesuccess.(Camara2013)Inordertoevaluatea
collegeaccessprogramoveralleffectiveness,Dr.WayneCamaradefinedcollege
preparednessasanacademicknowledgeandskillstoqualifyforplacementintoanentry
levelcollegecreditcourseworkbyreviewingCommonCoreStateStandardsandCollege
andCareerReadyalongwithseveralstatesindependentlydesignedassessments.Healso
acknowledgeddimensionofcollegereadinesswhichincluded(a)keycognitiveskills,
(b)keycontentknowledge(c)keylearningskills(d)keytransitionknowledgeskills.(22)
Hesuggestedlongitudinalpredictivestudieswhichfollowstudentscompletehighschool
requirementsandassessesastheyenterpostsecondaryeducationusingavarietyof
outcomesaspotentialcriteria.HecreatedachronologyofCollegeandcareerassessment
thatidentifiedmilestonesincollegeandcareersuccess.Thisdiagramidentifiedboth
measurablestandardbenchmarksuchastestscoresandnonacademicskillssuchas
retentionandpersistence.Healsoextendstheeffectivenessmodeltograduatingfrom
college.

Graduation
Graduation
and
and Time
Time
to
Degree
to Degree

Remediati
Remediati
on
on
Y/N
Y/N

Academic
Academic
Prepartion
Prepartion

College
College &
&
Career
Career test
test
scores
scores

College
College
Placement
Placement
Test
Test

Grades
Grades &
&
GPA
GPA

Retention
Retention
&
&
Persistenc
Persistenc
ee

Course
Course
Placement
Placement

Between,20032009,theCollegeBoardconductedastudyof173schools
acrossthecountryontheeffectivenessofGEARUPoncollegereadinessforstudentsin
lowincomeschools.Racewasnotindicatedthroughtheresearchstudy.GEARUP
(GainingEarlyAwarenessandReadinessforUndergraduatePrograms)offersawide
rangeofservicestostudentsbeginningintheseventhgradeandfollowingthemona
cohortmodelthroughoutthecompletionofhighschool.Sincetheprogramsinceptionin
1998,over$3trilliondollarshadbeenspenttoserveovereightmillionunderserved
students.(BausmithandFrance2012).Theyattemptedtoevaluatetheseprogramsand
foundencouragingresultsonthecollegereadinessoutcomesmeasured.(244)They
requestedmoreresearchinvolvingtotrackbothhighschoolactivitiessuchasGPAand
graduationratesandinpostsecondaryschoolactivitiessuchascollegeenrollment.Itis
clearthatfurtherevaluationofcollegeaccessprogramseffectivenessmaycontinue
beyondthefirstgenerationstudentsinitialinvolvement.
In2011,Dr.WallyBarnesandDr.JohnR.Slatecompletedastatewidemulti

yearstudyofethnicdifferencesbetweenWhite,Black,andLatinohighschoolgraduates
populationsof1,099in20062007schoolyear,1,361in20072008schoolyear,1,376
forthe20082009schoolyearintheStateofTexasforcollegereadiness.StateofTexas
indicatorsutilizedweresuchasAPexamscores,dualcreditcourseenrollment,SAT
criticalreadingandmathscores,ACTEnglishandmathscores,advancedcourseworkin
science,math,andforeignlanguage,scoresfromstatecollegereadinessassessments,and
TexasAssessmentofKnowledgeandSkillsscores.Thescoreswerethenreviewed
basedonrace.WhitestudentsexhibitedhighcollegereadinessratesthanBlackand
Hispanicstudents.HispanicstudentsoutperformedBlackstudents.Throughthisstudy,
theyrecommendedthatschoolsandorschooldistrictscouldnotsolelymeasurecollege
readinessonGPAandstandardizedtestscores.Collegereadinesswasdescribedasa
storehouseofcultural,social,economic,andsymboliccapital.Itisimportantthat
studentsmustdevelopcollegeknowledge.(BarnesandSlate2011)Theyalso
concludedthatcollegereadinessratesarelow,studentdropoutratesarehighand
achievementgapiswideandstable.(75)
ResearchersfromtheEducationResearchCenteratTexasA&MUniversitywere
commissionedbytheTexasHigherEducationCommissiontoselected6schoolsthrough
TexasGOCenterprogramandprovideindepthexamination.30highschoolswere
identifiedand23respondentsagreedtoparticipate.Telephoneinterviewswereconducted
withmembersoftheGOCenters.GOCentersareanetworkofcollegeaccesscenters.
ThreecorecomponentswereidentifiedGOCentersarebeingeffectiveandexemplary.
GOCenterStaffmembershaveanunderstandingofhowstudentsdevelopcollegegoing

aspirations,comprehensiveservicesareprovidedtostudentsandparents.Finally,its
visibilityinthecommunityallowedcommunitypartnershipstobebuiltbetweenthe
centerandothercommunitystakeholders.(Stillsano,Waxman,Brown,Alford,2014)
AcademicAchievementversusCollegeReadiness
Throughtheresearchinvolvingculturalcapital,manyresearchersidentified
collegereadinessactivitiesasmovingbeyondacademicachievement.Byrdand
MacDonalddetailedintheirresearchpreviouslystatedtheabilityforafirstgeneration
studenttolearnadvocacyskills.Firstgenerationparticipantsintheirstudyalso
perceivedtheimportanceofwriting,reading,andmathalongwithtimemanagement
skills.Halfoftherespondentsstressedreadingskills.Readingskillswerealso
emphasizedasaplatformforwhichcriticalthinking,problemsolving,andeffective
expressionarelaunched.(BarnesandSlate,60)
InHowardJohnstons2010reportfortheEducationPartnershipsInc.,threeofthe
fiveactivitiesofcollegeaccessprogramscombinebothacademicachievementand
collegereadiness.First,theofferingofcoursesandwellpreparedcurriculumwould
preparefirstgenerationstudentsforcollegelevelwork.Second,allowingfirst
generationstobesurroundedbyadultsandpeerswhobuildandsupporttheircollege
goingaspirations.Finally,Highschooladministrationandteacherswouldengageand
assiststudentsincompletingthecriticalstepsforcollegeentry.
Yamamurasstudyonthefocusgroupsidentifiednineelementscollegegoing
culturewhichinclude:(a)collegetalk(b)clearcollegeexpectations(c)college

informationandresources(d)comprehensivecounselingmodel(e)collegefocused
testingandcurricula(f)anactive,informedandmeaningfacultyinvolvement(h)college
anduniversitypartnership(i)ongoingarticulation.Again,theseactivitiesareseparated
byacademicachievementorcollegereadiness.Althoughwithoutacademicachievement
therewouldbenocollegereadiness,itcorrectfromtheliteraturethatthereisaclear
intersectionofhighschoolandpostsecondaryeducation.
Camara(2013)suggestsaconsortiumofresearchconductedovertimeandacross
postsecondaryinstitutionswouldprovidethemostcompellingevidenceforcollegeand
careerreadinessbenchmarksandstandards.
Conclusion
Collegereadinessoraccessprogramsassistfirstgenerationstudentsthrough
activitiesinwhichaffecttheiracademicachievementandoffertheopportunitiesfor
enrollingintopostsecondaryinstitutions.Thedebatewillcontinueontheoutcomesand
effectivenessoftheseprograms.Therearespecificcharacteristicsthatareidentifiedas
keycomponentsforcollegepreparation:rigorousacademicprogram,accesstotimelyand
relevantcollegeinformation,andadequatesupportstructures.(Yamamura,Martinez,
Saenz,2010;HewettandRogers,2003,Cates,Schaefle,2011)Threeareasdetailedin
thispaperwereacknowledgingtheinfluenceofnonacademicskilltraining,examining
thecurrentmodelsforcollegeaccessprograms,anddeterminingskillsthatenrich
academicachievementorcollegereadiness.Theconsistentmessagethroughoutall
researchofcollegeaccessprogramsinvolvestime.Overtimewithspecificactivities

nurturingfirstgenerationstudentsandtheirfamiliestowardscollegeaspiration,these
interactionswillcreateexperiencestoallowunderstandingofthecollegeenvironment.
(Bloom,2008,Yamamura,Martinez,Saenz,2010)Inordertoeffectivelyevaluateand
assesstheeffectivenessoftheseprogramsagaintimeisneededasfactorinorderdefine
theoverallsuccess.Furtherresearchisneededcontinuingthroughthepipelineasfirst
generationstudentsgraduatefromhighschool,enrollincollege,andthenhopefully
graduate.(Camera,2013;Yamamura,Martinez,Saenz,2010)

References:
Barnes, W and Slate, J.R (2014) College-Readiness rates in Texas: A Statewide,
Multiyear Study of Ethnic Differences. Education and Urban Society. 46(1) 59-87
Bausmith, J.M , France, M (2012) The impact of GEAR UP on college readiness
for students in low income schools. Journal of Ecuation for Students Placed at
Risk (JESPAR) 17(4) 234-246
Bloom, J (2008) The pedagogy of college access programs: A Critical Anaylsis.
(ASHE/Lumina Policy Briefs and Critical Essays No.5) Ames, Iowa: Iowa State
University, Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies

Byrd, K.L. , Macdonald, G. (2005) Defining college readiness from the inside out:
First-Generation College Student Perspectives. Community College Review 33(1)
22-37.
Camara, W. (2013) Defining and measuring college and career readiness: A
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2013 32 (4), 16-27
Cates, J.T., Schaefle, S.E. (2011) The relationship between a college preparation
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Dyce, C.M., Albold,C, Long, D (2013) Moving from college aspiration to
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96(2), 152-165
Hewett, S. M., & Rodgers, W. J. (2003). The citadel gear-up program and learnercentered education: Together a Framework for Student Success. EducationIndianapolis Then Chula Vista-, 124(1), 86-91.
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Education Partnerships, Inc.
Stillsano, J.R. Waxman, H.C., Brown, D.B, Alford, B.L (2014) Using case study
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Yamamura, E.K. , Martinez, M.A., Saenz, V.B (2010) Moving beyond high school
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i Therearethreefederalprograms:UpwardBound,TalentSearch,andGEARUP.Upward
Boundwasauthorizedasapilotprojecttosupportlowincomeyouthinthegraduatingfrom
highschoolandpursuingacollegeeducation.Theprogramservesyouthbetweentheages
of13to19.UpwardBoundoffersanextensiveprograminvolvingcollegecampus
exposureandcollegecourseworkforitsparticipants.TalentSearchservesstudentsbetween
ages11and27whohavecompletedthefifthgrade.TalentSearchprovidesvariousservices
forcurrentenrolledandretentionservicesforhighschooldropouts.GEARUP(Gaining
EarlyAwarenessandReadinessforUndergraduatePrograms)offersawiderangeof
servicestostudentsbeginningintheseventhgradeandfollowingthemonacohortmodel
throughoutthecompletionofhighschool.Asecondtypeofcollegeaccessprogramsisa
communitybasedprogram.Theseprogramsarefacilitatedthroughlocalchurches,other
youthorganizations,orK12schooldistricts.
Outsideagenciessuchascommunitycolleges,communitycollaborativeprogramsthrough
communitypartnershipsandotherpostsecondaryinstitutionscancreatethefinaltypeof
collegeaccessprogram.Thismodelcanbebasedonthecampusofapostsecondary
institutionorothercommunityfacility.Mostoftheseprogramsexposestudentsto
particularareasofdisciplinesuchSTEM(Science,Technology,Engineering,and
Mathematics).