Intrinsic Motivation in

Product-Oriented and
Non-Product-Oriented
Activities
Carol S. Thibodeaux,
Feral Menks Ludwig
Key Words: activity analysis. exertion.
motivation

This study investigated the hypothesis that purposeful activity is an intrinsic motivator. We hypothesized that subjects would take longer to perceive
themselves to be working hard and would have a
higher heart rate increase when working on a product-oriented activity than when working on a nonproduct-oriented activity. Fzfteen subjects sanded a
cutting board that they could keep and a piece of
wood that they could not keep until they reached a
rating of 15 (hard) on the Borg Rating Scale of Perceived Exertion. No significant differences were
found in the subjects' heart rate increase or in the
time it took subjects to perceive themselves as working hard. Subjects reported significantly more enjoyment in sanding the cutting board than in sanding
the wood, and significance increased further upon
completion of the sanding board Ex post facto,
when subjects were categorized into three groups
depending upon the degree of likingfor each activity, it appeared that the degree of liking may be important in predicting exercise effort. Implications
for practice and further research are discussed

Carol S. Thibodeaux, MOT, OTR, is a staff occupational

therapist at Spring Shadows Glen, 2801 Gessner Street,
Houston, Texas 77080.
Feral Menks Ludwig, MS, OTR, at the time of this study,
was Assistant Professor at Texas Woman's University,
Houston, Texas. She is now in private practice in Phoenix,
Arizona.

he Philosophical Base of Occupational Therapy

as cited in Willard and Spackman's Occupational Therapy (Hopkins & Smith, 1983) includes the following statement: "Using their capacity
for intrinsic motivation, human beings are able to influence their physical and mental health and their
social and physical environment through purposeful
activity" (p. 27) Purposeful activity has come to be
the term used to broadly define one of the primary
modalities of occupational therapy (Mosey, 1980).
The term itself, however, had defied satisfactory definition by occupational therapists (English, Kasch, Silverman, & Walker, 1982; Trombly, 1982).
Occupational therapists select activities that will
motivate patients to action by choosing tasks that are
purposeful to them. Usually thiS is done by matching
the characteristics of an activity to the needs and interests of a particular patient (Hopkins and Smith, 1983)
It is hypothesized that if a patient enjoys the activity,
he or she will work at it harder and longer (Fidler,
1981). Intuitively this seems obvious, but few studies
have empirically measured this relationship.
A study by Kircher (1984) examined intrinsic
motivation as a factor of perceived exertion in purposeful versus nonpurposeful activity. The rate of exercise was measured by the increase in heart rate at
the same level of perceived exertion while the subject
was jumping rope and jumping without a rope. The
increase in heart rate was Significantly higher when
the subject was jumping rope. According to Kircher,
this finding raises the possibility that subjects perceived the work load to be lighter when doing the
purposeful activity and lends support to the hypothesis that purposeful activity serves as an intrinsic motivator to the performer. We tested this hypothesis by
comparing two activities representative of the activities used in an occupational therapy clinic. The only
difference between the two activities was that one
produced an object that the subject could keep and
that the other produced no such object.
The two activities selected for this study were
sanding a cutting board (the product-oriented activity) and sanding a piece of wood (the non-productoriented activity). Subjects were told that they could
keep the cutting board but that the piece of wood
would not be used for anything. The assumption was
that sanding a cutting board diverted attention away
from the physical effort of sanding to the enhancement of the grain with each stroke and the pride of
creating a useful object that would belong to the subject. It was felt that the subjects would be more intrinsically motivated to sand the cutting board than
they would be motivated to sand the wood because
sanding the cutting board was identified as an activity
that would result in a product belonging to them. The
subjects' attention would be focused on the outcome,

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169

not on the effort they exerted; thus, they would not

perceive fatigue as readily.
The two hypotheses tested were as follows:
1. The amount of time required by the subjects

to perceive themselves as working hard will

be significantly greater when the activity is
sanding a cutting board that they may keep
than when the activity is sanding a piece of
wood that they do not keep.
2. The increase in heart rate required for the
subjects to perceive themselves as working
hard will be significantly greater when the activity is sanding a cutting board that they may
keep than when the activity is sanding a piece
of wood that they do not keep
Review of Literature

Intrinsic motivation. After determining which activities are appropriate for a patient's physical, sensorimotor, psychosocial, and cognitive needs, occupational therapists select activities on the basis of interest to the patient, that is, on the basis of what would
intrinsically motivate the patient. This is done on the
"implicit assumption that the patient would experience satisfaction in the activity itself and this satisfaction would be sufficient to sustain performance"
(Florey, 1969, p. 320).
Proponents of intrinsic motivation models state
that there is a dynamic force, other than external need
reduction drives, underlying behavior. This force
builds toward self-reward in the competent performance of perceptual-motor and cognitive skills
(Florey, 1969). Several psychologists have examined
the concept of intrinsic motivation in relation to competence and environment throughout the life cycle.
White (1971) defined competence as haVing skills
"sufficient or adequate to meet the demands of a situation or task" (p 273). White (1959) believed that
children have the need to achieve a sense of competence. This need is an intrinsic, moderate but persistent, motivator.
To facilitate intrinsic motivation, the environment should be free of stressors, and the external
motivators should be reduced. The environment
should allow for novelty with the chance for exploration, repetition, and imitation. Tasks should be within
the individual's cognitive abilities, be moderately difficult, and have significance in the adult world
(Florey, 1969).
Purposeful activities. Fidler (1981) stated that a
historical tenet of occupational therapy is that purposeful activity proVides incentive and opportunity
for individuals to achieve mastery and to add to their
sense of competence. Both Cynkin (1974) and Fidler

(1981) have described a number of assumptions on

which they believe that the concept of purposeful activity is based. Purposeful activity must be valued by
the society and cultural group. It must be intrinsically
gratifying and the activity must match the doer's
motor, cognitive, and social readiness to learn.
King (1978) talked of the double motivation inherent in purposeful activity: (a) the motivation provided by the activity itself and (b) the realization (occurring during the activity) that adaptation is taking
place (i.e., the patient's realization that he or she is
recovering from disability). King stated that an adaptive response is most efficient when it is organized at
a subcortical level and that it is rewarded by a sense of
mastery and competence. Huss (1981) hypothesized
that because pure exercise or conscious control of
movement does not reqUire a response at a subcorticallevel, it is not purposeful activity.
Trombly (1982) argued that the definition of purposeful activity should include theories of motor acquisition and central motor control: "Any goal to
move involves an internally organized plan to move
and results in automatic activation of lower level circuits" (p 467) It can be inferred from this that exercise is a goal-directed activity. Breines (1984) suggested that purposeful activity should be defined in
terms of the patient's growth, involvement, and organization rather than in terms of what occupational
therapy does and uses. Kasch (1985) suggested
that the definition of purposeful activity be expanded to include activities that increase behavioral
competence.
Research into the connotative meaning of activities has been conducted several times over the past 3
decades. A study by Smith, Barrow, and Whitney
(1959) concluded that crafts could be described by a
number of factors reflecting value, strength, and difficulty. A more recent study by Nelson, Thompson, and
Moore (1982) identified factors of affective meaning,
that is, the factors of evaluation, power, and action,
which can be used to determine the affective meaning
of certain crafts. Rocker and Nelson (1987) found significant differences in hostility and energy between
groups of occupational therapy students who were not
permitted to keep their products and other groups
who were permitted to keep them: The former were
more hostile and had higher energy levels than the
latter.
The presentation of activities has also been investigated. Taber, Baron, and Blackwell (1953) used a
psychiatric setting to study the benefits of assigning a
craft versus allOWing the patient free choice of a craft.
There was greater progress toward the norm in the
nondirected setling. Henry, Nelson, and Duncombe
(1984) examined subjects' affective responses to
choice making or assignment in completing an act iv-

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March 1988, Volume 42, Number

ity in individual and group settings. They found that

the affective responses of subjects who were not permitted choice were significantly different from the
affective responses of those who were permitted
choice Kremer, Nelson, and Duncombe (1984)
found that patients with chronic psychiatric disorders
gave different affective responses to three different
activities.
Steinbeck (1986) examined the effect of purpose
on performance in 30 subjects performing four different activities designated as purposeful and nonpurposeful. One group used the same muscles in the
lower extremity for both activities and the other group
used the same muscles in the upper extremity for
both activities. He measured the number of repetitions, heart rate, and electromyogram (EM G) recordings. Significantly greater differences were found for
purposeful activity in number of repetitions and heart
rate for both upper and lower extremities EMG re
suits were only significantly greater for the upper extremity. Interest was significantly greater for the pur
poseful activities.
This review of the literature examined intrinsic
motivation and purposeful activity and established a
need to further empirically test the hypothesis that
purposeful activity motivates the individual to perform longer and harder This study attempted to add
to the research in this area by comparing the differences in heart rate increase and time spent sanding
between subjects sanding a cutting boarel they could
keep and subjects sanding a board they could not
keep.
Methodology
In this study the independent variable was a tangible
product (cutting board) that the subject could keep.
The dependent variables were the increase in heart
rate and the time spent sanding. The internal validity
was enhanced by haVing all of the subjects participate
in both activities.
Subjects. Fifteen subjects were solicited from occupational therapy students at Texas Woman's University, Houston Center Subjects selected (all of them
women) stated that they (a) were in good physical
and psychological health, (b) were not allergic to
sawdust, (c) enjoyed or would like to try woodworking, and (d) would like to have a cutting board They
were told that the pu rpose of the research was to study
the effects of different activities.
To ru Ie out the effect of testing order, the subjects were randomly assigned to one of two groups
(Group A or Group B). Group A sanded the cutting
board first. Group B sanded the piece of wood first.
Materials and instrumentation. The following
materials were used: bilateral sanding block, incline

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board, fifteen 8 in. X 10 in. oak cutting boards that

needed to be sanded on one Side, eight 8 in. X 10 in.
pieces of oak, Borg Rating Scale of Perceived Exertion, stopwatch, and sandpaper Optional equipment
included safety glasses, smock, and surgical gloves.
The bilateral sanding block was a 12 in. X 2Y-i in.
X 2 Y-i in. block of wood that the subjects grasped at
both ends. The cutting boards were presanded on all
sides but one, with the edges rounded and a hole
drilled at one end so that they could be hung. The
pieces of wood were rough on al \ sides with no holes.
The Borg Rating Scale of Perceived Exertion
(Borg, 1977), a tOol used to evaluate subjective measures of phYSical stress, was used to measure perceived exertion (see Table 1) The validity and reli
ability of the scale was tested by Skinner, Hutsler,
Bergsteinova, and Buskirk (1973) These researchers
compared the rate of perceived exertion and heart
rate responses during a progreSSive exercise test and a
random -order exercise test. No significant differences
were found. In another study, the relation between
heart rate and the Borg Rating Scale of Perceived Exertion was demonstrated to have a correlation of .85
across several work loads (Kinsman & Weiser, 1976).
Procedure Each subject met with the researcher
once to sand the cutting board and once to sand the
piece of wood. There was an interval of at least 1 day
between sessions to control for fatigue in the performance of the second activity. At each session, the cutting board or piece of wood was clamped onto a board
inclined at a 45 angle. The cutting board was placed
rough side up with the hole at the tOp. The subject
was seated in midline with feet flat on the floor The
Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion was explained. The
subject was told, "Work until you feel that you are
working at a rate of 15-hard on the scale." Immediately before the subject started sanding, her starting
heart rate was taken (at the neck) for 15 seconds and
then multiplied by 4

Table 1
Borg Rating Scale of Perceived Exertion

6
7 very, very lighr

8
9 very light
10
11 fairly light
12
13 somewhat hard
14
15 hard

16
17 very hard
18
19 very, very hard

20
, Level to which subjects were asked

to

exert themselves

171

Before the subject sanded the cutting board, it

was explained to her that the board would be hers to
keep. Mineral oil, fine sandpaper, steel wool, and a
leather loop were provided to finish the cutting
board. Before the subject sanded the wood, it was
explained to her that she was sanding a piece of wood
that she could not keep.
The subject sanded using upand-down strokes,
covering the length of the wood with each stroke. The
sanding was timed with a stopwatch. Immediately
after sanding, the subject's working heart rate was
taken and the subject was asked to fill out the appro
priate questionnaire (see Tables 2 and 3).
Data analysis. Performance time was the number
of seconds subjects required to sand either board
until they perceived themselves to be working hard.
The performance time scores obtained from the two
activities were paired for each subject. Heart rate increase was calculated as the difference between the
starting heart rate and the heart rate at the moment
when subjects perceived themselves as working hard.
The scores obtained from the two activities were
paired for each subject. A one-tailed t test for correlated data was used to test both hypotheses with
alpha = .05.
To determine if testing order affected the out
come, the increase in heart rate, and performance
time, we compared scores of Groups A and Busing
a two-tailed t test for uncorrelated measures with
alpha = .05. The groups were viewed independently
and were not expected to differ.

Results
Neither hypothesis was supported by the data (see
Table 4). The amount of time reqUired to work hard
Table 2
Questionnaire Given to Subjects Who
Had Sanded Cutting Board
J. How much did you like sanding this cutting board, knowing

that you can keep it' (Select one)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Disliked a lot
Disliked a little
Neutral
Liked a little
Liked a lot

Points
1
2

3
4

2. How much did you like making this cutting board, now that it is
finished? (Select one)
Points
(a) Disliked a lot
1
2
(b) Disliked a little
(c) Neutral
3
4
(d) Liked a little
(e) Liked a lot
5
3. What do you plan

to

do with this cutting board?

4. Have you had previous experience in sanding? If so, please

describe.

Table 3
Questionnaire Given to Subjects Who
Had Sanded Piece of Wood
1. How much did you like sanding thiS piece of wood' (Select one)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Disliked a lot
Disliked a little
Neutral
Liked a little
Liked a 1m

Points
1
2

3
4

was not significantly greater for the cutting board, nor

was the increase in heart rate.
Moreover, comparisons of the increase in heart
rate and the performance time between Group A and
Group B yielded no significant differences. This finding indicates testing order was not a significant
variable.
When the responses to the questionnaires were
calculated, a comparison of scores for which a twotailed t test for correlated samples was used, showed
that there was a significant difference (alpha < .01)
between how much the subjects liked the two activities (see Table 5). The subjects enjoyed sanding the
cutting board significantly more than they liked sanding the wood.
A comparison between how much subjects liked
making the cutting board once it was finished (Question 2 in Table 2) and how much subjects liked sanding a piece of wood (Question 1 in Table 3) showed
that the subjects enjoyed the entire process of making
the cutting board significantly more (alpha = .001)
than they liked sanding the wood.

Discussion
The small sample size (N= 15) may have resulted in a
Type II error in the first hypothesis regarding differences in performance time between the two actiVities.
The fact that a large standard deviation occurred raises
the possibility that a larger number of subjects would
have provided the power to determine a significant
difference.
The large negative t value (-1.9; P = .95) for
Hypothesis 2 is noteworthy in that a onetailed t test
for correlated data was used If the hypothesis had
been in the opposite direction, it would have been
supported. Thus, a difference between the two sanding activities would be found in the direction of a
higher increase in heart rate for the non-product-oriented group. This would be in opposition to Kircher's
(1984) hypothesis. There might be a need to expand
the definition of purposeful activity to include nonproduct-oriented activities such as exercise as Trombly (1982) suggested. Although exercise may not be
product oriented, it may still be considered a purposeful activity. Society's value system was cited as

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March 1988, Volume 42, Numba 3

Table 4
Differences in Performance Time and Increases in Heart
Rate for Cutting Board and Wood
Variable

Mean

Performance lime
Cuuing board
Wood
Difference

172.30 sec
14860 sec
2370

Increase in heart rale

CUlting board
Wood
Difference

13.07 beats/min
1733 beats/min
-4.26 beats/min

SD

pValue

9351
10647
102

.20

8.62
11.78
-19

95

determining, at least in part, whether an activity is

considered purposeful or not (Cynkin, 1974; Fidler,
1978). Today, society is emphasizing physical fitness
and exercise and that may be why many subjects
commented that they liked participating in this study
because it was good exercise.
The instruction to the subjects to sand until they
felt that they were working hardwas intended to refer
to an overall feeling, but some subjects may have interpreted it to mean a specific muscle feeling. Gamberale (972) found that instructions to rate the over
all perception of effort, not the specific effort of arms
or legs, resulted in a higher correlation between the
rate of perceived exertion and the heart rate. Kircher
(984) had subjects work to very hard (or 17) on the
Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion, whereas in this
study subjects were asked to work only to hard
(15) on the Borg scale. This also may have made a
difference.
The difference between the activities used by
Kircher (984) and by us also could have made a
difference in the results. Jumping employs the whole
body, whereas sanding does not Gamberale (972)
found a higher correlation between the rate of perceived exertion and heart rate for a bicycle task (r =
.94), an exercise in which the subjects use muscles
similar to those used for jumping, than between the
rate of perceived exertion and heart rate for weight
lifting (r=64), an exercise in which the subjects use
primarily the upper extremities The activities Steinbeck (1986) used involved one set of muscles for the
upper extremity and another for the lower extremity,
and this author found differences in strength of signif.
icance between the extremities
The difference in instrumentation could also account for some of the differences between this study
and Kircher's (1984) and this study and Steinbeck's
(986). Kircher (984) used a telemetry unit and EKG
recorder to measure the increase in heart rate. Steinbeck used a Quinton 650 Heartrate Meter with a 3lead chest pick-up and monitored heart rate at I-minute intervals. This study recorded the pulse at the
subject's neck for 15 seconds before the subject

started sanding and then again when the subject reported that she was working hard. Sophisticated
equipment could have provided a more accurate heart
rate record for this study.
Subjects reported that they enjoyed sanding the
cutting board significantly more (alpha = .01) than
they enjoyed sanding the wood. This difference became more pronounced after subjects completed the
cutting board (alpha = .001). Rocker and Nelson
(987) found that subjects became significantly more
hostile and energetic when they were not permitted
to keep a product they had made
Ex post facto, when the responses to the questionnaires were paired with the increase in heart rate
and performance time scores for each subject, we
found that the subjects could be divided into three
groups of five each. One group reported liking the
process of sanding and/or making the cutting board
two or more points more than they liked sanding the
wood. This was termed the Big Difference Group because these subjects reported a big difference between how much they liked the two activities. Using a
one-tailed t test for correlated measures, we found
that all of these subjects worked a significantly greater
time on sanding the cutting board than on sanding the
wood (alpha = .025). Three of the subjects had a
higher increase in heart rate for sanding the cutting
board than for sanding the wood.
The subjects in the second group, termed the
Little Difference Group, reported that they liked the
process of sanding and/or making the cutting board
one point more than they liked sanding the wood. Of
these five, four sanded the cutting board longer than
the wood, but four had an increase in heart rate while
sanding the cutting board that was smaller than, or
equal to, the increase in heart rate they experienced
while sanding the wood.
The last group, the No Difference Group, reported that they liked sanding the cutting board as
much as, or less than, sanding the wood. Four of the
five sanded the wood longer than the cutting board;
and four of the five had an increase in heart rate while
sanding the cutting board that was equal to, or smaller

Table 5
Comparison of Subject's Degree of Liking for Sanding
Cutting Board and for Sanding Wood
Liking

Nlean

SD

After sanding hard

Cuuing board
Wood
Difference

44
34
10

.74
106

After finishing
Cutting board
Wood
Difference

48
34
1.4

41
106

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p Value

3.09

.0 I

458

.001

173

than, the increase in heart rate they had while sanding

the wood.
This study initially did not appear to support
Kircher's findings. However, when the data were regrouped by differences in degree of liking for each
activity, it appeared that most of those subjects who
liked sanding and/or making the cutting board significantly more than they liked sanding the wood, did
sand the cutting board for a longer time than they
sanded the wood before perceiving themselves to be
working hard and vice-versa. Kircher prescreened
subjects and selected those that liked jumping rope.
Her results might have been different had she not
excluded any potential subject who did not like
jumping rope. Steinbeck's (1986) subjects were not
able to choose the activities that they performed, yet
this author found significant differences between purposeful and nonpurposeful activities. Another variable such as enjoyment may have influenced the results. This study indicates the need to determine patients' level of interest in the process and in the end
product of an activity as well as their liking of the
activity. Since the use of a product-oriented activity in
this study was not enough to yield meaningful results,
we recommend that enjoyment or liking be investigated as an important variable.

Limitations
This study investigated only two activities; therefore,
findings cannot be generalized to infer that similar
results will be found when other activities are compared. Likewise, the use of a small sample of female
occupational therapy students who reported themselves to be healthy physically and psychologically
limits generalizability to other populations. The validity and the reliability of the questions we devised for
this study are unknown. Thus, the study's results are
tentative.

Recommendations
This study reiterates the need to individualize treatment for each patient. Tools to do this are activity
analyses that include a checklist of the patient's interests and occupational history. Other tools such as the
therapeutic interview can be used to determine the
personality of a patient, the characteristics of the environment the patient lives in, and the patient's social
involvements. The patient's enjoyment of or liking for
an activity needs to be considered and how it may
affect his or her level of involvement, both physical
and mental, in the activity.
Further research with larger samples and more
activities is needed to explore the variables affecting
motivation in tasks. The concept of purposeful activity

needs to be examined, especially in relation to exercise. Subjects might be grouped and compared according to their degree of liking or enjoyment of the
activity Purpose and enjoyment as independent variables need further research and clarification.
Acknowledgments
We extend our appreciation to Harriett DaVidson, MA, OTR,
and Gale Haradon, MA, OTR, for their assistance and advice
and to the students for participating in the study.
This article was based on research conducted by the
first author at Texas Woman's University, Houston Center,
in partial fulfillment of the reqUirements for a Master of
Occupational Therapy degree.

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