Notes for 110.

311 Complex Analysis

10th Lecture
6 October 2015
Abstract
We continue our discussion on contour integration in this lecture and begin hinting at Cauchys integral
theorem.

1
1.1

Contour Integration
Introduction

In the last lecture before the midterm we discussed the basics of contour integration, namely that for some
R
Rb
function f (z) and contour , f (z) dz = a f (z(t)) z 0 (t) dt, and if an entire contour comprises 1 , . . . n ,
R
Pn R
then f (z) dz = i=1 i f (z) dz.
R
Example 1: z 2 dz, = |z 1| = 1, twice around the circle, counterclockwise
Firstly it is clear that |z 1| = 1 signifies a circle of radius 1 centered at 1. As we wish to go twice around
this circle counterclockwise, then the parametrization for this contour is
: z(t) = 1 + eit ,

0 t 4,

z 0 (t) = ieit .

We now integrate:
Z

z 2 dt =

1 + eit

2

ieit dt

0
4

i eit + 2e2it + e3it

dt

 4

e3it 
it
2it
=i e +e +
 ,
3
0
R 2
but each exponential has the same value at 4 and 0, so z dz = 0.
R
Example 2: z 2 dz, where is the right half of the circle |z| = 3, negatively oriented
Referring to Figure 1, we see that comprises two contours 1 , 2 , with parametrizations

t , z 0 (t) = 3ieit
2
2
3 t 3, z 0 (t) = i

1 : z(t) = 3eit ,
2 : z(t) = it,

We then find that

Z

z dz =

Z
=

9e2it 3ieit

dt

27ie3it dt

= 9e

 2

3
3
2 i 9e 2 i
 = 9e

3it 

= 18i.
1

For 2 ,
Z

z 2 dt =

t2 i dt

3
it3 
=
= 9i 9i
3 3
= 18i.
3i
1

3i

Figure 1: Contours 1 and 2 for Example 2.

Thus this contour
integral evaluates to 18i 18i = 0, just as in the first example. Whats going on here?
R
Weve found zH2 dz over two different closed contours and each integral yielded zero. What we could say
thus far is that z 2 dt = 0 for any closed contour. This is not a coincidence, but a small part of a larger
picture, as well see later.
R
Example 3: Im z dz, = |z 1| = 1
We have
: z(t) = 1 + eit , 0 t 2, z 0 (t) = ieit ,
and Im z(t) = sin t =

eit eit
,
2i

so
Z

Z
Im z dz =

eit eit it
ie dt
2i

e2it 1
dt
2
0
 2it
 2
2
e
t 
=
=

4i
2 
2
Z

= .
Clearly something is going on now with Im z, we get a nonzero answer over a closed contour.
R z
Example 4: z1
dz, = |z 1| = 1
The parametrization is
: z(t) = 1 + eit , 0 t 2, z 0 (t) = ieit ,
so

z
z1

1+eit
eit

= eit + 1 and
Z

z
dz =
z1

eit + 1 ieit dt

i + ieit

dt



2
= it + eit  = 2i + 1 (0 + 1)
0

= 2i.
2

R
We begin to see whats at work here. In Example 3 Im z dz gave a nonzero answer; here too we achieve
z
z
a nonzero answer. Note that Im z and z1
are not entire functions: Im z is nowhere analytic and z1
is
2
not analytic at z = 1. For Examples 1 and 2, we used the same analytic function z over two different
contours
and acquired a contour integral equal to zero each time. We can now ask, Under what conditions
R
is f (z) dz = 0 true?
Theorem 1 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus in C). If D is a domain and f (z) has antiderivative F (z)
on D, i.e. F 0 (z) = f (z), z D, then any contour in D with starting point z0 and ending point z1
satisfies
Z
f (z) dz = F (z1 ) F (z0 ).

In particular, if is a closed contour then

Proof. From calculus,
P R
i i f (z) dz.

f (z) dz =

Rb
a

f (z) dz = 0.
0

F (z(t))z (t) dt =

Rb

d
F (z(t))
a dt

b

R
P
dt = F (z(t)) , and for = i i , f (z) dz =
a

The theorem above essentially states that analytic functions over closed contours have integrals that evaluate
to zero, while functions not analytic at a certain point may not have integrals that evaluate to zero over the
same contour.

1.2

Hinting at Cauchys Theorem

We begin with an example.

R
z
Example 5: {|z4|=1} z1
dz = 0
The contour in this example is the circle of radius 1 centered at 4; to show this integral equates to zero,
z
1
we write z1
= 1 + z1
, so its antiderivative is z + Log(z 1). This function is analytic over the domain
z
C \ (, 1] and the circle {|z 4| = 1} is within this domain, so f (z) = z1
is analytic over this contour
and thus the theorem says this curve is zero.
R
z
dz is not zero as the circle {|z 1| = 1} is not in the domain of analyticity as indicated in the
{|z1|=1} z1
example above (intersects ray of this domain at z = 0; see Figure 2). The theorem does not apply as the
domain of any branch of Log z(t) does not contain this circle.
|z 1| = 1

Figure 2: The intersection between the circle {|z 1| = 1} and the ray (, 1].
Example 6:

R z
Consider z1
dz where =

1 : z(t) = 4 + eit , 0 t
. The antiderivative of f (z)
2 : z(t) = t2 1 + i(t + 2), 2 t 0
in the domain C \ (, 1] is z + Log(z 1); begins at z = 5 = 4 + ei0 and finishes at z = 1 + 2i =
02 1 + i(0 + 2), which doesnt intersect the ray (, 1]; Figure 3 shows this contour. The integral is then
1+2i

(z + Log(z 1))
= 6 + 2i + Log(2 + 2i) Log(4)
5

3
= 6 + 2i + Log(2 2) +
i Log(4)
4
1
3
= Log 2 +
i 6 + 2i.
2
4
3

Figure 3: Contour for Example 6; the red ray indicates the ray (, 1].

Example 7:
R
Let |za| = r be any circle centered at a and positively oriented. Find {|za|=r} (za)n dz n z; if n 6= 1,
R
n+1
is an antiderivative on {z 6= a}, which contains the circle. Thus {|za|=r} (z a)n dz = 0.
then (za)
n+1
R
R
R
For the integral {|za|=r} (z a)1 dz, this integral becomes 1 + 2 , where 1 is the semicircle to the
right from a ri to a + ri and 2 is the semicircle to the left from a + ri to a ri.1 lies in the domain
1
; then
D1 = {z a 6 (, 0]} on which Log(z a) is an antiderivative of za
Z
1

1
dz = Log(ri) Log(ri)
za
= Log |ri| + i Arg(ri) Log | ri| i Arg(ri)
 
=i
= i.
2
2

To find the second integral, we need to evaluate along another branch of Log(za) on domain {za 6 [0, )};
see Figure 4 for a visual explanation.
We thus find this second part to be i due to symmetry, and thus the
R
1
entire contour integral is {|za|=r} za
dz = 2i.

ri
1
a
2
ri
Figure 4: Contours used in Example 7; the corresponding colors denote the ray to be avoided during
integration.

1.3

The Independence of Path

Theorem 2. For some function f (z) and domain D, the following are equivalent:
1. f has antiderivative on D
R
2. f (z) dz = 0 closed contours in D
R
3. f (z) dz depends only on the initial and final point of as long as D.
The antiderivative along any path taken in a given contour is not unique, and the antiderivatives along
certain paths must differ by a constant.