Biology

Definitions:
Antibodies: A blood protein produced in response to and
counteracting a specific antigen.
Antigen: a toxin or other foreign substance which induces an
immune response in the body, beginning the production of
antibodies.
Pathogen: a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can
cause disease.
Disease: a disorder of structure or function in a living body,
especially one that produces specific symptoms or that affects a
specific location and is not simply a direct result of physical injury.
Enzyme: a substance produced by a living organism which acts as a
catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.
Health: the state of being free from illness or injury.
Hormones: a regulatory substance produced in an organism and
transported in tissue fluids such as blood or sap to stimulate specific
cells or tissues into action.
Immunity: the ability of an organism to resist a particular infection
or toxin by the action of specific antibodies or sensitized white blood
cells.
Infectious: likely to spread or influence others in a rapid manner.
Non-infectious: not liable to spread infection.
Lymphatic system: the network of vessels through which lymph
drains from the tissues into the blood.
Peripheral nervous system: the nervous system outside the
brain and spinal cord.
Central nervous system: the complex of nerve tissues that
controls the activities of the body. In vertebrates it comprises the
brain and spinal cord.
Neuron: a specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell.
Neurotransmitter: a chemical substance, which is released at the
end of a nerve fibre by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by
diffusing across the synapse or junction, affects the transfer of the
impulse to another nerve fibre, a muscle fibre, or some other
structure.
Phagocytes: a type of cell within the body capable of engulfing and
absorbing bacteria and other small cells and particles.
Reflex arc: the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action, including
at its simplest a sensory nerve and a motor nerve with a synapse
between.
Synapse: a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a
minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter.
Toxin: a poison of plant or animal origin, especially one produced
by or derived from microorganisms and acting as an antigen in the
body.
Vaccine: an antigenic substance prepared from the causative agent
of a disease or a synthetic substitute, used to provide immunity
against one or several diseases.

The Systems:
Respiratory: The respiratory system provides oxygen to the bodys
cells while removing carbon dioxide, a waste product that can be
lethal if allowed to accumulate. There are 3 major parts of the
respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of
respiration. The airway, which includes the nose, mouth, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, carries air between the
lungs and the bodys exterior. The lungs act as the functional units
of the respiratory system by passing oxygen into the body and
carbon dioxide out of the body. Finally, the muscles of respiration,
including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, work together to
act as a pump, pushing air into and out of the lungs during
breathing.
Urinary: The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove
wastes and produce urine. The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
together form the urinary tract, which acts as a plumbing system to
drain urine from the kidneys, store it, and then release it during
urination. The urinary system removes most waste products from
the body. The kidneys also maintain the right balance of water and
salt in the blood. The urinary system is made up of kidneys, bladder,
ureters and the urethra.
Digestive: Breaks down food, delivers nutrients from food to
various parts of the bodies through the blood stream. the digestive
tract starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. Organs that are part
of the digestive system include the stomach, small intestine,
pancreas, liver and large intestine (bowel). Common problems of the
digestive system include colitis, diverticulitis, gastroenteritis,
heartburn and ulcers.
Male Reproductive: The male reproductive system includes the
scrotum, testes, spermatic ducts, sex glands, and penis. These
organs work together to produce sperm, the male gamete, and the
other components of semen. These organs also work together to
deliver semen out of the body and into the vagina where it can
fertilize egg cells to produce offspring
Female reproductive: The female reproductive system includes
the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, mammary glands
and breasts. These organs are involved in the production and
transportation of gametes and the production of sex hormones. The
female reproductive system also facilitates the fertilization of ova by
sperm and supports the development of offspring during pregnancy.

Circulatory: The heart, blood and blood vessels make up the

circulatory system, which services all the cells in the body. Wastes
are taken away and exchanged with oxygen and food nutrients.
Responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and
cellular waste products throughout the body.
Each of our body systems are interconnected and dependent on
each other. Our heart, which is part of our circulatory system, does
not beat unless our brain, which is part of our nervous system, tells
it to. Our skeletal system is dependent on our digestive system for
increase in size and strength. Our muscular system needs our
respiratory and circulatory systems to supply energy in the form of
oxygen and nutrients. It takes all the systems for human growth and
development.

Control System:
Negative feedback:
A change from the normal body conditions (abnormality)
triggers efforts to bring things back to normal. e.g. high or low
blood pressure
This relies on the nervous system and the endocrine system
Homeostasis:
The tendency of the body to seek and maintain a condition of
balance.
o Blood Pressure
o Blood sugar
o Body temperature
The Endocrine system:
refers to the collection of glands of an organism that secrete
hormones into bloodstream to regulate cells and organs
Gland:
Pituitary
Master
Gland but
controlled by
HYPOTHALYM
US

Name of the
hormone
Growth hormone
Prolactin
Oxytocin
Thyroidstimulating
Antidiuretic,
referred to as
vasopressin

Ovaries

Estrogen
Progesterone

Thyroid (front
of neck)

T3
(triiodothyronine)

Factor being controlled:

Maintain healthy muscle and
bone mass
Female milk production
Controls contractions during
birth
Regulate thyroid, therefore
metabolism
Regulate water balance in the
body (refer below)
Promote the development of
breasts and help a woman
maintain healthy menstrual
periods.
Metabolism control

Parathyroid
(group of four
small glands
located
behind the
thyroid gland)

and T4
(thyroxine).
Parathyroid
hormone (PTH),
parathormone or
parathyrin

BLOOD SUGAR/ GLUCOSE

LEVELS:
High:
1| Pancreas secretes insulin
2| Body cells burn glucose for
energy 3| Liver stores glucose
as glycogen
Low:
1| Pancrease secretes
glucagon
2| Liver coverts glycogen to
glucose
3| Body cells use fat
reserves

Proper bone development: helps

control both calcium and
phosphorous levels in the body.
Calcium: the nervous system of
our body uses to conduct
electricity allows electrical
impulses to travel along nerves.
(muscular and skeletal also
affected)
WATER AND SALT BALANCE
Little:
1| pituitary gland (controlled by
hypothalamus) releases ADH
(antidiuretic hormone) which tells
kidneys how much water must be
conserved
2| Kidneys will then remove less
water from blood
Too much:
1| ADH secretion suppressed
2|More water removed by
kidneys

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Refers to receptor cells, sensory neurons and motor neurons that
transmit messages along nerves to garner a response in muscles or
glands for coordination and control
Central Nervous System: includes brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System: nerves that connect the CNS to the rest
of the body
Neurons: sensory (carry impulse from
stimulus), inter (carry CNS), motor
(effectors)
Cell body: nucleus supplies energy and
nutrients for neuron
Dendrites: fine branches extend from end
of cell to receive messages from
receptors and other neurons
Axon: long structure which nerve
impusles pass alone. There are axon
branches at the end. Insulated by sheath
of myelin. (dendrite to axon)
Synapse: neurotransmitters released into
synaptic cleft (space between axon and
receiving cell). Impulses are passed on
from neuron to neuron until it ends at
muscle or gland and causes a response.
(electrical message impusel within
neuron, chemical message across synapses)
RECEPTOR
Chemoreceptor

STIMULUS
Chemicals

Photo
Mechano

Light
Pressure or
distortion
Heat

Thermo

LOCATION
Taste buds on tongue +
nose cilia (to olfactory
nerve)
Eye
Skin, inner ear
Skin

BRAIN
Cerebrum: 90% of brain volume.
Controls memory, speech and
thought. Conscious actions such
as walking and speaking are also
controlled. Appears grey due to
cell bodies of interneurons and
little myelin sheaths of axons.
Cerebellum: back of the brain,
underneath cerebrum, inward
curve of skull, pink. Balance and
coordinates complex muscle
actions.
Brain stem/medulla: controls
unconscious activities or
thoughts. Ie breathing, heart
rate and digestion. Connects
directly to the spinal chord. Injuries usually result in death.
Artifical nerve impulses: electrodes stimulate muscle movements,
attached to nerves, linked by wires to computerised received.
Stem cells: regrow damaged nerve cells to treat spinal injuries.
Multipotent found in brain, muscle, bone marrow, liver, pancreas,
skin, umbilical cords. Can develop into cells of tissue or organ where
the stem cell exists.
Pluripotent: embryos. Can differentiate into any adult organisms
cells
DISEASE
Abormal condition that impairs normal function of body
Communicable able to be transmitted
PATHOGENS
Pathoge Description
n
Bacteria No nucleus
Single celled or
colonial
Virus

Prion

Typically consists
of nuclei acid
molecule (carries
RNA, DNA) in
protein coat
Only multiplies in
living cells of host
Smalest particle
Not fungal,
bacterial or viral

Diseases

Prevention

Pertussis
(Whooping
Cough)
Tetanus
Influenza
Ebola
Measles
(rubeola)

Vaccination, limit
spread of germs

Degenerative
brain diseases:
Mad Cows

Not airborne/contact
based. It is
genetically

No genetic
material ie nucleic
acid

Disease, or
Creutzfeldt
Jakob disease in
humans

Protozoa Micro-organism
n
Fungi
Mostly eukaryotic
(define nucleus)
but can be micro

Malaria
Dysentry
Tinea

Parasite

Tapeworm

Obtains
nourishment
and/or shelter
from another
organism.

transmitted or
through tissue
implants. Do not eat
brain/spinal cords of
cattle
Sanitary conditions,
hygiene
Occur due to
overheating and
perspiration, so dry
skin

Non-communicable: diabetes, cystic fibrosis, haemophilia,

schizophrenia
AIDS: is a pandemic that is bloodborne and is prevalent in the gay
community.
LINES OF DEFENCE
1) Non-specific: physical and chemical
a. Skin
b. Mucous membrances
c. Hair and cilia
d. Gastric juice, vaginal secretions, urine
e. Tears, sweat, saliva
f. Ear wax (cerumen)

2) Non-specific:
a. Leukocytes (white blood cells): about 7 types that
Engulf and destroy by ingesting pathogens
(phagocytosis)
Produce chemicals/ proteins that destroy
pathogens
Produce antitoxins to netralize toxins from
pathogen
b. Inflammation = more blood flow = more white blood
cells
c. Fevers: inhibits bacterial growth (heat = rupture) and
promotes tissue repair
3) Specific immune response (acquired immunity)
a. Presence of antigen (foreign substance) causes
production of ANTIBODIES (special proteins)
b. Antibodies are secreted by specific lymphcytes
c. Specific molecular shape that matches antigens shape
this shape enables antibody to combine with and
inactivate the antigen

KIDNEYS

EYES