Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
COURSE CONTENT IN
BRIEF
6. Simple stresses and strains
7. Statically indeterminate problems and thermal stresses
8. Stresses on inclined planes
9. Stresses due to fluid pressure in thin cylinders
GENERAL CONCEPTS
STRESS
No engineering material is perfectly rigid and hence,
when a material is subjected to external load, it
undergoes deformation.
While undergoing deformation, the particles of the
material offer a resisting force (internal force). When
this resisting force equals applied load the equilibrium
condition exists and hence the deformation stops.
These internal forces maintain the externally applied
forces in equilibrium.
STRESS
STRESS
SI unit for stress
N/m2 also designated as a pascal (Pa)
Pa = N/m2
kilopascal, 1kPa = 1000 N/m2
megapascal, 1 MPa = 1106 N/m2
= 1106 N/(106mm2) = 1N/mm2
1 MPa = 1 N/mm2
gigapascal, 1GPa = 1109 N/m2
= 1103 MPa
= 1103 N/mm2
P
R
STRESS
R=P
Then from the definition of stress,
normal stress = = R/A = P/A
P
Symbol:
= Normal Stress
STRESS
Direct or Normal
Stress:
Intensity of resisting force perpendicular to or normal
to the section is called the normal stress.
Normal stress may be tensile or compressive
Tensile stress:
stresses that cause pulling on the surface of
the section, (particles of the materials tend to pull apart
causing extension in the direction of force)
Compressive stress: stresses that cause pushing on the
surface of the section, (particles of the materials tend to push
together causing shortening in the direction of force)
STRESS
The resultant of the internal forces for
an axially loaded member is normal
to a section cut perpendicular to the
member axis.
The force intensity on that section is
defined as the normal stress.
F
lim
A0 A
P
ave
A
Illustrative Problems
Q 6.1
4kN
Bronze
A= 120 mm2
300mm
Aluminum
A= 180 mm2
13kN
400mm
Steel
A= 160 mm2
2kN
7kN
500mm
13kN
2kN
Bronze
b1
For equilibrium condition algebraic sum of forces on
LHS of the section must be equal to that of RHS
7kN
b
4kN
13kN
2kN
7kN
Bronze
b1
4kN
Bronze
4kN
(=
13kN
2kN
7kN
33
.
33
N
/
mm
= 33.33MPa
= 120mm2 120mm2
(Tensile stress)
4kN
13kN
2kN
7kN
Aluminum
4kN
13kN
9kN
(=
2kN
Aluminum
7kN
4kN
13kN
2kN
7kN
steel
7kN
4kN
13kN
2kN
steel
7kN
Stress in Aluminum
section
=
Force in Al section
Resisting cross sectional area of the Al section
=
9kN
9 1000 N
2
50
N
/
mm
180mm 2 180mm2
= 50MPa
Compressive stress
Stress in Steel section =
43
.
75
N
/
mm
= 43.75MPa
= 160mm2 160mm2
(Compressive stress)
STRAIN
STRAIN :
when a load acts on the material it will undergo
deformation. Strain is a measure of deformation produced by
the application of external forces.
If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress, the
bar will changes in length. If the bar has an original length L
and change in length by an amount L, the linear strain
produced is defined as,
L
Change in length
Linear strain,
=
Original length
L
Strain is a dimensionless quantity.
Linear Strain
P
A
2
2L L
P
stress
A
normal strain
L
2P P
2A A
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
In order to compare the strength of various materials it is
necessary to carry out some standard form of test to establish
their relative properties.
One such test is the standard tensile test in which a circular
bar of uniform cross section is subjected to a gradually
increasing tensile load until failure occurs.
Measurement of change in length over a selected gauge
length of the bar are recorded throughout the loading
operation by means of extensometers.
A graph of load verses extension or stress against strain is
drawn as shown in figure.
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Proportionality limit
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Typical tensile test curve for mild steel showing upper yield point
and lower yield point and also the elastic range and plastic range
Stress-strain Diagram
Limit of Proportionality :
From the origin O to a point called proportionality limit the
stress strain diagram is a straight line. That is stress is
proportional to strain. Hence proportional limit is the maximum
stress up to which the stress strain relationship is a straight
line and material behaves elastically.
From this we deduce the well known relation, first postulated
by Robert Hooke, that stress is proportional to strain.
Beyond this point, the stress is no longer proportional to strain
PP
P
= Load at proportionality limit
Original cross sectional area
A
Stress-strain Diagram
Elastic limit:
It is the stress beyond which the material will not return to its
original shape when unloaded but will retain a permanent
deformation called permanent set. For most practical purposes
it can often be assumed that points corresponding proportional
limit and elastic limit coincide.
Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains
are not totally recoverable. There will be thus some permanent
deformation when load is removed.
Stress-strain Diagram
Yield point:
It is the point at which there is an appreciable elongation or
yielding of the material without any corresponding increase of
load.
PY
Y
=
A
Ultimate strength:
It is the stress corresponding to
maximum load recorded during
the test. It is stress corresponding
to maximum ordinate in the
stress-strain graph.
PU
U
=
A
Stress-strain Diagram
Rupture strength (Nominal Breaking stress):
It is the stress at failure.
For most ductile material including structural steel breaking
stress is somewhat lower than ultimate strength because the
rupture strength is computed by dividing the rupture load
(Breaking load) by the original cross sectional area.
PB
B
=
A
Stress-strain Diagram
After yield point the graph becomes much more shallow and
covers a much greater portion of the strain axis than the
elastic range.
The capacity of a material to allow these large plastic
deformations is a measure of ductility of the material
Ductile Materials:
The capacity of a material to allow large extension i.e. the
ability to be drawn out plastically is termed as its ductility.
Material with high ductility are termed ductile material.
Example: Low carbon steel, mild steel, gold, silver, aluminum
Stress-strain Diagram
A measure of ductility is obtained by measurements of the
percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area,
defined as,
increase in gauge length (up to fracture)
100
=
Percentage elongation
original gauge length
Reduction in cross sectional area
of necked portion (at fracture)
Percentage reduction in =
area
original area
100
Stress-strain Diagram
Brittle Materials :
A brittle material is one which exhibits relatively small
extensions before fracture so that plastic region of the tensile
test graph is much reduced.
Example: steel with higher carbon content, cast iron,
concrete, brick
HOOKES LAW
Hookes Law
For all practical purposes, up to certain limit the relationship
between normal stress and linear strain may be said to be
linear for all materials
stress () strain ()
stress ()
constant
=
strain ()
Thomas Young introduced a constant of proportionality that
came to be known as Youngs modulus.
stress ()
E
=
strain ()
Youngs Modulus
or
Modulus of Elasticity
HOOKES LAW
Youngs Modulus is defined as the ratio of normal stress to
linear strain within the proportionality limit.
stress ()
E = strain () =
P L PL
A L AL
E AE
L
Equating and solving for the
deformation,
PL
AE
Q.6.2
A specimen of steel 20mm diameter with a gauge length of
200mm was tested to failure. It undergoes an extension of
0.20mm under a load of 60kN. Load at elastic limit is
120kN. The maximum load is 180kN. The breaking load is
160kN. Total extension is 50mm and the diameter at
fracture is 16mm. Find:
a) Stress at elastic limit
b) Youngs modulus
c) % elongation
d) % reduction in area
e) Ultimate strength
f) Nominal breaking stress
g) True breaking stress
Solution:
a) Stress at elastic limit,
E =
PE
120kN
381.97 N
2 381.97 MPa
2
mm
A 314.16mm
190.98
314
.
16
mm
A
N
E
190980
0.20mm
mm2
L
110 3
L
200mm
190980 MPa
190.98GPa
c) % elongation,
Final length at fracture original length
% elongation =
Original length
50
100 25%
200
d) % reduction in area =
16
314.16
314.16
4 100 36%
e) Ultimate strength,
Maximum load
Ultimate strength =
Original c/s area
f) Nominal breaking
Breaking load
Strength = Original c/s area
180kN
2
572
.
96
N
/
mm
314.16mm2
( MPa)
160kN
509.29MPa
314.16
g) True breaking
Breaking load
Strength =
c/s area at fracture
160kN
795.38MPa
2
201.06mm
Q.6.3
A composite bar consists of an aluminum section rigidly
fastened between a bronze section and a steel section as
shown in figure. Axial loads are applied at the positions
indicated. Determine the change in each section and the
change in total length. Given
Ebr = 100GPa, Eal = 70GPa, Est = 200GPa
4kN
Bronze
A= 120 mm2
300mm
Aluminum
A= 180 mm2
13kN
400mm
Steel
A= 160 mm2
2kN
7kN
500mm
Deformation due to
compressive force is
shortening in length, and is
considered as -ve
PL
stress ()
=
E =
strain ()
AL
Change in length
Change in length of
bronze
=
PL
= L
AE
4000 N 300mm
Lbr
120mm2 100 103 ( N / mm2 )
= 0.1mm
Change in length of
aluminum section =
9000 N 400mm
= -0.286mm
Lal
2
3
2
180mm 70 10 ( N / mm )
Change in length of
steel section
=
7000 N 500mm
= -0.109mm
Lst
160mm2 200 103 ( N / mm2 )
Change in total
length
Q.6.4
An aluminum rod is fastened to a steel rod as
shown. Axial loads are applied at the positions
shown. The area of cross section of aluminum and
steel rods are 600mm2 and 300mm2 respectively.
Find maximum value of P that will satisfy the
following conditions.
Take Eal = 70GPa,
Est = 200GPa
a)st 140 MPa
b)al 80 MPa
c)Total elongation 1mm,
2P
Aluminum
0.8m
4P
2P
Steel
2.8m
Pst 2 P
140 N / mm2
Ast Ast
140 Ast
P
21000 N 21kN
2
2P
Aluminum
4P
2P
2P
Steel
4P
2P
2P 2P
Tensile
Pal
2P
80 N / mm2
Aal
Aal
= 80MPa
80 Aal
P
24000 N 24kN
2
2P
Aluminum
4P
Steel
2P
4P 2P
2P
2P Compressive
2P
AE al AE st
1mm
2 PLal 2 PLst
Aal Eal Ast Est
1mm
2 P 800 2 P 2800
3
3
600 70 10 300 200 10
P = 18.1kN
Q.6.5
Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered bar
of circular cross section shown in the figure, when subjected to
an axial tensile load , W
W
B
A
Diameter
d1
Diameter
d2
d1
dx
Diameter at x, d1
d d
2 1 x
L
d1 k x
d2
c/s area at x,
d1
Wdx
PL
AE dx d kx2 E
1
4
L
Wdx
0
d kx2 E
1
4
d1 kx2
4
L
Wdx
0
d kx2 E
1
4
Put d1+kx = t,
dt
L
k
0
t 2 E
21
Then k dx = dt
L
4W t
4W 1
4W
Ek 1 0 Ek t 0 Ek
4WL
WL
Ed1d 2 d1d 2 E
4
(
d
kx
)
1
0
Q.6.6
A two meter long steel bar is having uniform diameter of 40mm
for a length of 1m, in the next 0.5m its diameter gradually
reduces to 20mm and for remaining 0.5m length diameter
remains 20mm uniform as shown in the figure. If a load of
150kN is applied at the ends, find the stresses in each section
of the bar and total extension of the bar. Take E = 200GPa.
150kN
150kN
1000mm
= 40mm
500mm 500mm
= 20mm
150kN
150kN
1000mm
= 40mm
500mm 500mm
= 20mm
119.37 MPa
2 , max .
2
2
d
40
4
4
150kN
2,min.
477.46 MPa
2
20
4
150kN
3
477.46 MPa
2
20
4
150kN
150kN
1000mm
= 40mm
500mm 500mm
= 20mm
150kN 1000
l1
0.597 mm
2
40 E
4
4 PL
4 150kN 500
l2
0.597 mm
Ed1d 2 E 40 20
150kN 500
l3
1.194mm
2
20 E
4
total, l 2.388mm
Q.6.7
Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered bar
AB of rectangular cross section and uniform thickness, as
shown in the figure, when subjected to an axial tensile load ,W.
d1
b
d2
A
L
d1
b
d2
dx
Consider an element of length, x at a distance x from A
depth at x,
d1
d 2 d1
L
d1 k x
Wdx
PL
AE dx d1 kxb E
Wdx
0
d1 kxb E
L
P
log e d 2 log e d1
b E k
2.302 P L
log d 2 log d1
b E d 2 d1
Q.6.8
Derive an expression for the total extension produced by self
weight of a uniform bar, when the bar is suspended vertically.
Diameter
d
dx
x
Diameter
d
Extension of
the element
due to weight
of the bar
below that,
P1dx ( A x ) dx
PL
AE
AE
AE dx
( A x ) dx x
L2
AE
2E 0 2E
L2 A ( AL ) L 1 PL
2E A
2 AE
2 AE
Where, P = (AL)
= total weight of the bar
SHEAR STRESS
Consider a block or portion of a material shown in Fig.(a)
subjected to a set of equal and opposite forces P. then there is a
tendency for one layer of the material to slide over another to
produce the form failure as shown in Fig.(b)
P
P
R
R
P
P
Fig. c
Fig. a
Fig. b
The resisting force developed by any plane ( or section) of the
block will be parallel to the surface as shown in Fig.(c).
The resisting forces acting parallel to the surface per unit area is
called as shear stress.
Shear stress ()
Shear resistance
Area resisting shear
P
A
Shear strain
If block ABCD subjected to shearing stress as shown in
Fig.(d), then it undergoes deformation. The shape will not
remain rectangular, it changes into the form shown in Fig.(e),
as AB'C'D.
C
B'
C'
C
B
B
A
Fig. d
Fig. e
B'
Fig. e
BB
shear strain
tan
AB
The angle of deformation
SHEAR MODULUS
For materials within the proportionality limit the shear strain is
proportional to the shear stress. Hence the ratio of shear stress
to shear strain is a constant within the proportionality limit.
Shear Modulus
Shear stress ()
or
=
G
=
constant
=
Shear strain ()
Modulus of Rigidity
P
A
P
A
Fx = 0, & Fy = 0,
But M = 0
The element is subjected
force
to a clockwise moment
P AD = ( AB t) AD
P ' AB = P AD
= ( AB t) AD ----- (1)
If 1 is the intensity of the shear
stress on the faces AD and BC,
then P ' can be written as,
P'
'
P'
D
P ' = ' AD t
'
D
(1)
'=
'=
C
A
B
Fig.(a).
Fig.(b).
2 a
n
a
Fig.(c).
Fx 0
n
2 a 1 2 a cos 45
POISSONS RATIO
Poissons Ratio:
Consider the rectangular bar shown in Fig.(a) subjected to a
tensile load. Under the action of this load the bar will increase
in length by an amount L giving a longitudinal strain in the
bar of
l
l
l
Fig.(a)
POISSONS RATIO
The bar will also exhibit, reduction in dimension laterally, i.e.
its breadth and depth will both reduce. These change in
lateral dimension is measured as strains in the lateral
direction as given below.
lat
b
d
b
d
POISSONS RATIO =
l
Longitudinal strain
l
Lateral strain
( b )
b
OR l
l
Poissons Ratio =
For most engineering metals the value of lies between 0.25 and
0.33
In general
y
Lz
Ly
P
Lx
z
l y
Poissons
Ratio
Lateral strain
=
ly
l x
lx
l z
OR l
x
lz
lx
Poissons Ratio =
In general
y
Lz
Ly
Px
Px
Lx
Strain in Y-direction = y
Strain in X-direction = x
l y
l x
ly
lx
l x
lx
Strain in Z-direction = z
l x
l z
lz
lx
Py
Lz
Ly
x
Lx
Py
l x
Poissons
Ratio
Lateral strain
=
Strain in X-direction = x
lx
l y
l y
l x
lx
ly
ly
l z
OR l
y
lz
ly
Lz
Ly
x
Lx
Pz
Poissons
Ratio
l x
Lateral strain
=
Strain in X-direction = x
l x
l z
lx
lz
l z
l y
lx
lz
OR
ly
l z
lz
Py
Ly
Lz
Px
Px
Strain in X-direction = x
x
Lx
Py
Strain in Y-direction = y
Strain in Z-direction = z
y
x
E
E
y
x
E
E
y
x
E
E
Py
General
case:
Pz
Strain in X-direction = x
Px
Px
Pz
y
x
z
x
E
E
E
Py
Strain in Y-direction = y
y
x
z
y
E
E
E
Strain in Z-direction = z
y
x
z
z
E
E
E
Bulk Modulus
Bulk Modulus
A body subjected to three mutually perpendicular equal direct
stresses undergoes volumetric change without distortion of
shape.
If V is the original volume and dV is the change in volume,
then dV/V is called volumetric strain.
A body subjected to three mutually perpendicular equal direct
stresses then the ratio of stress to volumetric strain is called
Bulk Modulus.
Bulk modulus, K
dV
Volumetric strain
dV
x y z
V
y
x
z
E
E
E
x z
E
E
E
1 2
x y z
z
y x
E
E
E
x y z
dV 1 2
x y z
V
E
dV 1 2
3
V
E
K
dV
E
K
bulk modulus
31 2
or
E 3K 1 - 2
45
B1 B
In le AA'H
Cos 45 = A'H/AA'
A'H= AA' 1/2
AC = 2 AD
( AC = AD2 +AD2)
Strain along the diagonal AC = AA'/ (2 2 AD)=/2 ----(2)
Modulus of rigidity = G = /
= /G
Substituting in (2)
Strain along the diagonal AC = /2G -----------(3)
Equating (1) & (3)
/2G = /E[1+]
E=2G(1+ )
= 0.3
Q.6.9
A metallic bar 250mm100mm50mm is loaded as shown in
the figure. Find the change in each dimension and total
volume. Take E = 200GPa, Poisson's ratio, = 0.25
2000kN
4000kN
400kN
400kN
50
100
2000kN
250
4000kN
4000kN
400kN
50
2000kN
250
Stresses in different
directions
100
4000 1000 N
160 MPa
2
250 100mm
400 1000 N
x
80 MPa
2
100 50mm
50
100
250
2000 1000 N
z
160 MPa
2
250 50mm
80 MPa
160 MPa
y
x
z
x
E
E
E
80
160
160
x
4 10 4
E
E
E
l x l x
4 10 4
lx
250
l x 0.1mm
160MPa
80 MPa
160MPa
y
x
z
y
E
E
E
160
80
160
3
y
1.1 10
E
E
E
l y l y
1.110 3
ly
50
l y 0.005mm
160MPa
80 MPa
160 MPa
y
x
z
z
E
E
E
160
160
80
z
9 10 4
E
E
E
l z l z
9 10 4
lz
250
l z 0.09mm
160MPa
80 MPa
dV
4 11 9 10 4 2 10 4
V
dV 2 10 4 V 2 10 4 250 100 50
160MPa
Alternatively,
dV 250mm3
dV 1 2
x y z
V
E
dV 1 2
80 160 160
V
E
1 - 2
80 2 10 4
Q.6.10
A metallic bar 250mm100mm50mm is loaded as shown in
the Fig. shown below. Find the change in value that should
be made in 4000kN load, in order that there should be no
change in the volume of the bar. Take E = 200GPa, Poisson's
ratio, = 0.25
4000kN
400kN
50
100
2000kN
250
160MPa
We know that
80 MPa
160 MPa
dV 1 2
x y z
V
E
80
160 0
y z
E
x y z 0
y 240 MPa
240
Py
250 100
Py 6000kN
Exercise Problems
Q1.
20kN
Ab=700mm2
brass
Aa=1000mm2
15kN
15kN
As=800mm2
steel
10kN
aluminum
500mm
600mm
700mm
Q2.
200kN
200kN
1000mm
500mm 500mm
= 40mm
= D mm
B
300
450
A
A
3m
2000 N
B
3m
Ans: 87.53MPa
450mm2
250mm2
20kN
250mm
320mm
40kN
10kN
270mm
Q8.
a)
b)
c)
30
30
180
Ans: 0.125mm
Q20.
Q21.