Chapter 2

Network Models

2.1

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.2

Figure 2.1

2.3

Tasks involved in sending a letter

2-2 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
2.4

Note
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.

2.5

Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.6

Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.7

Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.8

2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each
layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer

Network Support Layers

Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
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User Support Layers

2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Layer
Network Support Layers
Data Link Layer
(deal with the physical aspects of
Network Layer
moving data from one device to
another (such as electrical specifications, physical
connection, addressing, transport timing and reliability) )
Transport Layer -> links the two subgroups and ensures that
what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that
the upper layers can use.
Session Layer
User Support Layers
Presentation Layer
(they allow interoperatibility
Application Layer
among unrelated software
systems)
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Figure 2.5 Physical layer

Coordinates the functions requires to carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
Deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications
Defines procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to
perform for transmission to Occur.

2.11

Note
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Also Concerned with
Physical Characteristics: Chr. Of the interface b/t devices and transmission
medium, also defines the type od transmission medium.
Representation of bits: contains streams of bits with no interpretation.
Data Rate: transmission rate, number of bits sent each second, duration of bit.
Synchronization of the bits: S/R not only use same bit rate but also must be
synchronized at bit level. (Clock must be synchronized)
Line Configuration: Connection of devices (point to point/multipoint).
Physical Topology: (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring, Hybrid)
Transmission Mode: (simplex, half duplex, full duplex)

2.12

Figure 2.6 Data link layer

It transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link.
It makes the PL appear error-free to the upper layer (Network Layer)

2.13

Note
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Framing: it divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames
Physical Addressing: Adds a header to the frame to define the sender and / or receiver
of the frame.
Flow Control: data rate, avoid overwhelming the receiver
Error Control: adds reliability
Access Control: Which device has control over the link at any given time

2.14

Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

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Figure 2.8 Network layer

Responsible for source to destination delivery of packet.
Usually, when two systems are connected to same link, there is no need of network layer.
Ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to final destination.

2.16

Note
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Also Responsible for
Logical Addressing: (Data link layer-> Physical Addressing) if packet gets out from
network boundary then logical address helps the packet to distinguish its source &
destination.
Routing: In internetworks (network of networks)/large networks, Routers/Switches
are used to deliver the packets to their final destination. Network layer also contain
this mechanism.

2.17

Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.18

Figure 2.10 Transport layer

Responsible for process to process delivery of the entire message.
A process is an application program running at the host.
Ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order.

2.19

Note
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
Also responsible for
Service point Addressing: For this layer, source to destination mean delivery not
only from one computer to another but also but also from a specific program to
program.
Segmentation and Reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments,
with each segment contain a sequence number. Through these numbers transport
layer is able to reassemble the message correctly.
Connection Control: Connectionless and Connection-oriented
Connectionless: Each segment is treated as independent packet.
Connection Oriented: Before delivering, T.L. of source make a connection
with T.L. of destination and transmit packets, and then connection get
terminated

2.20

Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

Flow Control: (data link layer) in this layer flow control is performed end to end rather
than across a single link
Error Control: (data link layer) , in this layer error control is performed process to
process rather than across a single link. Sending transport layer makes sure that the
entire message arrives at receiving transport layer without any error (loss , damage,
duplication)

2.21

Figure 2.12 Session layer

The service provided by first three layers (Physical, Data Link and Network) are not
sufficient for some processes. The Session layer is the network Dialogue Controller. It
establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction among communicating
systems.

2.22

Note
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

Responsibilities
Dialog Control: it allows the communication between two processes to take place in
either half duplex or full duplex.
Synchronization: it allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points to
a stream of data.
Example: if a system sending a file of 200 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints
after every 20 pages (10 checkpoints) to ensure that each 20-page unit is received
and acknowledged independently. In this case if crash happens during the
transmission of page 112, the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery
are pages 101 to 120.

2.23

Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

Presentation Layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.

2.24

Note
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
Responsible for:
Translation: the processes in two systems are usually exchanging information in the
form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to
bit streams before being transmitted. Different computers use different encoding
systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability b/t these different
encoding methods.
Encryption: to carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another
form and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the
original process to transform the message back to its original form.
Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data Compression becomes particularly important in the transmission
of multimedia.

2.25

Figure 2.14 Application layer

The application layer enables the user whether human or software, to access the
network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail,
remote file access and transfer, shared database management and other types of
distributed information services.
X.4OO (message handling services), X.500 (directory services) and FTAM( file
transfer access and management).

2.26

Note
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
Responsibilities and Services:
Network Virtual Terminal: is a software for physical terminal, and it allows a user
to log on to a remote host.
File Transfer Access and management: This allows a user to access files in a remote
host.
Mail Services: provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
Directory Services: provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

2.27

Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.28

2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly
match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-tonetwork, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
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2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP/IP Layers

OSI Layers

Host to Network

Physical + Data Link

Internet

Network Layer

Application Layer

Presentation and Application Layers

and some parts of Session Layer

Transport Layer

Some parts of Session Layer

So the assumption has been made

TCP/IP contains 5 layers instead of 7
Physical
These first 4 layers provide physical standards, network interfaces,
Data Link
internetworking and transport functions that correspond to the
Network
first 4 layers of OSI model.
Transport
The three topmost in the OSI model are represented in TCP/IP by
Application
single layer called Application Layer.

2.30

Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.31

2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, each of which provides a specific functionality.
(The term hierarchical means that upper level protocol is
supported by one or more lower level protocols)
The modules are not necessarily interdependent. (i.e. in
OSI model specifies which function belongs to each of its
layers).
TCP/IP protocol suite contains relatively independent
protocols that can be mixed and matched depending on
the needs of system.

2.32

2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Physical and Data Link Layers
At Physical and Data Link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol.
Supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.

Network Layer
At Network layer TCP/IP supports the internetworking protocol (IP). IP uses four
supporting protocols:
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

Internetworking Protocol (IP)

It is a transmission mechanism used by TCP/IP protocols. It is an unreliable and
connectionless protocol - a best effort delivery service.
IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which transported
separately
2.33

2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
ARP is used to associate a logical address with a physical address.
Discussed in chapter 21
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
RARP allows a host to discover its Internet address when it only
knows its physical address.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
ICMP is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send
notification of datagram problems back to the sender. It sends
query and error reporting message.
Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)
IGMP is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a
message to group of recipients.

2.34

2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Transport Layer
In TCP/IP Transport layer is represented by two protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
User datagram Protocol (UDP)
Since IP is host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can only deliver a packet from
one physical device to another. TCP and UDP are transport level protocols
responsible for delivery of a message from process to process.

Transmission Control Protocol

Provides full transport layer services
reliable stream transport protocol; (stream means connection-oriented)
TCP divides stream of data into smaller units called segments. Each segment
contains a sequence number for reordering after receipt, together with an
acknowledgment number for the segments received.

User datagram Protocol

It adds only port addresses, checksum, error control and length information to
the data from the upper layer.
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2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
Provides support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet. It is
transport layer protocols that combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

Application Layer
It is equivalent to the combined Session, Presentation and Application Layers of
the OSI model.

2.36

2-5 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.37

Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.38

Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.39

Physical Address
Also known as link address, is a address of node as defined by
its LAN or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data
link layer.

Example 2.1
In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.
2.40

Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.41

Example 2.2
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.42

Example 2.3
Logical Address
Necessary for universal communication that are independent
of underlying physical networks.
Logical Address currently used is 32-bit address

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a
pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In
this case, each computer is connected to only one link and
therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is
connected to three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each connection.
2.43

Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.44

Example 2.4
Port Address
The IP (logical) address and physical address are necessary for a quantity
of data to travel from S/D. However, arrival at the destination host is not
the final objective of data communication on the Internet. Which process is
communicating and with whom it is communicating, this is known by Port
Addresses.

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the Internet.

The sending computer is running three processes at this time with
port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running two
processes at this time with port addresses j and k. Process a in the
sending computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the same from
the source to destination.
2.45

Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.46

Note
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

2.47

Example 2.5
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one
decimal number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.

2.48

Specific Address
Email Addresses (e.g. xyz@abc.com)
URL (e.g. www.google.com)
These are kind of Specific Addresses.

2.49