John Kennedy B.

Diaz
Chinese Philosophy

July 20, 2015

A. What is Chinese Philosophy?

Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States eras, during a
period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant
intellectual and cultural developments.[1] Although much of Chinese philosophy begins in the
Warring States period, elements of Chinese philosophy have existed for several thousand years;
some can be found in the Yi Jing (the Book of Changes), an ancient compendium of divination,
which dates back to at least 672 BCE. [2] It was during the Warring States era that the major
philosophies of China, Confucianism, Mohism, Legalism, and Daoism, arose, along with
philosophies that later fell into obscurity, like Agriculturalism, Chinese Naturalism, and
the Logicians.
Following the Qin Dynasty, Confucianism became the dominant philosophical school of
China. The largest philosophical rivals to Confucianism were Legalism and Mohism before the
Han dynasty. Legalism as a coherent philosophy disappeared largely due to its relationship with
the unpopular authoritarian rule of Qin Shi Huang, however, many of its ideas and institutions
would continue to influence Chinese philosophy until the end of Imperial rule during the Xinhai
Revolution. Mohism though popular at first due to its emphasis on brotherly love versus harsh
Qin Legalism, fell out of favour during the Han Dynasty due to the efforts of Confucians in
establishing their views as political orthodoxy. The Six Dynasties era saw the rise of
the Xuanxue philosophical school and the maturation of Chinese Buddhism, which had entered
China from India during the Late Han Dynasties. By the time of the Tang dynasty five-hundred
years after Buddhism's arrival into China, it had transformed into a thoroughly Chinese religious
philosophy dominated by the school of Zen Buddhism. Neo-Confucianism became highly
popular during the Song dynasty and Ming Dynasty due in large part to the eventual combination
of Confucian and Zen Philosophy.
Confucianism represents the collected teachings of the Chinese sage Confucius, who lived
from 551 to 479 BCE. His philosophy concerns the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing
personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism,
and sincerity. The Analects stress the importance of ritual, but also the importance of 'ren', which
loosely translates as 'human-heartedness,[4] Confucianism, along with Legalism, is responsible
for creating the worlds first meritocracy, which holds that one's status should be determined by
education and character rather than ancestry, wealth, or friendship.[5]Confucianism was and
continues to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas
of Southeast Asia.

During the 19th and 20th centuries, Chinese philosophy integrated concepts from Western
philosophy. Anti-Qing Dynasty revolutionaries, involved in the Xinhai Revolution, saw Western
philosophy as an alternative to traditional philosophical schools; students in the May Fourth
Movement called for completely abolishing the old imperial institutions and practices of China.
During this era, Chinese scholars attempted to incorporate Western philosophical ideologies such
as democracy,Marxism, socialism, liberalism, republicanism, anarchism and nationalism into
Chinese philosophy. The most notable examples are Sun Yat-Sen's Three Principles of the
People ideology and Mao Zedong's Maoism, a variant of MarxismLeninism.[6] In the
modern People's Republic of China, the official ideology is Deng Xiaoping's "market economy
socialism".
Although the People's Republic of China has been historically hostile to the philosophy of
ancient China, the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. In the postChinese economic reform era, modern Chinese philosophy has reappeared in forms such as
the New Confucianism. As in Japan, philosophy in China has become melting pot of ideas. It
accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due. Chinese philosophy
still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and even Southeast Asia.

Chinese philosophy is the intellectual tradition of the Chinese culture from their early
recorded history to the present day. The main philosophical topics of Chinese philosophywere
heavily influenced by the ideas of important figures like Laozi, Confucius, Menciusand Mozi,
who all lived during the second half of the Zhou dynasty (8th to 3rd century BCE). Chinese
culture as a whole has been shaped by the influence of these intellectual leaders.
B. History of Chinese Philosophy
It is known that early Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC - 1046 B.C.) thought was based
on cyclicity, from observation of the cycles of day and night, the seasons, the moon, etc., a
concept which remained relevant throughout later Chinese philosophy, and immediately setting it
apart from the more linear Western approach. During this time, both gods and ancestors were
worshipped and there were human and animal sacrifices.
During the succeeding Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 B.C.), the concept of the Mandate of
Heaven was introduced, which held that Heaven would bless the authority of a just ruler, but
would be displeased with an unwise ruler, and retract the Mandate. The "I Ching" (or "Book of
Changes") was traditionally compiled by the mythical figure Fu Xi in the 28th Century B.C.,
although modern research suggests that it more likely dates to the late 9th Century B.C. The text
describes an ancient system of cosmology and philosophy that is intrinsic to ancient Chinese
cultural beliefs, centring on the ideas of the dynamic balance of opposites, the evolution of
events as a process, and acceptance of the inevitability of change. It consists of a series

ofsymbols, rules for manipulating these symbols, poems and commentary, and is sometimes
regarded as a system of divination. In about 500 B.C., (interestingly, around the same
time as Greek philosophy was emerging), the classic period of Chinese philosophy (known as
the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought) flourished, and the four most influential
schools (Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism and Legalism) were established.
During the Qin Dynasty (also know as the Imperial Era), after the unification of China in
221 B.C., Legalism became ascendant at the expense of the Mohist and Confucianist schools,
although the Han Dynasty (206 B.C. - A.D. 220) adopted Taoism and later Confucianism as
official doctrine. Along with the gradual parallel introduction of Buddhism, these two schools
have remained the determining forces of Chinese thought up until the 20th Century. NeoConfucianism (a variant of Confucianism, incorporating elements of Buddhism, Taoism and
Legalism) was introduced during the Song Dynasty (A.D. 960 - 1279) and popularized during
the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644).
During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy also began to integrate
concepts of Western philosophy. Sun Yat-Sen (1866 - 1925) attempted to incorporate elements
of democracy, republicanism and industrialism at the beginning of the 20th century, while Mao
Zedong (1893 - 1976) later added Marxism, Stalinism and other communist thought. During
theCultural Revolution of 1966 - 1976, most previous schools of thought, with the notable
exception of Legalism, were denouncedas backward and purged, although their influence has
remained.
Early beliefs
Early Shang Dynasty thought was based upon cycles. This notion stems from what the
people of the Shang Dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycled, the seasons
progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again. Thus, this
notion, which remained relevant throughoutChinese history, reflects the order of nature. In
juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from western philosophy, in which the
dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, fate could be manipulated by
great deities, commonly translated as gods. Ancestor worship was present and universally
recognized. There was also human and animal sacrifice.
When the Shang were overthrown by the Zhou, a new political, religious and philosophical
concept was introduced called the "Mandate of Heaven". This mandate was said to be taken
when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a shrewd justification for Zhou rule.
During this period, archaeological evidence points to an increase in literacy and a partial shift
away from the faith placed in Shangdi (the Supreme Being in traditional Chinese religion), with
ancestor worship becoming commonplace and a more worldly orientation coming to the fore.

C. Nature and Characteristic of Chinese Philosophy

Humanism has been the chief attribute of Chinese philosophy. The role of humans and their
place in society has always been the main focus of Chinese thinkers. Practical, moral and
political concerns have been favoured over metaphysical speculation as Chinese philosophy
tends to be concerned with worldly affairs. This does not mean that metaphysical ideas are
absent from Chinese thought. An example of an important text of metaphysics in the Chinese
tradition is the obscure document named Yi Jing (I-Ching), or Book of Changes. Some Chinese
used the Book of Changes as a manual of divination. Those who could understand its message, it
was believed, would grasp all the laws of nature.
Rather than expressing their thoughts in a logical and systematic prose, Chinese thinkers
tended to be more poetical. They do not display a strong concern in providing strict rules; the
ideas tend to be guidelines only. Texts on Chinese philosophy are often filled with aphorisms,
allusions and parables. The general tendency is to be suggestive: the more an expression is
articulated, the less suggestive it is. The sayings and writings of Chinese philosophers are,
therefore, often vague so that their meaning is almost boundless.
The central focus of Chinese philosophy throughout the ages has been a practical concern with
man and society, how to live an ideal life, and how best to organize society. Ethics and political
philosophy have often taken precedence over metaphysics and epistemology. Another
characteristic of Chinese philosophy has been reflections on nature and the self, which has
resulted in the development of themes like unity between man and Heaven, the place of man in
the cosmic order, and the explanations of differentiation and change.

D. Dynastic Cycle
In China, a dynasty would remain in power only as long as it was providing good
government. When a dynasty went into decline, and began to abuse its power, it was said to lose
the Mandate of Heaven, or the favor of the gods. A strong leader would usually emerge to claim
the Mandate, and establish a new dynasty. The dynastic cycle would then begin again.

The dynastic cycle is a pattern explaining the rise and fall of Chinese dynasties between
1650 BCE and 1644 CE. The cycle states that as dynasties age, they begin to abuse their power.
This abuse causes the dynasty to lose the Mandate of Heaven, or the divine right to rule, and
collapse. Afterwards, a new dynasty claims the Mandate of Heaven and assumes power over
China.
There was a pattern to rise and fall of all the Dynasties that ruled China. This is called the
dynastic cycle.

Think of a circle.
1. When a new family overthrew the old dynasty and took the "Mandate of Heaven", this
was the top of the circle. As the dynasty ruled for the first half of the circle, they were
good and gave land to the peasants, and cut down taxes and corruption. This lasted
through the first half of the dynasty (or circle).
2. Starting at the bottom half of the circle, the Emperor would become cut off from the
peasants and people of China. Corruption would start in the outer provinces. There would
be minor uprisings amongst the peasants, which would be put down, and land would be
taken away from the peasants. Taxes would rise and become a burden on the people.
3. Towards the end of the dynasty, there would be a major natural disaster or series of
disasters, which the emperor would not or could not address, and the people would be left
on their own. At this time, one of the noble or rich families would start a major
revolution, which would be supported by the people of China, and soon the old dynasty
would be overthrown, bringing us back to the top of the circle.
4. Then the circle would start again with a new dynasty.
This was the pattern of dynastic rule in China. It was repeated over and over throughout Chinas
history.

E. Mandate of Heaven
The "Mandate of Heaven" is an ancient Chinese philosophical concept, which originated
during the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE). The Mandate determines whether an emperor of
China is sufficiently virtuous to rule; if he does not fulfill his obligations as emperor, then he
loses the Mandate and thus the right to be emperor.

There are four principles to the Mandate:

1) Heaven grants the emperor the right to rule,
2) Since there is only one Heaven, there can only be one emperor at any given time,
3) The emperor's virtue determines his right to rule, and,
4) No one dynasty has a permanent right to rule.
Signs that a particular ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven included peasant uprisings,
invasions by foreign troops, drought, famine, floods and earthquakes. Of course, drought or
floods often led to famine, which in turn caused peasant uprisings, so these factors were often
interrelated.

Although the Mandate of Heaven sounds superficially similar to the European concept of the
"Divine Right of Kings," in fact it operated quite differently. In the European model, God
granted a particular family the right to rule a country for all time, regardless of the rulers'
behavior. The Divine Right was an assertion that God essentially forbade rebellions - it was a sin
to oppose the king.

In contrast, the Mandate of Heaven justified rebellion against an unjust, tyrannical, or

incompetent ruler. If a rebellion was successful in overthrowing the emperor, then it was a sign
that he had lost the Mandate of Heaven and the rebel leader had gained it. In addition, unlike the
hereditary Divine Right of Kings, the Mandate of Heaven did not depend upon royal or even
noble birth. Any successful rebel leader could become emperor with Heaven's approval, even if
he was born a peasant.

F. Hundered School of Thoughts

Hundred Schools of Thought

The Hundred Schools of Thought (Chinese: /; pinyin: zhz

biji;Wade-Giles: chu-tzu pai-chia; literally "all philosophers hundred schools") is the name
given to philosophers and schools that flourished from 770 to 221 B.C.E., an era of great cultural
and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period, known in its earlier part as
the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period () in its latter part,
was characterized by chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese
philosophy because a variety of thoughts and ideas were freely developed and discussed. This
phenomenon has been called the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought (/
; biji zhngmng; pai-chia cheng-ming; "hundred schools contend").
The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often
employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy.
The thoughts and ideas of this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social
consciousness in East Asian countries through the present day.

Background of the Hundred Schools

During the Zhou Dynasty (or Chou dynasty, , 1050 to 256 B.C.E.), China moved
into the Iron Age and developed from a tribal society to a land-based feudal social structure and
economy. People began to actively seek practical solutions to their difficulties, rather than
relying simply on prayers to their ancestors. The ancient Shang concept of an anthropomorphic
Ti, or supreme deity, was gradually replaced by the concept of Heaven (T'ien) as the supreme
spiritual reality, and by the idea that an absolute and constant "Mandate of Heaven" directed
human affairs. The Chou came to believe that a person could earn Heavens rewards by acting in
a virtuous manner, and could thereby control his destiny (ming). This was the philosophical base
from which the Hundred Schools of Thought emerged from the sixth to the third century B.C.E.
The Spring and Autumn period and Warring States periods, though characterized by disunity and
civil strife, were an era of unprecedented prosperity and cultural development, the "golden age"
of China. Regional warlords constantly competed to build stronger and more efficient armies,
and to increase the production of their lands in order to collect more taxes. These developments
required large numbers of skilled, literate officials and therefore spurred the spread of education
throughout the country. The use of coinage stimulated the growth of commerce, and the use of
iron made better weapons and farm implements available. Great public works such as dams,
irrigation projects, and canals were carried out, and massive walls were built around cities and
along the northern frontier. During this period, so many different philosophies developed that it
is often referred to as the age of the Hundred Schools of Thought (/). Many
of the great classical texts, on which Chinese thought was to be based for the next two and onehalf millennia, were written. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant
scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of
government, war, and diplomacy.
Confucianism and its derivatives
Confucianism (; Rji; Ju-chia; "School of scholars/dwarfs") is the body of thought
that probably had the most enduring effects on Chinese life. Its written legacy, the Confucian
Classics, later became the foundation of traditional society. Confucius (551479 B.C.E.), or
Kongzi "Master Kong," looked back to the early days of the Zhou dynasty for an ideal sociopolitical order. He believed that the only effective system of government was one in which each
individual lived in prescribed relationships to all others in society: "Let the ruler be a ruler and
the subject a subject." He contended that a king must be virtuous in order to rule properly.
Confucius regarded the functions of government and social stratification as facts of life, to be
sustained by ethical values; his ideal human was the junzi("ruler's son," ) translated as
"gentleman" or "superior person."
Mencius (, Mng Z; Meng Tzu; (371289 B.C.E.), was a Confucian follower who
made major contributions to the spread of humanism in Confucian thought, declaring that man,
by nature, was inherently good. He argued that a ruler could not govern without the people's tacit

consent, and that the penalty for unpopular, despotic rule was the loss of the "mandate of heaven
(, Tinmng)."
The combined work of Confucius, the codifier and interpreter of a system of relationships
based on ethical behavior, and Mencius, the synthesizer and developer of applied Confucian
thought, provided traditional Chinese society with a comprehensive framework by which to
order virtually every aspect of life.
There were many accretions to the body of Confucian thought, both immediately and
over the millennia, from within and without the Confucian school. Interpretations adapted to
contemporary society allowed for flexibility within Confucianism, while its philosophical core
was the fundamental system of modeled behavior delineated in ancient texts.
Diametrically opposed to Mencius, for example, was the interpretation of Xunzi (;
; Xn Z; Hsn Tzu, c. 300237 B.C.E.), another follower of Confucius. Xunzi preached that
humanity is innately selfish and evil; he asserted that goodness is attainable only through
education and conduct befitting one's status. He also argued that the best form of government is
one based on authoritarian control, and that ethics is irrelevant in the context of effective rule.
Legalism
The School of Law, or Legalism (; Fji; Fa-chia; "School of law"), was a response
to Xunzi's unsentimental and authoritarian philosophy. The doctrine was formulated by Han
Feizi ( )(d. 233 B.C.E.) and Li Si ( )(d. 208 B.C.E.), who maintained that human
nature was incorrigibly selfish; accordingly, the only way to preserve the social order was to
impose discipline from above, and to strictly enforce laws. The Legalists exalted the state above
all, giving its prosperity and martial prowess priority over the welfare of the common people.
Although it had all but disappeared by the first dynasty, Legalism greatly influenced the form of
the imperial government. During the Han Dynasty (; Hn Cho; 206 B.C.E.220 C.E.), the
most practical elements of Confucianism and Legalism were synthesized to create a new form of
government that remained largely intact until the late nineteenth century.
Taoism
Philosophical Taoism, or Daoism (; Doji; Tao-chia; "School of the Way"),
developed into the second most significant stream of Chinese thought. Its formulation is often
attributed to the legendary sage, Laozi ( , "Old Master"), who is said to predate Confucius,
andZhuangzi (; , Zhung Z, Chuang Tz, "Master Zhuang") (369286 B.C.E.). The
focus of Taoism is on the individual within the natural realm rather than the individual within
society; accordingly, the goal of life for each individual is seeking to adjust oneself and adapting
to the rhythm of the natural (and the supernatural) world, to follow the Way
(tao or Dao, , Dou) of the universe, and to live in harmony. In many ways the opposite of rigid
Confucian morality, Taoism was for many of its adherents a complement to their ordered daily

lives. A scholar serving as an official would usually follow Confucian teachings, but at leisure or
in retirement might seek harmony with nature as a Taoist recluse.
School of Yin-yang
The School of Naturalists or Yin-yang (/; Ynyngji; Yin-yangchia; "School of Yin-Yang") was a Warring States era philosophy that synthesized the concepts
of yin-yang and the Five Elements. The Ying-Yang School originated from The Book of
Changes and emphasized yin and yang, the Five Elements, astrological calendars, and fortunetelling. Zou Yan (/; Zu Yn; Tsou Yen; 305B.C.E.-240 B.C.E.) is considered the
founder of this school, whose theories attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces
in nature: The complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, positive) and yang (light, hot,
male, negative) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth). In its
early days, these theories were most strongly associated with the states of Yan and Qi. In later
periods, these epistemological theories came to hold significance in both philosophy and popular
belief. The theory of yin and yang is part of the Chinese cultural heritage.
Mohism
Mohism or Moism (; Mji; Mo-chia; "School of Mo") was developed by followers
of Mozi (; Mz; Mo Tzu, Lat. as Micius, 470B.C.E.c.391 B.C.E.). Though the school did
not survive through the Qin Dynasty(), Mohism was seen as a major rival of Confucianism
in the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Its philosophy rested on the idea of universal
love. Mozi taught that "everyone is equal before heaven," and that people should seek to imitate
heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be characterized as
primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that cognition ought to be based on perceptions and
direct sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing, instead of on imagination or internal logic,
which are founded on our capacity for abstraction.
Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music,
which he denounced as extravagant. He regarded warfare as wasteful and advocated pacifism.
The achievement of social goals, according to Mozi, necessitated the unity of thought and action.
His political philosophy was that the population ought always to obey its leaders, and its leaders
ought always to follow the will of heaven. Mozi contended that rulers should appoint officials by
virtue of their ability instead of their family connections. Although Mohism as a philosophical
school had declined by the end of the Qin Dynasty, its views are said to be strongly echoed in
Legalist thought.
Logicians
The School of Names, or Logicians (; Mngji; Ming-chia; "School of names"),
which grew out of Mohism, focused on definition andlogic. It is said to have parallels with the
logic of the Ancient Greek sophists or dialecticians. The most notable Logicians were Gongsun

Longzi (; Gngsn Lng; Kung-sun Lung, ca. 325250 B.C.E.) and Hui Shi, both of
whose works have been lost. The Logicians' thought was purely theoretical.
Other schools
The Shiji () lists Confucianism, Daoism, the Yin-Yang School, Legalism, Mohism,
and the Logicians within the Hundred Schools of Thought. The Hanshu () adds four more to
make up the Ten Schools (; Shijia).
The School of Agriculture (/, Nongjia) encouraged farming and agriculture
and taught farming and cultivation techniques, as a means of supplying enough food for the
country. Mencius once criticized Xu Xing () for advocating that rulers should work in the
fields with their subjects.
The School of Diplomacy, or School of Vertical and Horizontal (Alliances) (/
, Zonghengjia) specialized in diplomatic politics. Su Qin and Zhang Yi (, d.
309 B.C.E.), who developed strategies to break up the alliances among other states and open the
way for Qin to unify China, were its representative thinkers. During the Warring States period,
Su Qin lobbied the leaders of six states, Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi, and Chu, to join in an alliance
against the Qin, which held Qin within allied boundaries for the next fifteen years. When Su Qin
died, Zhang Yi lobbied the leaders of the six states to abandon their alliance and attach
themselves instead to the state of Qin, effectively defusing the civil war. This strategy of
uniting and breaking up ensured peace for twenty-nine years. The School of Diplomacy
concerned itself more with practical matters than moral principles, emphasizing political and
diplomatic tactics, and skills in debate and lobbying. Scholars from this school were good
orators, debaters, and tacticians, but were not considered sages because they pursued personal
gain rather than public interests.
The Miscellaneous School (/, Zajia) integrated teachings from different
schools; for instance, L Buwei found scholars from different schools to collaborate in writing a
book called Lshi Chunqiu (). This eclectic school tried to integrate the merits of
various schools, such as Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism, Logicians, and Legalism, and avoid
their weak points, and did not have its own unique principles.
The School of "Minor-talks" (/; Xiaoshuojia) was not a unique school of
thought. The thoughts and ideas discussed by and originating from infamous people on the street
were incorporated into this school, which grew out of the work of some government officials
responsible for collecting ideas from people on the street and reporting them to their superiors.
This explains its Chinese name, which literally means "school of minor-talks."
Philosophers of the Novel School expressed themselves in a way that people found easy to
understand. They didn't have their own theories, but used a specific style to convey existing
theories.

Another group is the School of the Military (; Bingjia), which studied warfare and
strategy; Sunzi (; Sn Z,"Master Sun") and Sun Bin (; Sn Bn; d. 316 B.C.E.) were
influential leaders. This school was not among the "Ten Schools" defined by Hanshu.

SOURCES:

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chinese_Philosophy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy#Concepts_within_Chinese_philosophy
http://www.ancient.eu/Chinese_Philosophy/
http://www.regentsprep.org/Regents/global/vocab/def.cfm?term=dynastic%20cycle
http://asianhistory.about.com/od/ancientchina/f/What-Is-The-Mandate-Of-Heaven.htm