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CHAPTER 1

Piles Settlement
Prediction

CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3

9.1 Introduction

CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8

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The use of piles as settlement reducers had been discussed as


early as 1977, at the Tokyo ISSMFE Conference. Randolph
(1994) has drawn attention to the fact that the primary reason for
the choice of a piled foundation is to reduce settlements.

Design calculation methods of pile foundation concentrate on

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CHAPTER 8

the ultimate capacity. The settlement behaviour is given less


consideration.

CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 10

Although many buildings have failed as a result of


overstressing the underlying soil, there are also cases in which
excessive settlement may cause partial collapse of the building.

The most common occurrences due to excessive settlement


are wall and floor cracks which, in some cases, lead to more
severe problems. From this point the need to study and
accurately estimate the settlement under the effect of different
types of foundations is a must.

Despite being less in value than that of other types of


foundations, there is a great need to accurately estimate pile
settlement to determine whether the selection and the design of
the foundation is satisfactory or not.

However in this case the magnitude of the total settlement is not


as important as the amount of differential settlement between
different parts of the structure. This appears clearly if a part of
the structure is subjected to loads larger than that of other parts.

Settlement of Deep Foundations

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Settlement of deep foundations, when designed based on axial


load capacity considerations, is typically less than 0.5 in

Pile groups may have larger settlements, but still within


acceptable limits

Therefore, in practice engineers generally do not perform


settlement analysis for deep foundations

However, settlement analysis may be necessary in certain


special situations

When Perform Settlement Analysis may be necessary


Structure is specially sensitive to settlement
Soil is highly compressible

Structural engineers needs a spring constant to represent


response of the foundation system

Downdrag may cause extra settlement

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Methods of estimating the settlement of single piles fall


into three groups:

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1- Load transfer (t-z) methods


2- Elasticity-based methods
3- Numerical methods such as the finite element or finite difference
methods.

Settlement estimated from the results of load tests are generally


considered more accurate and reliable.

9.2 Settlement of single piles


Although a single pile is rarely used to support a structure, the
calculation of the settlement of a single pile is required to give an
approximate estimation for that of a group of piles.
Methods of estimating the settlement of single piles can be divided
into four main categories:
I.
II.

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Empirical methods
Load transfer methods

III.

Elastic analytical methods

IV.

Numerical methods

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IV.

Numerical methods

Settlement of single piles in the Egyptian Code:


The Egyptian Code for design and practice of foundations divides the
calculation of settlement for single piles into two cases according to
the pile type and diameter.
1- Single bored piles of diameter smaller than 60 cm and single driven
piles
2- Single bored piles of diameter larger than 60 cm

1) Single bored piles of diameter 60 cm and single


driven piles:
For single bored piles of diameter 60 cm and single driven piles, the
Egyptian Code recommends the use of a semi-empirical method in
which the overall settlement of a single pile is considered to be the
sum of three components:
1. The elastic compression of pile shaft (Ss)
2. The settlement caused by load transferred at the pile tip (Spp)
3. The settlement caused by load transferred along the pile shaft
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3. The settlement caused by load transferred along the pile shaft


(Sps)
The total settlement is then equal to:

S = Ss + Spp + Sps

1. The elastic compression of pile shaft (Ss) :

In which:
Qb = Bearing load at pile tip
Qf = Friction load transmitted by pile shaft
L = Pile length
A = Pile cross-sectional area
Ep = Elastic modulus for pile material
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f = Skin friction distribution coefficient

Skin friction distribution Coefficient ( f )

2- Settlement caused by load transferred at the pile tip (Spp):

In which:
Cb= Factor according to table 9.1
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Qb = Bearing load at pile tip


d = pile diameter
q = Ultimate end bearing capacity
Bearing stratum under pile tip assumed to extend at least 10 pile
diameters below tip and soil below tip is of comparable or higher
stiffness.

=


.
Table 9.1 Values of Cb:

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Soil Type

Driven piles

Bored Piles

Loose to
dense sand

0.02-0.04

0.09-0.18

Soft to stiff
clay

0.02-0.03

0.03-0.06

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Loose to
dense silt

0.03-0.05

0.09-0.12

3- Settlement caused by load transferred along the pile shaft (Sps):

In which: Cs : Factor from the following relation:

Lo : Embedded pile length


q

: Ultimate end bearing capacity

2- Single bored piles of diameter larger than 60 cm:


In the case of single piles of diameter larger than 60 cm, the Egyptian
code recommends the application of a graphical procedure in which
the following graph is constructed:

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)(2-9

60


.

) , ( 2-9 OBH B 15
% 5 .
OAG A
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( %1 ) 10-5
OKCJ
OKCJ

9.3 Settlement of pile groups


Methods of estimating the settlement of pile groups can be
divided into the following main categories :

1- Methods which employ the concept of interaction factors


and the principle of superposition (e.g., Poulos & Davis,
1980);
2- Methods which involve the modification of a single pile
load-settlement curve, to take account of group interaction
effects;
3- The settlement ratio method, in which the settlement of a
single pile at the average load level is multiplied by a group
settlement ratio Rs, which reflects the effects of group
interaction;
4- The equivalent raft method, in which the pile group is
represented by an equivalent raft acting at some characteristic
depth along the piles;
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5- The equivalent pier method, in which the pile group is


represented by a pier containing the piles and the soil between
them. The pier is treated as a single pile of equivalent stiffness in
order to compute the average settlement of the group;
6- Numerical methods such as the FEM and the finite difference
method. While earlier work employed 2-D analyses, it is now
common for full 3-D analyses to be employed (e.g., Katzenbach
et al., 1998).

Settlement of pile groups is generally larger in value than that of


a single pile due to overlap of zones of influence in soil in which
the soil is stressed due to loads from the pile shaft and pile
base.
It is well recognized that the settlement of a pile group can differ

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It is well recognized that the settlement of a pile group can differ


significantly from that of a single pile at the same average load
level. However, the settlement of piled structures must be
estimated on the basis of the group action of the piles, not on a
single pile test.

Pile group settlements can be treated in a similar manner to those of


shallow foundations.

Settlements can be divided into two types:

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1- Immediate settlements settlements shortly after foundation


loading, especially in sands
2- Consolidation settlements in clays, same mechanism as with
shallow foundations
Methods :
Immediate settlements group settlement factor
Long-term consolidation equivalent mat method

Settlements caused by pile driving in sand


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Settlement of pile groups according to Egyptian code:


The Egyptian Code calculates pile settlement of pile groups by one
two methods depending on the type of soil.

Pile groups in cohesionless soil:


Pile groups in cohesive and multi layered soil:
Pile groups in cohesionless soil:
For pile groups in cohesionless soil, the Egyptian code recommends
the use of the following relation:

In which:
b = pile group width,
d = pile diameter,
So = Single pile settlement estimated or determined from load tests.
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So = Single pile settlement estimated or determined from load tests.

Pile groups in cohesive and multi layered soil:


According to Egyptian Code, pile group settlements can be treated in
a similar manner to those of shallow foundations.
The pile group is considered to act as raft foundation having
dimensions as that of the group. The friction load is considered to act
at 2/3 the pile length measured from the pile head whereas the end
bearing load acts at the pile tip. Settlement is then calculated in the
same way as that of a shallow foundation.

(Equivalent Mat Method) - (Imaginary Footing Method):


1- Replace group with a mat along the embedded pile length L; this
depth is 2/3 of L for friction piles and L for end bearing piles
2- Distribute the load from the mat to the underlying soil by
Boussinesq theory or the 60 degree method
3- Calculate settlement of soil layers below the mat by onedimensional consolidation theory; any soil above the mat is assumed
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to be incompressible
4- Multiply the calculated settlement by 0.8 to account for the rigidity of the

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Figure (9-6)

Figures 9-7 (a), 9-7 (c) and 9-7 (d) may be used to determine the
location of the equivalent raft foundation and to evaluate the resulting
pressure increase in a soil layer. The settlement of each layer is then
calculated using the appropriate settlement equation presented in
Section 9.3.2 for cohesive layers and from the following equation for
cohesionless layers:

S = H [ (1 /c) log ((Po + P) / Po)]


In which:
S = Total layer settlement, (mm).
H = Original thickness of layer, (mm).
C = Dimensionless bearing capacity index from Figure 9-8,
determined
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from average corrected SPT N value, N, for layer with


consideration
of SPT hammer type.
P0 = Effective overburden pressure at midpoint of layer prior to
pressure
increase, (kPa).
P = Average change in pressure in the layer, (kPa).

Based upon average energy variation between SPT donut and safety hammers
reported in technical literature, Figure 9-8 now includes a correlation between
SPT N values from safety hammer and bearing capacity index. This
modification should improve the accuracy of settlement estimates with this

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modification should improve the accuracy of settlement estimates with this


method

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Figure (9-8) Values of the Bearing Capacity Index, C, for Granular Soil
(modified after Cheney and Chassie, 1993)

Figure (9-7-a)

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Figure (9-7-b)

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Figure (9-7-c)

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Figure (9-7-d)

Pile groups in cohesive and multi layered soil according to


Egyptian code:
According to Egyptian Code, pile group settlements can be treated in
a similar manner to those of shallow foundations.
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The pile group is considered to act as raft foundation having


dimensions as that of the group. The friction load is considered to act
at 2/3 the pile length measured from the pile head whereas the end
bearing load acts at the pile tip. Settlement is then calculated in the
same way as that of a shallow foundation.

(Equivalent Mat Method) - (Imaginary Footing Method):


1- Replace group with a mat along the embedded pile length L; this
depth is 2/3 of L for friction piles and L for end bearing piles
2- Distribute the load from the mat to the underlying soil by
Boussinesq theory or the 60 degree method
3- Calculate settlement of soil layers below the mat by onedimensional consolidation theory; any soil above the mat is assumed
to be incompressible
4- Multiply the calculated settlement by 0.8 to account for the rigidity
of the group.

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Figure (4-9)

The consolidation settlement of cohesive soil is usually computed on


the basis of laboratory tests. The relationships of the compression
index (Cc) to void ratio e and pressure are shown in Figure (9-10)
which is plotted from consolidation test results. For loadings less
than the preconsolidation pressure (pc) settlement is computed using
a value of the compression index representing recompression (Ccr).
For loadings greater than the preconsolidation pressure, settlement
is computed using the compression index (Cc).
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Imaginary Footing Method


n Replace pile group with an imaginary footing; then use analysis
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methods used for settlement of shallow foundations and then


add Se
n Friction piles: place imaginary footing at two-thirds depth (0.67D)
n End bearing piles: place imaginary footing at pile tip elevation (at
D)
n When both skin friction and end bearing resistance is available,
place it somewhere in between

9.4 Time-dependency of piles settlement


Time-dependency of settlement (under constant loading) arises from:
1. Consolidation settlements (usually in clay or silty soils);
2. Settlements arising from creep of soil under constant loading.

1.Consolidation settlements:
For ideal elastic clay, the solution was obtained from an elastic
boundary element analysis (Poulos, 1989).
For a single pile, the consolidation settlement is about 7 % of the
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total settlement.
As the number of piles increases, the proportion of
consolidation settlement also increases.
However, even for the 16-pile group, the proportion of
consolidation settlement is about 15 %.

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Figure (12-9)
(After Poulos 1989).

The pervious remarks could be attributed to the following:


For single piles, settlement is attributed to shear deformation.
Time-settlement is usually insignificant (single pile loading tests
support this conclusion).
For pile groups, greater proportion of load carried by the pile
bases. This results in soil volumetric deformation.
In general, the consolidation settlement is likely to be significant
only if :
1. the group is relatively large;
2. there is a relatively deep layer of compressible soil influenced
by the group.

9.5 Compressible underlying layers effects


The presence of soft compressible layers below the pile tips can
result in increases in the settlement of a pile group, despite the
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fact that the settlement of a single pile may be largely unaffected


by the compressible layers.

To emphasize the potential significance of compressible


underlying layers, a simple problem has been analyzed, using
the computer program DEFPIG (Poulos, 1990). It can be seen
from the results of Fig. (13-9) that:
1- The larger the group (and therefore the width of the
pile group), the greater is the effect of the underlying
compressible layer on settlement.

If the presence of such compressible layers is either not identified, or is ignored,


the pile group settlements can be several times that for group bearing on a
continuous stratum

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Figure (13-9)
(After Poulos, 1990)

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9.6 Differential settlement within pile groups


There are two extreme assumptions for the analysis of pile group
settlement:
1. The pile cap is perfectly rigid (differential settlement S = 0.0);
2. The pile cap is flexible (differential settlement

S 0.0).

In reality, the situation is usually between these two extremes.

q For perfectly flexible pile caps, Randolph (1994a) has related the
ratio of differential settlement S to the average group
settlement, Sav, to the aspect ratio R, where:

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Where f = 0.3 for center-to-midside, and 0.5 for center-to-corner.


For perfectly rigid pile caps, Mayne & Poulos (1999) have developed a
closed-form approximation, from which a rigidity correction factor, fR
can be derived:

The factor fR is then applied to the maximum differential settlement


estimated from Equation (9.6.2).

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