Offshore Szte Znvestzgaaon and Foundatzon Behavzour '98 O SUT 1998

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION FOR PERFORMANCE PREDICTION OF

SUBMARINE TRENCHING PLOUGHS

P G ALLAN
SEtech Ltd.
Broomhaugh House
Riding Mdl
Northumberland, UK

ABSTRACT
An extensive network of undersea pipehnes and cables exists. For the majonty of these
some form of trench is required for protecuon from fishng acuvihes, stabihty and/or
thermal insulahon. The predichon of the performance of the tool used to form the
trench is based on geotechmcal data obmned as part of the seabed invesugahon.
However, the geotechnical parameters determined may not be of direct relevance to the
fadure modes imposed on the sod by the trenching tool. This paper descnbes the typical
data provided and Qscusses its applicahon to prediction of trenchng tool performance
with parhcular emphasis on submanne ploughs. Modifications and improvements to
existing investigahon techmques are also discussed.

INTRODUCTION
Trenchng and bunal of offshore pipelines and cables is often required for reasons
rangng from protection from fishmg gear and anchors to providmg thermal insulahon
and upheaval buckling resistance. To achieve the reqwed trench, a wide variety of
submarine trenchmg tools are avdable. A number of factors are important in the
assessment and selechon of the correct trenching equipment for the proposed work
including a good understandmg of the geotechnical properties of the sods and rocks
along the route.
The cable industry uthses cable whch can run for considerable distances on the seabed
and has previously adopted an approach based on inveshgating the seabed soils in a
qualitahve manner by use of a scaled down cable plough. T h ~ is
s in contrast to the oil
industry whch uses investigation techniques having then origin in onshore geotechnics.
Typical techniques include cone penetrahon teshng (CPT) and samphng by means of a

Offshore Srte Znvestrgatron and Foundatron Behuvrour '98 O SUT 1998

dnven tube. Such techniques can provide a detaded vertical stratigraphy, but over a
limted area
Thls paper summanses geotechnical invesugauon techmques commonly used for subsea
pipehne and cable routes. Some of the problems encountered in interpretation of data
are bscussed, with suggeshons made for some lrnprovements in investigauon
techmques, based largely on exisung equipment.

TYPES OF TRENCHING TOOL

Emphasis in thls paper is placed on submarine ploughs, whch are one of the most
widely used trenchmg techniques. They have the particular advantage of being
essentially a passive process producing a well defined, stable trench. A minimal number
of moving parts are requrred maxmsing reliabhty. The plough is normally pulled by a
ship or barge mounted winch. For pipehnes, a V shaped trench may be cut before @re
lay) or after (post lay) placing the pipeline. Cable ploughs cut a narrow slot through the
seabed and the cable is placed within the plough share, whch provides temporary
support to the sides. Ploughs work most effectively in sands and clays giving good
performance rates ulth rmnimal maintenance m e . Their capabhty in rocks is highly
dependant on fracture spacing and strength. Whlle there is httle expenence of
ploughing in rock, on most projects on which rock has been encountered, the plough has
generally exceeded the expectations.
Other widely used techmques include jet tools, mounted on a sled, seabed tractor or a
free sw~rnmngROV. Jemng was the earhest technology used for f o m n g submmne
trenches. Excavabon is by a h g h pressure jet of water erobng the soil at the face of the
trench. Advanced jet tools incorporate inductors to remove the soil more effecbvely
from the trench. Operahon is hmted to sands and clays and performance rates tend to
be relabvely slow. For clay, a simple calculation based on undrained shear strength and
jet water pressure can be used to determine whether the tool has sufficient power to
excavate the clay. For sands a smple analysis is not possible, however it is known that
both relauve density and permeabhty are sigmlicant with a dense mpermeable sand
being hardest to jet. In pracbce most performance prdcbons are based on previous
expenence in similar soil types.
Cumng tools, comprising cham and wheel cutters are also available. Both remove sod
or rock from the trench by cumng with a form of tooth or pick, and then transpomg the
debris out of the trench. Cham cutters are generally considered appropriate for sods and
weak, fractured rocks, while wheel cutters are more appropnate to stronger rocks.
Performance is limited by the power available to cut the sod or rock in stronger
materials. In softer matenals the depth of cut can be increased until the volume of
matenal being excavated exceeds the ability of the cutter to transport the spoil out of the
trench.

Offshore Srte Investrgatron and Foundatron Behavrour '98 O SUT 1998

While the above tools are used to form trenches, there may also be a requuement to
backfi a trench, usually for enhanced upheaval buckhng resistance and thermal
insulation. This is normally only required for pipelines, and dedicated backfill ploughs
have been budt to return spod to a trench. They are normally designed to work in
conjunction with a trenchmg plough, but have been used to backfill trenches formed
with a jet tool on occasions

LNVESTIGATION FOR OIL AND GAS PIPELINES

Early offshore installabons were typically large fixed structures imposing large loads
over small areas. Borehole sampling and tesbng, complimented by CPT's, are ideal for
such situations. With the development of subsea pipelines, the techniques used for
fixed structures were adapted to suit pipehnes. Invesbgabon normally compnses
samphng by vibroconng and in situ testing by CPT to shallow depth (normally between
3m and 6m). Such tech~llqueshave many advantages as they idenhfy the strata types
and strengths over the depth range of the proposed trench and provide samples
sufficiently large for most standard laboratory tesbng. However the typical spacing of
lOO0m cannot give an accurate indicabon of all sod types which may be encountered
along the route.
Both the in situ CPT and standard laboratory tests performed on samples were
developed primarily for the purposes of stabc, vertically loaded foundations. While
many of the properties deterrmned, may be used to assist performance predicbons of
trenching tools and backfii, it is important to appreciate the effect that rate of sod
failure and Qsturbance can have on the properties of the soil. Guidance on the selecbon
of suitable tests has been given by the Offshore Site Invesbgation Forum (1996).
Where trenches are to be backfilled, the properbes of the soil, excavated and returned to
the trench, may be completely different to those of the in situ soil. For example Bruton
et a1 (1998) has suggested that a soft clay backfill may be considered as a fncbonal
matenal at low stress levels. Useful guidance on the assessment of soil as backfill has
been provided by Cathie et a1 (1998).
I

INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES USED FOR CABLE ROUTES

Cables have been l a d on the sea floor for many years (the first transatlanbc cable was
laid in 1854) and where orignally surface laid. Dunng the last twenty to thirty years,
the value of bunal for protection from fishmg gear and small anchors has become
widely appreciated and now cables are routinely buned to water depths between of
500m and 1000m.

Offshore Szte Investzgatzon and Foundatzon Behavzour '98 0 SUT I998

The geotechnical engneenng associated with a cable route is relahvely small compared
to a pipeline and h s is often reflected in the scope of the geotechcal investigation. At
worst a few grab samples or drop cores will be obtained whlle at best CPT's will be
performed at regular intervals with widely spaced samphng and no laboratory teshng.
fistoncally one ophon for inveshgahon of a cable route has been a bunal assessment
survey (BAS). The BAS tool is essentially a scaled down and simplified cable plough.
As such it provides an assessment of the whole route, gving good indicahon of the tow
force and other operahonal parameters such as sinkage and stability which may be of
concern on a very soft seabed. As no convenhonal geotechnical parameters are
obmned, all interpretahon must be based on scahng from the BAS tool with soil types
tentatively interpreted from the tow tension trace. Noad (1993) has discussed in greater
detad the use of BAS tools.
Use of BAS tools has declined in recent years, as they are normally deployed from a
cable ship and relahvely expensive to use. As an alternahve the cable industry is
increasingly using CPT's, penetrabng to a depth of 2m, achievable with a relatively
hght, simple frame. Sampling may also be performed, but is often h t e d to drop cores,
or pushed samphng, incorporated into the CPT frame. Such samphng techmques may
be adequate in very soft soils, where 2m of core may be recovered, however in sands
and s m clays penetrahon may be limited to a few centimetres.
A further replacement of the BAS tool is C-BASS, which has been developed by Cable
and Wlreless recently (Lewis and McGinnis, 1997). C-BASS is a towed sledge like
vehicle incorporabng both geotechnical and geophysical techniques to g v e an
assessment of the geology and ploughabihty along the whole route Geophysical testing
comprises a resistivity array, gving an indication of the porosity of the seabed and a low
frequency acoustic profiler intended give an indication of the grain size and strength of
the sedment. Ground truthing IS provided by a mini cone penetrometer mounted on the
s
has been commercially available for less than 2 years. At the
frame. T h ~ equipment
time of wnhng plough data is becoming avadable and back analyses are expected to be
performed.

USE AND INTERPRETATION OF GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS

The complex nature of the soil mechanics associated with rapid shearing of soils make
mathematically ngorous performance predichons for trenclung tools difficult. As a
result the basis of most performance prdchons is previous experience in sumla.soil
types and empirical models (eg Reece and Grinsted, 1986) Attempts have been made
to develop mathemabcal models (eg Palmer, 1998) however the complexity of the
model and uncertainty associated with many of the parameters required, make such
models difficult to use.

Offshore Site Investigation and Foundation Behavlour '98 O SUT 1998

Tow
Force

Plough Speed
Figure 1 : Plough speed/tow force relabonshps in vmous sol1 types.
Typical tow force speed relationships for sands and clays have been hscussed by Reece
and Gnnsted (1986) and Allan (1997) (Figure 1). The tow force required is the sum of
the following forces:1. Fncbonladhesion between the seabed and the plough,
2. Passive resistance of the soil over the cross secbonal area of the trench
3. A rate effect dependant on the speed of ploughing

In a soft clay the tow force may be preQcted relabvely easily. If no layer of sand is
present, the adhesion may be estmated as:Total adhesion = a

. s,

. Ab
Where a = adhesion factor
s, = undrained shear strength
Ab= Bemng area of plough

Passive resistance may be calculated fiom classical soil mechanics. Alteinatively

Palmer (1998) has suggested that the passive resistance will approxlmatelto:-

Total passive resistance = 5

. s, . A,
Where A, = Trench cross secbon area

Offshore Srte Investrgatron and Foundatron Behavrour '98 O SUT 1998

Shear rate effects in very soft clays are not normally simcant when compared to other
forces Shear rate effects in cone penetrahon teshng have been discussed, for example,
by Meigh (1987). Such data may be extrapolated for the case of ploughs. For typical
plouglung speeds, the increase in strength is typically less than 1.25 hmes measured
undraned shear strength at standard teshng rates.
An example of a CPT plot and measured plough tow force is given as Figure 2. The
geology compnsed a veneer of sand, overlying soft clay with an estunated undraned
shear strength of 25kPa Thus tow force may be eshmated as follows and found to
compare favourably with the measured tow force:Passive resistance - Trench area x s, x 5
Fnchon Skids on sand, 450 x tan(35x213) =
Share on clay, 10 x s, x a
Estunated tow force

250kN
195kN
175kN
62OkN

Note: Plough submerged weight = 90Te

Beanng area of shares = 10m2

Medlurn dense SAND

Soft CLAY wth
occasional thm sand
lenses
Plough Performance 1 4m trench depth
600kN tow force
6 O m / m speed

Figure 2 : CPT and plough performance data in soft clay.

Tow forces in soft clay are usually low and therefore not a prime concern. However
very low forces, may present thelr own problems, for example surgng on the plough
due to stored energy in the tow line catenary, partrcularly in deep water. More
significant may be the need to accurately determine the undrained shear strength in very
soft clays. Most ploughs able to operate on seabed clays with strengths greater than

OfJshore Site lnvestigatzon and Foundation Behavlour '98 O SUT 1998

between 3kPa and 10kPa. If the seabed is unable to support the plough, damage to a
pipehne, or overbunal of a cable may occur.
Slmilar relahonshps are also suitable for fm and stiff clays However particular
attenhon should be p a d to the adhesiodfnchon. Eshmates based on undraned shear
strength are hkely to be upperbound and an estimate based on fnchon is hkely to be
more accurate. High quality logging of samples is highly desirable to give an indicahon
of the macrofabnc of the clay as any fissures which may be present can sigmficantly
reduce the required trenching force
The vanous components associated with predichon of trenchng forces in sands may be
estimated from the fnchon between the plough and the seabed, the passive resistance of
the plough and the speed effect. Reece and Gmsted (1986) have suggested the
following re1ahonshp:Tow force = K1 W

+ K2. z3 + K3 . z3 .v . (AVIk)

Where K1 =
W =
K2 =
=
z
K3 =
=
v
AVIk =

Coefficient of friction
Submerged weight of plough
Coefficient relahng to passive resistance
Depth of trench
Coefficient related to geometry of plough
Speed
Volumetric dllation/permeabllityty

Fnchon between sand and steel may be estimated from pile formula. These range from
2/3.tan0to tan(+5). The result is not particularly sensitive to changing 0 with frichon
coefficients in the range 0.4 to 0.5 calculated for typical 0 values. S d a r l y the passive
resistance may be calculated for a range of 0 values and found to be relahvely small.
Whlle the two stahc components of the tow force may be approximated relatively easily,
the most sigmficant is the dynarmc component. l k s is associated with the dilahon
(volume increase) which occurs in any granular matenal dense of it's cntical state
dunng shearing. As the volume increases, the void space also increases. At slow rates
of shearing, the water can flow through the sand mass and occupy the increased void
space. However at hgher speeds water may not be able to flow in sufficiently quickly
and pore 'suchons' (or pore pressure below hydrostahc head) are generated. At high
speeds there is potenhal for cavitation to occur and the head of water above the sand
surface will effechvely act as a surcharge sigmficantly increasing the effective stress in
the sand. The contribution of the vanous components (friction, passive resistance and
effect of cavitation in water depths of 10m and 20rn)are shown as Figure 3 for a typical
pipehne plough trenchmg at 1.4m depth. The friction and passive resistance are
relatively small in comparison to the potenhal effect of cavitation. Clearly in deeper

Offshore Site Investigation and Foundation Behaviour '98 O SUT 1998

water, tow forces of the magnitude imphed cannot be achieved and water must flow into
the sod mass to at least partially relieve pore suctions.

20m

Passive component \ Fnctl-

30

32

34
36
Angle of friction (")

38

40

Figure 3 : Tow force components for a typical pipeline plough trenching

sand at hgh speed in water depths of lorn and 20m.
The mass permeabihty of the sod governs the rate at whch water can flow into the sod
mass whde the volumetnc dilation determnes the total volume required. Unfortunately
neither of these values are determined in a typical geotechnical investigabon. An
approxunation of dllation may be made based on relative density, determined by CPT,
however, permeabhty, which may vary be several orders of magnitude within granular
soils cannot be esbmated other than very approximately from particle size dlstnbubon
curves. For h s reason, empirical correlations associated with the speed component are
normally based on the paxhcle size &stribubon of the sod
The sigmficance of the soil permeabihty may be demonstrated by experience on a recent
project. Two CPT's were performed adjacent to the pipeline route, approximately lkrn
apart and are reproduced as Figure 4. CPT A encountered a very dense sand, whde CPT
B encountered a loose silty sand. Confirmation of the sllty nature of the sand at CPT B
was confirmed by a particle size dlstnbution analysis from an adjacent vibrocore.

Offshore Slte Investlgatlon and Founahtlon Behavrour '98 0 SUT 1998

Analysis ignonng dilahon and permeabhty would indicate sand at CPT A being
sigruficantly harder to plough. In practice slmilar tow tensions were required to acheve
slrmlar speeds. The low permeability of the loose sdty sand at CPT B offset the reduced
volumetric dilation on sheanng and lower passive resistance Reliable predichon of tow
forces in intermedate sods can only be acheved when samples are obtamed and
subjected to appropnate laboratory tests.

Loose sllty SAND,

becomng very dense
with depth
(PSD 100% fine sand)

Plough Performance 1 4m trench depth

1800kN tow force
1O
m
/
mspeed

CPT B
Soft sandy CLAY
Loose sllty SAND
(PSD 10%clay
17% sllt
73% sand)
Plough Performance 1.3m 'trench depth
1800kN tow force
1 2 m l m speed

Figure 4 : Comparison of CPT and Plough Data in Sand

Offshore Site Investigation and Foundation Behaviour '98 O SUT 1998

In sands, loose of cnbcal state, no speed effect is observed as no dilahon occurs and
hence no pore sucbons are developed However in practice such sands are rare and it is
normal for some &labon to occur dunng ploughing.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

The above &scussion has idenhfied the man parameters which are desirable for the
predicbon of plough performance. The suitability of standard techniques to detemne
relevant sod parameters more accurately is descnbed in Table 1. Some of the
hmtahons in problemahc soils are discussed below with suggesbons for mprovement.

Sampling and
standard
laboratory
tesbng
Suitabhty of tests
A : Good,
B : Intermdate
C : Poor

Undrained shear
strength
SoiVsteel fncbon
Soil as backfill

A'
B2
B
B3

Parhcle size
distribution
Volumetrrc ddation
Permeability
Sod as backfill

A
A
B
B3

Notes
1) F m and stiff clays
2) Dependant on specification
3) Dependant on tests performed

Table 1 : Suitability of vanous tests methods for detemnahon of soil properties for
estlrnabon of plough performance.

Soft Clays
The accurate measurement of the strength of very soft clays (<lOkPa) is essenbal with a
change in undrained shear strength of 1 or 2kPa potenhally making a sigmficant
difference to the suitab~htyof particular ploughs. Thls is of particular relevance to cable
laying where such very (or super) soft clays are often present in the deep waters towards
the edge of the conbnental shelf. However strengths of thls magnitude may not be
reliably measured. Tests performed on soil samples, are hkely to be basic field tests
with low accuracy equipment operahng at the lower end of ~ t suitability
s
with samples
subject to disturbance.

>

- .

Offshore Szte Investzgation and Foun$atzon Behavzour '98 0 SUT 1998

<$,?

For in situ measurement of undrained shear strength, either a standard CPT or a T bar
test may be performed. However it may be noted that for a lotonne cone penetrabng
3kPa clay, the electncal output is 0.06% of full scale deflection. The T bar test,
developed at the Umversity of Western Austraha (Stewart and Randolph, 1994) has
many advantages. Commercial versions are designed for use with standard size (10cm2)
cones and comprises a honzontal 50mm hameter bar of 200mm length, replacing the
comcal point of the cone. The bar therefore presents a face area of 100cm2increasing
the sensitivity of the cone by a factor of 10 Further, the falure modes associated with
pushmg a honzontal bar into the ground can be modelled with a more ngorous
used for
mathemabcal approach. Thrs pemuts smaller vanabon in the factor (Nk)
correlahon between penetrahon resistance and undraned shear strength.
While a knowledge of the strength of very soft clays is essenbal, the basic requirement
is to determine whether the strength of the clay is capable of supporhng the plough.
Estimates of tow force are not usually cnbcal as more than adequate force is normally
avalable. Machn (1998) has proposed a 'drop ball test' which as its name mplies,
consists of a ball placed on the seabed and the depth of penetrabon modelled. The ball
may be deployed from either a ROV, or alternabvely a seabed frame could be developed
to deploy the ball and measure the penetrabon.

Fine Sands and Silts

Prediction of trenclng speeds in fine sands and silts presents the greatest challenge in
interpretation of geotechnical data and its apphcation to plough performance.
Volumetnc ddabon of a sand experiencing shear from a dense or very dense state would
typically be less than 20% (eg Bolton, 1986), however the permeability may change
c a clean fine sand to 10-'dsec for a silt (eg Lee ET al, 1983). If only
from 1 0 ~ d s e for
CFT results are avadable, then there is a real dficulty in estimabng with confidence the
speed component on the tow force. It may also be noted that grading is important for
operabon of jet tools, particularly with n g d pipehnes which will touchdown on the
trench bottom some distance behlnd the jet tool. If a coarse material is present,
settlement bmes will be that much faster and sipficant reduction in trench depth may
occur with mulhpassing required.
The interpretahon of CPT in intermediate soils has been d~scussedby Lunne et al
(1996). Bugno and McNedan (1984) have suggested that true undrained response with
a standard 10cm2cone, operabng at a penetration rate of 2cdsec, wdl be observed in
sods with a permeability of less than 10-'to 10-'dsec. Soil with a permeabihty in the
range lo-' to 10-'dsec, includmg most sdts, was anbcipated to behave in a part~ally
drained manner. However it is important to note that for example a cable plough mght
be pulled at 1000m/hr, or 28cdsec, which is 14 times faster than the standard cone
penetration rate. The volume of soil failed is also much smaller, with a cross sectional
area of 0.001m2 for a cone and 0.5m2 for a typical small cable plough. The net result is
that plough performance prediction from standard CFT is very dficult Cases are

Offshore Szte Znvestrgatron and Foundatzon Behavrour '98 O SUT 1998

known to the author of ploughmg rates of 5Omlhr being acheved in soil whch would
appear to be looselvery soft The plough may be noted to pitch aft in a manner
consistent with low beanng capacity of the underlying sod, confirming its looselsoft
nature. The consequences of h s in terms of s h p programme and cost can be
significant. Sampling and laboratory testing, including parhcle size analysis is helpful
but cannot provide the complete answer.
It is probable that with m n i cones (being increasingly used for subsea invesbgations)
the dranage path is shortened and finer grained soils are hkely to behave in a h n e d
manner. This may negate some expenence obtaned with standard size cones.
An obvious method for assessing the speed effect is by varylng the speed of the cone to
assist deterrmnabon of the dilatancylspeed effect. Thls was done by Grinsted (1985) as
part of research into sheanng of submerged sands. Results are shown in Figure 5 for a
known to be relahvely hard to
very silty fine sand (permeabhty = 4 x 10-~m/sec),
plough when submerged. A measurable change in cone resistance was recorded in the
silty fine sand, however a large change in speed was used and the results are wthin the
normal vanabon whch might be expected w i h n a single geological unit. S d a r tests
were also performed in a medlum sand (permeability (4 x 10-~m/sec).The recorded
vanation in cone resistance was within the scatter of the data. It is concluded that thls is
consistent wth full h n a g e occumng dunng the test. Unfortunately a piezocone was
not used for these tests, further work with a piezocone could be beneficial.

Cone Resistance, qc (MPa)

0

Figure 5 : Effect of varylng cone penetrabon speed in a sdty fine sand

(permeability = 4 x 10-~m/sec)

'

>

Osshore Slte Investzgatzon and Foundaaon Behavzour '98 O SUT 1998

r-

In prachce, varyng speed would require a mnimum of two profiles at each test location
and confidence that both tests were being performed in slrmlar soil. While further
inveshgahon is required, it is probable that the inherent varia~onin test results would
not sigmficantly Improve plough performance prehctions.

CONCLUSIONS
A large number of geotechnical investgations are performed for subsea cable and
pipehne routes. These are often done to a standarhsed 'formula' which may not give
the informahon desired. There is scope for adaptmg standard techniques to improve the
data obtaned, and in particular for very soft clays and fine sllty sands.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank DSND Oceantech Ltd and PGS Offshore Technology Ltd
for permssion to publish plough and soil investigation data Thanks are also extended
to Chns h m a x for proof reading the manuscript and Tim Gnnsted for permission to
pubhsh data from hls PhD thesis.

REFERENCES
Allan, P.G. (1997) Ploughmg forward, Ground Engineering, 29, August 1997, 26-27.
Bolton, M.D. (1986) The strength and dllatancy of sands. Gbotechnique, 36, No. 1,6578.
Bruton, D.A.S., Bolton, M.D. and Nicolson, C.T. (1998) Posiedon Project - Pipehne
design for weak clay. 21StAnnual Offshore Pipeline Technology Conference, Oslo
1998.
Bugno, W.T. and McNeilan, T.W (1984) Cone penetration test results in offshore
Cahfornia silts. Strength testing of manne sediments: Laboratory and in situ
measurements. ASTM special t e c h c a l pubhcation no. 883,55-71.
Catlue, D., Banas, S. and M a c h , J. (1998) Backffing pipelines : State of the art. 21"
Annual Offshore Pipehne Technology Conference, Oslo 1998.
Lee, I.K., m t e , W. and Ingles, O.G. (1983) Geotechnical Engineering, Pitman (pg
154).

Offshore Srte Znvestrgatron and Foundatron Behavrour '98 O SUT 1998

Lewis, S. and McGinnis, T (1997) C-BASS: A cable bunal assessment survey system
Sub-Optic '97, Los Angeles.
Lunne, T., Powell, J. and Robertson, P. (1996) Use of piezocone tests in non-textbook
matenals. Int. Conf. on advances in site inveshgat~onpractice, Institution of Civil
Engineers, 438 - 45 1.
Machin, J.B. (1998) Pipeline Foundahon Considerations Society for Underwater
Technology, Offshore Site Investigahon And Foundahon Behaviour "New Frontiers".
Meigh, A.C. (1987) Cone Penetration Teshng Methods and Interpretetahon.
Construction Industry Reseach Association and Butterworths
Noad, J. (1993) Successful Cable Burial - Its dependence on the correct use of plough
assessment and geophysical surveys. SUT Conf. Offshore Site Investigahon and
Foundahon Behaviour, 39 - 56.
Offshore Site Inveshgation Forum, Pipehnes Worlung Group (1996) Gmdance notes on
geotechnical invesbgahon for mmne pipehnes
Palmer, A. (1998) Speed effects in cumng and plouglung. Submtted to Gkotechnrque.
Reece, A.R. and Gnnsted, T.W. (1986) Sol1 Mechmcs of Submarine Ploughs. lgth
Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, 453 - 46 1.
Stewart, D.P. and Randolph, M.F. (1994) T-Bar penetration teshng in soft clay. ASCE
Journal of Geotechnrcal Engineering, 120, No. 12,2230 - 2235.