CHAPTER 13

OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Part I
Chapter Objectives:
Be able to:
-define optical communications
- present an overview of the history of optical fibers and optical fiber communications
- Compare the advantages and disadvantages of optical fibers over metallic cables
- define electromagnetic frequency and wavelength spectrum
-describe several type of optical fiber construction
- Explain the physics of light and the following terms: velocity of propagation, refraction,
refractive index, critical angle, acceptance angle, acceptance cone, and numerical aperture.

History of Fiber Optics

Circa 2500 B.C. earliest known glass
1713 Rene de Reaumur makes spun glass fibers.
1790s Claude Chappe invents optical telegraph in France.
1880 Alexander Graham Bell invents Photophone, Washington
1895 Henry C. Saint-Rene designs a system of bent glass rods for guiding light in an early television
scheme (Crezancy, France)
1920s bent glass rods used for microscope illumination
December 30, 1926 Clarence W. Hansell outlines principles of the fiber-optic imaging bundle in his
notebook at the RCA Rocky Point Laboratory on Long Island. RCA files for US Patent Aug. 13, 1927 and
later files for British patent.
1930 Heinrich Lamm, a medical student assembles first bundle of transparent fibers to carry an image
(of an electric lamp filament) in Munich. His effort to file a patent is denied because of Hansells British
patent.
December 13, 1931 Owens-Illinois devises method to mass-produce glass fibers for Fiberglass.
April 11, 1951 Holger Moller Hansen applies for a Danish patent on fiber optic imaging in which he
proposes cladding glass or plastic fibers with a transparent low index material. Patent claim is denied
because of Hansell patent.
October 1951 Brian OBrien (university of Rochester) suggests to Abraham C.S. Van Heel (Technical
University of Delft) that applying a transparent cladding would improve transmission on fibers in his
imaging bundle.
1951 A.C.S. Van Heel of Holland and H.H. Hopkins and N.S. Kapany of England experimented with
light transmission through bundles of fibers. It was Kapany who coined the term fiber optics in 1956.
December 8, 1956 Curtiss makes first glass- clad fibers by rod-in-tube method.
1958 Hicks, Paul Kiritsy and Chet Thompson leave American Optical to form Mosaic Fabrications in
Southbridge, Mass. the first fiber-optics company.
1958 Alec Reeves begins investigating optical communications at Standard telecommunication
Laboratories.
December 1960 Ali Javan makes first helium-neon laser at Bell Labs, the first laser to emit a steady
beam.
1968 Charles K. Kao and M.W. Jones measure intrinsic loss of bulk fused silica at 4 decibels per
kilometer, the first evidence of ultra transparent glass, prompting Bell Labs to seriously consider fiber
optics.
Summer 1970- Maurer, Donald Keck, Peter Schultz, and Frank Zimar at Corning develop a single mode
fiber with a loss of 17 dB/km at 633 nanometers by doping titanium into fiber core.
June 1972 Maurer, Keck, and Schultz make multimode germania-doped fiber with 4 decibel per
kilometer loss and much greater strength than titania-doped fiber.
Early 1976 Masaharu Horiguchi (NTT Ibaraki Lab) and Hiroshi Osanai ( Fujikura Cable) make first
fibers with low loss 0.47 decibel per kilometer- at long wavelengths, 1.2 micrometers.
Spring 1976 Lifetime of best laboratory lasers at Bell Labs reaches 100,000 hours (10 yrs) at room
temperature.
April 22, 1977 General Telephone and Electronics sends first five telephone traffic through fiber optics,
6 Mbit/sec, in Long Beach, California.
June 29, 1977 Bell Labs announces one- million hours (100-year) extrapolated lifetime for diode lasers.
Late 1978 NTT Ibaraki Lab makes single-mode fiber with a record of 0.2 decibel per kilometer loss at
1.55 micrometers.

Winter 1980 Graded-index fiber system carriers video signal for 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid,
New York, at 850 nanometers.
1980 Bell labs publicly commits to single mode 1.3-micrometer technology for the first transatlantic
fiber-optic cable, TAT-8
1981 Commercial second-generation system emerge, operating at 1.3 micrometers through gradedindex fibers.
1982 British Telecom performs field trial of single mode fiber, changes plans abandoning graded-index
in favor of single-mode.
October 1986 First fiber-optic cable across the English channel begins service.
February 1996 Fujitsu, NTT Labs, and Bell Labs all report sending one trillion bits per second through
single optical fibers in separate experiments using different techniques
Optical communication system is one that uses lights as the carrier of information.
- Use glass or plastic fiber cables to contain the light waves and guide them in a manner similar
to the way electromagnetic waves are guided through a metallic transmission medium.
Advantages of Fiber Optics over the Metallic cables
1. Wider bandwidth and greater information capacity- because of the inherently wider bandwidths
available with optical frequencies.
2. Immunity to crosstalk-because glass and plastic fibers are non conductors of electrical current.
3. Immunity to static interference- because optical fibers are nonconductors of electrical current,
they are immune to static noise due to electromagnetic interference (EMI) caused by lightning,
electric motors, relays fluorescent lights, and other electrical noise sources.
4. Environmental immunity-less affected by corrosive liquids and gases
5. Safety and convenience- - they are more flexible, easier to work with, require less storage space,
cheaper to transport, and easier to install and maintain.
6. Lower transmission loss
7. Security it is virtually impossible to tap into a fiber cable without the users knowledge, and
cannot be detected by metal detectors.
8. Durability and reliability
9. Economics- have less loss and require fewer repeaters
Disadvantages
1. Interfacing cost- requires expensive interfaces
2. Strength fiber optics have a lower tensile strength than metallic cables.
3. Remote electrical power - requires electrical power to remote interfaces or regenerating
equipment.
4. Optical fiber cables are more susceptible to losses introduced by bending the cable- bending the
cable causes the irregularities in the cable dimensions.
5. Specialized tools, equipment, and training- it requires special tools to splice and repair cables
and special test equipment to make routine measurements.
Electromagnetic spectrum

The light frequency spectrum can be divided into three general bands:
1. Infrared- The band of light frequencies that is too high to be seen by the human eye with
wavelengths ranging between 770 nm and 106 nm. Optical fiber systems generally operate in the
infrared band.
2. Visible The band of light frequencies to which the human eye will respond with wavelengths
ranging 390 nm and 770 nm. This band is visible to the human eye.
3. Ultraviolet the band of light frequencies that are too low to be seen by the human eye with the
wavelengths ranging between 10 nm and 390 nm.

wavelength physical length of the signal to complete one cycle

where:
= wavelength (meters/cycle)
-also measured in Angstrom (A)
1 A = 10-10 meter or 0.00001 micron
c Velocity of light
f Frequency (hertz)

= c/f

Block Diagram of an Optical Fiber Communications System

Source

Transmitter

Analog or digital
interface

Voltage to
current
converter

Light Source

Optical fiber cable

Source-to
fiber
interface

Optical fiber cable

Signal
regenerator

Fiber to
light
detector
interface

Light detector

Current to
voltage
converter

Analog to
digital
interface

Destination
Receiver

Optical Fiber Communications Link

Fiber Optics Types
There are three essential types of optical fibers commonly used today. All three varieties are
constructed of either glass, plastic, or a combination of glass and plastic:
1. Plastic core and cladding
2. Glass core and Plastic cladding (called PCS fiber Plastic clad silica)
3. Glass core and glass cladding (called SCS - Silica clad silica)
Plastic fibers are more flexible, cheaper, less weight and consequently more rugged than glass. Therefore
easier to install, can better withstand stress. However higher attenuation and do not propagate light as
efficiently as glass.
Glass Fibers has less attenuation and easier to terminate than PCS fibers. However more susceptible to
increase in attenuation when exposed to radiation.
Fiber Construction

1. Core
2. cladding
3. Buffer
Kevlar yarn type material that increases tensile strength of the cable
Polyurethane prevents moisture from coming into contact with the fiber core
Mylar a layer of tape wrap to increase tensile strength in a multiple strand
LIGHT PROPAGATION
1. Physics of Light
a. Excited state energy level above the ground state
b. Spontaneous decay, or spontaneous emission- the process of decaying from one
energy level to another energy level in an atom.
c. Photon possesses an energy proportional to its frequency.
Plancks Law state that, When visible light or high frequency electromagnetic radiation
illuminates a metallic surface, electrons are emitted.
Plancks Law can be expressed mathematically as:
Where:
Ep = energy of the photon (joules)
h = Plancks constant (6.625 x 10 -34 J-s
f = frequency of light (photon) emitted (hertz)

Ep = hf

d. Absorption the process of moving from one energy level to another level.
2. Optical power
a. Light Intensity can be expressed in either photometric or radiometric.
A. Photometry- the science of measuring only light waves that are visible to
the human eye.
- light intensity is generally described in terms of luminous flux density in
lumens per unit area.
B. Radiometry measure light throughout the entire electromagnetic
spectrum.
light intensity is generally described in terms of :
Optical Power - flow of light energy past a given point in a specified time.
It can be expressed mathematically as
where:

P = d(energy

or

d(time)
In dbm :

dQ
dt

P = optical power (watts)

dQ = instantaneous charge(joules)
dt = instantaneous change in time (sec)

dBm = 10 log [ P (watts)/0.001(watts)]

3. Velocity of Propagation
- speed of propagation of light in free space
- the velocity is reduced and signal is refracted (bent toward the normal) as it passes from one
medium to a denser medium
a. Refraction - bending of light as it passes thru different medium
violet wavelengths are refracted the most
red wavelengths are refracted the least
prismatic refraction - the spectral separation of white light is called.
b. Refractive indexes is simply the ratio of a light ray in a given material.
Mathematically:

n = c/v

where:
n = refractive index (unitless)
c = speed of light, (3x108 m/s2)
v = velocity of light in a given material (m/s 2)

c. Snells Law
A. angle of incidence angle at which the propagating ray strikes the interface with
respect to the normal.
B. angle of refraction is the angle formed between the propagating ray and the
normal after the ray has entered the second medium.
Snells Law stated mathematically is,

n1sin1 = n1sin2
d. Critical Angle minimum angle of incidence at which the light ray can strike the
core/cladding interface and result in an angle of refraction of 90 o or more (more dense to less
dense only).
NORMAL
unrefracted ray
Cladding
2
n2 less dense
n1 more dense

Glass core
1

2>1

incident ray
1=c
(minimum)

Critical Angle refraction

Critical Angle can be expressed mathematically as:

c = sin -1 [ n2/n1]

Refracted ray
Bent away from the normal
(More to less dense)

e. Acceptance Angle (in) defines the maximum angle in which external light rays
may strike the air/glass interface and still propagate down the fiber.
Normal B

n2

fused quartz cladding

n2 = 1.46

source-to-fiber
interface Air

no= 1

n1

glass core
n1 = 1.5

no

(min)

fused quartz cladding

mathematically,
where:
in = acceptance angle (degrees)
no = refractive index of air (1)
n1 = refractive index of glass fiber core (1.5)
n2 = refractive index of quartz fiber cladding (1.46)

in = sin-1 n12 n22

no
no

since no = 1
in = sin-1 n12 n22

f.

Acceptance cone rotating the acceptance angle around the fiber describes the
acceptance input of the fiber input.

g. Numerical Aperture is closely related to acceptance angle and is the FIGURE OF

MERIT commonly used to measure the magnitude of the acceptance angle.
-in essence, used to describe the light gathering or light
collecting ability of an optical fiber.
mathematically:
NA = sinin or
therefore:

NA = n12- n22

in = sin-1 NA

where:
in = acceptance angle (degrees)
NA = numerical aperture

OPTICAL FIBER CONFIGURATIONS

A. Mode of Propagation path taken by light inside the fiber.
mode simply means path
a. Single mode If light propagates inside the fiber having only one path.
b. Multimode light propagates inside the fiber with more than one path.
to determine the number of propagating modes:

N = (d/d) (n12- n22)

Where:
N = number of propagating modes
d = core diameter
= wavelength (meters)
n1 = refractive index of core
n2 = refractive index of cladding

B. Index Profile graphical representation of the value of the refractive index across the fiber.
a. Step-index has a central core with a uniform index
b. Multimode Step index

c. graded index there is no cladding and there is non-uniform refractive index.

OPTICAL FIBER CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Single-Mode Step-Index
- has a central core that is sufficiently small so that there is essentially one path that light may
take as it propagates down the cable.
Advantages
- minimum dispersion
- large bandwidth and high transmission rate
Disadvantages
- difficult to couple light into and out of the fiber
- requires highly directive light source
- expensive/ difficult to manufacture
2. Multi-Mode Step Index
- similar to step-index except that the center core is much larger
- type of fiber that has large light-to-fiber aperture that allows more light to enter the cable.
Advantages
- easy to couple light into and out of the fiber
- inexpensive and simple to manufacture
Disadvantages
- higher distortion level
- low bandwidth and low transmission rate
3. Multimode Graded-Index
-has a central core that has a refractive index that is non uniform and is maximum at the center
and decreases gradually towards the outer edge.
Advantages
- easier to couple than a single-mode step-index fiber
- easier to manufacture than single-mode step-index fiber
- distortion is less than multimode step-index
Disadvantages
- more difficult to couple than a multi-mode index fiber
- more difficult to manufacture than multi-mode index fiber
- distortion is greater than a single-mode step-index
OPTICAL SOURCES
1. Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
- a p-n junction that emits light by spontaneous emission.
a. homojunction (surface emitters)
- a p-n junction made from two different mixtures of the same types of atom.
i.
ii.

epitaxially grown
planar diffused

b. heterojunction LED
- are made from a p-type semiconductor material of one set of atoms and an n-type
semiconductor material from another set.
Advantages over homojunction
-increase in current density generates more brilliant light spot.
-smaller emitting area makes it easier to couple
-smaller area has similar capacitance which allows higher speed rate.
c. Burrus etched well surface emitting LED

-commonly used in telecommunications when data rates in excess of 100 Mbps is needed.
-more efficient than the standard surface emitters and they allow more power to be
coupled into the optical fiber
-more difficult and expensive to manufacture
d. Edge-emitting LED
-emits a more directional light pattern than the surface emitting LEDs
-emitting surface is stripe rather than a confined circuit area.
2. Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
-acts similarly to an LED below a certain threshold current
-above threshold current, it oscillates lasing occurs
-the ends are highly polished compared to LED
Advantages:
-have more direct radiation pattern
-easier to couple their light into the fiber
-reduces coupling losses
-allows smaller fibers to be used
-greater radiant output power
ILD 5mW (7dBm)
LED 0.5 mW (-3dBm)
-can transmit for longer distance
-can be used at higher bit-rates
-generates monochromatic light which reduces chromatic or wavelength dispersion
Disadvantages:
-more expensive
-because high powered, it has shorter life
-more temperature dependent
LIGHT DETECTORS
1. Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN) Diodes
- a depletion layer photodiode that has a very lightly doped layer of an n-type semiconductor
material which is sandwiched between the junction of th two heavily doped n-type and p-type
contact areas.
2. Avalanche Photodiodes
- an APD is a pipn structure
- light enters the diode and is absorbed by the thin heavily doped n-layer
- A high electric field intensity developed across the p-n junction by reverse bias causes impact
ionization to occur
- more sensitive and require less additional amplification
- long transit time and internally generated noise due to avalanche
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT DETECTORS
1. Responsivity- a measure of the conversion efficiency of a photo detector.
-ratio of the output current of a photodiode to the input optical power in amperes/watt.
2. Dark Current leakage current that flows through a photodiode with no light input.
-caused by thermally generated carriers in the diode
3. Transit time the time it takes to light induced carrier to travel across the depletion region.
4. Spectral response range of wavelength values that can be used for a given photodiode.
5. Light sensitivity minimum optical power a light detector can receive and still produce a usable
electrical output signal.
LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER CABLES
-power loss is often called attenuation and results in reduction in the power of the light wave as it
travels down the cable.
- Attenuation has several adverse affects on performance including reducing the systems
bandwidth, information transmission rat, efficiency, and overall system capacity.
A(dB) = 10 log Pin
Pout

where:
AdB =total reduction in power level (attenuation)
Pout = cable output (watts)
Pin = cable input power

The optical power in watts measured at a given distance from a power source can be determined
mathematically as
where:
P = measured power level (watts)
Pt = transmit power level (watts)
A = cable power loss (dB/km)
l = cable length (km)

P = Pt x 10-Al/10

likewise, the optical power in decibel units is,

where:
P = measured power level (dBm)
Pin = transmit power (dBm)
Al = cable power loss, attenuation (dB)

P(dBm) = Pin (dBm) Al(dB)

Table 1. % Output Power-versus- Loss in dB

Loss (dB)
1
3
6
9
10
13
20
30
40
50

Output power (%)

79
50
25
12.5
10
5
1
0.1
0.01
0.001

Table 2. Fiber Cable Attenuation

Cable Type

Single-Mode
Graded-Index
Step-index
PCS
Plastic

Core
Diameter
(m)
8
5
50
100
200
300
200
400
-----

Cladding
Diameter
(m)
125
125
125
140
380
440
350
550
750
1000

NA
(unitless)
----0.2
0.3
0.27
0.27
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.5

Attenuation
(dB/km)
0.5 @ 1300nm
0.4 @ 1300nm
4 @ 850 nm
5 @ 850 nm
6 @ 850 nm
6 @ 850 nm
10 @ 790 nm
10 @ 790 nm
400 @ 650 nm
400 @ 650 nm

Type of Losses
1. Absorption Losses
- there are three factors that contribute to the absorption losses in optical fibers: ultraviolet
absorption, infrared absorption, and ion resonance
a. Ultraviolet Absorption
- this is caused by the valence electron in the silica material from which the fibers are
manufactured.
b. Infrared Absorption
- this is a result of photons of light that are absorbed by the atoms of the glass core
molecules.
c. Ion resonance Absorption

- this is caused by the OH- ions in the material.

2. Material or Rayleigh Scattering Losses
3. Chromatic or wavelength dispersion
4. Radiation Losses
-are caused predominantly by small bends or kinks in the fiber.
5. Modal Dispersion
-is also called pulse spreading. This is caused by the difference in the propagation of light rays
that take different paths down a fiber.
6. Coupling Losses
- this can occur in any of the following three types of optical junctions: light source-to-fiber
connections, fiber-to-fiber connections, and fiber-to-photodetector connections.
- Junction problems are often caused by one of the following alignment problems:
a. Lateral misalignment
-this is the lateral or axial displacement between two pieces of adjoining fiber cables.

b. Gap misalignment
-this is sometimes called end separation

c. Angular misalignment
- this is also called angular displacement.
- If the angular displacement is less than 2o, the loss will be less than 0.5 dB.

d. Imperfect surface Finish

- the ends of the two adjoining fibers should be highly polished and fit together squarely.

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER)

- deals with the concentration of light into a very small powerful beams
- Theodore H. Maiman developed the first LASER
Types of LASER
1. Gas Laser
2. Liquid Lasers3. Solid Lasers- this is excited by the tungsten lamp tied to an AC source
4. Semiconductor lasers (ruby)
Characteristics of LASER
1. All use an active material to convert energy into laser light
2. A pumping source to provide power or energy
3. Optics to direct beam through the active material to be amplified.
4. Optics to direct the beam into a narrow powerful cone of divergence.
5. Feedback mechanism to provide continuous operation.
6. Output coupler to transmit power out of the laser.

Prepared by:
Engr. Eunice Jane D. Bolgado
Instructor