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Athletes' use of exercise imagery during weight

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ARTICLE in THE JOURNAL OF STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING RESEARCH DECEMBER 2007
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Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2007, 21(4), 10771081

2007 National Strength & Conditioning Association

ATHLETES USE OF EXERCISE IMAGERY DURING

WEIGHT TRAINING
MICHAEL S. SILBERNAGEL, SANDRA E. SHORT,

AND

LINDSAY C. ROSS-STEWART

Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota
58202.

ABSTRACT. Silbernagel, M.S., S.E. Short, and L.C. Ross-Stewart. Athletes use of exercise imagery during weight training. J.
Strength Cond. Res. 21(4):10771081. 2007.Imagery is a cognitive process during which people use their minds to create (or
recreate) experiences that are similar to real-life situations. This
study examined how college athletes used imagery during
weight training. Subjects were 295 Division I (n 163) and Division II (n 132) college student athletes (men: n 138, women: n 157) who participated in a weight training program as
a requirement of their sport. They completed a slightly modified
version of the Weight Lifting Imagery Questionnaire. Results
showed that appearance imagery (i.e., images related to the attainment of a fit-looking body) was used and considered the most
effective followed by technique imagery (i.e., images related to
performing the skill and techniques correctly with good form)
and energy imagery (i.e., images related to getting psyched up
or feeling energized). Other variables that effected imagery use
were gender, age, time of season, and levels of motivation. In
addition, gender, previous imagery training, and level of motivation had an effect on the perceptions of imagery effectiveness.
Confidence in the ability to image was associated with both imagery use and effectiveness, and imagery use and effectiveness
were associated with confidence in the weight room. The findings support previous research in exercise imagery that appearance imagery is most used followed by technique and energy
imagery and extend them in such a way that strength coaches
have practical advice on how to use imagery in a positive way
with their athletes. Suggestions about how strength coaches can
use imagery with their clients are provided.
KEY WORDS. visualization, strength training, confidence

INTRODUCTION
n sport settings, imagery is regarded as one of
the most popular and effective techniques to
enhance the learning and performance of skills
and strategies, to regulate arousal and anxiety,
and to modify cognitions (e.g., self-confidence)
(9, 15). Imagery mimics real experience, during which
people can be aware of seeing an image; feeling movements as an image; or experiencing an image of smell,
tastes, or sounds. It differs from dreams in that people
are awake and conscious when using imagery (20). Hall
(6) was the first to suggest that people may use imagery
in exercise settings just as they do in sports. Since then,
several studies have been conducted on how imagery is
used in exercise settings or by exercisers (4, 5, 7, 8, 11,
13, 14, 16, 21). In several of these studies, the samples
included subjects who were involved in various supervised and recreational weight training programs.
One of the most recent and relevant studies that examined imagery use in weight training was conducted
with 415 men from a recreational setting (11). They completed the Weight Lifting Imagery Questionnaire
(WLIQ), which is a 9-item measure that involves rating
how often certain images are used on a 9-point Likert

scale of 1 (never) to 9 (always). Note that the authors of

the questionnaire inappropriately named it the weight
lifting questionnaire when they should have used
weight training, strength training, or resistance
training because they were not referring to the Olympic
sport of weight lifting. To be consistent, we also refer to
it as the Weight Lifting Imagery Questionnaire. The
WLIQ has 3 subscales: appearance imagery that focuses
on the attainment of a fit-looking body, energy imagery
that relates to getting psyched up or feeling energized,
and technique imagery that relates to performing the
skill and techniques correctly with good form. Results
showed that subjects reported using appearance imagery
the most followed by technique and energy imagery,
which supported previous research from other samples of
exercisers (4, 7).
Informative as it may be, this study (11) was limited
in several ways. That is, the researchers used only men
who were involved in recreational weight training. What
about the use of exercise imagery by athletes who are
required to train? Furthermore, what about women? In
addition, the study was primarily descriptive in that it
showed that subjects used exercise imagery, but it did not
address the effectiveness of the images. As has been
shown in sport imagery research, some athletes use images that are actually debilitative or harmful, and these
images have a negative effect on their performances (15,
17).
The present study examined the frequency of imagery
use among collegiate athletes who were required to lift,
as well as their perceptions of the effectiveness of the images. A number of other variables (e.g., gender, age, time
of season, imagery training, level of motivation) that may
affect use and effectiveness were also considered. As has
been done in sports (10, 18), the relationship between confidence in ability to use imagery and imagery use and
effectiveness and the relationship between imagery use
and effectiveness and confidence in the weight room were
also considered. Confidence is one of the key psychological
states thought to affect performance in many different
settings, including sports and exercise (3).
Although this was the first time that athletes use of
exercise imagery was examined in a required workout
setting, there was no basis for hypothesizing that these
athletes would use exercise imagery differently than the
other samples, like the recreational weight trainers. However, given that the workouts were required, we felt that
motivation level would be important to consider and
therefore hypothesized that those who were more motivated in the weight room would use more imagery and
perceive it as more effective. The other key variable of
interest was confidence. It was expected that those who
were more confident in their ability to image would use
imagery more and perceive it as more effective. Imagery

1077

1078

SILBERNAGEL, SHORT,

AND

ROSS-STEWART

use was also expected to be positively related to confidence.

METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem

A quantitative research design was used in which subjects completed a modified WLIQ and a background information-type sheet after one of their required workouts.
Subjects

Approval to conduct this study was obtained by the Institutional Review Board of the University of North Dakota. Once the subjects agreed to participate, they were
asked to sign a consent form. Subjects were 295 Division
I (n 163) and Division II (n 132) college student athletes (men: n 138, women: n 157) who participated
in a strength training program as a requirement of their
sport. They were between 18 and 26 years of age (mean
20.10 1.39). They participated in a variety of sports:
baseball (n 1), basketball (n 39), cheer and dance (n
25), football (n 72), golf (n 18), hockey (n 13),
soccer (n 13), softball (n 14), swimming and diving
(n 26), track and field (n 68), and volleyball (n 6).
They had been playing their sports for an average of 9.08
years (SD 3.85, range 119). These athletes were
completing either in-season (n 105) or out-of-season (n
190) strength training programs. The number of days
spent in the weight room ranged from 2 to 5 days per
week (mean 2.60 0.58) for the in-season athletes and
from 2 to 6 days per week (mean 3.50 0.69) for the
out-of-season athletes. Subjects also reported spending 1
15 hours per week in the weight room (mean 3.20
1.36) during in-season training and 1.512 hours per
week (mean 4.70 1.9) during the off season. The subjects had spent 15 years (mean 2.10 1.16) in a
strength training program. All athletes, regardless of
whether they were in or out of season, were supervised
by a strength and conditioning coach during their workouts. All of the strength and conditioning coaches who
supervised the athletes used in this study were Certified
Strength and Conditioning Specialists (through the National Strength and Conditioning Association) and had
USA Weightlifting Club Coach certification. The programs were all ground based and Olympic in nature, with
both linear and nonlinear periodization being used. Components of strength, speed, power, flexibility, and agility
were addressed in the programs, primarily in accordance
with the sport coaches specific needs. Even though the
athletes were from Divisions I and II and participated in
different sports, the strength and conditioning professionals involved had similar philosophies and coaching strategies. Overall, the programs varied more in the type of
sport played rather than the division in which the participants played.
With respect to the subjects previous experience with
imagery, subjects were asked whether or not they had
any training in imagery (i.e., had anyone ever taught
them how to image?). Only 44.7% (n 132) answered
affirmatively.
Procedures

Subjects were given a modified version of the WLIQ (11).

The appearance items used were I imagine a more stronger/more explosive me from lifting weights, I imagine a
more athletic me from lifting weights, and I imagine a
more powerful me from lifting weights. The original

items for the appearance subscale are: I imagine a more

muscularly proportionate/balanced me from lifting
weights, I imagine a more defined me from lifting
weights, and I imagine a bigger me from lifting
weights. These items were changed to give the subjects
appearance questions that were more closely related to
the terminology used by them and their coaches. The
items for the other subscales were not changed. Cronbachs alpha values for the imagery subscales were acceptable: energy ( 0.88), technique ( 0.83), and
appearance subscales ( 0.91).
The effectiveness of imagery was assessed by asking
each subject How does this image affect your performance in the weight room? Ratings were made on a 3
(negative/hinders) to 0 (neutral) to 3 (positive/helps)
scale. Like the imagery use ratings, effectiveness ratings
were completed for each item and computed separately
for each subscale. The alpha values for appearance, energy, and technique effectiveness subscales were 0.90,
0.72, and 0.78, respectively.
To assess the level of motivation for strength training,
2 questions were used. The first question asked subjects
to rate their level of motivation in the weight room on a
scale of 0 to 9 (0 low and 9 high). The second question
was a more indirect measure of motivation in which subjects were asked how much time they would spend in the
weight room if they were not required to be there. Choices
were less, the same, and more. The correlation between these 2 questions was statistically significant (r
0.40, p 0.00). An analysis of variance using the How
much time would you spend in the weight room? variable
as the independent variable and the level of motivation
ratings as the dependent variable was statistically significant (F[2, 292] 25.06, p 0.00). Posthoc tests
showed that those athletes who indicated that they would
spend less time in the weight room reported the lowest
motivation scores (mean 5.81 1.97), followed by the
same group (mean 7.07 1.47), with the highest
scores reported by the more group (mean 7.80
1.11). The less, same, and more groups were relabeled as representing low, moderate, and high motivation.
The confidence measures used in this study were constructed in accordance with Banduras (1) recommendations. Confidence in the weight room was assessed by 2
items: How confident are you in your ability to lift
weights using the correct form/technique? and How confident are you in your ability to perform the lifts required
in a workout? These items were significantly correlated
with each other (r 0.66, p 0.00). For this reason, the
scores for the items were averaged for each subject, creating 1 confidence in the weight room variable. The alpha value for these 2 items was 0.80. Confidence in ability
to use imagery was assessed by asking the subjects the
following question: How confident are you in your ability
to use imagery in the weight room? Subjects responded
to the question using the same 0 (low) to 9 (high) Likerttype scale.
Statistical Analyses

Descriptive statistics were computed for all variables.

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to
evaluate differences according to gender, time of season,
previous imagery training, and level of motivation on the
WLIQ subscales. Correlations were computed between
age and the WLIQ subscales, and well as for those analyses using the confidence variables. The p level for all

IMAGERY DURING WEIGHT TRAINING 1079

TABLE 1.

Descriptive statistics for imagery use.

Appearance

Full sample
Gender
Men
Women

Energy

TABLE 3.

Technique

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

6.03

1.88

2.31

1.63

4.96

2.06

Descriptive statistics for imagery effectiveness.

Energy

Appearance

Technique

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Full sample

1.40

0.96

0.21

0.73

0.95

0.97

6.37
5.74

1.98
1.74

2.78
1.91

1.87
1.26

5.36
4.61

2.09
1.97

Gender
Men
Women

1.70
1.14

0.93
0.91

0.34
0.10

0.81
0.63

1.16
0.77

0.98
0.94

Time of season
In season
6.27
Off season 5.90

1.69
1.97

2.34
2.30

1.60
1.65

5.40
4.72

2.11
1.99

Time of season
In season
1.57
Off season 1.31

0.82
1.02

0.26
0.19

0.75
0.72

1.22
0.81

0.94
0.97

Imagery training
Yes
5.98
No
6.08

1.85
1.91

2.34
2.29

1.63
1.63

5.19
4.78

2.03
2.07

Imagery training
Yes
1.34
No
1.46

0.91
1.00

0.23
0.20

0.69
0.76

1.06
0.86

0.93
1.01

Motivation
Low
Moderate
High

1.79
1.87
1.59

1.58
2.35
3.53

0.88
1.59
2.06

4.26
5.10
5.73

1.94
2.08
1.84

Motivation
Low
Moderate
High

0.93
0.86
0.93

0.04
0.21
0.54

0.55
0.70
0.97

0.56
1.05
1.33

0.92
0.97
0.87

5.39
6.06
7.10

analyses was set at 0.05; only significant results are reported below.

RESULTS
Descriptive results reported in Table 1 show that appearance imagery was used the most. From this subscale, the
item I imagine a more athletic me from lifting weights
was used the most (mean 6.55 2.16). Next was technique imagery, and the item When I think about lifting
weights, I imagine doing the required lifts (e.g. squat,
power clean, bench) was used the most (mean 5.46
2.48). Energy imagery was used least often, but the item
To get me energized, I imagine lifting weights was the
most frequently used (mean 2.61 1.95).
The MANOVA for gender on imagery use was statistically significant (Wilks lambda 0.93, F[4, 290] 5.89,
p 0.05), and tests of between subjects effects showed
that men scored higher than women on all subscales: appearance (F[1, 293] 8.41, p 0.05); energy (F[1, 293]
22.27, p 0.05); and technique (F[1, 293] 10.33, p
0.05). The MANOVA for time of season was also statistically significant (Wilks lambda 0.96, F[4, 290]
2.75, p 0.05) but only for technique imagery
(F[1, 293] 7.61, p 0.05). In all cases, the means for
in season were higher compared with out of season. The
analysis was statistically significant for motivation
(Wilks lambda 0.83, F[8, 578] 7.21, p 0.05). Tests
of between subject effects were statistically significant for
all subscales: appearance (F[2, 292]) 13.38, p 0.05),
technique (F[2, 292] 8.91, p 0.05), and energy
(F[2, 292] 24.69, p 0.05). Subjects who were highly
motivated used imagery more than those who were moderately motivated, who, in turn, used imagery more than
those who were low in motivation. Pearson correlation coefficients for the relationship between subjects age and
TABLE 2.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

0.95
1.45
2.07

imagery use were only significant for energy (r[293]

0.15, p 0.05), showing that the older athletes used more
energy imagery. The correlations in Table 2 show that
those who were more confident in their ability to use imagery used imagery more. Furthermore, the imagery use
subscales were positively associated with confidence in
the weight room, except for energy.
Imagery Effectiveness

Descriptive statistics for the variables effecting imagery

effectiveness are shown in Table 3. Appearance imagery
was considered to be the most helpful, and the most effective appearance image was I imagine a more athletic
me from lifting weights (mean 1.68 1.12). Technique imagery was the second most effective, with its
most effective image being When I think about lifting
weights, I imagine my form and body position (mean
1.10 1.15). Overall, energy imagery was the least effective, but the image perceived as most effective was To
get me energized, I imagine lifting weights (mean 0.28
1.02).
The MANOVA for effectiveness of imagery using gender as an independent variable was statistically significant (Wilks lambda 0.80, F[4, 290] 8.23, p 0.05).
Men scored higher than women on appearance (F[1, 293]
27.33, p 0.05), technique (F[1, 293] 11.85, p
0.05), and energy (F[1, 295] 7.79, p 0.05). Time of
season was also statistically significant (Wilks lambda
0.95, F[4, 290] 3.90, p 0.05), where mean ratings for
in-season athletes were higher compared with out-of-season athletes for technique (F[1, 293] 12.38, p 0.05)
and appearance (F[1, 293] 4.80, p 0.05). Those who
were more motivated found imagery to be more effective
(Wilks lambda 0.84, F[8, 578] 6.69, p 0.05), and
this was for all subscales: appearance (F[2, 292] 23.39,

Correlations between imagery use and confidence.

Appearance
Energy
Technique
Confidence in the weight room
Confidence in ability to use imagery

* Correlations significant at 0.05 level.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

1.00
0.49*
0.67*
0.28*
0.43*

1.00
0.51*
0.10
0.37*

1.00
0.29*
0.50*

1.00
0.45*

1080

SILBERNAGEL, SHORT,

TABLE 4.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

AND

ROSS-STEWART

Correlations between imagery effectiveness and confidence in the weight room.

Appearance
Energy
Technique
Confidence in ability to use imagery
Confidence in weight room

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

1.00
0.45*
0.60*
0.40*
0.26*

1.00
0.54*
0.27*
0.10

1.00
0.41*
0.23*

1.00
0.45*

* Correlations significant at 0.05 level.

TABLE 5. Correlations between imagery use and imagery effectiveness.
(1)

(2)

(3)

1.00
0.49*
0.67*

1.00
0.51*

1.00

Imagery effectiveness
(4) Appearance
0.66*
(5) Energy
0.28*
(6) Technique
0.44*

0.36*
0.55*
0.38*

0.52*
0.33*
0.71*

Imagery use
(1) Appearance
(2) Energy
(3) Technique

(4)

(5)

1.00
0.27*
0.44*

0.38*

* Correlations significant at 0.05 level.

p 0.05); energy (F[2, 292] 7.22, p 0.05), and technique (F[2, 292] 11.95, p 0.05).). Those who were
more confident in their ability to use imagery found imagery to be more effective for energy, technique, and appearance (Table 4). In addition, those who were more confident in the weight room felt that imagery was most effective (with the exception of energy imagery).
The final analysis looked at the correlations between
imagery use and effectiveness. As shown in Table 5, those
who used imagery more often reported it to be more effective.

DISCUSSION
Collegiate athletes who were required to participate in
weight training programs used appearance imagery the
most followed by technique imagery and energy imagery.
These findings support the previous studies that looked
at imagery use by exercisers (e.g., aerobics performers,
recreational weightlifters, runners, cardiovascular machine users) other than athletes (4, 7, 11). One finding
that was slightly different than that of previous studies
was that men in this study scored higher on all of the
subscales than women. In previous studies (4, 7), women
scored higher on appearance imagery, and men scored
higher on both technique and energy imagery. A reason
for this difference may be that in previous studies, the
sample sizes were uneven in that the majority of the subjects were women. In this study there was close to a 50/
50 split for gender. If the previous studies had closer mento-women ratios, they may have shown that men used
appearance imagery more frequently as well. Overall, the
result makes sense because being stronger, more powerful, and more athletic are common participation motives
for these athletes.
Athletes who were in season had higher use of imagery than those who were out of season at the time of the
study. No study in exercise imagery has looked at this
variable because recreational exercisers were used, so
time of season was not an issue. This result shows that
athletes may use imagery to help keep them focused during in-season training. A strength coach can take advantage of this finding by implementing more imagery cues

during this time of season to keep the athletes focused.

That out-of-season athletes used imagery less indicates
that this is probably a good time to implement some formal imagery training; then when the season comes
around, the athletes can benefit the most from it. Results
showed that those who had imagery training found imagery to be more effective.
Athletes who were more motivated were found to use
imagery more frequently and also found it to be most effective. Imagery has commonly been believed to have a
motivational function (4, 7, 9, 11, 12). Although low levels
of motivation could be attributed to a variety of reasons,
maybe imagery could be used to increase them. Future
research could explore this relationship. Interestingly, results showed that the older the athlete was, the more energy imagery he or she used. Maybe athletes used this
imagery to motivate themselves? It is also possible that
because older athletes have spent more time training,
they may be less concerned with appearance and technique imagery, therefore using energy imagery to get
through the workouts.
Athletes who used imagery more often were more confident. This finding is another reason that strength coaches should implement imagery training into their program.
Although this was the first study to examine this relationship in weight training, the relationship between imagery use and confidence in sport is well established (9).
Like previous research, it was also shown that athletes
who were more confident in their ability to image used it
more often (18).
To date, no one has looked at the effectiveness of exercise imagery. Asking the athletes to indicate their perceptions of the effectiveness of the images allows us to see
which types of imagery and which images were most effective. Results showed appearance imagery to be the
most effective, followed by technique imagery and energy.
This means that a strength coach would want to focus on
appearance imagery and technique imagery while inserting some energy imagery cues now and then, because
they are still used and considered to be beneficial. Such
cues as See yourself being explosive for appearance imagery, Feel yourself bringing your hips through and getting tall for technique imagery, and Lock yourself in
and lets get things done today for energy imagery are
suggestions that can help an athlete use exercise imagery, probably without their even realizing they are using
it.
However, choosing the right image to give to an athlete is probably more complex. There were gender differences in imagery effectiveness. Men perceived the exercise imagery subscales to be more effective than women,
and for all items men thought the images were more positive or helpful to their performance in the weight room
compared with women. There were only a couple of images that men and women did not differ significantly on
with respect to effectiveness (I imagine a more muscular

IMAGERY DURING WEIGHT TRAINING 1081

proportionate/balanced me from lifting weights, To take

my mind off work/class, I imagine lifting weights, and I
imagine a more defined me from lifting weights). These
images appear to be the safest to use with both men
and women. However, the taking-my-mind-off-work/class
image was not considered to be very effective. Actually,
for athletes who are low in motivation, any type of imagery (appearance, energy, technique) was not considered
very effective.
The time of the season also played a role in how effective imagery was. In-season athletes not only used
more imagery but also found it to be more effective than
the out-of-season athletes, with statistically significant
results for technique and appearance imagery. This finding could be explained by the fact that in-season athletes
are focusing more on fine-tuning their technique. During
this time, strength coaches should concentrate on cues
that use technique imagery and also appearance imagery
that is specifically worded towards the subjects athletic
goals.
Athletes found imagery to be more effective if they
had previous training in imagery. This finding was not
found for imagery use, though. This means that athletes
use imagery whether they have had formal training or
not. However, it is considered to be more effective by
those who have some experience with it. Strength coaches
should not only give cues to the athletes but also spend
a few minutes teaching the athletes to image. Imagery
training programs are not very time consuming. Some (2)
have recommended an overall training period of approximately 20 minutes a day, and others have suggested it
takes far less time to teach such psychological techniques
as imagery (e.g., 5 minutes a day, 35 times per week)
(19).
Finally, those athletes who were more confident in
their ability to use imagery not only used more imagery
but also found it to be more effective. There was also a
positive relationship between imagery use and imagery
effectiveness and confidence in the weight room. Thus, it
seems as though imagery is a source of confidence in the
weight room, just as it is a source of confidence in sports
and other domains (1, 3). Future researchers could explore these relationships more thoroughly to see if there
are mediating relationships between these variables, as
would be expected according to the model of imagery use
(9) and previous research with athletes in sports (3, 18).

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This study shows that athletes use imagery in the weight
room and find it to be effective. The findings from this
study extended previous research by showing that imagery and confidence are related. The applications of this
study are that the findings shed light on how strength
coaches should be using imagery with their athletes in

the weight room and which particular images are considered to be the most effective under different circumstances (both of which are discussed in more detail in the discussion section of this paper), thereby allowing strength
coaches to use imagery in a positive way with their athletes.

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Address correspondence to Dr. Sandra E. Short, sandra

short@und.nodak.edu.