,

123

On

IV.

the

Dynamical Theory of Incompressible Viscous Fluids and

the

Determination of the Criterion,

By Osborne Eeynolds, M.A.^ LL.D,, FM,S.,

Professor of Engineering in Owens

College, Manchester,

Eeceived April 25-Bead

Section

May

24, 1894.

I.

Introduction

The

1.

equations of motion of viscous fluid (obtained by grafting on certain terms to

the abstract equations of the Eulerian form so as to adapt these equations to the case
of fluids subject to stresses depending in some hypothetical

which equations Navier^ seems

distortion^

to

have

manner on the

rates of

introduced in 1822, and

first

much studied by CAUOHYt and Potsson|) were finally shown by

Venant and Sir Gabriel Stokes, in 1845, to involve no other assumption than

which were
St,

||

that the stresses, other than that of pressure uniform in

all directions,

are linear

functions of the rates of distortion, with a co-efiicient depending on the physical state

of the fluid.

By

obtaining a singular solution of these equations as applied to the case of

pendulums

in

steady periodic motion, Sir G. StokesH was able to compare the

numerous experiments that had been recorded, with the

theoretical results with the

result that the

theoretical

calculations

agreed so closely with the experimental

determinations as seemingly to prove the truth of the assumption involved.

was

also the result of

This

comparing the flow of water through uniform tubes with the

flow calculated from a singular solution of the equations so long as the tubes were

small and the velocities slow.

practical,

On

the other hand, these results, both theoretical and

were directly at variance with common experience as to the resistance

*

'Mem. de rAcademie/ vol. 6. p. 389,

'Mem.
des Savants Etrangers,' vol. 1,
t
Mem.
de TAcademie,' vol. lOj p. 345.
f

p. 40.

'

*
II

B.A. Report,' 1846.

Cambridge PMl.
'Cambridge

Trans.,' 1845.

Phil. Trans.,' vol. 9, 1857.

6.5.95

PROfBSSOE

124

0.

REYNOLDS ON INCOMPRESSIBLE VlSCOtrS

encountered by larger bodies moving with higher velocities through water, or by

water moving with greater

Stokes

Sir G.

through

velocities

considered as probably

larger

tubes.

resulting from eddies

This discrepancy

which rendered the

actual motion other than that to which the singular solution referred and not as

disproving the assumption.

In 1850, after Joule's discovery of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, Stokes

showed, by transforming the equations of motion- with arbitrary stresses

obtain the equations of

function, which represented the difference

stresses

so as to

Vis-viva") energy, that this equation contained a definite

('^

between the work done on the

fluid

by the

and the rate of increase of the energy, per unit of volume, which function,

he concluded, must, according to Joule, represent the Vis-viva converted into heat.
This conclusion was obtained from the equations irrespective of any particular
relation

between the

stresses

and the rates of

distortion.

Sir G. Stokes, however,

translated the function into an expression in terms of the rates of distortion, which

named by Lord Rayleigh the Dissipation- Fimction.

2. In 1883 I succeeded in proving, by means of experiments with colour bands
the results of which were communicated to the Societv^--that when water is caused
expression has since been

to flow through a uniform

by pressure
i.e.,

smooth

parallel to the sides of the pipe, or sinuous,

according as U^^, the

discharge,

by

mean

motion of the water

pipe, the
i.e.,

crossing

velocity of the water, as

A, the area of the section of the pipe,

is

is direct,

and re-crossing the

pipe,

measured by dividing Q, the

below or above a certain value

given bv

where

is

the diameter of the pipe, p the density of the water, and

constant, the value of which according to

to all the experiments by

my

a numerical

experiments and, as I was able to show,

Poiseuille and Darcy,

is

for pipes of circular section

between
1900 and 2000,
or, in

other words, steady direct motion in round tubes

as

^<1900

is

stable or unstable according

I)TT

the number

or

>2000,

being thus a criterion of the possible maintenance of sinuous or

eddying motion.
3.

The experiments

showed that

also

resistance to be overcome

w^hich

K was

equally a criterion of the law of the

changes from a resistance proportional

* ^Phil. Trans.,' 1883, Part IIL, p. 935.

to

the

FLUIDS AND THE DETERMINATION OP THE CRITERION.

and in exact accordance with the theoretical results obtained from the

velocity

singular solution of the equation,

when

direct

I3U

4.

125

motion changes to sinuous,

^.e.,

when

K.

In the same paper I pointed out that the existence of this sudden change in the

law of motion of

fluids

between

solid surfaces

DU.

when

= ^K

proved the dependence of the manner of motion of the fluid on a relation between
the product of the dimensions of the pipe multiplied by the velocity of the fluid and

the product of the molecular dimensions multiplied by the molecular velocities which

determine the value of

for the fluid, also that the equations of

motion

for viscous fluid contained evidence of

this relation.

These experimental results completely removed the discrepancy previously noticed,

showing that, whatever may be the cause, in those cases in which the experimental
results do not accord with those obtained

by the singular solution of the equations,

the actual motions of the water are difierent.

But

in this there is

only a partial

explanation, for there remains the mechanical or physical significance of the existence

of the criterion to be explained.

5.

[My

object in this paper

Hmit to the
(1)

Of

criterion follows

is

to

show that the

theoretical existence of an inferior

from the equations of motion as a consequence

a more rigorous examination and definition of the geometrical basis on

which the analytical method of distinguishing between molar-motions and heatmotions in the kinetic theory of matter
(2)

Of the

application of the

is

founded

same method of

and

analysis, thus definitely founded, to

distinguish between raean-molar-motions and relative-molar-motions where, as in the

case of steady-mean-flow along a pipe, the
basis

shows the method to be

more rigorous

strictly applicable,

and

definition of the geometrical

in other cases

where

it is

approximately applicable.

The geometrical

relation

of

the

motions respectively indicated by the terms

Mean-Mean- Motion, and

Eblative-Mean-Motion
being essentially the same as the relation of the respective motions indicated by the
terms molar-, or Mean-Motion, and relative-, or Heat-Motion, as used in the theory

mean-molar-, or

relative-molar or

of gases.
I also

show that the

Jimit to the criterion obtained

by integrating the equations of motion

by

this

method of

analysis

and

in space, appears as a geometrical limit to the

126

PEOFESSOR

REYNOLDS ON IN-OOMPREBSTBLE VISCOUS

0.

no wise

possible simultaneous distribution of certaifi quantities in space^ and

in

depends on the physical significance of these quantities.

significance

Yet the physical

of these quantities, as defined in the equations^ becomes so clearly exposed as to

would elucidate the properties of matter

indicate that further study of the equations

and mechanical principles involved^ and

means of explaining what has

the connection between thermodynamics and the principles

hitherto been obscure in

so be the

of mechanics.

The geometrical

(1)

Of

method of analysis used

basis of the

has hitherto consisted

in the kinetic theory of gases

the geometrical principle that the motion of any point of a mechanical

system may, at any instant, be abstracted into the mean motion of the w^hole system

and the motion of the point

at that instant,
(2)

Of the

may

all

neighbourhood, and a relative velocity (say

f),

and the component- velocity of the molecule

the mass of the molecule, the integrals of
in

the immediate neighbourhood are zero,

The geometrical

;'^

molecules

the

which

relatively to its

and

(Mf ), and (Mt^^'), &c., over

and % [M {u + f )^] = S [M

so to

this assumption (2)

is

the

M being

all

the molecules

(u?

^^)]-^

between the energy

eliminate the internal motions from

when

it is

solely to the distribution in space of certain

And

quantities at a particular instant of time.

it

appears that the questions as to

whether the assumed distinctions are possible under any distributions, and,
under what distribution, are proper subjects

On

all

(2).

purely geometrical, becomes at once obviouSj

noticed that the argument relates

immediate

internal motions taken

its

further geometrical considerations which rest on the assumption

That

in

u and f being'so related that,

principle (1) has only been used to distinguish

mean motion

of the

the difference between u

is

mean-motion of the molecule and the energy of

of the

and

mean-component- velocity (say u)

be abstracted into a

the mean-component velocity of

is

assump>tion that the component, in any particular direction,

velocity of a molecule

which

mean-motion

relative to the

if

so,

for geometrical solution.

(2), and considering

what it implies, the necessity for further definition at once appears.
The mean component- velocity {u) of all the molecules in the immediate neighbourhood of a point, say P, can only be the mean component- velocity of all the molecules in
some space (S) enclosing P. u is then, the mean-component velocity of the mechanical
system enclosed in S, and, for this system, is the mean velocity at every point within
S, and multiplied by the entire mass within S is the whole component momentum

putting aside the apparent obviousness of the assumption

definitely

of the system.

But^according to the assumption

(2), %i

with

continuous fimctions of the position of P, which functions

point even within S

so that

is

not taken to represent the

its

may

have been no

specific

statement to that

effect, it is

* " Dynamical Theory of Gases," 'Phil. Trans./ 1866, pp. 67.

vary from, point to

mean component-velocity

of the system within S, but the mean-velocity at the point P.

to

derivatives are to be

Although there seems

presumable that the space S has

f

'

Phil. Trans.,' 1866, p. 71.

FLUIDS AND THE DETEEMIHATlOiN^ OF THE ORITERIOM.

been assumed to be so taken that

The

P and S

relative positions of

is

is

the centre of graTity of the system within S.

being so defined, the shape and size of the space S

requires to be further defined, so that

of P, which

127

u^ &c.,

may vary

a condition that can always be satisfied

continuously with the position

may

the size and shape of S

if

vary continuously with the position of P.

Having thus defined the

expressions

may

taken over S

relation of

to

S and the shape and

the

size of

latter,

%i, for which % (M^)

which the condition of mean-momentum shall be

be obtained for the conditions of distribution of

will be zero^ ie., for

satisfied.

Taking

S^,

&c., as relating to

t^i,

a point P^ and S,

% &c.,

point of which the component distances from P^ are x^ y.

by however much
and

is

or little

so chosen that

therefore, differ

the system Sp

from

Uj^

u,

S may overlap
&a, may

even

if

Then according

is

S^,

S has

within Sp

Let

to assumption (2),

mean momentum, the mean-value

system S^ must be equal to

this is a condition

iii

y, z,

ti

be taken

that

S^,

(it

itj)

the

CG.

is,

x^ y^

of

S-^,

and

S|

z,

z,

may,

it

every molecule of

for

must represent the

in order to satisfy the

of the variable quantity

over the

tt

the mean-component velocity of the system Sj, and

which in consequence the geometrical

is

centre of gravity at x^ y,

its

t (Mti^) over

can only be satisfied under certain distributions of

function of a?,

P^

z,

be continuotis functions of

component of momentum pf the system within

condition of

as relating to P, another

may be expressed as

mentioned

definition already

For since u

u.

is

a continuous

a function of the derivatives of t^ at P^

multiplied by corresponding powers and products of x, y,

z,

and again by

and by

equating the integral of this function over the space S^ to zero, a definite expression
is

obtained, in terms of the limits imposed on x, y,

z,

for the geometrical condition as to the distribution of

mean momentum can be satisfied.

Prom this definite expression
argument, that the condition

it

by the already defined space Sj

ti

under which the condition of

appears, as has been obvious

is satisfied if

ti

is

constant.

all

through the

It also appears that there

are certain other well-defined systems of distribution for which the condition
strictly satisfied,

momentum

and that

for all other distributions of

u the

iss

condition of mean-

can only be approximately satisfied to a degree for which definite

expressions appear.

Having obtained the expression for the condition of distribution of

satisfy the condition of mean momentum, by means of the expression for
order that the integrals over the space
{u

ttj)]

mean- momentum.

0,

Sj^

of the products

(tc^),

&c.

so as to

obtained for the conditions as to the distribution of

&c., expressions are

S [M

may be

(?i

%t)^

^^ &c., in

zero

when

and the conditions of mean energy satisfied as well as those of

It then appears that in some particular cases of distribution of u,

under which the condition of mean momentum

as to the distribution of

i^ &c,

must be

is strictly satisfied,

certain conditions

satisfied in order that the energies of

mean-

PEOFBSSOR

128

0.

and relatiYe-motion may be

are,

REYNOLDS ON INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

distinct.

These conditions as to the distribution of

^,

&c.,

however, obviously satisfied in the case of heat motion, and do not present

themselves otherwise in this paper.

From the

definite geometrical basis thus

which follow
analysis

obtained,

and the

for the condition of distribution of u, &c.,

is strictly

symbols, and that

under which the method of

method may be rendered generally

adaptation of the meaning of the

applicable, it appears that this

any system of motion by a

applicable to

definite expressions

slight

does not necessitate the elimination of the internal motion of

it

the molecules, as has been the custom in the theory of gases.

Taking

u, v, tu to

represent the motions (continuous or discontinuous) of the matter

passing a point, and p to represent the density at the point, and putting

it,

&c., for

the mean-motion (instead of u as above), and u\ &c., for the relative-motion (instead
of ^ as before), the geometrical conditions as to the distribution of

the conditions of
precisely the

mean-momentum and mean-energy

same form

as before,

any mechanical system however

(1)

are, substituting

and as thus expressed, the theorem

is

p for M, of
applicable to

abstract.

In order to obtain the conditions of distribution of molar-motion, under which

the condition of

may

u, &c., to satisfy

mean-momentum

will be satisfied so that the energy of molar-motion

be separated from that of the heat-motion,

the actual motion and density at a point in

dimensions as

may

correspond to the

scale,

and p are taken as referring to

a molecule, and S^ is taken of such
tt,

or periods in space, of the molecular

distances, then the conditions of distribution of u,

momentum

is satisfied,

under which

it is

become the conditions as

possible to distinguish

&c.,

under which the condition of mean-

to the distribution of molar-motion,

between the energies of molar-motions and

heat-motions.
(2)

And, when the conditions

mation by taking

ic

in (1) are satisfied to a sufficient

and the dimensions of

of any possible periodic or

to represent the molar-motion (u in (1)),

the space S to correspond with the period in space or scale

eddying motion.

degree of approxi-

The conditions

as to the distribution of

mean-mean-motion), which satisfy the condition

conditions of mean-molar-motion, under which

it is

of

&c. (the components of

mean-momentum, show the

possible to separate the energy

of mean-rnolar-motion from the energy of relativemolar- (or relative-mean-) motion

Having thus placed the analytical method used in the kinetic theory on a definite
geometrical basis, and adapted so as to render it applicable to all systems of motion,
by applying it to the dynamical theory of viscous fluid, I have been able to show
:

Feb. 18, 1895.]

That the adoption of the conclusion arrived at by Sir Gabriel Stokes, that the
dissipation function represents the rate at which heat is produced, adds a definition
(a)

meaning of
previously wanting

to the

ti,

v,

t(; the components of

mean

or fluid velocity

which

was

FLUIDS AND THE DETERMINATION OF THE ORITBEION.

(b)

That as the

result of this definition the equations are true^

129

and are only true

as applied to fluid in which the mean-motions of the matter, excluding the heat-

motions, are steady

That the evidence of the possible existence of such steady mean-motions, while
at the same time the conversion of the energy of these mean-motions into heat is
(c)

going on, proves the existence of some discriminative cause by which the periods in
space and time of the mean-motion are prevented from approximating in magnitude
to the corresponding periods of the heat-motions,

and

also proves the existence of

some general action by which the energy of mean-motion is continually transformed

into the energy of heat-motion without passing through any intermediate stage
;

{d)

That as applied to

fluid in

unsteady mean-motion (excluding the heat-motions),

however steady the mean integral flow may

in a degree

and

which increases with the

be, the equations are

ratios of the

approximately true

magnitudes of the periods,

in time

mean-motion to the magnitude of the corresponding periods of the

space, of the

heat-motions

the discriminative cause and the action of transformation are the result
of general properties of matter, and not of properties which affect only the ultimate
(e)

That

if

motions, there must exist evidence of similar actions as between the mean-mean-

motion, in directions of

mean

flow,

and the periodic mean-motions taken

the mean-mean-motion but excluding heat-motions.

of a general

and important kind, such

fluid motions, the

thermodynamics

And

relative to

that such evidence must be

as the unexplained laws of the resistance of

law of the universal dissipation of energy and the second law of

(/) That the generality of the effects of the properties on which the action of transformation depends is proved by the fact that resistance, other than proportional to
the velocity, is caused by the relative (eddying) mean-motion.
ig)

That the existence of the discriminative cause

is

directly proved

by the

existence of the criterion, the dependence of which on circumstances which limit the

magnitudes of the periods of relative mean-motion, as compared with the heat-motion,

on which

also proves the generality of the effects of the properties

(A)

That the proof of the generality of the

effects of

it

depends.

the properties on which the

discriminative cause, and the action of transformation depend, shows that

if in

the

equations of motion the mean-mean-motion

is

distinguished from the relative-mean-

motion in the same way as the mean-motion

is

distinguished from the heat-motions

must contain expressions for the transformation of the energy of

mean-mean-motion to energy of relative-mean-motion and (2) that the equations,
when integrated over a complete system, must show that the possibility of relativemean-motion depends on the ratio of the possible magnitudes of the periods of relativemean-motion, as compared with the corresponding magnitude of the periods of the

(1) the equations

heat-motions.
(^)

That when the equations are transformed so as to distinguish between the

MDCCCXOV,

A.

PROFESSOR

130

0.

REYNOLDS OK INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

and the relative-mean-motions of finite periods,

there result two distinct systems of equations, one system for mean-mean-motionj as
affected by relative-mean-motion and heat-motion, the other system for relative-meanmean-mean-motions, of

infinite periods,

motion as affected by mean-mean-motion and heat-motions.

That the equation of energy of mean-mean-motion,

(j)

system, shows that the rate of increase of energy

is

as obtained from the first

diminished by conversion into

and by transformation of energy of mean- mean-motion in consequence of the

relative-mean-motion, which transformation is expressed by a function identical in
heat,

and that the equation of

energy of relative-mean-motion, obtained from the second system, shows that this
energy is increased only by trtinsformation of energy from mean-mean-motion
expressed by the same function, and diminished only by the conversion of energy
form with that which expresses the conversion into heat

of relative-mean-motion into heat.

(k)

That the

difference of the

two

rates (1) transformation of energy of

mean-mean-

motion into energy of relative-mean-motion as expressed by the transformation

function, (2) the conversion of energy of relative-mean-motion into heat, as expressed

by the function expressing dissipation of the energy of relative-mean-motion, affords

a discriminating equation as to the conditions under which relative-mean-motion
can be maintained.
(l)

That

this discriminating equation is independent of the energy of relative-mean

motion, and expresses a relation between vai-iations of mean-mean-motion of the

order, the space periods of relative-mean-motion

which determine the

maximum

and

^i/p

first

such that any circumstances

periods of the relative-mean-motion determine the

conditions of mean-mean-motion under which relative mean-motion will be maintained

determine

the criterion,

(m) That as applied to water in steady

mean

flow between parallel plane surfaces,

the boundary conditions and the equation of continuity impose limits to the

maximum

space periods of relative-mean-motion such that the discriminating equation affords

definite proof that
it

must fade away

when an

indefinitely small sinuous or relative disturbance exists

if

pDTJJiM

is

less

than a certain number, which depends on the shape of the section of the

boundaries, and

is

constant as long as there

is

geometrical similarity.

While

for

greater values of this function, in so far as the discriminating equation shows, the

energy of sinuous motion

may

increase until

it

reaches to a definite limit, and rules

the resistance.

That besides thus affording a mechanical explanation of the existence of the

criterion K, the discriminating equation shows the purely geometrical circumstances
on which the value of K depends, and although these circumstances must satisfy
(n)

geometrical conditions required for steady mean-motion other than those imposed by

FLUIDS AND THE DETPJRMINATIOISr OF THE CRITERION.

Xo

JL

the conservations of mean energy and momentum, the theory admits of the determi-

K under any definite

nation of an inferior limit to the value of

which, as determined for the particular case,

boundary conditions,

is

517.

This

below the experimental value for round pipes, and

is

about half what might

is

be expected to be the experimental value for a flat pipe, which leaves a margui to meet
the other kinematical conditions for steady mean-mean-motion.

That the discriminating equation also affords a definite expression

(o)

resistance,

for

the

which proves that, with smootli fixed boundaries, the conditions of

dynamical similarity under any geometrical similar circumstances depend only on the
value of
7

fj/"

where

is

resistance

motion

one of the lateral dimensions of the pipe

is

complex, but shows that above the

is limited,

than the

dx

and that the

and that the expression

critical velocity

resistances increase as a

for this

the relative-mean-

power of the velocity higher

first.

Section

II.

The Mean-motiofi and Heat-motions as distinguished by Pe^Hods, Mean-meanmotion and Relatim-mean-motion.-Discriminative Cause and Action of Tra^isformation.

6.

Tivo Systems of Equations. A Discriminating Equation,

Taking the general equations of motion

for incompressible fluid, subject to

no

external forces to be expressed by

A

rhf,

clt

{i

<'^^*-

civ

clt

dw

clt

dx {p.y

d
dx

{p:m

+ p^^"^ +

d^

^P'-'

pvu) H- - (p^^
dy

+ pwn) +

ydy

{p,j,

+ ^"^) +

"^^ ^p'-'

dz

+ ^^*'^^

~{p,,j

+
+

pvv)

dz

pmv)

>

0).

pwv)

+ -J{p., + pwiv)
dz

>

with the equation of continuity

= dujdx
where

p^,^.,

-f-

dvjdy

+ dwjdz

&c., are arbitrary expressions for the

component

K^u I

forces per unit of area,

resulting from the stresses, acting on the negative faces of planes perpendicular to
2

PROFESSOR

132

REYNOLDS ON mCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

0.

the direction indicated by the

first

the direction indicated by the second

suffix, in

suffix.

Then multiplying these equations

respectively by

v,

ii^

tv,

integrating by parts,

adding and putting

2E
and

for

p (u^

v'-

tv'^)

volume

transj^osing, the rate of increase of kinetic energy per unit of

dw

Jl. ^)

JL, ^^

dx

dt

J-

dy

q^fj

dz

=-

+j:,
dii

{up,,)

JZ
dx ^^P-^

jy

+^ +

77.
dy

P^^^

J~

^y""

ly

i:
dz iW^y)

i^^Py)

^^"^'

i:
dz (^^-P-)

dv

Hz
dv

+ Pyy ^
dy + P^J/-^

d'W

>

du

d%(j

^+
dv

iWm)

dib
^^'"^

given by

(up,,)
+ j^ (up,,) + ^
dz

(vp^,)

is

(3).

dio

dio

dz

The

left

member

energy of the

The

first

of this equation expresses the rate of increase in the kinetic

fluid per unit of

volume at a point moving with the

term on the right expresses the rate at

ivhich

work

is

fluid.

being done by the

surrounding fluid per unit of volume at a point.

The second term on the right thereforCj by the law of conservation of energy,
expresses the difierence between the rate of increase of kinetic energy and the rate
This difference has, so far as I am
at which w^ork is being done by the stresses.
aware, in the absence of other forces, or any changes of potential energy, been equated
to the rate at which heat is being converted into energy of motion, Sir Gabriel
Stokes having first indicated this^ as resulting from the law of conservation of
energy then just established by Joule.
7.

This conclusion, that the second term on the right of

which heat
there

is

method

is

being converted, as

it is

usually accepted,

(3)

may

expresses the rate at

be correct enough, but

a consequence of adopting this conclusion which enters largely into the

of reasoning in this paper, but which, so far as I know, has not previously

received any definite notice.

Cambridge

Plnl. Trans.,'

voL

9, p. 57.

,;

FLUIDS AND THE DETERMINATION OF THE CRITERION.

The Component
In no case, that I

Equations of Viscous Flnids,

Velocities in the

am aware

has any very strict definition of

of,

133

u, v, iv,

as they

They are usually defined

occur in the equations of motion, been attempted.

as the

which may mean that they are

velocities of a particle at a point {x^ y, z) of the fluid,

the actual component velocities of the point in the matter passing at the instant, or

mean

that they are the

velocities of all the

matter in some space enclosing the point,

or ^vhich passes the point in an interval of time.

right

hand member

If the

first

per unit of volume, in the matter at the point

over any finite space S, moving with the

between the rate at which work

is

is

and the integral of

fluid,

taken, then the

increasing can,

this expression

represents the total rate of increase

of kinetic energy, including heat-motion, within that space

kinetic energy

view

of the equation represents the rate of increase of kinetic energy,

hence the diflerence

is done on the surface of S, and the rate at which

by the law of conservation of energy, only represent

the rate at which that part of the heat which does not consist in kinetic energy of

matter

being produced, whence

is

it

follows

That the adoption of the conclusion that the second term in equation (3) expresses the rate at which heat is being converted, defines u, v, w, as not representing
(a)

the

component

Further,
in

some

velocities

if it is

the passing matter.

of points in

mean velocities of the matter

the point considered, or the mean velocities at a point
of time, so that S (/)w), S (pv), % (pw) may express the

understood that

space, enclosing x, y,

z,

taken over a certain interval

u, v,

components of momentum, and zt

iv,

(pv)

represent the

yt {piv),

&c., &c.,

may

express the com-

ponents of moments of momentum, of the matter over which the mean

there

still

is

remains the question as to what spaces and what intervals of time

Hence

taken

term expresses the rate of conversion of heat

defines the spaces and intervals of time over which the mean component velocities must
(6)

the conclusion that the second

he taken, so that

E may

include all the energy of mean-motion,

and exclude

that

of

heat-motions.

Equations Approximate only except in Three Particular Cases.

8.

According to the reasoning of the

last article, if the

equation (3) expresses the rate at which heat

motion, either pu^ pv, piv express the

is

second term on the right of

being converted into energy of mean-

mean components

of

momentum

taken at any instant over a space Sq enclosing the point

refer, so

that this point

is

x, y,

z,

of the matter,

to which u,

v, lu

the centre of gravity of the matter within Sq and such

that p represents the mean density of the matter within this space or pu, pv, piv
represent the mean components of momentum taken at x, y, z over an interval of time r,
;

such that p

is

u, V, tv refer,

the

and

mean
t'

density over the time

any other

taken over the interval r

is

and

if

marks the instant

to

which

which p is the actual density,

The equations, however, require, that so obtained,

instant,

zero.

t[{t -

r,
t')

p], in

PROFESSOR

134
p, u, Vy

O.

REnSTOLDS OK INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

shall be continuous functions of space

%i\

this involves cei'tain conditions

dimensions of Sq and

and time, and

it

can be shown that

between the distribution of the mean-motion and the

r.

Mean- and Relative-Motions of Matter.

Whatever the motions of matter within a

fixed space

the component velocities at a point are expressed by u,

taken over S

velocities

If then u,

v/ill

may

where u

is

z is

?/,

may be

ii,

For taking

point x, y, % in an indefinitely larger space, so that

z,

by

z^

where

(-'

all

same way

v, iv

ii^

represent a

a motion at the same point relative to the

it

is

necessary that

the centre of gravity of the matter within S and x\ y\

S,

and putting

measured from the point

shifting

x\ y\ z\ the value of

=%

are to represent the real mean-motion,

v, iv

x, y, z for

directions x, y^

velocity,

point.

any other point within

of X, y,

mean

S {p(^') summed over the space S, taken about any point, shall be
and in order that this may be so, certain conditions must be fulfilled.

(py)}

severally zero

for

at the centre of

Since a space S of definite size and

divided into two distinct systems of motion, of which

however,

(pv),

the instantaneous

the centre of gravity of the matter within S, the motion in the larger space

mean-motion at the

x^ y, z^

momentum

the motion of the matter, relative to axes moving with the

mean-motion at each point and n\ v

If,

if

mean component

be put

may be taken about any

shape

w, the

w^ are taken at each instant as the velocities of

v^

at the centre of gravity of the matter within S.

x^

v,

be expressed by

centre of gravity of the matter ivithin S, the component

gravity

S may be at any instant,

- ")

ii

(i),

x^ y,

a,
z^

6,

for

since u,

v, iv

are continuous functions

so that the centre of gravity of the matter within

for this point is given

+ ( - y) (fi +

(^'

and

it is

at

by

')

(|\ +i("'- ^^ ($),+

the differential coefficients on the left refer to the point x,

for v

the dimensions of S in

y, z

*" <">

and

in the

iv.

Subtracting the value of

to

thus obtained for the point x\ y\

from that of n at the

fLUIDS AND THE DETERMIHATIOF OP THE ORITEBION,

same point the

difference

differences over the space

S about

the space

S about

at x, y^

at this point,

u'

since

z^

by

whence summing these

definition

when summed over

G
S

the value of

is

135

[/) (tf

Ug)] ==

and S

[p

(i^'

kt{p{x-xj]i^^^+\tlp{y

{pit)

a^)]

^')'i

(7)

if),

+ 4^[p(2;
That

(8a).

is

(p1.(f)

2 (p)

way

In the same
for the instant

if

be taken over the interval of time r including

S {pu)
,

and pu

2(p)

then since

for

any other instant

and

f )]

Oj

and %

= pii +

pt^'

t'

Uihi"

n^iH +it where 't[p{t

f^^)
\dt/t

{w^^

[p

+*(^

it)]

- 0M^1 +

&c.,

(IP

0.

It appears that
">i

S (pi//)
2 (/))"

From
that

.
'

IS

<

(8b).

equations (8a) and (8b), and similar equations for

% (pv) and t

(ptv), it

appears

if

(pit')

= t (pv) =

(pw')

0,

where the summation extends both over the space S and the interval r, all the terms
on the right of equations (8a) and (8b) must be respectively and continuously zero, or,

what
X, y, z

is

the same thing,

and

all

of the first order

the differential coefficients of u,

v,

with respect to

must be respectively constant.

This condition will be satisfied

if

the mean -motion

is

steady, or uniformly varying

PROFESSOR

136

REYNOLDS ON INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

0.

with the time, and

is

in the direction of

motion

everywhere
;

for

same

in the

direction, being subject to

no variations

suppose the direction of motion to be that of

x^

then

since the periodic motion passes through a complete period within the distance 2a,

S {pu)

will be zero within the space

2a dy dz^

however small dy dz may

directions y

and

z,

in

be,

and

mean-motion are in

since the only variations of the

which b and

may

be taken zero, and du/dt

is

everywhere

constant, the conditions are perfectly satisfied.

The conditions are

contraction, or

also satisfied if the

mean-motion

is

that of uniform expansion or

that of a rigid body.

is

These three cases, in which

it

may be

noticed that variations of mean-motion

are everywhere uniform in the direction of motion, and subject to steady variations
in respect of time, are the only cases in

which the conditions (8a),

(8b),

can be perfectly

satisfied.

The

conditions will, however, be approximately satisfied,

u, Vy IV of

the

first

when the

variations of

order are approximately constant over the space S.

In such case the right-hand members of equations

(8a), (8b), are neglected,

and

it

appears that the closeness of the approximations will be measured by the relative

magnitude of such terms as

a d^u/dx\

&c., T d^u/dt^ as

compared with du/dx, du/dt, &c.

made

Since frequent reference must be

to these relative values, and^ as in periodic

motion, the relative values of such terms are measured by the period (in space or time)
as

compared with

a, 6, c

and

r,

which

are, in a sense,

the periods of u\ v\ w\ I shall

use the term period in this sense, taking note of the fact that
is

when the mean-motion

constant in the direction of motion, or varies uniformly in respect of time,

periodic,

i.e,,

its

it is

not

periods are infinite.

9. It is thus seen that the closeness of the approximation with which the motion of
any system can be expressed as a varying mean-motion together with a relativemotion, which, when integrated over a space of which the dimensions are a, 6, c, has

no momentum, increases as the magnitude of the periods of t^,

the periods of u

v\

w\ and

is

measured by the

i;, %\)

in comparison with

ratio of the relative orders of

magni-

tudes to which these periods belong.

Heat-motions in Matter are Approximately Relative

The general experience that heat

in no

way

affects

the

to the

Mean-mMions,

momentum

of matter, shows

that the heat-motions are relative to the mean-motions of matter taken over spaces of

FLUIDS AND THE DETERMINATION OF THE CRITERION.

But, as heat

sensible size.
if

is

by no means the only state of relative-motion of matter,

the heat-motions are relative to

may

be, it follows

137

all

mean-motions of matter, whatsoever their periods

that there must be some discriYainative cause

which prevents the

existence of relative-motions of matter other than heat, except mean-motions with

periods in time and space of greatly higher orders of magnitude than the corres-

otherwise, by equations (8a), (8b), heat-motions

ponding periods of the heat-motions-

could not be to a high degree of approximation relative to

all

we

other motions, and

could not have to a high degree of approximation,

"""

clu

chi

dv

civ
P-'^y /i^
^fe

dv

-^^ ^ "^
+ V^y
+ Pyy
^^ X"
"^"

/u',

dio

^"V&

chb

Py'dy^

"~~

"~"
^^^

(/^")

(^/^

dw

div

'^

6^

^''

where the expression on the right stands

~d^

for the rate at

which heat

is

converted into

energy of mean-motion.

Transformation of Energy of Relative-mean-motion

to

Energy of Heat-motion.

The recognition of the existence of a discriminative cause, which prevents the

existence of relative-mean-motions with periods of the same order of magnitude as
heat-motions, proves the existence of another general action by which the energy of
relative-mean-motion, of which the periods are of another and higher order of
10.

magnitude than those of the heat-motions,

For

if

is

transformed to energy of heat-motion.

relative-mean-motions cannot exist with periods approximating to those of

heat, the conversion of energy of

mean-motion into energy of heat, proved by Joule,

cannot proceed by the gradual degradation of the periods of mean-motion until these
periods coincide with those of heat, but must, in
result of

its final stages,

at all events, be the

some action which causes the energy of relative-mean-motion

formed into the energy of heat-motions without intermediate existence

to

be trans-

in states of

relative-motion with intermediate and gradually diminishing periods.

That such change of energy of mean-motion

becomes apparent when

called transformation

to

it is

energy of heat

may

be properly

remembered that neither mean-

motion nor relative-motion have any separate existence, but are only abstract
quantities, determined

actual-motion may,

by the particular process of abstraction, and

by the process of

abstraction, cause

so changes in the

transformation

of the

abstract energy of the one abstract-motion, to abstract energy of the other abstract-

motion.

All such transformation must depend on the changes in the actual-motions, and so

A.

MDCCCXCV.^

PROFESSOR

138

0.

must depend on mechanical

REYNOLDS ON INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

principles

and the properties of matter, and hence the

direct passage of energy of relative-mean-motion to energy of heat-motions

is

evidence

of a general cause of the condition of actual-motion w^hich results in transformation

which may be called the ccmse of transformation.

The Discriminative Cause, and

11.

The only known

the

Cause of Transformation.

characteristic of heat-motions, besides that of being relative

to the mean-motion, already mentioned,

is

that the motions of matter which result

from heat are an ultimate form of motion which does not alter so long as the meanmotion

is

matter.

uniform over the space, and so long as no change of state occurs in the

In respect of this characteristic, heat-motions

unique, and

it

are,

so far as

we know,

would appear that heat-motions are distinguished from the mean-

motions by some ultimate properties of matter.

It

does

not,

however, follow that the cause of transformation, or even the

discriminative cause, are determined

by these

can only be ascertained by experience.

on properties of matter which only

properties.

Whether

this is so or not

depend

solely

then no similar

effect

If either or both these causes

affect the heat-motions,

would result as between the variations of mean-mean- motion and relative-meanmotion, whatever might be the difference in magnitude of their respective periods.

Whereas,

if

these causes depend on properties of matter which affect

all

modes of

motion, distinctions in periods must exist between mean-mean-motion and relative-

mean-motion, and transformation of energy take place from one to the other, as

between the mean-motion and the heat-motions.

The mean-mean-motion cannot, however, under any circumstances stand to the

relative-mean-motion in the same relation as the mean-motion stands to the heatmotions, because the heat-motions cannot be absent^ and in addition to any transformation from mean-mean-motion to relative-mean-motion, there are transformations

both from mean- and relative-mean-motion to heat-motions, which transformation

may have

important effects on both the transformation of energy from mean- to

relative-mean-motion, and on the discriminative cause of distinction in their periods.

In spite of the confusing

seem that evidence

effect of

the ever present heat-motions,

as to the character of the properties on

it

would, however,

which the cause of trans-

formation and the discriminative cause depend should be forthcoming as the result of
observing the mean- and relative-mean-motions of matter.

To prove by experimental evidence that the effects of these properties of

matter are confined to the heat-motions, would be to prove a negative but if these
properties are in any degree common to all modes of matter, then at first sight it
must seem in the highest degree improbable that the effects of these causes on the
mean- and relative-mean-motions would be obscure, and only to be observed by
For properties which can cause distinctions between the mean- and
delicate tests.
12.

FLUIDS AND THE DBTERMINATIOK OF THE CRITERION.

139

heat-motions of matter so fundamental and general, that from the time these motions

were

recognized the distinction has been accepted as part of the order of nature,

first

and has been so famihar to us that

its

have any

effects

effect at all,

bat cause

mean-motions of matter.

It

cause has excited no curiosity, cannot,

they

which are general and important on the

would thus seem that evidence of the general

such properties should be sought in those laws and phenomena

result of experience, but of

if

known

effects of

to us as the

which no rational explanation has hitherto been found

such as the law that the resistance of fluids moving between solid surfaces and of

moving through

manner that the general-motion is not

periodic, is as the square of the velocities, the evidence covered by the law of the
universal tendency of all energy to dissipation and the second lav/ of thermo-

solids

in such a

fluids,

dynamics.
13.

In considering the

evidence

it

first

of the instances mentioned,

affords as to the general effect of the properties,

tion of energy from

mean- to relative-motion, is very

on which depends transforma-

direct.

with colour bands have shown that when the resistance of

varies with a

power of the velocity higher than the

of sinuous motion,

it

is

steadv

fluids, in

the fluid

my experiments

is

mean

flow,

always in a state

is

evidence of the

by which energy of mean-mean-motion with

infinite

directly transformed to the energy of relative-mean-motion, with finite

periods, represented

sinuous,

For, since

appears that the prevalence of such resistance

existence of a general action

periods

first

be seen that the

it will

by the eddying motion, which renders the general mean-motion

by which transformation the

state of eddying-motion is maintained, not-

withstanding the continual transformation of

We have thus direct evidence

its

energy into heat-motions.

that properties of matter which determine the cause

of transformation, produce general

and important

effects

which are not confined to the

heat-motions.

In the same way, the experimental demonstration I was able to obtain, that
relative-mean-motion in the form of eddies of finite periods, both as shown by colour

bands and as shown by the law of resistances, cannot be maintained except under
circumstances depending on the conditions which determine the superior limits to the
velocity of the mean-mean-motion, of infinite periods, and the periods of the relativemean-motion, as defined in the criterion

not only a direct experimental proof of the existence of a discriminative cause which
prevents the maintenance of periodic mean-motion except with periods greatly in excess
1s

of the periods of the heat-motions, but also indicates that the discriminative cause
depends on properties of matter which affect the. mean-motions as well as the heatmotions.

T 2

140

PBOFESSOB

0.

REYNOLDS ON INCOMPEESSIBLl VISCOUS

Expressions for the Rate of Transformation and the Discriminative Cause,

14.

It has already

been shown (Art.

to a true expression of the relations

ratio of the periods of

Hence

to infinity.

it

8) that the equations of

between

tlie

motion approximate

mean -motions and

stresses,

when

the

mean-motions to the periods of the heat-motions approximates

follows that these equations

must of necessity include whatever

mechanical or kinematical principles are involved in the transformation of energy of

mean-mean -motion

to energy of relative-mean-motion.

It has also been

shown that

the properties of matter on which depends the transformation of energy of varying

mean-motion

to relative-motion are

Hence,

the heat-motion.

if

common

to the relative-mean- motion as well as to

the equations of motion are applied to a condition in

which the mean- motion consists of two components, the one component being a meanmean-motion, as obtained by integrating the mean-motion over spaces S^ taken about
the poiut X,

y, 0, as

centre of gravity, and the other component being a relative-mean-

motion, of which the

where vanish,
(1)

That

it

mean components

follows

momentum taken

over the space Sj every-

the resulting equations

of transformation

of

from

of motion must contain an expression for the rate

energy of mean-mean-motion

to

energy of relative-mean-

motion^ as well as the expressions for the transformation of the respective energies of

mean- and relative-mean-motion

(2)

to

energy of heat-motion

That, tvhen integrated over a complete system these equations must shotv that the

of the maintenance of the energy of relative-mean-motion depends^ tvhatsoever

onay he the conditions^ on the possible order of magnitudes of the periods of the relative-

possibility

mean-motion, as compared

tvith the

periods of the heat-motions.

The Equations of Mean- and Relative Mean-Motion,

15.

These

last conclusions, besides bringing the general results of the previous

argument to the
of motion,

test point, suggest the

by which the

test

may be

manner of adaptation of the equations

applied.

Put
tt

= + v\
t6

V = V -^ V\

'==-

'{'

%d\

(11),

(12),

is

at the

where

u =z%(^piiyS{p),

&c.^ &G,

the summation extending over the space S^ of which the centre of gravity

FLUIDS AND THE DETBEMINATION OF THE ORTTBRIOE.

point X,
tf,

t;,

10^

y^

Then

z.

and u\ v\

since u, %\ tv are continuous functions of x^ y,

continuous functions of x^

iv\ are

And

z.

y^

as

constant, the equations of continuity for the two systems of motion are

clu

dv

dw

-J

iitV

also both

may

CUtjO

dm

is

therefore

assumed

*4-

-~i

ay

(13);

dz

systems of motions must satisfy the boundary conditions, whatever they

be.

Further putting
Sj

OjJj

"4-

"";

z^

dv/

dv^

d'li^

and

141

p^x^ &C.5 for

the

mean values of the

stresses taken over the space

and

and defining S| to be such that the space variations of

constant over this space,

we

have, putting iiu\ &c., for the

and products of the components of relative-mean-motion,

t?,

are approximately

mean values
for

of the squares

the equations of mean-

mean-motion,
du

Pdi

dm

ay

_._

>

&c.

(I5)j

&c.

&c.

which equations are approximately true at every point in

tlie

same sense as that

in

which the equations (1) of mean-motion are true.

Subtracting these equations of mean-mean-motion from the equations of meanmotion,

we have

aw
cluf

d
ay

u'v)}

&c., &c. (16),

which are the equations of

momentum

of relative-mean-motion at each point.

PEOFESSOR

142

REYNOLDS

0.

OIT

INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

Again, multiplying the equations of mean-mean-motion hj u,

adding and putting

dt

= p {u^ +

2E

cU

dx

- -> +

[u

d_
-j: I^'

dx

(^.,.,

(P^y

obtain

iVy-'c

J,,

+ ^'1 +
]

d_

fy \y {Vyy

+ v'v') +
]

[
f?^

+
,

dv -^

dv

d^

^^^

dw

""

dw

d .(Pa-

(p,,

+ tJw)

:r\u
ffe

.
[t;

^^

^'^
,7; C

&
<^

>

+ ^'^')]

dx

dy

OjZ

fto

ck

-j-

P'^ dy
dt(^

fw

{^

i(; t6

-rr

dx

i(;

f -^
dy

-+

tow

--r

dz

the approximate equation of energy of mean-mean-motion in the same sense

as the equation (3) of energy of mean-motion

is

approximate.

In a similar manner multiplying the equations (16) for the

mean-motion respectively by
for

(P^^

''ie'')3

du

"^ ^^"
*/

^'^

du
^^*'

^^^

is

dib

which

''*^')]

fw (f-'-+ ^'')] + .^ ^ (P^^ + ^^'^')] +

+ 7:
dr-

P'" dx
J

we

r-

+ dy [

'')]

_j_

+ ^^^)j

dz,

v_

^^

respectively,

tv

v^

ii\

momentum

of relative-

v\ iv\ and adding^ the result would be the equation

energy of relative-mean-motion at a point, but this would include terms of

which the mean values taken over the space

Sj^^

are zero, and, since all corresponding

terms in the energy of heat are excluded, by summation over the space Sq in the
expression for the rate at which mean-motion is transformed into heat, there is no
reason to include

them

for the space Sj

2}L'

we

obtain

so that, omitting all such terms

= p{u^ + v'^+w''-)

,.

and putting

\"^^/j

FLUIDS AND THE DETERMINATION OF THE CRITERION.

dm

at

ay

dx

az,

"u if',,

+ ptc^V)] + - \u

+ Z. b' {P'y- +

v'u')}

+ T. [^' (P^^ +

^^''^^')]

C?,2?

?^

"

+r

'
'

^y

;jr..

ajj

+ ^^'^0] + k b^' (pV- +

(p',^

a'd

P yy

^y

fly

where only tbe mean valueSj over

^^

'

^-1 + pi;

dyy

/
\

[t;'

{p',^

<i;^

-f

pun

F ^y

dw'

iFy^

+-

'

dv'

v'v')'\

""

d%(f

dz

dw'

P'^^ diB
.7n,

[t;'

(pV.

^'^^01

^'w')]

+ ^ K (fV + w'^'Ol + ^ C^' (P^^ + ^^'^')]

aoo

vvi/
dv^

+^

dw

d'uf

P ^^

143

dz

aw
-ax

_--_^
'^^'

dw
:.

{lov

+ puw dz
'

"

'

'

f""

a%(j

'

'y

di(^

~-

M-y

-._ dm
iv -^-

-f. pt(?

az

space S^, of the expressions In the right

tlie

(19)

it;

aif

7-7

+ pW

au
~r
dv
^2/

~
+ pvr-ydv
az

nr p^'^
Y~
aw

ih

/)?i^

7 f

+ pit V

memher

are taken into account.

This

is

the equation for the

mean

rate, over the space S^, of

change

in the

energy

of relative-mean-motion per unit of volume.

It

may

be noticed that the rate of change in the energy of mean-mean-motion

together with the

mean

rate of change in the energy of relative-mean-motion^

must

be the total mean-rate of change in the energy of mean-motion, and that by adding
the equations (17) and (19) the result
of energy of mean-motion

by omitting

is

the same as

all

obtained from the equation (3)

terms which have no mean value as summed
is

over the space Sp

The Expressions from Transformation of Energy from Mean-mean-motion

to Relative-*

mean-motion.

16.

When

equations (17) and (19) are added together, the only expressions that

do not appear in the equation of mean energy of mean- motion are the last terms on
the right of each of the equations, which are identical in form and opposite in sign.

These terms which thus represent no change in the total energy of mean-motion
can only represent a transformation from energy of mean-mean-motion to energy of
relative-mean-motion.

And

as they are the only expressions which

of the general expression for the rate of change of the

do not form part

mean energy

of mean-motion,

they represent the total exchange of energy between the mean-mean-motion and the
relative-mean-motion.
It

is

also seen that the action, of

which these terms express the

effect, is

purely

PROFESSOR

144

0.

RPJYKOLDS ON USTCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

kinenmtical, depending simply on the instantaneous characters of the mean- and

relative-mean-motion, whatever

may be

the properties of the matter involved, or the

mechanical actions which have taken part in determining these characters.

The

termSj therefore, express the entire result of transformation from energy of mean-

mean-motion to energy of relative-mean -motion, and of nothing but the transformaTheir existence thus completely verifies the

tion.

of the general conclusions

first

in Art. 14.

The term last but one in the right member of the equation (17) for energy of
mean-mean-motion expresses the rate of transformation of energy of heat-motions
to that of energy of mean-mean-motion, and is entirely independent of the relativemean-motion.

In the same way, the term

last

but one on the right of the equation (19)

for

energy of relative-mean-motion expresses the rate of transformation from energy of

heat-motions to energy of relative-mean-motion, and

is

quite independent of the

mean-mean-motion.
In both equations (17) and (19) the

17.

first

terms on the right express the rates

and relative-mean-motion are increasing

on account of work done by the stresses on the mean- and relative-motion
respectively, and by the additions of momentum caused by convections of relativeat which the respective energy of mean-

mean-motion

by relative-mean-motion

the

to

mean- and relative-mean-motions

respectively.

It

may

term on the right in the equation (19)

independent of mean-mean-motion, the corre-

also be noticed that while the first

of energy of relative-mean-motion

is

sponding term in equation (17) for mean-mean-motion

is

not independent of relative-

mean-motion.

A
18.

Discriminating Equation,

In integrating the equations over a space moving with the mean-mean-motion

of the fluid the first terms on the right

may

integrals respectively express the rates at

is

be expressed as surface integrals, which

which work

is

being done on, and energy

being received across, the surface by the mean-mean-motion, and by the relative-

mean-motion.
If the space over which the integration extends includes the whole system, or such

part that the total energy conveyed across the surface by the relative-mean-motion is
zero, then the rate of change in the total energy of relative-mean-motion within the

the difference of the integral, over the space, of the rate of increase of this
energy by transformation from energy of mean-mean-motion, less the integral rate

space

is

at which energy of relative-mean-motion

equation (19),

is

being converted into heat, or integrating

FLUIDS AND THE DITERMIFATION OP THE CRITERION".

Cv

Cv

Cv

dy

chj

'

(it

npf/

-.

d% I
/*"*'

77 dib

die

r-y

pun

dx

'

J J

+ piOU
dvl

4RMMAMWM

dy

'

+ plV

-^
dm

d%(!

'

"^

dvl

P'-^

dm dy dz

a^

+ ptV

-~

1)

+ i^V' T~"
dy +

T"

d/fi

dz

IX'tAj

r Ip'a^x

145

ID

""^

d^

(20).

F^-y dx

dv/

P xz
L

dm

This equation expresses the fundamental relations

(1)

That

(2)

That^ unless relative energy

of the mean-mean-motion on the relative-meanmotion is the integral of the rate of transformation from energy of mean-meanmotion to energy of Q^elative-mean-motion,
the only integral effect

altered by actions across the surface tvithin ivhich

is

the integration extends^ the integral energy

of relative-mean-motion

or diminishing according as the integral rate of transformation

motion

relative-mean" motion

to

greater or

is

less

he increasing

tvill

from mean-mean-

than the rate of conversion of the

energy of relative-mean-motion into heat,

19.

For

p'x:^,

&C.5

are substituted their values as determined according to the

theory of viscosity, the approximate truth of which has been

verified, as

already

explained.

Putting
<Y\

P:.

i^

\\/tX/

fdu^

rt

.,.,1.,-.

,'".

"T

..,..,

p ^^
I

,
\

dv'
.

dw^

^____

^^ -r ^^

2[JL

&C.5 &C.
f*

[did

dv^\

Vm
we

ui

i.

dx

have, substituting in the last term of equation (20), as the expression for the

rate of conversion of energy of relative-mean-motion into heat,

d
,

(pH) dx dy dz

A/

/jrj

.
f

d%'

[dw
.

dv'\^

dv^

dy

dv^

,.

/dib^

..1

dz

dw^\^
dz

cly

dQD^'

,
.

dw J

'

dto'\^

4-

|n n

/dv^

\dy J
,

ckb'\^

dz J

tviC'

ti/X I

V<r^:^

dy j

\ dz

ax ay az

MJ

ay

MDCCUXCV.A.

dv/
i|ipi>

fJ/Vi

dt

/^

___

iZi^)

PROFESSOR

146
in

which

/x is

REYNOLDS OK IKOOMPRESSIBLE YISOOUS

0.

a function of temperature only

'dio\^

ja

t~f -JL.JL

dx j

clt

dv/\^

'dvl

or since p

'dv

9.

'

Au!\^

"4

dx

dz

whence substituting

for the last

relative-mean-motion

is

here considered as constant.

d'W

dx

term in equation (20) we have,

-,

dx

+ w

tt V-

li

dy
dv

~~-r~r

dm
_____^

+W
r

cho

~-^-r~j

---f-iov

II

aA'

v"'

dz

dw

-r-i dv

dy

dz

dvj
"7- '-

+
.

dx dy

d.z

-,-7 dia

ID to

-T"
rf^

3/

"^

I-

ia?
r

\dz

\dy

dv'V

fdiv'

IdAjJ

dvj\^

dx dy dz

>

<^

r^s;

ilii

""

~~"

dx

(24),

dill' 3

I'dv^
wiiiiiiii

'

wnw l wiia

^dx

is

the energy of

if

'A

-p

which

(23),

maintained, neither increasing or diminishing,

uu

/"

d.v\^

'dii/

dx dy dz

/X

i\

dz

djy

Idv'

f\

is

dnj

a discriminating equation as to the conditions under which relative-mean-

motion can be sustained.

20.

Since this equation

the relative-mean-motion,

is

it

homogeneous

in respect to the

at once appears that

relative-mean-motion divided by the

p.

So that

it is

component

velocities of

independent of the energy of

if ft/p is

constant, the condition

it

expresses depends only on the relation between variations of the mean-mean-motion

and the

directional, or angular, distribution of the relative-mean-motion,

and on the

squares and products of the space periods of the relative-mean- motion.

And

since the second

relative-mean-motion

is

term expressing the rate of conversion of heat into energy of

always negative, it is seen at once that, whatsoever may be

the distribution and angular distribution of the relative-mean-motion and the variations of the

mean-mean-motion, this equation must give an

inferior limit for the rates

of variation of the components of mean-mean-motion, in terms of the limits to the

periods of relative-mean-motion, and

mean-motion

is

impossible.

mean-motion are not

mean-motion

And

/x/p,

within which the maintenance of relative-

that, so long as the limits to the periods of relative^

infinite, this inferior limit to

will be OTeater

than

zero.

the rates of variation of the mean-

FLUIDS AND THE DETERMIN ATiON OF THE CRITERION.

Thus

tlie

verified,

147

second conclusion of Art. 14, and the whole of the previous argument

is

and the properties of matter which prevent the maintenance of mean-motion

with periods of the same order of magnitude as those of the heat-motion are shown to
be amongst those properties of matter which are included in the equations of motion
of which the truth has been verified

by experience.

The Cause of Transformation,

21.

The transformation

function,

which appears

in the equations of

mean-energy of

mean- and relative-mean-motion, does not indicate the cause of transformation, but
only expresses a kinematical principle as to the eifect of the variations of mean-meanmotion, and the distribution of relative-mean-motion.

and the mechanical

properties of matter

principles

In order to determine the

on which the

effect of

the variations

of the mean-mean-motion on the distribution and angular distribution of relative-mean-

motion depends,
at a point

necessary to go back to the equations (16) of relative-momentum

it is

and even then the cause

is

only to be found by considering the effects of

the actions which these equations express in detail

though

it

in

no way

the equations,

may

The determination of this

affects the proofs of the existence of the criterion as

case, is

deduced from

be the means of explaining what has been hitherto obscure in the

connection between thermodynamics and the principles of mechanics.

be the

cause,

That such may

suggested by the recognition of the separate equations of mean- and

relative -mean-motion of matter.

The Equation of Energy of Relative-mean- motion and

Thermodynamics.

the

Equation of

On

consideration, it will at once be seen that there is more than an accidental

correspondence between the equations of energy of mean- and relative-rnean-motion
22.

respectively and the respective equations of energy of mean-motion and of heat in

thermodynamics.
If instead of including only the effects of the heat-motion on the

as expressed

by

f^,,,

putting p,^ for ^"~

&c., the

+ ~^uu^, &c.,

effects of

and

mean-momentum

relative-mean-motion are also included by

py, for p~; -f '^iTv', &c., in

equations (15) and (17),

the equations (15) of mean-mea-n-motion become identical in form with the equations
(1) of

mean-motion, and the equation (17) of energy of mean-mean-motion becomes

form with the equation (3) of energy of mean-motion.

identical in

These equations, obtained from (15) and (17) being equally true with equations
(1)
and (3), the mean-mean-motion in the former being taken over the space S^ instead of
So as in the latter, then, instead of equation (9),
last

term
U

we should have

for the value of the

PEOFESSOR

148

'^'''

0.

dx

REYA^OLDS ON IFOOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

^ "^

''

~~dr'

'^^

"(hi

which the right member expresses the rate at which heat

in

^^'

is

(25)

converted into energy

of mean-mean-motion, together with the rate at which energy of relative-mean-motion

is

transformed into energy of mean- mean-motion

the transformed energy

The

is

w~hile

equation (19) shows whence

derived.

similarity of the parts taken

by the transformation of mean-mean-motion into

relative-mean-motion, and the conversion of mean-motion into heat, indicates that

these parts are identical in form

the result of transformation, and

in

or that the conversion of

is

mean-motion into heat

is

expressible by a transformation function similar

form to that for relative-mean-motion, but in w^hich the components of relative

motion are the components of the heat-motions and the density

Whence

at each point.

it

is

the actual density

would appear that the general equations, of v/hich equations

and (16) are respectively the adaptations to the special condition of uniform
density, must, by indicating the properties of matter involved, afford mechanical
explanations of the law of universal dissipation of energy and of the second law of
(19)

thermodynamics.
of the existence of a criterion as obtained from the equations

The proof

independent of the properties and mechanical principles on which the

variations of

And
it

which

quite

effect of the

mean-mean-motion on the distribution of relative mean-motion depends.

as the study of these properties

tions

is

and principles requires the inclusion of condi-

are not included in the equations of

mean-motion of incompressible

does not come within the purpose of this paper

fluid,

It is therefore reserved for

separate investigation by a more general method.

The Criterion of Steady Mean-motion.

23.

As

already pointed out,

possibility of the

it

appears from the discriminating equation that the

maintenance of a state of relative-mean-motion depends on/x/p, the

variation of mean-mean-motion and the periods of the relative-mean-motion.

Thus,

if

only, if it\

the mean-mean-motion
V,

is

are periodic in directions x,

so that their integrals over a distance

of

all

the periodic factors are

a,

x only, and varies

in direction

y, z,

in direction

a being the largest period in space,

in direction

x are

zero,

and

if

the co-efficients

then putting

duldy = C\

taking the integrals, over the space a^ of the 18 squares and products in the last
term on the left of the discriminating equation (24) to be

FLUIDS AND THE DETERMTFATION OF THE ORITERIOH.

the integral of the

first

IS/xC^ (27r/a)^

149

a%^

term over the same space cannot be greater than

Then, by the discriminating equation,

the mean-energy of relative-mean-motion

if

is

to be maintained,

pC/

greater than 700

is

/x/a^,

or

= 700,
^(gf
V \dy

fjb

is

./......

(26)

a condition under which relative-mean-motion cannot be maintained in a fluid of

which the mean-mean-rnotion

is

constant in the direction of mean-mean-motion, and

subject to a uniform variation at right angles to the direction of mean-mean-motion.

It is not the actual limit, to obtain

which

forms of the periodic function for

it

would be necessary to determine the actual

u\ v\

which would satisfy the equations of

io\

motion (15), (16), as well as the equation of continuity

functions would be of the form
/

A^.

cos

Tint
\

where r has the values

1, 2, 3,

&c.

It

may

the terms in the periodic series in which r

numerical value of the

24.

It

(13),

and to do

this the

X
+
a
,

27r

be shown, however, that the retention of

is

greater than unity would increase the

limit.

thus appears that the existence of the

condition (26) within which no

relative-mean- motion, completely periodic in the distance a, can be maintained,

is

proof of the existence, for the same variation of mean-mean-motion, of an actual

limit of

which the numerical value

In viscous

fluids,

is

between 700 and

infinity.

experience shows that the further kinematical conditions imposed

by the equations of motion do not prevent such relative-mean-motion. Hence for

such fluids equation (26) proves the actual limit, which discriminates between the
possibility
is

and impossibility of relative-mean-motion completely periodic

in a space a,

greater than 700.

Putting equation (26) in the form

^{diijdyf
it

700 /x/pa^

at once appears that this condition does not furnish a criterion as to the possibility

of the maintenance of relative-mean-motion, irrespective of its periods, for a certain

For by taking a^ large enough, such

relative-mean-motion would be rendered possible whatever might be the variation of
condition of variation of mean-mean-motion.

the mean-mean-motion.

PEOFESSOB

150

The existence of a

EEYNOLDS

0.

criterion

OJ^

INOOMPEESSIBLE VISCOUS

thus seen to depend on the existence of certain

is

restrictions to the value of the periods of

relative-mean-motion on the existence of

conditions which impose superior limits on the values of

Such
is

limits to the

maximum

periodic^ the period

my

values of a

would impose such a

may

from various causes.

arise

limits

a.

dujdy

If

but the only restrictions which

it is

purpose to consider in this paper, are those which arise from the solid surfaces

between which tbe

These restrictions are of two kinds restrictions to

fluid flows.

the motions normal to the surfaces, and restrictions tangential to the surfaces

the

former are easily defined, the latter depend for their definition on the evidence to be
obtained from experiments such as those of Poiseuille, and I shall proceed to show
that these restrictions impose a limit to the value of

In which

the dimension between the surfaces.

equation (26)

aftbrcls

continuously exist

is

proportional to D,

a proof of the existence of a criterion

,,.,,,.

mean -mean-motion under which

(27)

relative or sinuous-motion can

the case of a viscous fluid between two continuous surfaces

perpendicular to the direction

uniform tangential-motion

in

y,

one of which

is

maintained at

rest,

and the other

in

the direction x with velocity U.

Section

The Criterion of

which

case, if

pBU/fji =^1^.

of the conditions of

a^

the Conditions

III.

under ivhieh Relative-mean-motion cannot he main-

tained in the ease of l7bConip7^essible Fluid in Uniform Symmetrical Mean-foiv

hetiveen Parallel Solid

25.

Surfaces. Expression for

The only conditions under which

the Resistance,

definite experimental evidence as to the value

of the criterion has as yet been obtained are those of steady flow through a straight

round tube of uniform bore

and

for this reason it

for theoretical application the case of a

of the theory

is

round tube.

would seem desirable to choose

But inasmuch

only carried to the point of affording a proof of the existence of an

inferior limit to the value

of the criterion

which shall be greater than a certain

quantity determined by the density and viscosity of the

flow,

and as the necessary expressions

than those

by such

for parallel plane surfaces,

surfaces.

as the application

for the

fluid

and the conditions of

round tube are much more complex

the conditions here considered are those defined

FLUIDS Al^D THE DETERMINATION OP THE CRITERION.

Case

The

26.

151

Conditions.

I.

p and viscosity

fluid is of constant density

a uniform variation of pressure dp/dx,

and

/x,

is

x between

in direction

caused to flow, by
parallel

surfaces,

given by

C/Aj

(/Q

the surfaces being of indefinite extent in directions

and

(^O L

x.

The Boundary Conditions.

(1.)

There can be no motion normal to the

V

(2.)

That there

shall be

By

(21),

when y

:=:z

putting

to

t6

when y

=:

for

tt',

the equation of continuity du/dx

boundaries

we have the

=:

-^h^

(29).

no tangential motion at the sm-face, therefore

II zz:

whence by equation

solid surfaces, therefore

fy^c

=^

==.

.......

:iz^(}

(30)

fidu/dy.

dv/dy

further conditions, that

du/dx

--j-

dw/dz

when y

db

dv/dy -= div/dz ===0

0,

at the

therefore

&o>

(31).

Singular Solution.

27. If

the mean-motion

everywhere in direction

is

it is

motion are

infinite,

and the equations

V

whatsoever

Substituting for
for

n\

IV n-r

(1), (3),

t^' -=2

and

V :=

IV

by the equation of
the periods of mean-

(9) are strictly true.

:==:

Hence

if

(^2),

conditions under which a singular solution of the equations, applied to this

case, is possible

It

then,

constant in this direction, and as shown (Art. 8)

continuity,

we have

x,

&c., these

p,,^,,

may be

the value of

h^,

dp/dx, p and

^.

p^ &c., in equations (1) from equations (21),

and substituting

become
du

dp

[dhi

dho\

PROFESSOR

152

REYFOLBS OF INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

O.

This equation does not admit of solution from a state of rest

condition of steady motion such that dujdt

everywhere

is

zero,

but assuming a

-^^

and dpjdx constant,

the solution of
fjb

dhi\

fclhb
\

ay

d'Z'-

~\

dp

do)

if

= dujdz =

when y

=z -^

>

h^^,

(34).

IS
11
fjb

This

is

dm

motion, by Art.

8,

so

are exact, whatever

last of equations (34) is

may be

according to

6q, p5 ftj

the values of

and dp/dx.

thus seen to be a singular solution of the equations (15)

steady mean-flow, or steady mean-mean-motion,

severally the values zero,

ii^

equations for mean-motion as aljfected by heat-

that the

ti,

for

_y

a possible condition of steady motion in which the periods of

Art, 8 are infinite

The

when

?/,

1/,

tv\

p\

&c.,

have

and so the equations (16) of relative-mean-motion are

identically satisfied.

In order to distinguish the singular values of

It

U,

t^

dy

ii^

I put

=: 25qU,,3

whence

(35).

\-

d2^

BfjL

jj

8 jj

jj

h^'

According to the equations such a singular solution

conditions can be realized, but the
of mean-motion

is

manner

which

in

y^

is

always possible where the

this solution of the equation (1)

obtained affords no indication as to whether or not

solution as to whether or not the conditions can be

ascertained either by comparing the results as given

the only

This can only be

realised.

by such

it is

solutions with the results

obtained by experiment, or by observing the manner of motion of the

fluid, as in

my

experiments with colour bands.

* In a paper on the " Equations of Motion and the

before Section

A at the

Bonndary Conditions

integrated, as indicating the necessity of the retention

equations,

of Viscous Fluid/' read

meeting of the B.A., 1883, I pointed out the significance of

and adyanced certain confirmatory evidence

of terms

as deduced

this disability to be

of higher orders to complete the

from the theory

of gases.

The paper

was not published, as I hoped to be able to obtain evidence of a more definite character, such as that
which

is

now adduced

in Articles 7

and 8

of this paper,

which shows that the equations are incomplete,

except for steady motion, and that to render them integrable from rest the terms of higher orders must
bo retained, and thus confirms the argument I advanced, and completely explains the anomaly.

fLUIDS AND THE DETBRMmATION OF THE CRITERIOF.

The

fact that these conditions are realized^

I5g

under certain circumstances, has afforded

the only means of verifying the truth of the assumptions as to the boundary con-

that there shall be no slipping, and as to

ditions^

fi

being independent of the

variations of mean-motion.

Equation of Viscous Fluid,

Verification of the AssurnjHio as in the

As applied to the conditions of Poiseuille's experiments and similar experiments made since, the results obtained from the theory are found to agree throughout
28.

the entire range so long as

must have been

it

it, 'v\ iv

are zero, showing that if there were

any slipping

than the thousandth part of the mean flow, although the

less

tangential force at the boundary was 0*2 gr, per square centimetre, or over 6

square foot, the

mean

flow 376 millims. (1*23 feet) per second^

du/d^'

lbs.

per

and

215,000,

the diameter of this tube being 0*014 millim., the length 125 millims., and the

head 30 inches of mercury.

Considering that the skin resistance of a steamer going at 25 knots
per square foot,

it

the constancy of

not 6

is

lbs.

appears that the assumptions as to the boundary conditions and

[jl

have been

verified

under more exigent circumstances, both as

regards tangential resistance and rate of variation of tangential stress, than occur in

anything but exceptional

cases.

Evidence that other Solutions are

29.

The

fact that steady

mean-motion

that in larger tubes, except

motion

is

sinuous and

full

is

almost confined to capillary tubes and

when the motion

of eddies,

is

loossihle.

is

almost insensibly slow, the mean-

abundant evidence of the

possibility,

under

certain conditions, of solutions other than the singular solutions.

In such solutions u\ v\

tv

have values, which are maintained, not as a system of

steady periodic motion, but such as has a steady

tube

and equations

The Application of
30. Since the

the

mean

flow

is

A,

on the mean flow through the

the

Equations of the Mean- and Relative-mean-motion.

components of mean-mean-motion in directions y and

z are zero,

and

steady,
t;

MDCCCXC'V.

effect

(1) are only approximately true.

0,

IV :=. 0,

dii/dt

0,

dujdx

(36),

PROFESSOE

154

ON DsrCOMPRlSSlBLlJ VISCOUS

0. RPJrisrOLDS

and as the mean values of functions of %i\ v%

d (ii'vJ)
^
_:: {\

iv'u')

ClJU

By

(w'yJ)
d
-I-.

-.-i

are constant in the direction of flow.

%v

1)

Ctttr

-~.

Xro

(l

(37).

(38).

(i/tAj

equations (21) and (37) the equations (15) of mean-motion become

~%

dp

ch

/dhfj

dho

\di/^

dz^

dv

dio

mi'U

d__

dy

CvtAj

-,

dy

Kf y

tv

dz

+ ^^^'''^

>

d
-{-

,\iviv)

dy

becomes

(17)

dz

^ p\

UV

ri^,
dz

> (39),

+ UtV

^y^-

dy

elz

dy

clw

dz

t(

:t;

,~-r-T

{%vv^)

The equation of energy of mean-mean-motion

-r

-p

dz

dp

p\ly^^'''^

dy

dt

z:
dy

dz

Similarly the equation of mean-energy of relative-mean-motion (19) becomes

d
dy

dt

[t/

dz

dtt^
2^("t^)
-,

fi

+ uw) + v' {p,y + v'w) + %D

( p',u-

\dw ]

/cfe^S

"' "-

/i^^'^

,
*

v.

dv'\^

dy

p',,

---

i{;'M;')~

fdtif
-*-

^^ dz^
B*w&B

dz

wAeiti

dwY

-^

dm

-_

_|_

-
wZ

CvtV

ecu

dy

ft

(40).

d.z

Integrating in directions y and

boundary conditions by which

integrals, in direction

z^

u^

between the boundaries and taking note of the

u\ v\ w' vanish at the boundaries together with the

of

d f du
dz

7 (a/U

/dtv^]

+,\ dz
+Cy^)
\dy J

d
"

dz

U ip^x-^-u'lu)]^ &C,,

(titv)
dz

dz

the integral equation of energy of mean-mean-motion becomes

'dM
dt

dy dz

dp

~~f

QjW

U/OO

Jy j

\dz j

dy

^J

Cltb

dy dz

(41).

FLUIDS AND THE DETEBMINATION OF THE CRITERION.

The
?/

%)

integral equation of energy of relative-mean-motion becomes

dydz=

(it

\dydz

>

dy

.7.

dy

If the mean-mean-motion

"T

dz

is

/^

dz

\
{

1
.?

7
.7.
rf.t^

\0

steady

d-jo

it

7^,
\dx
7

J
I

+r dy

dy dz

'tfe

iW

appears from equation (41) that

u--dy

dz,

the work done on the mean-mean-motion u, per unit of length of the tube, by the
constant variation of pressure,

is

in part transformed into energy of relative-mean-

motion at a rate expressed by the transformation function

p[uv

+ uw

J-

w w

dy dz^

and in part transformed into heat at the rate

'dtb

\^

dy dz.

MMAHMf

l^

While the equation

w Mu

dz

(42) for the integral energy of relative-mean-motion shows

that the only energy received by the relative-mean-motion

mean-mean-motioUj and the

that transformed from

is

energy lost by relative- mean-motion

only

is

that

converted into heat by the relative-mean-motion at the rate expressed by the last
term.

And

hence

the integral of E'

if

is

maintained constant,

rate of transformation

tiie

from energy of mean-mean-motion must be equal to the rate at which energy of

relative-mean-motion

p\uv Y^
ty
/

f.

7- G/Vt/

-^^

is

converted into heat, and the discriminating equation becomes

'd%'\^

(ajw
7
7
u tv '- dy dz
'

-f

JJL

fdio^

\dy

dv'\--

The Conditions

31,

If the mean-mean-motion

is

dz )

(df^

^
,

dx
I

\dz

AS

by

idv'

%i

d:VV

J-.

and

steady u must satisfy

4"

^ dy

to he Satisfied

Vy)

did

fdMf^

[.

:-

dtf/'f

d,'

^^/

%t\

v\ tv\

dydz

(43).

;;

PROFESSOR

156

REYISrOLDS ON" IISrCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

0.

The boundary conditions

(1)

u
The

(2)

when y

=1

The

i^

&

^>

<?

(44)

equation, of continuity

du/dx

(3)

+h

=:

first

==

(45);

of the equations of motion (38)

dp

'dhi

d;-v>

~- (lit/)
^
c]y^

iz"^

+ -(uw)
dz

>

(46)

&

or putting
XJ -^

tc

7i

and dpjdx

/x

d^XJ/dif

as in the singular solution, equation (46) becomes

df
The

(4)

mean value

the condition (3)

boundary

dy

;-

^^^
dz

integral of (47) over the section of which the left

the

From

~ hiv)

<

dz'

of

dujdy

/^

follows that if

it

/x

if.

surfaceSj the relative-mean-motion

to be

{i1)\

'

member

dU/dy when y

is

(u'tv)

is

ho

zerOj
.

and
(48).

symmetrical with respect to the

must extend throughout the

tube, so

unat}
.CO

00

And

as this condition

is

f(j

dz

IS

a lunction oi y^

(49).

CIZ

ij

necessary, in order that the equations

(38) of

mean-mean-

motion and the equations (16) of relative-mean-motion may be satisfied

mean-motioUj it is assumed as one of the conditions for which the criterion

for steady
is

sought.

The components of relative-mean-motion must satisfy the periodic conditions as

expressed in equations (12), which become, putting 2c for the limit in direction

z,

*\

(0

'ft

^l

V dx

CvX

IV

dx

>

Jo
re

11

dy d:

/J'

A'

i>0

(2)

The equation of continuity

dv! jdx

dv^jdy

-[-

div jdz

&

k.'

(50).

FLUIDS A^ND THE DETERMINATION OF THE CRITERION.

(3)

The boundary conditions which with the continuity give

u

(4)

157

=: V

z=z %v'

du jdx

='

dv jdy

div'jdz

when y

=.

^l\

(51).

The condition inaposed by symmetrical mean-motion

':,.(^'+"f')*=vOT
These conditions

however

arbitrarily

(1

must be

to 4)

v\ id

(=^)-

satisfied if the effect

may be superimposed on

on u

is

to be symmetrical

the mean-motion which results

from a singular solution,

(5) If the

mean-motion

is

matical conditions obtained by eliminating

(38) and those obtained

motion

b}^

to remain steady

p from

v\

must

iv

also satisfy the kine-

the equations of mean-mean-motion

eliminating p^ from the

equations of relative-mean-

(16).

Conditions

(1

i^o

4)

determine an inferior Limit

to the Criterion.

The determination of the kinematic conditions (5) is, however, practically

impossible but if they are satisfied, n\^ v\ tv must satisfy the more general conditions
imposed by the discriminating equation. From which, it appears that v/^lien u\ v\ w
32.

are such as satisfy the conditions (1 to

may

however small their values

relative to

they be such that the rate of conversion of energy of relative-mean-motion

be, if

into heat

4),

is

greater than the rate of transformation of energy of mean-mean-motion

into relative -mean-motion, the energy of relative-mean-motion

Whence, when

%i

v\

ii/

must be diminishing.

are taken such periodic functions of x, y,

under

as

z,

conditions (1 to 4) render the value of the transformation function relative to the

value of the conversion function a

maximum,

maintenance of any relative-mean-motion

restrictions

is

if this

ratio is less

impossible.

than unity, the

And whatever

further

might be imposed by the kinematical conditions, the existence of an

inferior limit to the criterion is proved.

Expressions for the Components of possible Relative-mean-motion,

33.

To

satisfy the first three of the equations (50) the expressions for

be continuous periodic functions of

x,

with a

maximum

satisfy the conditions of continuity.

Putting
I

27r/a

and n

for

any number from

u\ v\

%d

must

periodic distance a, such as

1 to oo

PROFESSOE

158

O.

REYXOLDS ON INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

and

t?',

'^i;'

^-^

3=

:g^ {^/a^^ sin (^/cc)

^(/

X^

{'^^^7^2

sin (nix)

nl/3n cos (nix)}

^^Z 8^^

= y = = da/dy = d^jdy =

And,

it

a/3, ay,

aS are

all

(54),

if

= d^jdz =

dyjdz

when y

=^

hi
>

and

cos (nix)]

satisfy the equation of continuity.

a=:yS

functions of y^ only

would seem that the expressions are the most general possible

for

the components

of relative-mean -motion.

Cylind^ical-relative-motion.
34. If the relative-mean-motion, like the

mean-mean-motion,

is

restricted

to

motion parallel to the plane of xy,

=S=

ii;'

everywhere,

0,

and the equations (53) express the most general forms

for

u\ v in case of such

cylindrical disturbance.

Such a

restriction

restrictions, over

and having regard to the kinematical

perfectly arbitrary,

is

and above those contained

in the discriminating equation,

entirely change the character of the problem.

kinematical restrictions

appears from

trial

is

But

taken in determining the limit to the

that the value found for this limit

the relative-mean-motion

is

would

as no account of these extra

is

criterion,

essentially the same,

and

as

it

whether

general or cylindrical, I only give here the considerably

simpler analyses for the cylindrical motion.

The Functions of Transformation of Energy and Conversion

to

Heat for Cylindrical

Motion.
35

Putting
/

for the rate at

which energy of relative-mean -motion

volume, expressed in the right-hand

{pS!) dx dydz
ff

=.fff

"pr^

member

is

converted to heat per unit of

of the discriminating equation (43),

FLUIDS AND THE DET^lRMIlfATlOJf OF THE dEITBEtOlT.

159

Then substituting for the values of t^', v\ w' from equations (53). and integrating in
direction x over 27r/^, and omitting terms the integral of which, in direction y, vanishes
bj the boundary conditions^

clt

)dydzz

"T"
'

^\dij/

\dy

+
In a similar manner, substituting for

\df) yy^^

dy^

(57).

'

v\ integrating, and omitting terms which

ib

vanish on integration, the rate of transformation of energy from mean-mean-motion,

by the

as expressed

left

pti.

since

dot\

d'lh

''11

nil

(a/U

by Art.

becomes

in the discriminating equation (43),

ay az =

J J

And,

member

Hu
'cly

dy dz

dy) dy

(58).

31, conditions (3) equation (47),

/^^

dy^

'

_ jj\ - p
'

iuv')

ay

'

'

......

(59),

integrating and remembering the boundary conditions.

^^

_ U^ - p^V,

ilnd since at the boundary

t^

ju,

for

t6

U) = p

u'v'

dy

(60).

is zero,

\u'^')

Whence, putting

(i^

dy

\OXl#

U+ u-^-JJ for u in the right member of equation (58), substituting

U from (60), integrating

by

parts,

3 y'^

dy'^

and remembering that

which

is

constant

(62),

'0

also that

uv
we have

=z

an
Itlnl
2

d/3n

dy

ay

(63),

for the transformation function

cht

ipuv'

=t

^
^0

dSn

~h

dy

''

-bo

Pn

7^ jciy
dy

-f-

J4/i

(64).

PEOFESSOU

160

O.

RPJYNOLDS ON INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS

If u\ v' are indefinitely small the last term, which

of the fourth degree,

is

may

be

neglected.

Substituting in the discriminating equation (43) this

r^)

2b^

uH'' {a,:^

/3J)

-j-

'da'U ^-^

+ 2nW

.d a,

Limits

As

36.

functions of

by the boundary

3/

and the
exist,

by

however^ there

x,

and are related to the

motion

j5,i

subject to the restrictions imposed

ai*e

the distance between the fixed surfaces.

2&q,
is

no such direct connection between the value of

by

limits to the periodic distance, as expressed

these

limits of

necessary to satisfy the

conditions

(65).

conditions, and in consequence their periodic distances are subject

to superior limits determined

In direction

a-^,

d^u\\

dy

df

Periods.

to the

the variations of

be put in the form

)l

'd(3 n

dy

may

I'elations,

and

a^^

l^n

Such

limits necessarily

consequence of the kinemetical

in

of motion

equations

however, cannot be

27r/nh

b^

for

steady mean-mean-

determined without obtaining a

exactl}^^

general solution of the equations.

But from the form of the discriminating equation

determination

is

(43) it appears that no such exact

necessary in order to prove the inferior limit to the criterion.

The boundaries impose the same

limits on

a,^,

^^^

whatever may be the value of id

so that if the values of a^^ ^^ be determined so that the value of

is

minimum

fjb

for

every value of

nl,

the value of

r/,

minimum may then be determined, and

which renders this minimum a minimumso a limit found to

which the value of the

complete expression approaches, as the series in both numerator and denominator

become more convergent

Putting

Z,

a, y8 for

rl^

for values of nl differing in

a^.,

ji^

respectively^

both directions from

and putting

I'l.

for the limiting value to be

found for the criterion

K^

11^

-^ h

"y

-h,

I is

/3

'd

Ar

d0\
oL-y-

dy

dy

+(f)>

(67)

J
ay

2/ that K^ is a minimum whatever

K^ a minimum-minimum.

are such functions of

so determined as to render

/dSV
\dy)
OL

dy

when a and

(66)

daV
\dyj

and

=2

the value of

Z,

FLUIDS AND THE DETIEMIHATION OF THE CRITEEIOF.

Having regard

boundary conditions,

to the

which increase the numerator without

and omitting

&c.,

aflfecting

161

possible terms

all

the denominator, the most general

form appears to be
a

= 2(f {ht sin (2^p)]

2J

[^2,+! sin (2^^

Sq'^

1) p],

>

J3

(68).

where

To

satisfy the

Since a

0,

when

=z 2r

-\'

when p

\,

s is even,

when

=l -^

since

d^jdy

0,

odd,

is

the form of

1,

when

1),

s is odd.

when

is

even.

"^

(%J+1

0,

^^4r + 37

= i^?

when p

Sr{From

?5

= 2r 4= 2 (r +

l^r,

,-^0

and

boundary conditions

= 2r,

.Q

7r^/2&,

K^^ it is clear

(4r

+ 2)6,,,, +

(r+

OJ

1)6,,,,}

that every term in the series for a and

the value of K^ and to an extent depending on the value of

K^

r,

(69).

increases

will therefore be

minimum, when
a

which

cii

sin

0=bc2

sin

boundary conditions

satisfy the

+ % sin 3p
2j9 + 64 sin ip

a^
62 = 2&4 /

we

any value of

ft

(70),

if

<'

ttg

Therefore

<

have, as the values of a and ^,

(71).

which render K^ a minimum

for

a/aj

= sin p + sin

^/b^

3p,

= sin

2p

+ J sin

4p.

And
2^0

2&Q

^^

/cet^yS

,00
^cZa'

MDCCCXCV. A.

^^0 ^^^

2 COS 2p 4- 2 cos

sinp

3 sin

3p

+ sin

5p

4p

+ sin 7p]

(72)

PEOFESSOR

162

0.

REYNOLDS ON INOOMPBESSIBLE VISCOUS

and integrating twice

^L

-^oV

^y

"^

^^y

Putting

for L

the denominator of -Kj, equation {^7)^ becomes

Li

1*325

In a similar manner the numerator

6o*

and as
wil]

(~Y{Ln2%^ +

tlie coefficients

of

1-256/)

and

63 are

is

Lajfeg.

found to be

+ 2L^ (10a/ + 86/) +

+ 806/},

82a/

nearly equal in the numerator, no sensible error

be introduced by putting

then
__ L^

3
2

which

is

minimum

2 X 5-53L^

4-

50 /Try

0-408L

/^.x

\2

if

and
JLjL."l

Hence, for a

flat

How much

must be

26qU;^^//x is

less

\J X. i

solution of the equations

greater than 517

than that of the criterion

less it is impossible to

in a flat tube.

""

V#

'-^

tube of unlimited breadth, the criterion

p
37- This value

"

(77).

for similar circumstances.

determine theoretically without effecting a general

and, as far as T

Nor can the experimental

am

aware, no experiments have been

made

value 1900, which I obtained for the round

tube, be taken as indicative of the value for a flat tube, except that, both theoretically

and

practically, the critical value of TJ^ is

mean

found to vary inversely as the hydraulic

depth, which would indicate that, as the hydraulic

mean depth

in a flat tube

is

double that for a round tube, the criterion would be half the value, in which case the
limit found for

Kj would be about

absolute theoretical limit found

is

0*61

K,

This

is

sufficient

to

show that the

of the same order of magnitude as the experimental

FLUIDS AND THl DITBRMIEATIOH OF THE CRITERIOF,

value

163

an explanation

so that the latter verifies the theory, which, in its turn, affords

of the observed facts.

The State of Steady Mean-motion above the Critical Value.

38.

In order to arrive at the limit for the criterion

w\ and the terms

the smallest values of u\ v\

fourth degree have been neglected.

has been necessary to consider

it

in the discriminating equation of the

This, however,

only necessary for the limit,

is

and, preserving these higher terms, the discriminating equation affords an expression
for

the resistance in the case of steady mean-mean-motion.

The complete value of the function

of transformation as given in equation (64)

is

/.

'6o

3U m

2V
Whence

ay

nl

a,,

B ^^A
dz

putting

U+

t^

U,

for

t^

I-

d.. A.

which the

in

dy

equation (64), which was

all

an

pu V dy

^~-

'{'

(u'v)^

{17a).

ay

cly

member of equation
this member becomes

term corresponds with the

first

in the left

grating by parts, remembering the conditions,

ZJJ.m

f'7

r^ + i;:)-lf^

'

(77),

dy

and

inte-

(78),

term in the right member of

the criterion, and the second term

first

that was retained for

corresponds with the second term in equation (64), which was neglected.
Since by equation (35)
STJm

dp

fjb

dx

(78(x).

we

have, substituting in the discriminating equation (43), either

djdt ifS!)
2

#
fj?

2hi

d/y

fM

fJ/

f6n

(uv

)^

dy

>

~6o

X.

dx

dy

uV dy

(79)>

or
(Pu

dp

(A/tf

(IX

/^

Therefore, as long as
2

3P

6g^

dp

pL^

dx

\Ov//.

PROFESSOR

164
is

RKYISTOLDS

O.

of coiisfcant value, there

is

ON IISrCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLUIDS.

dynamical similarity under geometrically similar circum-

stances.

The equation

(79) shows that,

when

'

^^
f p "2 in
Lvih

gi'^^ter

than K,

Lii

vTv

must be

finite,

transformation,

The

last

and such that the

last

term in the numerator limits the rate of

and thus prevents further increase oiiiv.

term in the numerator of equation (79)

is

of the order and degree

p^Ua^jyi? as compared with

the order and degree

It
that,

is

thus easy to see

above the

cl

of -yhow

first

first.

term in the numerator.

It

is

the law of resistance

is

interpretation, except in so far as

velocity higher than the

the

the limit comes

critical value,

(^^H')

Ua^

in.

from equation (79)

very complex and difficult of

also seen

showing that the resistance varies as a power of the