Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Undergone at
DOORDARSHAN KENDRA AND ALL INDIA RADIO
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM
Submitted by
RESHMI R
Reg. No: 80421
Under the guidance of
Ms. MITHRA S T
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this Industrial Training Report submitted by RESHMI R (Reg. No.
80421) has undergone the training at DOORDARSHAN KENDRA and ALL INDIA RADIO with the prior permission and approval from the department.
Guide:
Ms. Mithra S T
Ms. Sangeeta T R
Assistant Professor
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE
Department of ECE
Coordinator:
Ms. Jisha Anu Jose
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE
External Examiner:
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
It is a matter of great pleasure and privilege for me to present this report of one month
industrial training. Through this report, I would like to thank numerous people whose consistent support and guidance has been the standing pillar in architecture of this report.
To begin with, my sincere thanks to Dr. E GOPALAKRISHNA SARMA, Principal
of my college. I express thanks to Ms. SANGEETA T R, HOD, Department of Electronics and Communication, who gave encouragement and valuable suggestions throughout the
training. Next, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my guide, Ms. MITRA S T.
I was privileged to experience a sustained enthusiastic and involved interest from her side.
I would like to mention a great word of gratitude to Ms. JISHA ANU JOSE, Co-ordinator
of M. Tech program, who gave full support throughout the training.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. S RAMESH (DDE), Mr. BABU
JOHN, Ms. MOLLY VARGHESE (AE) and Mr. OOMMEN CHERIAN who provided
us with the opportunity to undergo training in Doordarshan Kendra, Thiruvananthapuram.
I wish to express my deep gratitude towards Mr. N S SANIL KUMAR, Director (Engg.) and all other staff at All India Radio, Thiruvananthapuram for making me a
deep knowledge about various attributes of studios and transmitters.
RESHMI R
ABSTRACT
Industrial training is an important phase of a student life. A well planned, properly
executed and evaluated industrial training helps a lot in developing a professional attitude.
It develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of organization. During a period of one month
training at Doordarshan Kendra (DDK) and All India Radio (AIR), most of the theoretical
knowledge that has been gained during the course of studies is put to test. The great effort
behind the production of each programmes on television and radio have been understood
during this training. DDK and AIR are division of Prasar Bharati, the Indias largest public
broadcaster. DDK Thiruvananthapuram is equipped with two studios, two terrestrial transmitters and one digital uplink station. DDK deals with production, storage and transmission
of television programmes. For these purposes, DDK has various departments. Generation
of a program takes place at studio and the post production activities are controlled by the
PCR. These programs are stored in a video tape recorder. The MSR stores all the circuitry
of the DDK and it directs which recorded programs to go on-air. Earth station transmits or
receives the program to or from the satellite. The last stage is the transmitter which has the
antenna and facilities for terrestrial transmission. It is this transmitted programs that the
public receives either via DTH or terrestrial antenna.
As Indias National broadcaster and also the premier public service broadcaster, AIR
has been serving to inform, educate and entertain the masses since its inception, truly living up to its motto Bahujan Hitaya : Bahujan Sukhaya. AIR, which is officially known
as Akashvani since 1956, has three main transmitters for transmitting their programmes to
almost all parts of the world. The 20 kW medium wave transmitter of AIR is located at
Kulathur which transmits the programs to local regions. 50 kW short wave transmitter of
AIR located at Beemapally transmits programs around the globe using ionosphere reflection property. FM transmitter located at Kudappanakunnu transmits high quality programs.
Studio, control room and the transmitter are the main sections of the AIR Thiruvananthapuram for genereation of a program.
ii
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Outside broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6
Terrestrial transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
4.1
4.2
5.1
5.2
Dipole antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
iii
ACRONYMS
AES
AIR
ASI
CAR
CCD
CCU
CES
DDK
Doordarshan Kendra
DES
DSNG
DTH
Direct-to-Home
DVCPRO
IGNOU
IRD
ISDN
LNBC
MPEG
MSR
PCR
PDA
SAW
SDI
STL
TSL
VLPT
VSB
Vestigial Sideband
VTR
iv
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. TECHNICAL OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
2.2
2.3
Studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
2.1.3
Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4
Microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1
Vision Mixer(VM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2
2.3.2
2.3.3
Video Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4
2.5
2.6
Outside Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7
2.6.1
Microwave Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.2
DSNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7.1
2.7.2
Exciter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
v
2.7.2.1
2.7.2.2
2.7.2.3
2.7.2.4
2.7.2.5
2.7.2.6
2.7.2.7
2.8
II
Video Chain . . . . . . . . .
Audio Chain . . . . . . . . .
IF Combiner & IF Corrector .
VSB Filter . . . . . . . . . .
Modulator Module . . . . . .
Local Oscillator . . . . . . .
Up-converter Module . . . .
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21
21
21
22
22
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22
2.7.3
2.7.4
RF Power Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7.5
Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
DTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
25
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.1
Other Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Radio Studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.1
Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.1.1 Microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.2
Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.2.1 Mixing Console . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.3
Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.1.4
Playback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.1.4.1 Virtual Studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2
Control Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3
2.4
2.3.1
Microwave Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.2
2.3.3
Leased Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.4
Operation of ES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2
3.3
RF Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.1
Buffer Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.2
Pre-driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.3
Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
PA Combiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1.7
Output Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Audio Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.2
3.2.3
Modulation Encoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.4
DC Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Component Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1.1
RF Synthesizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1.2
Tetrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1.3
Dummy Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.4
Curtain Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Operation of SW Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5. FM BROADCASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.1
FM Transmitter Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
PART I
DOORDARSHAN KENDRA
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Doordarshan (DD) is an Indian public service broadcaster, a division of Prasar Bharati.
It is one of Indias largest broadcasting organizations in terms of studio and transmitter
infrastructure. Recently, it has also started broadcasting on digital terrestrial transmitters.
The DD provides television, radio, online and mobile services throughout metropolitan and
regional India, as well as overseas through the Indian Network and Radio India.
1.1
History
Doordarshan had a modest beginning with an experimental telecast starting in Delhi
on 15th September 1959, with a small transmitter and a make shift studio. The regular daily
transmission started in 1965 as a part of All India Radio. Television services were separated
from radio on 1st April 1976. Finally, in 1982, Doordarshan as a national broadcaster came
into existence. Krishi Darshan was the first program telecast on Doordarshan.
Doordarshan Kendra (DDK), Thiruvananthapuram is part of the DD India. DDK with
over 35 terrestrial transmitters and 3 production centers serve Kerala, Lakshadweep and
Mahi regions. Inaugurated on 1st January 1985 by the then Chief Minister of Kerala Shri.
K Karunakaran, DDK Thiruvananthapuram currently produces and telecasts 168 hours of
malayalam programmes per week. 27 transmitters in Kerala, 7 in Lakshadweep and one in
Mahi relay these programmes. Now more than 90 per cent of the 35 million populations
of Kerala, Lakshadweep and Mahi can receive DDK Thiruvananthapuram programmes
through a network of terrestrial transmitters. With the introduction of DTH, almost cent
percent of the population can now receive DDK Thiruvananthapuram programmes without cable connection. Doordarshan studios have been established at Thiruvananthapuram,
Thrichur and Calicut to foster regional diversity. People all over India are watching Doordarshans malayalam programmes. It is also received in 64 countries spread over the
continents of Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia and America. Doordarshan operates 21 channels:
Two all India channels (DD National and DD News).
Dept. of ECE
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
Dept. of ECE
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
CHAPTER 2
TECHNICAL OVERVIEW
DDK Thiruvananthapuram has the following main departments which manage the
production, storage, transmission and maintenance of the two DD National channels and
the DD Malayalam channel.
1. Studio
2. Production Control Room (PCR)
3. Video storage and Transmission Room (VTR)
4. Main switching Room or Master Switching Room (MSR)
5. Digital Earth Link Station (DES)
6. Transmitter
2.1
Studio
The studio has the following inevitable equipments that plays a vital role in the pro-
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
Camera
The studio television camera is the beginning of the video signal. It is here that
visible light is transformed or transduced into electrical energy. The video signal remains
in the form of electrical energy, either analog or digital, for most of the remaining process
until a picture monitor (TV set) converts the electrical signal back into visible light.
Camera has a head unit as well as a base unit. The head unit is located in the studio
and the base unit is located in the MSR. The camera is attached to a head which is in turn
attached to the camera support; in our case a tripod and dolly combination. Also there is
a Camera Control Unit (CCU) which is a separate unit in itself which is used to control
the camera. The base unit of the camera houses all the electronics related to the camera.
Whereas the head unit of the camera is the part which the camera man handles in the studio.
This unit reduces the clutter in the studio, which is connected to other parts of the system
through a triax cable. This cable carries power for the camera, signals of the pictures to
and from the camera and also carries the communications in RF to and from the camera.
The head unit of the camera houses the Charge Coupled Devices (CCD) which take in the
light from the viewing area and convert them to electrical signals. Before the light hits the
CCDs in a colour camera, a dichroic prism is used to split the three primary colours RGB
into three and cause them to be absorbed by different CCDs which are kept at the focus of
the lens system. They absorb light from each part of the screen pixel after pixel and for a
moving picture frame after frame. The CCDs improve the apparent limit resolution with
the help of spatial pixel shifting. There are three types of CCDs available which are listed
below:
Interline Transfer (IT)
Frame Transfer (FT) and
Frame Interline Transfer (FIT)
The DDK Thiruvananthapuram studio uses 4 IKEGAMI (HK 399W) cameras in
studio-1 and an Ikegami camera and a SONY camera in studio-2. The Ikegami camera
and Sony both uses FIT type CCDs. The Sony camera gives a digital output where as the
Ikegami gives out an analog output.
Dept. of ECE
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
to the camera control unit (CCU) through long multi-core cable (35 to 40 cores), or triax
cable. All the camera control voltages are fed from the CCU to the camera head over
the multi-core camera cable. The view-finder signal is also sent over the camera cable
to the camera head. It is this view-finder signals which helps the camera-man in proper
focusing, adjusting and composing the shots. The video signal so obtained is amplified, H.F
corrected, equalized for cable delays, DC clamped, horizontal and vertical blanking pulses
are added to it. The peak white level is also clipped to avoid overloading of the following
stages and avoiding over-modulation in the transmitter. The composite sync signals are fed
to a distribution amplifier, which normally gives multiple outputs for monitoring. All the
correction regarding the video camera is applied here in the CCU. Parameters like average
brightness, contrast ratio, gamma correction, voltage level, etc observed here and if varies
it can be controlled manually or automatically by the machine.
2.1.3
Lighting
When we shoot outdoor program, the source of light is Sun. The natural effect we see
in outdoor is greatly depends on the proper lighting. Lighting for television is very exciting
and needs creative talent. There are two main reasons to use lighting techniques in studios:
1. When we create an artificial set, to make it look like natural we have to give the proper
lighting effects. Lighting also depends on the mood of the scene.
2. The output of the camera is 2D, while natural scenes we see are 3D. On TV screen to
differentiate the main object from the background and to give 3D effect lighting is must.
In studios, mainly Three point lighting technique is used. The three points are:
1. Key light: It is the main light used to highlight any object or to give attention towards the
person. This is full intensity light used to highlight the depth of the object or human face.
Key light is usually a hard source at an angle of 15 to 30 to camera axis at an elevation of
about 40 .
2. Fill Light: It is 80% intensity of the key light and at the opposite side of the camera axis.
Fill light is used to suppress the shadow made by key light. It is soft light and also used to
fill the light in whole room.
Dept. of ECE
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
Microphone
Microphone plays a very important role in the art of sound broadcasting. It is a device
which converts acoustical energy into electrical energy. Different types of Microphones are
the following:
a) Dynamic or Moving Coil Microphone: It works based on the principle of mutual induction.
b) Electret Microphone: It is a modified form of condenser microphone in which the polarising voltage is avoided. Used in cellphones, computers, PDA and headset microphones.
c) Ribbon Microphone: It is having symmetrical front and rear pickup. It is used in normal
stereo recording.
d) Gun Mike: It has two forms, short gun and long gun, and is highly directional. An
example is the picking of the sound of bat hitting a cricket ball.
e) Lapel Microphone: This kind of microphone can be worn on the body.
f) RF or Cordless Microphone: They have a small FM transmitter which transmits the
collected signals to a nearly placed receiver connected to the sound system.
Dept. of ECE
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
2.2
activities like minor editing and management of feed during a live program takes place.
The production manager sits in the PCR and directs the camera-men and selects the angles,
sound parameters, etc during the production stage in the PCR. It is in the PCR that we can
control all the studio lights and all the microphones and other aspects. The PCR is where
the phone-in console and other systems are also kept.
A major objective of TV program control facilities is to maintain a smooth continuous
flow of program material. The overall control of program is done in production control
room by the producer with the help of a production assistant, a CCU engineer and an
engineer at vision mixer. They have in front of them, the switching panel of the vision
mixer console and a stack of monitors for the individual cameras, preview monitors of
VTRs and transmission monitor for displaying the switched output, with the aid of which
the program is edited. The PCR consists of the following equipments:
1. Vision Mixer (VM)
2. Audio Mixer (AM)
Dept. of ECE
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
Vision Mixer(VM)
The Vision Mixer (VM) is the destination point for all the picture sources in the
studio. The output of the studio cameras, video tape recorder, caption scanners, character
generators, etc are fed to the vision mixing unit. A VM or video switcher enables the
program producer to select the desired sources or a combination of the sources in order to
compose the program. The VM is typically 106 or 2010 crossbar switcher selecting any
one of the 10 or 20 input sources to 6 to10 different output lines. The input sources include:
Camera-1, Camera-2, Camera-3, Telecine-1, Telecine-2, VTR-1, VTR-2, Test Signal etc.
The output of the mixer desk is fed to the transmission monitor, transmission chain, etc in
production control area.
Vision mixing is a process of creating video from various sources. Vision mixing
involves basically three types of switching or transitions between various sources. These
are mixing, wiping and keying and digital video effects. VM provides the following operational facilities for the editing of the TV programs:
Cut: An instantaneous switch from one video signal to another (or Take selection of any
input source).
Transition: A controlled change from one video input to another video input or black.
The change can occur through a wipe, cut, dissolve or DVE Send effect.
Dissolve or mix: Fading in or out. A transition from one video signal to another in
which one signal is faded down while the other is simultaneously faded up.
Lap Dissolve: Dissolving from one source to another with an overlap mixing.
Wipe: A transition from one video signal to another, in which the change proceeds according to the shape of a specific pattern. A moving transition line separates the two picture
signals.
Down-Stream Keyer (DSK): A keyer that places a key downstream of the MLE effects
system output. This top level effect usually consists of a character generator title.
External Key: A video input (non-primary video) used to produce a key effect. Examples: character generators and cameras. Character Generator creates the majority of names
and graphics that is to be inserted into programs.
Chroma Key: An effect in which video from one source replaces video of a specific hue
in a second video source. The blue and green hues are most commonly used for chroma
Dept. of ECE
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
sound from the studio or other source. It is the single most important component used to
control audio in an audio chain. The sound mixer used in DDK Thiruvananthapuram is a
Sound-craft sound mixer. It is located in both the PCRs with a standby arrangement for
each.
All mixers carry out the same basic function; to blend and control the volume of a
number of input signals, add effects and processing where required and route the resulting
mix to the appropriate destination, which could be power amplifiers, the tracks of a recording device or both. A mixer is the nerve centre of these sources, and therefore the most vital
part of any audio system. A mixer performs a variety of functions and add some effects
which are detailed below:
Equalization: Useful for making both corrective and creative changes to a sound, but
it need to be used with care. Corrective applications include making tonal changes to
compensate for imperfect room acoustics, budget microphones or inaccurate loudspeaker
systems.
Fixed Equalization: The fixed control influences a relatively large section of the audio
spectrum. Apply too much bass boost and you could find the bass sounds take on a flabby,
uncontrolled characteristic which makes the mix sound muddy and badly defined. This is
because sounds occupying the lower mid part of the spectrum are affected. Similarly, use
Dept. of ECE
10
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
11
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
2.3
grams shot in the camera are simultaneously recorded in the VTR. Also the VTR plays
back all the videos as and when required. Videos of pre-recorded events are queued up
in the VTR and are played back without a break. Videos of famous people and important
events are stored in the central film pool.
2.3.1
digital processing servo system, microprocessors, memories, logic circuits and mechanical devices, etc. The standardized two inch tape quadrupled head recording machines are
called the video tape recorder and are used for the high quality video tape recording. One
or half inch helical scan tape recorders have been used for outdoor field recording. This
multi-purpose studio digital video cassette tapes, and is designed to record, play back and
edit interlace signals (625/525) as well as record, playback and edit existing DVCPRO signals (25Mbps). Its 625/525 switching functions makes this studio video cassette recorder
which can be used anywhere in the world. In addition, it corporate digital compression
technology so that the deterioration in picture quality and sound quality resulting from
dubbing is significantly minimized. The compact, light weight 4U size makes carry easier,
even when mounted in a 19 inch rack. The settings for the units set up can be performed
interactively while viewing the screen menus on the monitor, and editing functions include
both assemble and insert editing.
Dept. of ECE
12
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
Video Editing
Basic steps involved in video editing are:
13
SBCEW, Elavumthitta
2.4
the circuitry of the DDK. All the camera base units, all the vision mixer base units and all
the audio processor base units are kept in MSR. The monitoring and control of all activities
takes place in MSR. It is the MSR which decides what is to go in air. The MSR also
performs some additional functions like logo addition, etc.
MSR is the engineering coordination center for TV station. This room is the center of activity for selecting and routing the signals from various sources to transmitters
and Earth station. This room comprises of routine switcher, stab amplifier, video/audio
distribution amplifier, frame synchronizer, digital/satellite clock monitoring system, logo
generator vector scope, video monitor. The control console panel consists of controls for
routing switcher, stab amplifier, frame synchronizer etc and waveform monitors, vector
scope, video monitors, logo generator, patch panel are placed at convenient places for final
monitoring. The switcher unit and other video equipments are put in a standard rack. 168
switcher has maximum of 16 inputs and upto 8 independent outputs. Anyone of the input
signal can be switched to anyone or to all the channels at the same time. Change-over
unit is used to provide facilities for selecting video signals from one of the two sources.
The change over of all the inputs can be done from panel or from a remote point. Every
colour has a specific amplitude and phase relations. This can be checked in vectrometer.
Amplitude and phase should be maintained to get correct output on the screen. Waveform
monitor is used to check and monitor the video level at exactly 1 Vpp and to monitor the
audio level at 0 dB.
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In the ES all the signals are in digital form, which requires high data rate. So for
the uplinking compression of the signal is required. The compression segment has an
MPEG encoder, digital multiplexer and digital modulator. The encoder converts the SDI
signals to Asynchronous Serial Interface(ASI) signals. Modulator is used to carry these
compressed signal using high frequency carrier. In DDK Thiruvananthapuram, QPSK
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The satellite is equipped with its own dish antenna which receives the uplink signals and feeds them to a receiver. The signal is then amplified and changed to a different
frequency, which is the downlink frequency. This is done to prevent interference between
uplink and downlink signals. The downlinked signal is then again sent to the transmitter
which again retransmits it. Each satellite has a transponder and a single antenna, which
receives all signals and another one transmits all signals back. A satellite transmits signals
towards earth in pattern called the satellite footprint of the satellite.
Reception or downlinking is also done at the ES. The receiver at the ES is known
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2.6
Outside Broadcasting
For live broadcasting like any match or event, Outdoor Broadcasting (OB) van is
used. OB van consist of all the equipments that are present in the studio for telecasting. So
it is referred to as a mini studio. It is constructed on four wheels and so it is also called a
studio on wheels. OB van is usually divided into four parts:
1. First and the largest part is the production area or the sitting area for all directors and
producers.
2. The second part of the van is for the audio engineer.
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Microwave Link
Audio and video signals are feed to microwave transmitter via microwave link. Mi-
crowave link is used in between Kudapanakunnu and Kanakakunnu transmitter. From Kudappanakunnu to Kanakakunnnu, the input video is processed and up-converted. Approximate transmit power is 600 mW.
Another small carriage van for microwave transmitter is attached with the main van
and also diesel generator is taken wherever van goes.
2.6.2
DSNG
In DSNG (Digital Satellite News Gathering) audio/video input is respectively pro-
cessed by audio/video encoder as per the MPEG-2 standards. The audio and video along
with other data are multiplexed. Multiplexed data are forward error corrected using conventional coding techniques. Error corrected codes are QPSK modulated at 70 MHz. The
modulated signal is up-converted to the power amplifiers. Amplified signal is coupled to
uplink dish.
2.7
Transmitter
The last stage is the transmitter which has the antenna and facilities for terrestrial
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separately and then combined in the diplexers at the transmitter output. Because of errors
caused by TV diplexers, a special group delay equalization circuit is needed here.
In LPTs, on the other hand, sound and vision are modulated separately but amplified
jointly. This is common vision and aural amplification. The intermodulation products are
more prominent here and so special filters are required for suppressing them.
2.7.2
Exciter
The exciter stage determines the quality of a transmitter. It contains pre-corrector
units both at base band as well as at IF stage, so that after passing through all subsequent
transmitter stages, an acceptable signal is available.
The 1 Vpp input video signal is limited to 5 MHz in low pass filter and is compensated
for group delay in delay equalizer and receiver pre-corrector unit. The resulting signal is
subjected to DC restoration by clamping at back porch, amplified and inverted in video
processor. The output of the video processor is fed to visual modulator where the same is
amplitude modulated with negative polarity at 38.9 MHz IF and amplified.
The audio signal is frequency modulated at IF of 33.4 MHz in a varactor VCO modulator. The VCO oscillates at centre frequency of 33.4 MHz. The incoming audio is passed
through a balanced to unbalanced transformer and pre-emphasised in a 50 s pre-emphasis
network. Signal is then amplified and applied to varactor diodes. The information contained in the amplitude variation of audio is converted into frequency variation in the VCO.
The VCO frequency deviates about centre frequency in proportion to audio amplitude. The
centre frequency of VCO is maintained at 33.4 MHz which is below vision IF by 5.5 MHz.
This is achieved by a Phase Locked Loop (PLL).
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Video Chain
The input video signal is fed to a video processor. In VHF transmitters LPF, delay
equalizer and receiver pre-corrector precede the video processor. Low Pass Filter (LPF)
limits incoming video signal to 5 MHz. Group delay introduced by LPF is corrected by
delay equalizer. It also pre-distorts the video forDelay compensating group delay errors
introduced in the subsequent stages and diplexers. Receiver pre-corrector pre-distorts the
signal providing partial compensation of GD which occurs in domestic receivers. DP/DG
Corrector is also used in the exciter preceding LPF for pre-correcting the differential gain
and differential phase errors occurring in the transmitter.
The functions of video processor are amplification of video signal and clamping at
back porch of video signal. The functions of vision modulator are amplification of Vision
IF at 38.9 MHz and linear amplitude modulation of Vision IF by video from the video
processor in a balanced modulator.
2.7.2.2
Audio Chain
Aural Modulator unit consists of audio amplifier, VCO, mixer and APC. Audio Amplifier is a balanced audio signal at + 10 dBm from studio is converted to unbalanced signal
by audio transformer. VCO is a varactor tuned oscillator. Its frequency can be varied by a
coil. Transistor TR-17 forms the oscillator. VCO output is frequency modulated by the audio signal. Output level is 0 dBm. VIF signal from IF oscillator and aural IF from VCO are
injected at the mixer. The mixer output is 5.5 MHz. This is processed, divided to produce
a square pulse at 537 Hz. For phase comparison reference pulses are derived from TCXO
oscillating at 1.1 MHz after suitable division. The phase difference develops error voltage
if the frequency variation is present. This voltage is applied to VCO to correct frequency
when PLL is unlocked due to frequency shift.
2.7.2.3
The modulated aural IF and vision IF are combined in a wide band amplifier and
passed through IF corrector for pre correcting DP/DG and response error. The corrected
signal is fed to VSBF and mixer (up converter) unit for up conversion by mixing the same
with LO signal. The VSBF and mixer unit contains a SAW filter for VSB shaping, an
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VSB Filter
Surface Acoustic wave (SAW) filter provide a very steep side band response with
high attenuation outside designated channel. It has a linear phase characteristic with a low
amplitude and group delay ripple.
2.7.2.5
Modulator Module
This unit is an IF modulator which receives the video and audio signals and generates
a modulated IF signal containing an amplitude modulated video carrier of 38.9 MHz and
frequency modulated audio carrier of 33.44 MHz. Inputs are processed and carriers are
generated. AGC and Muting Control is introduced.
2.7.2.6
Local Oscillator
Up-converter Module
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RF Power Amplifier
Solid state power amplifiers are used for terrestrial transmitters. These power ampli-
fiers are used to increase the power of the signal and also to increase the range of the radio
waves.
2.7.5
Antenna
TV antenna system is that part of the broadcasting network which accepts RF energy
from transmitter and launches electromagnetic waves in space. The polarization of the
radiation as adopted by Doordarshan is linear horizontal. The system is installed on a supporting tower and consists of antenna panels, power dividers, balun, branch feeder cable,
junction boxes and main feeder cables. Dipole antenna elements, in one or the other form
are common at VHF frequencies where as slot antennae are mostly used at UHF frequencies. Omni directional radiation pattern is obtained by arranging the dipoles in the form of
turnstile and exciting the same in quadrature phase. Desired gain is obtained by stacking
the dipoles in vertical plane. As a result of stacking, most of the RF energy is directed in
the horizontal plane. Radiation in vertical plane is minimized.
In the high power TV transmitting antenna system, half wave dipole elements are
mounted on the four faces of a square tower of suitable dimension for getting an approximate omni directional horizontal radiation pattern. Following types of VHF TV LPT antenna are being used in Doordarshan Network :
(a) Band III BEL make, half wave dipole V antenna.
(b) Crossed folded dipole (turnstile) Halios make Band-III antenna.
(c) Folded dipole (turnstile) Scala make Band-I antenna.
Antenna panels are stacked vertically and mounted on a tower having some 30 meter
height. Slot antenna elements are used as electromagnetic waves radiator at UHF frequencies. The UHF LPT para-slot (SL-B) antenna manufactured by SCALA is an array of slot
antenna.
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2.8
DTH
Television is the most popular device to provide entertainment to the public with its
ability to receive the video and audio with high quality. Today, the TV channels come by
the following three ways:
By the transmitter means regular reception by all the TV receiver.
By the cable operator which provides channel bouquet with some subscription charge
and
Through Direct-to-Home (DTH).
DTH service is the one in which a large number of channels are digitally compressed,
encrypted and beamed from very high power satellites. The programmes can be directly
received at homes. This mode of reception facilitates the use of small receive dish antennas
of 45 cm to 60 cm diameter installed at convenient location in individual buildings without
needing elaborate foundation/space etc. Also, DTH transmission eliminates local cable
operator completely, since an individual user is directly connected to the service providers.
However, a digital receiver is needed to receive the multiplexed signals and view them on
a TV. DTH, in sharp contrast to cable TV, lends itself to easy monitoring and control.
Transmission in Ku band is most appropriate and widely used for the purpose. Free
DTH service is provided by DDK. Ku band frequency range is 11.7 GHz to 12.8 GHz.
Such a high frequency transmission reduces the dish size.
Digital transmission of TV signal by terrestrial, satellite and cable modes uses DVB
(Digital Video Broadcasting group)-T, DVB-S and DVB-C standards. DTH uses DVB-S
standard.
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PART II
ALL INDIA RADIO
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Radio is a powerful mass medium used in education for disseminating information,
imparting instruction and giving entertainment. It spreads information to a greater group of
population thereby saving time, energy, money and man-power in an effective way. Now
small and handy transistors are available with even poorest of people. A small transistor can
carry the message to any place on the earth. Due to its portability and easy accessibility
radio could found its place everywhere. When one hears radio, simultaneously one can
imagine happenings in his/her mind. So it is called as theatre of blind or a stage for the
mind.
Radio Broadcasting is a one-way wireless transmission over radio waves intended to
reach a wide audience. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast a common
radio format, either in broadcast syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also
can be done via cable radio, local wire television networks, satellite radio, and internet
radio via streaming media on the Internet. The signal types can be either analog audio or
digital audio.
The earliest radio stations were simply radio telegraphy systems and did not carry
audio. The very first claimed audio transmission which could be termed a broadcast occurred on Christmas Eve in 1906, and had to make by Reginald Fessenden. Broadcasting
began in India with the formation of a private radio service in Madras (presently Chennai)
in 1924.
As Indias National broadcaster and also the premier public service broadcaster, All
India Radio (AIR) has been serving to inform, educate and entertain the masses since its
inception, truly living up to its motto Bahujan Hitaya : Bahujan Sukhaya. AIR originates
programming in 23 languages and 146 dialects. AIR has a three-tier system of broadcasting. These three levels of programmes are the national, regional and local each having
distinct audiences.
National programmes are broadcast from Delhi for relay by the capital, regional and
local radio stations. Some of these are the National programme of talks and features in
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1.1
Other Services
News-on-phone service: All India Radio launched news-on-phone service on 25
February 1998 in New Delhi; it now has service in Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Indore,
Patna and Bangalore. The service is accessible through STD, ISD and local calls. There are
plans to establish the service in 11 more cities: Ahmedabad, Bhopal, Guwahati, Gwalior,
Jabalpur, Jaipur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Ranchi, Simla and Thiruvanthapuram. English and
Hindi hourly news bulletins may be heard live.
Direct-to-Home service: This service is offered on 21 channels via Insat.
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CHAPTER 2
RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Radio is the transmission of signals through free space by electromagnetic (radio)
waves with frequencies below visible light in the radio frequency range from about 3 KHz
to 300 GHz. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic
fields that pass through the air and vacuum of space. Information such as sound is carried
by systematically modulating some property of the radiated waves such as their amplitude
frequency or pulse width. When radio waves strikes an electrical conductor the oscillating
fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the wave can be
extracted and transformed back into its original form.
Figure shows how radio communication happens. Information such as sound is transformed into an electrical signal which is applied to a transmitter. The transmitter sends the
information through space on a radio wave. A receiver intercepts some of the radio wave
and extracts the information bearing electronic signal which is converted back to its original form by a transducer such as a speaker. Radio systems used for communication have
the following elements:
1. Transmitter and Modulation: The transmitter consists of a source of electrical energy
producing alternating current of desired frequency of oscillation. It contains a system to
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2.1
Radio Studio
The studio centre comprises of one or more Transmission studios, recording and
dubbing room, a control room and another ancillary rooms like battery room, AC room,
tape library etc. The studio centres in AIR are categorized as Type I, II, III and IV. The
number of studios and facilities provided in each type are different. For example a type I
studio has a transmission studio, music studio with announcer booth, a talks studio with
announcer booth, one recording/dubbing room and a Read Over Room. Type II has one
additional drama studio. The other types have more studios progressively.
The studio complex of AIR Thiruvananthapuram (Type IV), is located at Vazhuthacaud. The studio complex in AIR consists of 7 studios for transmission, recording and
editing the programmes. The live programmes are also set up in these studios. The
recorded/live programmes are then transmitted to MW, SW and FM transmitters, Alappuzha MW and to Earth station through transmission links. Different type of studios in
AIR are:
a. Recording studios:
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There is a table and a microphone in each studio. Before one enters this room, there
is a small enclosed place called sound lock, which prevents unnecessary outside sounds
from entering the studio. The studios are so designed without any interference to ensure
that outside noises are not recorded. For this, besides the sound lock and heavy doors,
the ceiling and walls are constructed with perforated woollen panels. Also, proper airconditioning is maintained in the studios. The studios are to be specially treated to give an
optimum reverberation time and minimum noise level. The entry to the studios is generally
through the sound isolating lobby , sound lock. Outside of every studio entrance, there is a
warning lamp, which glows Red when the studio is ON-AIR. The studios have separate
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Recording
Sound recording is an electrical or mechanical inscription of sound waves, such as
spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound
recording technology are analog recording and digital recording.
Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a small microphone diaphragm that can
detect changes in atmospheric pressure and record them as a graphic representation of the
sound waves on a medium such as a phonograph. Analog sound reproduction is the reverse
process, with a bigger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to
form acoustic sound waves.
Electronically generated sound waves may also be recorded directly from devices
such as an electric guitar pickup or a synthesizer, without the use of acoustics in the recording process other than the need for musicians to hear how well they are playing during
recording sessions.
Digital recording and reproduction converts the analog sound signal picked up by
the microphone to a digital form by a process of digitization, allowing it to be stored and
transmitted by a wider variety of media. Digital recording stores audio as a series of binary
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Microphone
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Editing
The recorded audio signals are further edited by using editing software. Editor is a
computer application for audio editing. i.e., manipulating digital audio. In AIR, Sound
forge by Sony is used. Editors designed for use with music typically allow the user to do
the following:
Record audio from one or more inputs and store recordings in the computers memory as
digital audio.
Edit the start time, stop time, and duration of any sound on the audio timeline.
Fade into or out of a clip (e.g. an S-fade out during applause after a performance), or
between clips (e.g. cross-fading between takes).
Mix multiple sound sources/tracks, combine them at various volume levels and pan from
channel to channel to one or more output tracks.
Apply simple or advanced effects or filters, including compression, expansion, flanging,
reverb, audio noise reduction and equalization to change the audio.
Playback sound (often after being mixed) that can be sent to one or more outputs, such
as speakers, additional processors, or a recording medium.
Conversion between different audio file formats (MP2, MP3, WAV etc), or between different sound quality levels.
2.1.2.1
Mixing Console
Change image to consoles in AIR. A mixing console is an electronic device for combining , routing, and changing the level, timbre and/or dynamics of audio signals. A mixer
can mix analog or digital signals, depending on the type of mixer. The modified signals
(voltages or digital samples) are summed to produce the combined output signals. A typical analog mixing board has three sections:
1. Channel inputs or low level modules.
2. Master controls or master modules.
3. Audio level metering.
The channel input strips are usually a bank of identical monoaural or stereo input
channels. The master control section has sub-group faders, master faders, master auxiliary
mixing bus level controls and auxiliary return level controls. In addition it may have solo
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Scheduling
The edited audio clip is saved and scheduled for transmission. At first we have to
browse the saved program, then schedule it for transmission. Using AIR Browser software
we can schedule the transmission time and date of the audio. After scheduling, copy of the
program or the audio clip goes to playback studio, standby and server.
2.1.4
Playback
The edited audio signals ready for transmission are played in transmission studios
before sending it to the control room. AIR Virtual Studio is the software used in AIR for
playback.
2.1.4.1
Virtual Studio
The Virtual Studio Software package is a complete software solution for any radio
broadcasting setup. This package is an integrated solution for programme recording, editing, secured storage, categorization, scheduling, on-air transmission, logging, commercial
billing etc with very high security features. Components of the software includes:
Virtual Player: It is operated by the announcers in playback studios. The software helps
the announcers in selecting the program schedules and arranging the different datas easily.
Transmission Logger: The announcer creates play-list for a particular transmission in
this area and plays back the same from this area. This includes the programs schedule for
a particular period of time for one week,month etc.
AIR Browser: Using AIR Browser software we can schedule the transmission time and
date of the audio.
Commercial Manager: Using this module the PEX of the commercial section can create
a commercial bank, create a commercial capsule, send the commercial capsule to the playback studio for transmission and can take print out of daily production sheet.
Audio CD Lister: Useful for extracting audio tracks from CD and they can be enqued in
the play list area for play back of the selected cuts.
Central File Manager: It is used to delete the files from playback computers, which are
already broadcast.
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2.2
Control Room
The control room is the main technical area of the radio station. Whatever is spoken
in the studio or played from a CD player or computer is sent to this control room. All
the programmes are sent from here to the transmitter. Thus, mixing and switching are the
important operations taking place in the control room. It is the place, connected with all the
other segments of broadcast. Studio change-over takes place here. Windows Server 2008
is the server OS used here. Switching console is the main equipment used in the control
room and it provides the following functions:
Switching of different sources for transmission like news, OBs, other satellite based
relays, live broadcast from recording studio.
Level equalisation and level control.
Quality monitoring.
Signalling to the source location.
Communication link between control room and different studios.
Outside Broadcast (OB) is the electronic field production (EFP) of television or radio
programmes. An OB Unit is a mobile production unit (with equipment and crew) which
is able to travel to a location and provide broadcast coverage. Equipments used in AIR for
OB : Nagra, Sonifex, Marantz, Sony, Mixers, ISDN eqpuipments, Mic etc.
2.3
another location. Depending on the locations that must be connected, a station may choose
either a point-to-point (PTP) link on another special radio frequency, or a newer all-digital
wired link via a dedicated line. Radio links can also be digital, or the older analog type, or
a hybrid of the two. Even on older all-analog systems, multiple audio and data channels
can be sent using sub-carriers. Stations that employ an STL usually also have a transmitterstudio link (or TSL) to return telemetry information. Both the STL and TSL are considered
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Microwave Link
Microwave link is a communication system that uses a beam of radio waves in the
microwave frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations, which
can be from just a few feet or meters to several miles or kilometres apart. Following are the
properties of microwave links:
i. Involve line of sight (LOS) communication technology.
ii. Affected greatly by environmental constraints, including rain fade.
iii. Have very limited penetration capabilities through obstacles such as hills, buildings and
trees.
Microwave links are used in communications between satellites and base stations,
and in short range indoor communications.
2.3.2
voice, data and other network services over the traditional circuits of the PSTN. The key
feature of ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features
that were not available in the classic telephone system. It is a circuit switched telephone
network system, which also provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow
digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in
potentially better voice quality than an analog phone can provide.
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Leased Line
Leased line is a service contract between a provider and a customer, whereby the
tribution in its network through satellite. The programmes uplinked by this CES will be
received by other AIR stations with their Radio Networking (Receive) Terminals (RNT)
and used either for recording or for retransmission through their terrestrial transmitters.
2.4
tems are arranged in three racks to ensure smooth flow of RF and control signals. The three
racks are Baseband and IF Rack (BBIF Rack), C-Band High Power Amplifier Rack (HPA
Rack) and Monitoring Rack. The outdoor subsystem comprises of 6.1 M Prime focus type
antenna system with two port feed.
The BBIF rack houses the subsystems/units used in baseband processing and encoding/modulation of signals in the uplink (Transmitter path) to get the IF frequency signal.
The HPA rack houses the subsystems/units used in up conversion, amplification of the RF
signal for final transmission (uplink) to the antenna system and a dehydrator unit. The monitoring Rack houses all the receiving equipment for reception of both C-Band and S-Band
signals.
2.4.1
Operation of ES
Information to be transmitted is delivered to the earth station via coaxial cable, fibre,
terrestrial microwave, or satellite. The devices in the transmitter chain typically consist of
the multiplexer, the modulator, the up converter, a high power amplifier, and the antenna.
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CHAPTER 3
MEDIUM WAVE TRANSMITTER
The Medium Wave (MW) transmitter is the medium wave broadcasting facility of
AIR. The MW band ranges from 535 kHz to 1605 kHz. This frequency band ideal for both
local and continent-wide service. During the daytime, medium and high powered medium
wave AM radio stations have a normal reception range of about 20 to 250 miles (32 to
400+ km).The MW transmitters of AIR are from 1 kW to 500 kW power. AIR Thiruvananthapuram employs a 20 kW transmitter which is located at Kulathur. The programs
are transmitted at a frequency of 1161 KHz .The peculiarities of MW transmitter at Thiruvananthapuram is,
Transmission Frequency - 1165 kHz
Range - 2192 km2
Band width - 9 kHz
Carrier power - 20 kW
Transmitter output impedance - 4.2
Apart from the main transmitter at Kulathur, AIR employs a 2100 kW high
power secondary transmitter at Alappuzha with a transmission frequency of 576 kHz.
The recorded/live programmes from the AIR studio at Vazhuthacaud are transmitted to
MW Transmitter, Kulathur through STL, CES and ISDN and MW transmitter, Alappuzha
through DLL (BSNL).
AIR Thiruvananthapuram employs the DX20 AM transmitter for transmission of
programs in MW. The transmitter can be broadly divided into the following blocks:
1. RF Section
2. Audio and Modulation Section
3.1
RF Section
The RF Section RF synthesizer generates an RF signal and then amplifies the signal
to a level high enough to drive the power amplifier stage. In the power amplifier stage, the
RF amplifier outputs are combined and fed to a band pass filter/output network and then
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3.1.1
Buffer Amplifier
It amplifies the RF synthesizer output and provides a stable input signal to drive the
pre-driver stage.
3.1.2
Pre-driver
The Pre-driver stage uses one of the 79 identical and interchangeable RF amplifiers.
The pre-driver amplifies the buffer amplifier signal to a high enough level to operate the 14
RF amplifiers used in the driver stage.
3.1.3
Driver
The Driver Stage consists of the combined output of upto 14 RF amplifier modules.
3.1.4
Combiner and this combined RF output from the driver stage feeds the RF Drive Splitter.
The RF splitter provides separate RF signals to the individual RF amplifiers in the power
amplifier. 128 separate RF drive cables to the PA Module inputs provide additional isolation
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The PA stage may be thought of as a digital to analog converter where the output is a high
power, amplitude modulated, RF signal. The action of the RF combiner and RF amplifier
modules produce RF voltage steps at the combiner output. The power output of each RF
amplifier depends on the total number of modules switched on at any time.
3.1.6
PA Combiner
The Power Amplifier stage is made up of 64 plug-in RF amplifier modules. Sixteen
Output Network
The Output Network transforms the low impedance of the PA combiner output to a
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3.2
converts it to a digital signal. The digital signal is then processed or encoded to control the
RF amplifiers which produce the Digital Amplitude Modulation. Circuit boards in the modulation section include the Analog Input Board, Analog to Digital Converter, Modulation
Encoder and DC regulator.
3.2.1
Audio Input
Audio is fed into the Analog Input Board where it is processed .This processing
includes attenuating the high audio frequencies for medium wave band channel spacing
and adding a DC component to determine the carrier power. This (Audio + DC) signal is
sent to the ADC. A second (Audio + DC) signal is sent to the DC Regulator.
3.2.2
transmitter operating frequency, by the ADC. The ADC converts the (Audio + DC) signal
from the analog input board into a 12 bit digital signal.
3.2.3
Modulation Encoder
It converts the 12 bit digital audio information into control signals which turn the RF
amplifier modules in the PA stage ON and OFF to generate the transmitter carrier and the
instantaneous modulation level.
3.2.4
DC Regulator
It produces the B+ (+5 V DC) and B- voltages used by the modulation encoder. The
(Audio + DC) sample from the analog input board modulates the DC Regulator B- output
voltage. The modulated B- is a bias voltage for the RF amplifier modules in the PA stages,
which varies the turn-on/turn-off times of the modules to optimize distortion and noise
performance.
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3.3
travel close to the earth as ground waves. MW antenna have to be placed vertically, so that
they radiate vertically polarised signals. They are broadly of two types :
Mast isolated from ground and fed at its base.
Grounded mast fed at a suitable point along its height.
As most of the AIR MW towers are of the first category. The MW self supporting
mast antenna could be excited in 3 different methods. The first method requires an insulator
at the base of the mast. The second method is called shunt feed and the third top feed.
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CHAPTER 4
SHORT WAVE TRANSMITTER
Radio communication can be defined as the interchange of intelligence, signals and
symbols between two or more places employing radio waves as the medium of transmission. Ionospheric (sky wave) propagation is a subclass of radio wave propagation which is
used for long distance communication. The ionized region in the upper atmosphere called
ionosphere is able to reflect back the EM waves of frequencies between 2 MHz and 30
MHz. EM waves of frequency more than 30 MHz are not reflected back from the ionosphere, rather they penetrate it.
Since Short Wave (SW) propagation takes place after reflection from the ionosphere,
it is also called ionospheric propagation. Extremely long distance i.e., round the globe communication is also possible with the multiple reflections of sky waves. SW communication
is a subclass of radio communication which uses the upper MF (medium frequency) and
the entire HF (high frequency) portion of the radio spectrum, between 1,800 kHz to 30,000
kHz. SW radio received its name because the wavelengths in this band are shorter than 200
m (1500 kHz) which marked the original upper limit of the medium frequency band first
used for radio communications. SW radio is used for broadcasting of voice and music, and
long-distance communication to ships and aircraft, or to remote areas out of reach of wired
communication or other radio services.
The 50 kW SW transmitter was authorized by AIR Thiruvananthapuram on 6th
November 1994. It comes under the south regional service section of AIR. This transmitter provides reliable program reception throughout India and the Middle East. Due to
the splitting up of F-layer during day time hours, different frequency bands are used for
transmission during day and night. So this transmitter uses 5010 kHz carrier frequency
during night (17:15-07:45 IST) and 7290 kHz carrier frequency during day (08:00-15:30
IST).
The modulation scheme used for the SW transmission is Amplitude Modulation
(AM). In AM, the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the message signal. In general, the modulation schemes used for AM can be
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4.1
Component Description
4.1.1
RF Synthesizer
The RF synthesizer allows the transmitter to radiate a large number of discrete fre-
quencies over a relatively wide band. A typical RF synthesizer consists of a bank of oscillators producing different fixed frequencies.
4.1.2
Tetrode
A tetrode is an electronic device having four active electrodes. The term most com-
monly applies to a 2 grid vacuum tube. It has 3 electrodes of a triode and an additional
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Dummy Load
A dummy load is a device used to simulate an electrical load, usually for testing
purposes. In radio this device is also known as a dummy antenna or a radio frequency
termination. It is a device used in place of an antenna to aid in testing a radio transmitter. If
a transmitter is tested without a load, such as an antenna or a dummy load, the transmitter
could be damaged. The radio energy that is absorbed by the dummy load is converted to
heat.
4.1.4
Curtain Antenna
The curtain antenna is a high gain directional antenna, designed for medium and long
range communication. They are used when sectional coverage is desired, providing high
antenna efficiency and the highest tolerance for unfavourable environmental conditions. T
Curtain antennas are available in two sizes. A low-band array covers the 6, 7, 9 and 11 MHz
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4.2
Operation of SW Transmitter
The 50 kW SW broadcast transmitter HHB144 operates in the frequency range of 3.2
MHz to 26.1 MHz. The transmitter employs the well proven standard class B modulation
system using a modulation transformer. The transmitting frequency is derived from a RF
synthesizer unit external to the transmitter. The RF synthesizer generates two frequencies
5010 kHz (during night) and 7290 kHz (during day). The synthesizer output is fed to
a broadband amplifier which delivers 10 W to the grid of the air cooled penultimate RF
amplifier tube. The output power of 50 kW is obtained from a valve stage. The tube
operates with grounded cathode and feeds into a pi circuit. The output of pi circuit is
transformed to 300 by a balun fitted inside the transmitter cabinet.
In the AF chain, a series of solid state amplifier is followed by two tetrodes in a
zero grid current push pull class B system. The transmitter uses two similar power valves
for achieving amplitude modulation. The first produces the carrier power and the negative
modulation. The second valve produces part of the additional power which is required
for positive modulation, and at the same time, it reduces the load impedance seen by the
carrier valve so that it also contributes extra power at positive modulation. In fact, at 100
% modulation both the carrier valve and the peaking valve each contribute half of the total
power.
The final RF tube and the 2 modulator tubes are condensed vapour cooled. Distilled
or deionized water is used as coolant. A water to air heat exchanger is provided for secondary cooling. A single blower is used for general cooling and ventilation of transmitter
cabinets.
In BEL 50 kW SW transmitters, condensed vapour cooling is used for the PA and
modulator valves. Here a circulation of fast flowing stream of de-mineralized water is
used. Due to the fast flow of water, the vapour is condensed to water as soon as they are
formed. Hence the cooling efficiency is much higher. Filaments of the tubes are cooled by
forced air by means of a high pressure blower. It also cools the R.F. driver valves, the third
harmonic and second harmonic suppression coils.
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CHAPTER 5
FM BROADCASTING
FM broadcasting is a broadcasting technology which uses frequency modulation
(FM) to provide high fidelity sound over broadcast radio. Frequency modulation varies the
frequency of the carrier. FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high fidelity
broadcasts of music and speech.
The FM transmitting station uses a frequency of 101.9 MHz for broadcasting Ananthapuri FM and 105.6 MHz for broadcasting IGNOU programs. Two transmitters are used
for broadcasting Ananthapuri FM and a third transmitter dedicated for IGNOU. It broadcast
signals having a power of 10 kW which is in the line-of-sight range.
5.1
FM Transmitter Operation
The audio signal from the studio is in the frequency range of 400 Hz to 10 kHz.
It is transmitted through Management Leased Line (MLL) to reach the FM transmitting
station. This audio signal is processed by codec and an audio processor. Codec encodes
and then decodes the digital audio signal and connects it to the audio input jack of the audio
processor through XLR cable. The Audio processor used in Kudappanakunnu FM station
is a 6 band audio processor capable of categorizing the input audio signal into 6 bands and
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The FM uses a dipole antenna with a coverage area of about 75 km. In case of any
failure in the antenna the broadcasting power is transmitted through a dummy load.
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CONCLUSION
It was really a wonderful experience to be a part of the inplant training at Prasar
Bharati Doordarshan Kendra, Kudapanakunnu and All India Radio, Vazhuthacaud. Being
a part of this training, I was very pleased to see the technology behind the broadcasting of
programmes at DDK and AIR to almost every part of India. Both DDK and AIR is a free
of cost service. DDK and AIR has completed its objective of providing information related
to every field of daily life to the common man time to time.
DDK Thiruvananthapuram is part of the DD India, the largest television network in
the world. The camera, the studio, the transmitter, the PDA, the setup box (installed in
houses) everything is connected. Here man and electronics work as if they are a family.
So many process and lots of hard work, sincerity is required to just have a program on air.
One must have never thought that so many things are required for watching a television
program. With the introduction of DTH almost cent percent of the population can now
receive DDK Thiruvananthapuram programmes without cable connection.
In DDK, I had learnt about how a video is captured and how it is broadcast to the
public. Generation of a program takes place in studio. For capturing the video signals and
recording audio signals, camera and microphones are used respectively in studio. All these
post production activities are controlled by the producer sitting in PCR. The audio as well
as the video signals are processed separately and then make ready for transmission at the
MSR. This MSR decides which program to go on air. MSR is connected to the Earth station
and terrestrial transmitter. Earth station is the link between the satellite and transmitting
station. Earth station as well as the terrestrial transmitter broadcast the programmes to the
public.
In AIR, I had seen various studios and transmitters. Studio is the place where the actual generation of a program takes place. Microphone is the inevitable device in a recording studio. The recorded audio signals are edited with the support of several advanced
softwares and is transmitted by means of a transmitter. AIR has a 20 kW MW transmitter,
which is located at Kulathur where the program from studio is transmitted to local areas.
Mast antenna is used for MW signals transmission. 50 kW SW transmitter located near
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