Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Minerals Engineering
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a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 3 May 2013
Accepted 16 July 2013
Available online 9 August 2013
Keywords:
Water quality
Flotation
Abiotic water constituent
Biotic water constituents
a b s t r a c t
As water resources become scarcer and societys demands to reduce freshwater extraction have
increased, mine sites have been increasing water reuse and accessing multiple water sources for mineral
processing to save freshwater, particularly in froth otation. Implementation of either strategy may lead
to water quality variation that may impact otation efciency. A large number of studies have been carried out to enhance the understanding of water quality variation in otation. However, these studies tend
to be performed on a case by case basis. There is a lack of a framework to put together these existing studies, which makes it difcult to understand the topic comprehensively and therefore difcult to identify
gaps and directions for future research. This would eventually hinder the ongoing implementation of
water conservation practices and thus lead to more pressure being placed on freshwater. In this paper,
a review of the existing studies on water quality variation in otation is given in three aspects: causes
of water quality variation, consequences of water quality variation and solutions for problems caused
by water quality variation. Based on the three aspects, a framework was developed, with which these
studies were categorized and structured. Organizing literature in this way makes it possible to identify
gaps in current research and future research directions.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Existing research on water quality variation in flotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Causes of water quality variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1.
Internal factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2.
External factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Consequences of water quality variation and associated pathways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.
Abiotic water constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2.
Biotic water constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Solutions for water quality variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1.
Internal solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2.
External solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Identifying gaps and future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
The minerals industry is being driven to save freshwater and
minimize mine water discharge by a combination of water challenges, such as limited freshwater availability (Peters and Meybeck, 2000; Ridoutt and Pster, 2010), environmental pollution
from mine water discharge (Carlson et al., 2002; Johnson et al.,
2002), increasing competition for water among multiple users
Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 7 3346 4027; fax: +61 7 3346 4045.
E-mail address: wy.liu@uq.edu.au (W. Liu).
0892-6875/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2013.07.011
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Fig. 1. A conceptual view of a site water system showing the internal and external factors causing water quality variation in a otation plant.
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Table 1
Inputs and outputs of raw water and worked water associated with external to site factors.
Raw water
Worked
water
Inputs
Outputs
94
supply, e.g., Mt Arthur coal mine (Brereton et al., 2007), Cadia Valley goldcopper mine (Schumann et al., 2003), and Mogalakwena
platinum mine (Slatter et al., 2009). This water source may contain
high levels of total organic carbon (TOC) and microbes, which may
affect otation performance (Levay et al., 2001). Apart from these
inputs, a variety of outputs can also contribute to water quality
variation in the raw water stream (Table 1). For example, water
constituents can be concentrated due to evaporation and diluted
due to rainfall/runoff which may vary seasonally (Rao and Finch,
1989; Vink et al., 2009).
2.1.2.2. Water external reuse. A common external reuse strategy is
that water is recovered from tailings storage facilities and other
site water tasks, stored in the worked water stores and used again
in the concentrator (Department of Resources Energy and Tourism,
2008). Besides the raw water stream, this worked water stream is
dened as the other external to concentrator factor that can
cause water quality variation in otation. Similarly, this variation
can be tracked down to external to site factors. As opposed to
the raw water stream, there are no inputs but only outputs for
the worked water stream (Table 1).
One of the outputs is associated with the local climate, which
may raise signicant issues regarding water quantity and quality.
For example, evaporation can alter concentrations of dissolved
and colloidal constituents at different times of the year (Levay
et al., 2001). Changes in temperature due to diurnal (day/night)
or seasonal (summer/winter) cycles may inuence water composition, either directly or indirectly, through chemical, physico-chemical and biological processes, e.g., mineral dissolution and
oxidation, solubility of metal precipitates, all of which are affected
by temperature (Lin, 1989). These processes may change water
constituents in concentration and form. For example, physicochemical and biological processes mainly related to degradation
of otation reagents could take place in the tailings storage facilities (Chen et al., 2011; Nedved and Jansz, 2006). Tailings particles
can contain a high proportion of ne clay and other colloidal materials, which are difcult to separate from water (Ofori et al., 2011).
These changes in the tailings storage facilities can be propagated to
the concentrator through water external reuse. Similar to water
internal reuse, water external reuse may cause initial processing issues to eventually become water quality issues.
2.2. Consequences of water quality variation and associated pathways
Water quality variation is among the factors that can inuence
otation efciency. The consequences of water quality variation in
otation can be grouped into two broad categories based on the
type of water constituents: abiotic, meaning not alive (e.g., inorganic metal ions), and biotic, meaning of or related to life (e.g.,
microorganisms). For each category, the consequences can be
either negative or positive effects on otation efciency, which
can be quantied by different variables, such as recovery, grade
and oatability of valuable minerals, and selectivity between valuable minerals and gangue.
The negative or positive effects of abiotic and biotic water constituents can occur through different pathways. Firstly, water constituents could interact with and therefore change the properties of
any of the three phases involved in otation: mineral particle, air
bubbles and aqueous solution. These changes could then affect
the efciency of the three sub-processes occurring sequentially in
a otation cell. These sub-processes include collision of mineral
particles with bubbles, attachment of mineral particles to bubbles,
and formation of stable particlebubble aggregates which then rise
to the surface of the otation cell forming the froth phase (Dai
et al., 1999). Only mineral particles with certain degrees of hydrophobicity, either naturally occurring or articially rendered by
ble aggregates (Ali et al., 2000; Ata, 2012; Johansson and Pugh,
1992; Moolman et al., 1996).
Investigations have been carried out on the role of calcium ions
in modulating the surface properties of molybdenite and in controlling the interaction between molybdenite and the most predominant gangue mineral, namely quartz, in copper porphyries.
The results show that the oatability of ne molybdenite particles
is signicantly reduced when calcium ions and silica coexist in the
otation pulp. This is because the adsorption of calcium ions on
molybdenite and quartz reduces the magnitude of negative surface
charges and thus causes heterocoagulation of molybdenite and
quartz (Raghavan and Hsu, 1984). The adsorption of calcium and
other metal ions that exist in otation water leads to a reduction
in the negative surface charges and xanthate adsorption on galena,
which may have detrimental effects on galena otation (Ikumapayi
et al., 2012). Experimental results suggest that generally, metallic
cations present in electrolytes hinder the otation of pyrochlore,
an oxide mineral. This is because the negative surface charge on
pyrochlore is reduced by the adsorption of cationic species, which
hinders the adsorption of cationic amine collector on pyrochlore
surfaces (Espinosa-Gomez et al., 1987; Rao et al., 1988).
2.2.1.1.3. Inadvertent activation of unwanted minerals by metal
ions. Some metal ions can also inadvertently activate unwanted
minerals, thus affecting otation selectivity in varying degrees.
For example, metal ions such as lead, silver and iron are present
in otation water as impurities and can inadvertently activate
sphalerite surfaces (Chandra and Gerson, 2009; Finkelstein,
1997). The undesirable activation by metal ions, copper (II), iron
(II) and calcium (II), causes pyrite to oat together with sphalerite
in sphalerite otation circuits, leading to poor selectivity (Boulton
et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 1997). Inadvertent activation of sphalerite
and pyrite by copper ions in water leads to a low copper grade in
copper otation circuits (Broman, 1980; Rao and Finch, 1989). Copper (I) cyanide could activate sphalerite in otation of leadzinc
sulde ore reducing lead grade (Seke and Pistorius, 2006).
2.2.1.1.4. Slime coatings on mineral surfaces. The formation of a
slime coating on valuable mineral surfaces can lead to depression
of otation of valuable minerals. For example, positively charged
serpentine gangue minerals, such as chrysotile and lizardite, has
been found to severely reduce the otation of negatively charged
(unoxidized) pentlandite by forming a hydrophilic slime coating
on pentlandite surfaces (Edwards et al., 1980). The coverage of colloidal iron oxide (hematite) slimes originating from the steel grinding media, iron sulde minerals and non-sulde gangue, on galena
surfaces can reduce the mineral surface hydrophobicity and therefore have a signicant depressing effect on the otation of galena
particles (Bandini et al., 2001). The slime coating of montmorillonite clay on coal is detrimental to coal otation (Xu et al., 2003).
2.2.1.1.5. Interactions with otation reagents. Like metal cations,
anions may also have a negative effect on otation performance by
interacting with otation reagents. For example, anions in treated
efuent have been identied as having a negative effects on copper
and molybdenum recoveries (Fisher and Rudy, 1976). Sulde ions
have been found to decompose xanthate collector in the presence
of oxygen (Shen et al., 2001). Under solution conditions which favor rapid xanthate decomposition by sulte, xanthate adsorption
onto galena is signicantly reduced and galena otation strongly
depressed (Grano et al., 1997a,b). Salts in water are particularly liable to react with fatty acid reagents and form insoluble complexes
(Ozkan and Acar, 2004). Calcium ions react with the collector used
in apatite otation, thus reducing its concentration for otation,
leading to a decline in apatite recovery (dos Santos et al., 2010).
Variations in pH and Eh usually affect the chemistry of otation
reagents and species present in otation water. For example, pulp
pH can alter the form of some frothers and thus inuence their
effectiveness. Cresol, with the optimum performance in the molec-
95
ular form, has been found to be converted into ionized form at high
pH, which then does not act as a frother. Quinoline exists in ionized
form in acid pH, andconsequently has poor frothing properties
(Bulatovic, 2007). Dissolved oxygen is also important in controlling
the composition of the mineral surface of some minerals and the
effect of the reagents on the minerals in otation systems (Gaudin,
1974).
2.2.1.2. Positive effects.
2.2.1.2.1. Compression of electrical double layer. The presence of
electrolytes can improve particlebubble attachment efciency
through compressing the electrical double layer and thus reducing
the electrostatic repulsion between particles and bubbles (Kurniawan et al., 2011). Investigation of oil agglomeration of coal in inorganic salt solutions shows that coal recovery increases markedly as
salt concentration (NaCl) is raised (Yang et al., 1988). Coal recovery
is improved by using saline water (Ofori et al., 2005; Wang and
Peng, 2013). Flotation of methylated quartz is improved with
increasing KCl concentration (Laskowski and Kitchener, 1970).
The efciency of the attachment of methylated quartz particles
to nitrogen bubbles has been found to increase with the increase
in KCl electrolyte concentration (Dai et al., 1999). Flotation
improvement in the presence of electrolytes is explained by the
compression of the electrical double layer by electrolytes, thus
reducing electrical repulsion and subsequently facilitating the particlebubble attachment process. The reduction in electrostatic
repulsion between particles or between particle and bubbles may
in turn decrease the adsorption of positively charged hydrophilic
slimes such as magnesium silicates and thus increase bubbleparticle attachment (Bremmell et al., 2005; Hewitt et al., 1994; Morris
et al., 1995).
2.2.1.2.2. Formation of smaller bubbles. Electrolytes are favorable to the formation of smaller stable bubbles due to the inuence
of the electrolytes on surface tension and gas solubility (Pugh et al.,
1997). Smaller bubbles increase the particlebubble collision probability (Bournival et al., 2012; Pugh et al., 1997), and also improve
particlebubble attachment efciencies (Hewitt et al., 1994). Finer
gas bubbles in high salt concentrations may result in reduced reagent consumption (Quinn et al., 2007). However, it is noteworthy
to mention that along with the benets discussed above, an increase in ionic strength can cause a negative effect by enhancing
frothability and therefore increasing gangue recovery (Manono
et al., 2012, 2013).
2.2.2. Biotic water constituents
2.2.2.1. Negative effects. Biotic water constituents in otation
water, including organics and microorganisms, may be surface active, or act as dispersants or occulants, which can interfere with
otation process (Levay et al., 2001; Rao and Finch, 1989). Residue
reagents such as xanthate and their decomposition products in otation water could absorb non-selectively on most suldes and reduce otation selectivity (Seke and Pistorius, 2006).
There are cases in literature showing the effect of organic species on otation efciency through different pathways. For example, humic acids, abundant in some natural waters, have been
found to readily adsorb on molybdenite surfaces and result in decreased hydrophobicity and oatability of molybdenite (Lai et al.,
1984). The presence of a small amount of strongly hydrophilic
lignosulfonates is sufcient to render molybdenite surfaces hydrophilic, which hinders the attachment and spreading of an oily collector over the molybdenite surface (Ansari and Pawlik, 2007a,b).
The presence of organic species, the exact composition of which
is not known, has a negative effect on pyrochlore otation selectivity by promoting the otation of silicate minerals along with
pyrochlore (Espinosa-Gomez et al., 1987; Rao et al., 1988). The
accidental incorporation of oils and lubricants into the mill feed
96
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combination of different approaches may be used to deal with difcult or complex water quality issues. The selection of water treatment approaches, which match the water quality requirement for
specic water tasks, can be challenging. The cost of water treatment and the undesirable additional energy incurred may pose a
challenge for maintaining an environmentally and economically
sustainable mining operation.
98
The second gap is about the solutions applied to deal with water
quality problems in otation. Currently, water quality problems in
otation are generally dealt with by internal solutions that focus
on the otation operation itself more or less haphazardly, that is,
without a diagnostic and proactive understanding of the causes
for water quality variation. This may lead to a constrained view
of opportunities to deal with the problems and thus hinders the
ongoing implementation of good water management practices that
conserve freshwater. Therefore, further research work is required
to explore multiple external solutions that consider opportunities
across the entire water system as opposed to the otation operation itself. The ultimate solution might be the best combination
of internal and external solutions. Finding such a solution requires
mine sites to have a good understanding of the connectivity of the
site water system and the properties of different water streams.
This leads to the third gap.
The third gap is associated with understanding the reasons
why water quality varies. This relies on water quality monitoring
information and an understanding of the connectivity of the site
water system. Even though water quality monitoring is conducted
on mine sites, in some cases, the monitoring tends to be performed without clear objectives and consideration of the connectivity of different water streams, and not at the desired locations
or at the desired frequency. This poses a potential challenge for
subsequent utilization of these data to analyze water quality variation. Therefore, there is an essential need to develop a method
which could help set up clear objectives and therefore target
the monitoring at the desired water streams. The way the information on water quality variation in otation is organized, i.e.,
from the perspective of internal and external factors, could be a
starting point for developing such a method. After understanding
the internal and external factors that cause water quality variations, mine sites can design a monitoring program that measures
the chosen components at the right locations and for a suitable
long time period.
The applicability of this three-component framework may not
be limited to organizing research on water quality problems in otation but extended to broader external to concentrator and
external to site areas involving water quality change, such as
the impact of water quality variation on heap leaching within the
site boundary and on the local ecosystem outside mine sites. Further research is required to test the applicability of this framework.
From the perspective of water management, integrated water
management requires water issues be treated as a risk management exercise. This is because water is one of the risk factors that
increase the likelihood of mining operations having accidents
which could injure or kill people, damage the environment and
cause serious loss of production and prots (Byrne et al., 2012; Catalan et al., 2000; Cote and Moran, 2008; Saleh and Cummings,
2011). As for water quality management in otation, a previously
published risk-based approach was suggested as a tool to assist
mine sites in managing the risk of water quality variation in otation in a consistent and structured manner (Liu et al., 2011). This
approach integrates the three components stated above to quantify
the risk posed by water quality variation to otation and evaluate
different scenarios for risk mitigation. The potential of the approach as such a management tool that can be put in place has
been tested using two otation case studies. The rst is to manage
the risk of saline water to coal otation (Liu et al., 2011). The second deals with the risk posed by water-borne bacteria to copper
and gold otation (Liu et al., 2013a). The two case studies demonstrate the potential of the risk-based approach to deal with complexity and allow specic situations to be considered in a generic
manner. They also show that water quality problems can be dealt
with more effectively by considering opportunities from the entire
water system rather than only focusing on the local area where the
problems occur.
Acknowledgements
Funding for this study was provided by Australian Research
Council linkage project (LP0883872) Impact of recycled and low
quality process water on sustainable mineral beneciation practices, which is part of AMIRA project P260E.
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