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Forging Process
Prof. P. P. Date
Department of Mechanical
Engineering, IIT Bombay

Forging variables

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Forging : Working out as forged

dimensions

t/4
t/2
an/2

Allowances and tolerances on the external dimensions of a forged

part.
A - nominal dimension of forged part;
an- the nominal (scaling+shrinkage+machining) allowances for
dimension A;
B - minimum permissible dimension of the forging, equal to A + an;
a - the total nominal allowance inclusive of tolerance for dimension A,
equal to an + t/2;
C- the nominal (calculated) dimension of the forging, equal to A + a;
t - the tolerance;
t/2 half the bilateral tolerance on the dimensions of the forging;
D - the maximum permissible dimension of forging, equal to
C+t/2=A+an+t.
Here, the dimensions are related as follows:
B = A + an = nominal dimension of the forging with the machining
allowance of an. A is the nominal dimension of the finished part.

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On adding the allowance a that includes all allowances including the

machining allowance, one obtains,
C = A + a = B + t/2
where t is the tolerance on the shaft diameter.
This indicates the nominal forging dimension with all allowances. The
maximum dimension i.e., in the maximum material condition would be,
D = C + t/2 = A + an+ t = B + t
The minimum and maximum permissible diameters would work out to
diameters C and D respectively. Considering the above, we have A =
200mm, a = 16mm, t = 12 (being 6mm). Here an = 10mm (=16-6= a t/2)
The nominal calculated dimensions will be,
B = 200 + 10 = 210 mm
The minimum diameter (dimension C) on the forging would be,
C = A + a = 200 + 16 = 216mm.
The maximum dimension D of the forging would be,
D = 200 + 16 + 6 = 222mm = B + t
Note that here t/2 represents half the bilateral tolerance interval and is
hence equal to 6mm.
A forged dimension smaller than a maximum diameter of 222mm and
larger than a minimum diameter of 216mm will be acceptable.

Dimensions of the forged gear (for problem 3.2.) (a)

dimensions of the as finished gear (b) Dimensions as forged Region 1 represents the gear contour after machining; Region
2 - forging allowance and Region 3 contour of the gear blank
after forging

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On examining the dimensions, one finds that h <

D and d < 0.5D.
The allowances will therefore depend on the OD
and the height h.
The allowances on the outer diameter, height and
the inner diameter are a, b and c respectively.
They turn out to be a = 164,
b = 134 and c = 224.
The nominal dimensions of the forged blank are
D = 350 + 16 = 366mm, h = 110 + 13 = 123mm,
internal diameter d = 120-22 = 98mm. However,
as the standard nominal punch diameter is
100mm, the dimension d = 100mm.

Open die forging

Hot forging
Allowances & tolerances

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Features of stepped shaft

A step section of forging having crosssection smaller than that of adjacent
section
A collar a forging section greater that
rest of forging
A shoulder a forging section greater that
adjacent section
A neck a section having smaller
dimensions than adjacent sides

Nomogram to determine the weight of

metal to be added for a fillet at a step
transition from greater diameter to a
smaller diameter in a shaft.

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(a) Dimensions of the forged shaft in Fig.5. (Problem 3)

A better method of dimensioning forgings

STEPPED SHAFT

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Features of stepped shaft

A step section of forging having crosssection smaller than that of adjacent
section
A collar a forging section greater that
rest of forging
A shoulder a forging section greater that
adjacent section
A neck a section having smaller
dimensions than adjacent sides

FORGING
ALLOWANCE

595+15
(550)
717+15
(672)
807+15
(762)
925+15
(875)

The diameters [dia with allowance (without allowance)] are A = 205 (190),
B = 126 (110), C = 166 (150), D = 108 (90)

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Upset forging
Also knows as cold heading
Application heads of fasteners, bolt &
bevel gear heads
Design rules
The length of the unsupported stock (l)
gathered in a single pass must be less that
3d, d-diameter of the bar

bar

Punch

l < 3d

Die

L>3d, the bar can be upset in single stroke

if material is held in die of diameter <1.5d
Figure

When l>3d, stroke length is beyond 2.5d

from the die face, then it should be upset
in conical recess
Figure

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Upset forging
Also knows as cold heading
Application heads of fasteners, bolt &
bevel gear heads
bar

d
Punch

l < 3d

Die

DESIGN RULES
L>3d, the bar can be upset in single stroke
if material is held in die of diameter <1.5d
Figure

When l>3d, stroke length is beyond 2.5d

from the die face, then it should be upset
in conical recess

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Rotary swaging
A stationary
workpiece
A rotating hammer

Roll forging

Closed die forging

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Closed die forging processes

A material is worked between two halves
of a die cavity corresponding to the
component shape
Types Blocker type, finish only bearings,
conventional forgings and near net shape

Closed Die forging

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Metal flow in closed die forging

Metal flow to fill the cavity depends
Complexity of shape
Shape of starting material (preform)
The flow stress
Lubrication
And forgebility of the material
Machine tool characteristic
Tool design
Temperature distribution

Forging types

Forging preforms

Controlled flash forging :

die filling

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Controlled flash forging

Metal flow in closed die forging

(conventional)
Quantification of complexity
It give geometric complexities
It is the ratio of square of the perimeter of an
axial cross section to the surface area of the
cross section
= 2Rg/Rc
Rg = radial distance from the axis of symmetry to
the centre of gravity of half of the section
Rc= the radius of circumscribing cylinder

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100
10

Parting line

30

250
Orientation A
Orientation B

100
10
30

250

Flash design

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Rib & web type forgings

Cross section

Terms for shape change

factor

The fillet radii in the perform must be greater

than those in the finished forging by 3.15mm.
Similarly, the length of the cross section of the
perform should exceed that of the finished
forging by 2 to 10mm.
Adding 5-15% of the cross sectional area of
the finished forging for flash, the height of the
perform cross section can be determined.
The additional rib height may be determined
basd on the heights of the original billet and
the perform as
Hrib = 0.25*(Hff Hp)

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Guidelines for perform design :

Rib & web type forgings
The radius for blending the preform with
the parting line depends on that of the
finished forging as
Rp = Rff + C, C being a constant .The
value of C may be determined from below
Depth of cavity

<1 1<Hc <2.5

2.5<Hc<5 >5 (mm)
C (mm)
2
3
4
5
HR/6 < Rp < HR/4, Hr being the height of
the farthest flat surface from the parting
plane.

Filling the die

The flash thickness and the width to thickness
(w/t) ratio of flash depend on weight (W) of the
forging as
t = (1.13+0.89*(W)0.5 0.017W) (Wolf formula)
w/t = 1.25exp[-1.09*(W)] + 3
Alternately, the flash thickness may be
estimated from the Teterin formula as
t = (-0.09 + 2*(W)1/3 0.01W) (Teterin formula

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The flash design based on the shape

difficulty factor may be given by
w/t = -0.02 + 0.0038S.Do/t + 4.93/(W)0.2
The stress ef representing the stress
required for the material to enter the flash
may be determined as
ef = (2f/t)*w + f,

The shape change factor quantifies the net

change in shape from a cylindrical billet.
This is influenced by the location of the
parting line / parting plane and the extent
of axial flow (extrusion type flow) of the
material. The shape change factor is
written as

= Hs /(ho + ha),

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Calculation of the forging load

The forging load is given by
F = Cc av A,
av being the average flow stress and A
the projected area of the parting plane with
flash.

Flash design :

Using the Wolf formula

Flash thickness = t = (1.13+0.89*(12.7)0.5-0.017*12.7) = 4.085mm
w/t = 3, so that w = flash width, w = 4.085x3 = 12.26mm
Using the Teterin formula,
t = (-0.09 + 2x12.70.333 0.01x12.7) = 4.445mm
w/t = -0.02 + 0.0038x1.15x250/4.445 + 4.93/(12.7)0.2
= 0.2258 + 2.965 = 3.1912
The flash width w = 4.445x3.1912 = 14.185mm
If the flow stress of the material in the flash zone is f = 180 MPa, that in the
cavity = 120 Mpa and with the friction factor of 0.3, the stress required to
push the material into the flash, i.e.,
(stress at the entry to the flash, ef) = (2x0.3x120x14.185/4.445) + 180
= 409.77 MPa, say, 410 MPa
Given the flash dimensions, weight of the flash = 0.785x[(250+2x14.185)2
2502]x4.445/1000x7.8 = 408gms = 0.408 kg.
Volume of the flash = 52304.5mm3 = 52.304cc

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Shape distortion factor and

weight of flash

The product will be formed from a cylindrical billet. The total volume of the
material with flash = 1628.875+52.304 = 1681.18cc
Initial diameter of the cylindrical billet (assuming ho /do = 1) do = 128.9
mm, ho = 128.9 mm.
Two types of metal flow are apparent extrusion type flow to form the upper
and lower diameters (each 10mm high) and lateral upsetting type flow to
form the larger diameter. The shape change factor (in view of Hs =
50mm, ho = 30mm, ha = 0 as the internal and external parting lines
coincide) works out to = 50/(30 + 0) = 1.67
= 1.15x(2502/128.92) x 1.672 = 12.06
K1 = 0.54 + 15.44x(12.7-0.2)x[1+0.05757x12.06] = 16.27
K2 = 0.7026 x [1+0.01969x12.06]x 3.1912 = 2.77
Weight of the flash = Wf = (16.27 2.77)x12.7/100 = 1.715 kg. This works
out to a flash volume of 219.87cc and a flash width of 42.3mm and
4.445mm thickness.
Compared to the previous estimate this empirical formula leads to a
substantial overestimate of flash width.

Calculation of the forging load

Based on deformation resistance of the material

The forging resistance in the cavity = Fc = {-2fc/h*L3/3 +
(2fc/h*L3 + f L2/2)}. Here = 2; L = 125mm, h = 50mm, c =
190 MPa, f = 210 MPa; f = 0.3,
4453125 + 1640625 = 6093750
Forging load = 2x3.1415x{-1484375+6093750} = 2396 tons
The total load is then F = Fc + Ff
ef = 0.6x190x42.3/4.445 + 1.154x210 = 1327.2 MPa
Ff = 1327.2x3.1415x250x4.445 = 4533244.4N, i.e., 453 tonnes
Total force = 2396 + 453 = 2849 tonnes, say, 3000 tonnes.
Based on the area of the forging plane and Cc = 1.5 the force may
be calculated as :
F = 1.5 x 200x 37886.4 = 25365911 = 2536.6 tonnes

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Based on the area of the forging plane and Cc = 1.5 the force may
be calculated as :
F = 1.5 x 200x 37886.4 = 25365911 = 2536.6 tonnes
Based on the average forging pressure for low/medium carbon
steels, the forging load can be worked out as follows :
Pav (Mpa) = 9.8(14 + 24.7/hav), where havg is in mm. (lower limit)
Pav (Mpa) = 9.8(37 + 31.2/hav)
(upper limit)
Here havg = 12700/ (7.8x 0.785x252) = 3.318 cm = 33.2mm. so
we have
Pav (lower) = 9.8x(14+24.7/33.2) = 145 MPa.
Hence lower limit on load = 0.785x2502x145 = 7114063 N, i.e., 712
tonnes
Pav (upper) = 9.8x(37+31.2/33.2) = 372 MPa. Hence the upper load
limit = 0.785x2502x372 = 18251250 N = 1826 tonnes

Examples

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Example of Hot forging

Shrinkage behaviour
while cooling
depends on

Merits of using heat

treatable material

a. Material
composition

Process heat is used,

no subsequent HTs
required

b. Surface area
/mass ratio
(Larger ratio,
lower shrinkage

Smaller machining
allowances (0.10.2mm) due to low
shrinkage enabling

Precision forging crankshafts

Machining allowance crank pin

and journal : 1-3mm
Microstructural features on the
surface to be machined off
Component specific machining
for balancing.

Single cylinder crankshaft

No flash formation, lower
mass of heat treatable alloy
used

Precision forging :
Importance of
preform geometry

Mass tolerance = 3 grams

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Single cylinder crankshaft

Tooling concept : 2nd. preforming

Tooling concept : 1st preforming

Tooling concept for precision

forging

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Coatings for forging dies

Wear reduction in hot forging dies

by coatings

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Boron based coatings

Forging dies after 3000 forgings

Nitrided die shows the worst wear performance

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Adhesion & abrasion wear

Improvements in die wear

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Simulation Packages

Simulation Packages (Contd.)

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Summary

Forging allowances
Flash design calculations
Forging load calculations
Forging die wear
Case studies

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