SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

ON
COMPUTER NETWORKING

Guidance

Of

Under Guidance of
Mr. <TEACHER_NAME>

Prepared By
<Student_Name>
B.E. Third Year
(Information Tech & Engg.)
College Name

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

TABLE OF CONTENT
i Acknowledgement
ii Certificate
iii Table of Content
iv About the Company
1. Introduction to Networking
Definition
Requirement of Networking
2. Types of Network
LAN (Local Area Network)
WAN (Wide Area Network)
3. Network Models
OSI Model
4. Cables
Twisted Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fibre Optic
5. Networking Devices
Network Interface Card
Hub
Switch
Router
6. IP Addressing
Introduction
Private IP
Masking
Subnetting
Example
7. LAN Solution
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

Requirement
Solution
Specification Sheet
8. Router
Internal Components
Network Interfaces
Configuring
Configuring using Console
Routing Protocols
RIP
IGRP
Access List
9. Firewall
Introduction
Technologies
Configuring
10. WLAN
Standards
Topologies
Infrastructure Network
Adhoc Network
11. Intrusion Detection System (IDS)
HIDS
NIDS
Techniques
12. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
Channels
Interfaces
Functional Group
Reference Points
13.WAN Solution
14. Self Evaluation

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
Definition :A network is a system that transmits any combination of voice, video and/or data
between users. A network can be defined by its geographical dimensions and by
which the users PC access it.
A network consists of a:
The network operating system (Windows NT/2000TM/Xp) on the users
PC (client) and server.
The cables connecting all network devices (users PC, server,
peripherals, etc.).
All supporting network components (hubs, routers and switches, etc.).
Computer Network means an interconnected collection of
autonomous computers.

Requirement of Networking
Resource sharing- To make all programs, equipment, and especially data
available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the
resource and the user.
High reliability- As all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if
one of them is unavailable (due to hardware failure), the other copies could be
used.
Scalability- It is the ability to increase system performance gradually as the
workload grows just by adding more processors.
A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium along
widely separated employees.
The use of networks to enhance human-to-human communication will probably
prove more important than technical goals such as improved reliability.
These are the requirement with respect to companies but computer networking is
required even in the normal day to day life as we have to access the internet to
get information about what all new happening in the world, to have
communication with people staying far away using the e mail service.
These are the reasons that forced the inventerors to invent the networking
devices, models and protocols etc.
And the birth of Networking took place in 1844 when for the first time
Samuel Morse send the first telegraph message.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

These are privately owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a
few a kilometers in size.
LANs are distinguished from other networks by three characteristics:
1) Their size.
2) Their transmission technology.
3) Their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time
is bounded and known in advance.
LANs often use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable to which
all the machines are attached.
LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps, have low delays, and make very few
errors.

LAN SETUP
IEEE has produced several standards for LANs. These standards collectively
known as IEEE 802 .
IEEE802.3 (Ethernet), IEEE802.4 (Token Bus), IEEE802.5 (Token Ring)

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)

It is a Computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area, often a
country or continent. Typically a WAN consists of two or more Local Area
Network.
Computers connected to WAN are often connected through public networks such
as telephone systems. They can also be connected through leased lines or
satellites. The largest WAN in existence is Internet.
WANs run at speed of maximum 2 to 10 Mbps.

WAN SETUP
For most WANs, the long distance bandwidth is relatively slow: on the order of
kilobits per second (kbps) as opposed to megabits per second (Mbps) for
local-area networks (LANs). For example, an Ethernet LAN has a 10 Mbps
bandwidth; a WAN using part or all of a T1 carrier has a bandwidth of 1.544
Mbps .
Three types of approaches are used to connect WANs:
1) Circuit switching, which provides a fixed connection (at least for the duration of
a call or session), so that each packet takes the same path. Examples of this
approach include ISDN, Switched 56, and Switched T1.
2) Packet switching, which establishes connections during the transmission
process so that different packets from the same transmission may take different
routes and may arrive out of sequence at the destination. Examples
of this approach are X.25, frame relay, and ATM.
3) Leased lines, which can provide a dedicated connection for private use

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

NETWORK MODELS
Layering Concepts and Benefits
Many benefits can be gained from the process of breaking up the functions or
tasks of networking into smaller chunks, called layers, and defining standard
interfaces between these layers. The layers break a large, complex set of
concepts and protocols into smaller pieces, making it easier to talk about, to
implement with hardware and software, and to troubleshoot.
The following list summarizes the benefits of layered protocol Specifications:
Humans can more easily discuss and learn about the many details of a protocol
specification.
Standardized interfaces among layers facilitate modular engineering.
A better environment for interoperability is created. One vendor can write
software that implements higher layersfor example, a Web browserand
another can write software that implements the lower layersfor example,
Microsofts built-in TCP/IP software in its operating systems.
Reduced complexity allows easier program changes and faster product
evolution.
One layer uses the services of the layer immediately below it. Therefore,
remembering what each layer does is easier. (For example, the network layer
needs to deliver data from end to end. To do this, it uses data links to forward
data to the next successive device along that end-to-end path.)

OSI NETWORK MODEL

The OSI model describes how information makes its way from application
programs through a network medium to another application program in other
computer. It divides one big problem in to seven smaller problems . Each
problem is addressed by one of the seven layers of the OSI model.

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

Functions of Network Layers in Brief:

APPLICATION LAYER

Used for applications specifically written to run over the network

Allows access to network services that support applications;
Directly represents the services that directly support user applications
Handles network access, flow control and error recovery
Example apps are file transfer, e-mail, Net BIOS-based applications

PRESENTATION LAYER

Translates from application to network format and vice-versa

All different formats from all sources are made into a common uniform
format that the rest of the OSI model can understand
Responsible for protocol conversion, character conversion, data
encryption / decryption, expanding graphics commands, data compression
Sets standards for different systems to provide seamless communication
from multiple protocol stacks
Not always implemented in a network protocol

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

SESSION LAYER

Establishes, maintains and ends sessions across the network

Responsible for name recognition (identification) so only the designated
parties can participate in the session
Provides synchronization services by planning check points in the data
stream => if session fails, only data after the most recent checkpoint need
be transmitted
Manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long
Examples are interactive login and file transfer connections, the session
would connect and re-connect if there was an interruption; recognize
names in sessions and register names in history

TRANSPORT LAYER

Additional connection below the session layer

Manages the flow control of data between parties across the network
Divides streams of data into chunks or packets; the transport layer of the
receiving computer reassembles the message from packets
"Train" is a good analogy => the data is divided into identical units
Provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with on
losses or duplications
Provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions; requests
retransmission if some packets dont arrive error-free
Provides flow control and error-handling
TCP, ARP, RARP;

NETWORK LAYER

Translates logical network address and names to their physical address

(e.g. computer name ==> MAC address)
Responsible for addressing and determining routes for sending
Managing network problems such as packet switching, data congestion
and routing
If router cant send data frame as large as the source computer sends, the
network layer compensates by breaking the data into smaller units. At the
receiving end, the network layer reassembles the data
Think of this layer stamping the addresses on each train car
IP; ARP; RARP, ICMP; RIP; OSFP;

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

DATA LINK LAYER

Turns packets into raw bits 100101 and at the receiving end turns bits into
packets.
Handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers
The receiving end packages raw data from the Physical layer into data
frames for delivery to the Network layer
Responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other computer via the
Physical Layer
This layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on the
network. It consists of the wiring, the devices use to connect the NIC to
the wiring, the signaling involved to transmit / receive data and the ability
to detect signaling errors on the network media

Logical Link Control

Error correction and flow control

Manages link control and defines SAPs

PHYSICAL LAYER

Transmits raw bit stream over physical cable

Defines cables, cards, and physical aspects
Defines NIC attachments to hardware, how cable is attached to NIC
Defines techniques to transfer bit stream to cable

IP ADDRESSING
Every machine on the internet has a unique identifying number, called an IP
Address. A typical; IP address looks like this:
216.27.61.45
IP ADDRESS is a 32-bit number, usually written in dotted decimal form, that
uniquely identifies an interface of some computer. This 32-bit number is divided
into 4 octets each separated by a decimal. Out so many values certain values
are restricted for use as typical IP address. For example, the IP address 0.0.0.0
is reserved for the default network and the address 255.255.255.255is used for
broadcast.
Each IP address is split into 2 sections:
1) Network address
2) Host address
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

Individual IP address in same network all have a different value in the host part of
address, but they have identical value in network part, just as in town there are
different street address but same ZIP code.
There are five IP classes:
Class A This class is for very large networks, such as a major international
company. IP addresses with a first octet from 1 to 126 are part of this class. The
other three octets are each used to identify each host.
Net
54.

Host or Node
24.54.43

Loopback- The IP address 127.0.0.1 is used as the loopback address. This

means that it is used by the host computer to send a message back to itself. It is
commonly used for troubleshooting and network testing.
Class B- Class B is used for medium-sized networks. A good example is a large
college campus. IP addresses with a first octet from 128 to191 are part of this
class. Class B addresses also include the second octet as part of the Net
identifier. The other two octets are used to identify each host.
Net
145.24

Host or Node
53.198

Class C- Class C addresses are commonly used for small to mid-size business.
IP addresses with a first octet from192 to 223 are part of this class. Class C
addresses also include the second and third octets as part of Net identifier. The
last octet is used to identify each host.
Net
196.54.34

Host or Node
86

Class D- It is used for multicast. It has first bit value of 1, second bit value of 1,
third bit value of 1 and fourth bit value of 0. The other 28 bits are used to identify
the group of computers the multicast messages is intended for.
Net
224

Host or Node
24.54.145

Class E- It is used for experimental purpose only.

Net
240.
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

Host or Node
23.45.105

Private IP
It is not necessary that every time we make a network we are connected to some
ISP (Internet Service Provider). So in that case we require some private IP also
which can be used in indigenous networks .In each class a range of IP
addresses have been defined for this purpose
CLASS A

10.0.0.1 to 10.255.255.244

CLASS B

172.16.0.1 to 172.34.255.254

CLASS C

192.168.0.0/16

MASKING
Computers use a mask to define size of network and host part of an address.
Mask is a 32-bit number written in dotted decimal form. It provides us the network
address when we perform a Boolean AND of mask with the IP address. It also
define number of host bits in an address.
Class
of
addres
s
A
B
C

Size of
network
Part of
address,
in bits
8
16
24

Size of
Host
Part of
address,
in bits
24
16
8

Default Mask
for Each
Class of
Network
255.0.0.0
255.255.0.0
255.255.255.
0

SUBNETTING
Basically it is a process of subdividing networks into smaller subnets.
In case we have 2-3 small networks but we cant buy IP address for each and
every network. So here we use the basic concept of SUBNETTING i.e using one
public IP address we will give them IP address and make them independent
networks. For this we take some bits of host address and use them for network
address so we have different independent networks
Address Format when Subnetting Is Used (class A,B,C resp.):
8
Network

24-x
Subnet

16
Network
24
Network

x
Host
16-x
Subnet

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

x
Host
8-x
x
Subnet Host

And due to this mask changes to subnet mask and now the network address also
includes subnet address.
Example
If subnet mask is 255.255.240.0
And an IP address for a computer is given as 142.16.52.4
142.16.0.0 is network address
0.0.48.0 is the subnet address
0.0.4.4 is the host address of the computer
10001110.00010000.00110100.00000100 is ANDed with
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
and output is 10001110.00010000.00110000.00000000
here first two octets represents Network address and third octet represents
subnet address.
It can be compared with a postal address as there is only one ZIP code (Network
address), different streets (Subnet address), and different house number (Host
address).

Some terminologies
Networking models:

those

are

used

with

Collision Domain- It is the group of PCs in which collision will occur

when two PC will transmit data simultaneously.
Broadcast Domain- It is the group of PCs those will receive same
broadcast message.
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection)- In this
protocol when a PC wants to transmit any packet it sense the carrier i.e the
path ,if no other PC is using the carrier then only it sends. If two PCs starts
sending data simultaneously collision will occur. Both PCs will wait for
some random time and then initiate the same process.
MAC (Media Access Control) . The IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and
802.5
(Token Ring) are the MAC sub layers of these two LAN datalink protocols.
Burned-in address: The 6-byte address assigned by the
vendor making
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

the card. It is usually burned in to a ROM or EEPROM on the

LAN card and begins with a 3-byte organizationally unique
identifier (OUI) assigned by
the IEEE.
Locally administered address: Through configuration, an
address that is used instead of the burned-in address.
Unicast address: Fancy term for a MAC that represents a
single LAN
interface.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Passive components are those devices which are used to provide connectivity
between different networking devices.
It includes
Cables
Patch Panel
Patch Cord
I/O box
Racks
RJ-45 Connectors

CABLES
There are different Cabling options depending on the access method :
Twisted pair
The wires are twisted around each other to
minimize interference from other twisted pairs in the cable.
Twisted pair cables are available unshielded (UTP)
or shielded (STP). UTP is the most common type
and uses a RJ-45 Connector.
Typical lengths are up to 100m.
Twisted pair network uses a star topology.
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

Coaxial
Coaxial cable uses BNC connectors.
The maximum cable lengths are around 500m.
Coaxial networks use a single bus topology

Fiber Optic
UTP and Co-axial cables are not capable for driving the data signals for long
distance i.e. UTP is capable of transmitting up to a distance 100 meters only By
using the Fiber cables it is possible to send the data about 10 kilometers. Fiber
optic cable uses SC, ST, LC connectors (most common in use is SC connector)
In fiber cables the data is converted to light signals and the signal is made to
propagate through the fiber cable. There are two types of Fibre optic cable
available.
1. Single mode: In this mode typical length is up to 12km and data rate is
1000Mbps. The core diameter is about 9.25 nm cable is known as 1000 base LX
cable.
2. Multi mode: This mode is further categorised in two:
1) SX: Typical length is up to 500m and data rate is 1000Mbps.
2) FX: Typical length is up to 220m and data rate is 100Mbps.

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

PATCH PANEL
A patch panel provides a convenient place to terminate (connect) all of the cable
coming from different locations into the wiring closet. We connect the cables
coming from various locations willing to connect to switch through the patch
panel.

NEED OF PATCH PANEL

We can label the patch panel so we know that which wire belongs to which
location. Without a patch panel, it is chaotic. If we want to disconnect a station
from the switch, it's a lot easier if there's a label.
Most cabling is wired "straight-through" from end to end. But sometimes we need
to cross-wire some of the pairs between switch and station, like with a cable
modem, or cross-wire to connect two switches. With a patch panel, all of this
cross-wiring is done in the patch cable. If you have to make any changes, like
moving a station or switch, you just move the patch cable with it, instead of
having to reterminate the cable run.

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

PATCH CORD

RACK
We have to mount the patch panel somehow. The best way is to buy a rack.
Basically, a rack is a pair of vertical rails with holes drilled in them so that we can
mount patch panels, hubs, and other network equipment. This made it easy to

access the back of the patch panel and other networking components.

Cabling Guidelines
The RJ-45 ports on the switch support automatic MDI/MDI-X operation, so wecan
use standard straight-through twisted-pair cables to connect to any other network
device (PCs, servers, switches, routers, or hubs).
We use only twisted-pair cables with RJ-45 connectors that conform to FCC
standards.
Connecting to PCs, Servers, Hubs and Switches
1. Attach one end of a twisted-pair cable segment to the devices RJ-45
connector.
Making Twisted-Pair Connections

2. The port where we are connecting the RJ-45 is a network card, attach the
other end of the cable segment to a modular wall outlet that is connected
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

to the wiring closet . Otherwise, attach the other end to an available port
on the switch.
Make sure each twisted pair cable does not exceed 100 meters (328 ft) in length.
Wiring Closet Connections
Today, the punch-down block is an integral part of many of the newer equipment
racks. It is actually part of the patch panel. Instructions for making connections in
the wiring closet with this type of equipment follow.
1. Attach one end of a patch cable to an available port on the switch, and the
other end to the patch panel.
2. If not already in place, attach one end of a cable segment to the back of
the patch panel where the punch-down block is located, and the other end
to a modular wall outlet.
3. Label the cables to simplify future troubleshooting.

NETWORKING DEVICES
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

Networking devices do various kind of jobs like transferring the data to signals,
providing connectivity to different network devices, transferring the data in form of
packets or frames form one device to other. These are the central connections
for all the network equipments and handles a data type known as frame or
packet. Actually frames/ packet contain data and the destination address of
where it is going. When a frame is received, it is amplified and then transmitted
on to port of destination PC. But different networking components do this job in
diff form at diff layers.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a circuit board that plugs into both clients and
servers and controls the exchange of data between them (A specific software
driver must be installed depending on the make of the NIC. A physical
transmission medium, such as twisted pair or coaxial cable interconnects all
network interface cards to network hubs or switches. Ethernet and Token Ring
are common network interface cards. Todays cards supports 10baseT and
100baseT with automatic recognition.

HUB
When the need for interconnecting more then 2 devices together then a device
known as hub comes to picture. Basically hub is a layer one device. i.e. it
operates on the physical layer of the OSI model. It is designed to do
broadcasting i.e when it gets any frame it broadcasts it to every port irrespective
that whether it is destined for that port or not. Hub has no way of distinguishing
which port a frame should be sent. Broadcasting results in lot of traffic on the
network which lead to poor network response. If two PC simultaneously transmit
there data packets and both are connected to a HUB, then collision will occur, so
we can say, it creates a single collision domain. On the other hand all PCs
connected to a hub will get a same message so a single broadcast domain will
be created.
A 100/1000 Mbps hub must share its bandwidth with each and every one of its
ports. So when only one PC is broadcasting, it will have access to the max
available bandwidth. If, however, multiple PCs are broadcasting, then that
bandwidth will need to be divided between all of these systems, which will
degrade the performance. They are usually Half-Duplex in nature.

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

SWITCH
Hubs are capable of joining more than two PC but having some demerits like if
two PC would want to communicate at a time then there would be a collision and
the both PC would have to send the data once again. This shortcoming of Hub is
overcame by Switches. Switches are intelligent devices which work on the
Layer2 of the OSI model. Basically a switch keeps a record of MAC addresses of
all the devices connected to it. Using this information, it builds a MAC address
table. So when a frame is received, it knows exactly which port to send it to,
which increases the network response time.
Basic Working Principle of Switch.
1. At the time of initializing the switch the MAC address table is yet to be built
up. When a frame is send by some of the PC, it recognises the source
MAC address and update the MAC address table.
2. If the destination is available in the MAC table then forward to the
corresponding PC.
3. If the destination MAC address is not present in the table then forwards in
all the port available expect the incoming one. The designated PC will
respond for the data and it will send the acknowledge for the data
received. This acknowledged data will be examined by the switch and the
MAC address table would be up dated accordingly.
If two PC simultaneously transmit there data packets and both are connected to
a SWITCH, then collision will not occur, so we can say, it creates a multiple
collision domain.
The switch supports broadcast. Hence we can call switches create single
broadcast domain and multiple collision domains.
A 100/1000Mbps switch will allocate a full 100/1000 Mbps to each of its ports. So
regardless of the no of PCs transmitting user will always have access to max
amt of bandwidth. They are usually Full-Duplex in nature.

Switches are of two types

1) Managed
2) Unmanaged
Managed switch supports SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

Different switching Principles:1. Store-and-forward:- The switch fully receives all bits in the frame (store)
before forwarding the frame (forward). This allows the switch to check the FCS
before forwarding the frame. (FCS is in the Ethernet trailer.)
2. Cut-through:- The switch performs the address table lookup as soon as the
destination address field in the header is received. The first bits in the frame can
be sent out the outbound port before the final bits in the incoming frame are
received. This does not allow the switch to discard frames that fail the FCS
check. (FCS is in the Ethernet trailer.)
3. Fragment Free:- This performs like cut-through switching, but the switch waits
for 64 bytes to be received before forwarding the first bytes of the outgoing
frame. According to Ethernet specifications, collisions should be detected during
the first 64 bytes of the frame; frames in error because of a collision will not be
forwarded. The FCS still cannot be checked.
Bridge is another device like switch which also operates basing on the MAC
address. But the Basic difference between the bridge and the switch is that
bridge works on software bases, but the switch works on hardware basic. The
Switch works on ASICs ( Application Specific Integrated Circuits)

ROUTER
Switch and the Hub can only interconnect devices in a single LAN. For
interconnecting two LAN or two or more different networks anther device known
as router is used. Its main job is to route ( sends ) packets to other networks and
to do the routing ( establishing paths between networks ) it uses the IP address.
A router is typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or
WANs or a LAN and its ISPs network. Routers are located at gateways, the
places where two or more networks connect. Routers to determine the best path
for forwarding the packet are using forwarding tables.
It is a layer 3 device i.e it operates at network layer of OSI model. The working
principle of the router is totally different from a switch. Router makes a table
known as routing table, which contains all the IP address in the network, the
information for IP address router obtains directly ( all configured IP address on it )
or indirectly ( from neighbour routers ). When a packet is received it compares
the destination IP address of the packet with the available IP addresses in its
Routing table. If the IP address is not available in the routing table then it simply
discard the packet instead of flooding in all the ports like a switch.(Detailed
Information about router in chap )

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

Comparison between Hub, Bridge, Switch & Router

Feature
Number of
broadcast
domains
Number of
collision
domains
Forwards LAN
broadcasts?
Forwards LAN
multicasts
OSI layer used
when making
forwarding
decision
Internal
processing
variants
Frame/packet
fragmentation
allowed?
Multiple
concurrent
equal-cost paths
to same
destination
allowed?

Hub

Bridge

Segment

1
1 per
bridge
port

1
1

Yes

N/A

Yes

N/A

Layer 2

N/A

Storeandforward

Switch
1
1 per switch
port

Router
1 per
router
interface
1 per
router
interface

Yes
Yes; can be
optimized for
less
forwarding

No

Layer 2
Store-andforward, cutthrough,
FragmentFre
e

Layer 3

No

Storeandforward

N/A

No

No

Yes

N/A

No

No

Yes

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

LAN SOLUTION
CUSTOMER REQUIREMENT
There is a company, which has 2 offices. And the offices are 200 meters apart.
The connectivity between these two offices is the main requirement to be fulfilled.
In each office there are three different departments each department at different
floor.
In building Ist
At each floor there are 20 users and also at 3 rd floor there are 2 Servers.
In building IInd
At floor 1st and 2nd there are 20 users each. And at 3rd floor there are 40 users.
The bandwidth requirement of each user is 100 Mbps while the bandwidth
requirement for the server is 1 Gbps.
All floors must be connected to a central switch to be placed at IInd floor in office
2nd. And connectivity should be via optical fiber.
Everywhere there should be structured cabling.
Every switch should be provide with one GBIC slot for future connectivity of
server.
Every where smart and managed switch should be used.

Summer Training Report On Computer Networking

SOLUTION
By looking at the requirement it is clear that we require a switch that has got 20
ports and also 2 GBIC slots (one for optical fiber connectivity and one free slot is
demanded for future use).
Keeping this point into consideration we can use HCL 24 Port Managed
Stackable Switch as this switch has got 24 ports and 2 GBIC slots and this switch
is managed switch also.
And with this 24 port switch we will use 24 port HCL made Patch Panel
And for connectivity of patch panel with switch we require 3 ft Patch Cord. As
structured cabling is must so we require UTP cable and I/O box and to connect
PCs with I/O box we require 7ft Patch Cord.
Here we will use Cat5e UTP cable because bandwidth requirement is 100 Mbps
This trend of connecting the users to the switch will be followed at each and
every floor but at floor 3rd of building IInd there are 40 user so here instead of 1
switch we require 2 switches.
At 3rd floor of building 1st 2 servers are also present whose bandwidth
requirement is 1Gbps. So now we have two options either to connect with UTP
cable or Fiber optic cable. But here we will use fiber optic as we are already
using it so thee is no need to waste money on UTP Cat 6 Cable. So here we will
simply use the fiber optic patch cord to connect the server to switch.
Now only one thing is left i.e. connection of switches to a central switch placed at
2nd floor of IInd building.
As the connection requirement is via optical fiber so we at central location we
require a switch having all its ports as GBIC slots and no of ports should not be
more than 8 as there are only 7 24 port switches in use (one optical cable line
from each switch)
Now here as the distance between the two offices is only 200 meters so here we
will use multimode optical fiber and that too FX type and as the cable is to be laid
in open so outdoor armored cable will be use.
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The connectivity diagram, the bill of material and the specification sheet for the
solution is given in the following pages.

SPECIFICATION SHEET
HCL-24TMS-2S-W
HCL 24 Port Managed Stackable Switch
STANDARDS- IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) , IEEE802.3a (Fast Ethernet),
IEEE802.2ab (Gigabit Ethernet), IEEE802.3z (1000Base
SX/LX)
PORTS- 24 port auto negotiation 10 base T/100 base TX
2optional modular expansion ports (1000 base-T, 1000 base
LX/SX/FX)
MAC Addresses- 4K
BANDWIDTH- 12Gbps
SWITCHING RATE- 6.6Mbps
SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol)- Yes, and supports
RFC1157
WEB MANAGEABLE- Yes

PC-C305-E
CAT 5 e CABLE
Enhanced CAT 5 350 MHz
UTP Bulk Cable
4 Pairs
Solid Grey
Length: 305 Meters

PC-JP24-E
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PATCH PANEL
Unshielded 24 Port RJ-45 jack for performance @ rated 100 Mbps
Fully Complied to e CAT 5 T568A/B standards
1.6mm metallic Patch Panel 19'' Rack Mount frame 1U Fully powder coated
Black

PC-MC3-GE
3 ft. patch cord
3 ft. Enhance CAT.5 350 MHz
Grey Patch Cord
UTP twisted pair with Black Snagless Flange Boot

PC-MC7-GE
7 ft. patch cord
7 ft. Enhance CAT.5 350 MHz
Grey Patch Cord
UTP twisted pair with Black Snagless Flange Boot .

PF-CM6-A-OM2
outdoor armoured Fiber optic cable - Multimode
Construction: Corrugated steel tape armoured cable construction
Multimode 62.5/125m cable
No of Cores 6 fibre core cables.
Length- 1 meter

PF-PMSC-SC-3D-50
SC-SC Duplex Patch cord Multimode
Patch Cords cable 50/125m Multi mode
Patch Cords connectors SC/ST Connectors MM patch cords
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OFC Patch cord is duplex type of 3mtrs length

PF-COSC-M
SC Connector Multi mode
Easy connection & disconnection Pull -- Push type

PF-CPSC-M
SC Coupler mm (Included in the Fiber Patch Panel)
Low Insertion loss
Type SC - SC type

PF-LIU-12U
12 Core LIU ( Line Insertion Unit )
Wall mount 12 way Fibre Jack Panel
Base Unit + 12 MM SC couplers with panel

PF-LIU-6U
6 Core LIU (Line Insertion Unit)
Wall mount 6 way Fibre Jack Panel
Base Unit + 6 MM SC couplers with panel.

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ROUTER
ROUTER INTERNAL COMPONENTS
Like a computer, a router has a CPU that varies in performance and capabilities
depending upon router platform. It has typically 4 types of memory in it.:
ROM- It is used to store the routers bootstrap startup program, operating system
software, and power-on diagnostic tests programs. We can also upgrade our
ROM
FLASH MEMORY- It holds operating systems image(s). Flash memory is
erasable, reprogrammable ROM. Our IOS software is present in this memory and
we can upgrade it also. Flash content is retained even when we switch off or
restart the router.
RAM- It is used to store operational information such as routing tables, routers
running configuration file. RAM also provides caching and packet buffering
capabilities. Its content is lost when we switch off or restart the router. When we
configure the router at that time actually we are writing in RAM.
NVRAM- It is used to store the routers startup configuration file. It does not lose
data when power is switched off. So the contents of startup configuration files are
maintained even when we switch off or restart the router.

ROUTERS NETWORK INTERFACES

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Ethernet or Token Ring interface are configured to allow connection to a LAN.

Synchronous serial interfaces are configured to allow connections to WANs.
ISDN BRI interfaces are configured to allow connection to an ISDN WAN.
All cisco routers have a console port that provides an EIA/TIA-232
asynchronous serial connection. Console port can be connected to computers
serial connection to gain terminal access to router.
Most routers also have an auxiliary port that is very similar to console port but,
is typically used for modem connection for remote router management.

CONFIGURING THE ROUTER

There are three methods for configuring the router:

1) Through console port:- The console port is used for configuring a router
locally with the help of a PC or a Laptop. The console port of the router is
connected to the serial i.e COM port of the router. The detailed
configuration is given in the section.
2)

Through the AUX port:- The aux ( auxiliary ) port is accessed from a
modem located faraway from a router through the PSTN ( Public Switched
Telephone Network ) and the configuration is done.

3) Through Telnet:- Line vty ( virtual terminal ) 0 to 4 are used for the
configuring the router by telnet.
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Configuring Router through Console port

We use HyperTerminal Program to open a console session and log into the
router locally. This console connection allows to connect to and to communicate
with router without having to connect to the network to which it belongs. Now, the
PC becomes the console that allows to enter commands and communicate
directly with the router. To set up a console session, we use the workstations
Windows HyperTerminal (terminal emulation) program. Now first of all we
configure the COM port settings, then log into the router to interact with the IOS
command line interface (CLI). These are the com port settings:
9600
8
N
1
On/off
After pressing enter or OK to accept these settings, we came across a blank
window. This is a session window.
The Following steps are adopted to access a router through the console port with
a Windows based PC.
Access Hyper terminal:- Start Menu Programs Accessories
Communication Hyperterminal
Connect to the device of the PC

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COM 1 Setting

Hyper terminal Screen

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After connecting the router that will boot and after booting the following
procedures will be adopted.
Router> enable
Now automatically prompt asking for password will appear on the screen like this:
Password:
Now write password over here. This is done to secure access to router. After this
Router#
will appear on the screen this shows that we are in privileged mode and now we
try to enter in configuration mode.
Router# configure terminal
This is done to enter configuration mode.
Now starts the configuration of router
Now we will assign IP address to each and very interface connected to router.
Subnet mask should be given with a proper care. Following steps are to be
followed:
For configuring ethernet interface:
Router# config terminal
Router (config)# interface ethernet 0
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Router (config-if)# ip address 223.8.151.1 255.255.255.0

Router (config-if)# no shutdown
Router (config-if)#exit
For configuring serial interface:
Router (config)# interface serial 0
Router (config-if)# ip address 204.204.7.1 255.255.255.0
Router (config-if)# no shutdown
Router (config-if)#exit
Router (config)# interface serial 1
Router (config-if)# ip address 199.6.13.2 255.255.255.0
Router (config-if)# no shutdown
Router(config-if)# exit

ROUTING PROTOCOLS
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)
RIP is a dynamic, distance vector routing protocol. RIP uses UDP port 520 for
route updates. RIP calculates the best route based on hop count. This makes
RIP very fast to converge
RIP sends full table updates at regular intervals specified by the route-update
timer (30 seconds is the default). This means that a RIP router summarizes all
routes it knows along classful boundaries and sends the summary information to
all other RIP routing devices. RIP updates can contain up to 25 messages.
RIP TIMERS
TIMER
update
timeout
Flush

DEFAULT CONTROLS
30 sec.
Interval between route update advertisements
180 sec.
Interval a route should stay 'live' in the routing table.
This counter is reset every time the router hears an update for this
route.
240 sec.
How long to wait from the time the route was
received to delete a route (60 seconds after timeout).

The routing-update timer controls the time between routing updates. Default is
usually 30 seconds, plus a small random delay to prevent all RIP routers from
sending updates simultaneously.
The route-timeout timer controls when a route is no longer available. The default
is usually 180 seconds. If a router has not seen the route in an update during this
specified interval, it is dropped from the router's announcements. The route is
maintained long enough for the router to advertise the route as down (hop count
of 16).
The route-flush timer controls how long before a route is completely flushed from
the routing table. The default setting is usually 120 seconds.
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BASIC RIP CONFIGURATION

According to the recollection of InetDaemon, configuring a Cisco router for a
basic RIP configuration would look something like this:
router> enable
Password:
router# conf t
router(config)#interface ethernet 0
router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.42.1
router(config-if)# interface ethernet 1
router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.43.1
router(config-if)# exit
router(config)# router rip
router(config-router)# network 192.168.42.0
router(config-router)# network 192.168.43.0
router(config-router)# exit
router(config-router)# ^z
router#
The example above assumes that the interfaces that will be running RIP have IP
addresses on them that fall within the 192.168.42.0, and 192.168.43.0 class C
ranges.
IGRP
IGRP is a distance-vector routing protocol that considers a composite metric
which, by default, uses bandwidth and delay as parameters instead of hop count.
IGRP is not limited to the 15-hop limit of RIP. IGRP has a maximum hop limit of
100, by default, and can be configured to support a network diameter of 255.
With IGRP, routers usually select paths with a larger minimum-link bandwidth
over paths with a smaller hop count. Links do not have a hop count. They are
exactly one hop.
IGRP is available only on Cisco routers
IGRP will load-balance traffic if there are several paths with equal cost to the
destination
IGRP sends its routing table to its neighbors every 90 seconds. IGRP's default
update period of 90 seconds is a benefit compared to RIP, which can consume
excessive bandwidth when sending updates every 30 seconds. IGRP uses an
invalid timer to mark a route as invalid after 270 seconds (three times the update
timer). As with RIP, IGRP uses a flush timer to remove a route from the routing
table; the default flush timer is set to 630 seconds (seven times the update period
and more than 10 minutes).
If a network goes down or the metric for the network increases, the route is
placed in holddown. The router accepts no new changes for the route until the
holddown timer expires. This setup prevents routing loops in the network. The
default holddown timer is 280 seconds (three times the update timer plus 10
seconds).
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IGRP Timer

Default Time

Update

90 seconds

Invalid

270 seconds

Holddown

280 seconds

Flush

630 seconds

IP ACCESS LIST
IP access lists cause a router to discard some packets based on criteria defined
by the network engineer. The goal of these filters is to prevent unwanted traffic in
the networkwhether to prevent hackers from penetrating the network, or just to
prevent employees from using systems
that they should not be using.
Key features of access lists:
Packets can be filtered as they enter an interface, before the routing decision.
Packets can be filtered before they exit an interface, after the routing decision.
Deny is the term used in Cisco IOS software to imply that the packet will be
filtered.
Permit is the term used in Cisco IOS software to imply that the packet will not
be filtered.
The filtering logic is configured in the access list.
At the end of every access list is an implied deny all traffic statement.
Therefore, if a packet does not match any of your access list statements, it is
blocked.
Access lists have two major steps in their logic: matching and action. Matching
logic examines each packet and determines whether it matches the
access-list statement. As soon as an access-list statement is matched, there
are two actions to choose from: deny and permit. Deny means to discard the
packet, and permit implies that the packet should continue on its way.

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FIREWALL
As the limits of networking is increasing unfolded so the danger of information
leaking in and leaking out increases. So a mechanism is required to keep good
bits in and bad bits out. And for this we use FIREWALL.
A firewall is a device of some kind that separates and protects our network - in
most cases, from the Internet. It restricts traffic to only what is acceptable, and
monitors that what is happening. Every firewall has at least two network
interfaces, one for the network it is intended to protect, and one for the network it
is exposed to. A firewall sits at the junction point or gateway between the two
networks, usually a private network and a public network such as the Internet.
It may be a hardware device or a software program running on a secure host
computer.
Hardware device means a physical devise connected at the gateway which
checks every incoming or outgoing packet.
Software program means that software is loaded in computer that determines as
what to allow and what to reject.
A firewall examines all traffic routed between the two networks to see if it
meets certain criteria. A firewall filters both inbound and outbound traffic.

Technologies
There are three different types of firewall technologies:
1) Packet Filtering
2) Proxy
3) Stateful Inspection

Packet Filtering
A packet filtering firewall simply inspects incoming traffic at the transport layer of
the OSI model. The packet filtering firewall analyzes TCP or UDP packets and
compare them to a set of established rules called as Access Control List (ACL).
Packet filtering inspects packet nly for following elements
Source IP address
Source Port
Destination IP address
Destination Port
Protocol

Proxy
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When a firewall is installed then no PC makes direct connection to the outside

world. In that case they use proxy i.e each PC first of all sends request to proxy
which then forwards the request to the internet or outside world for connection or
data transfer.
Stateful Inspection
It is a combination of Packet filtering and proxy services. This is the most secure
technology and provides the most functionality because connections are not only
applied to ACL, but are logged into a static table. After a connection is
established, all session data is compared to the static table. If the session data
does not match the state table information for that connection, then connection is
dropped.

CONFIGURING THE FIREWALL

Five basic commands are used to do a basic configuring of the firewall.
interface
nameif
ip-address
nat
global
Interface Command
The interface command identifies the interface hardware card, sets the speed of
the interface and enables the interface all in one command.
SYNTAX: interface hardware_id hardware_speed [shutdown]
hardware_id indicates interfaces physical location on the firewall.
Hardware_speed indicates connection speed. There are various options provided
to us by the firewall regarding speed.
1000sxfullSets full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet.
1000basesxSets half-duplex Gigabit Ethernet
1000autoAutomatically detects ands negotiates full/half duplex
10fullSets 10Mbps full-duplex Ethernet
100fullSets 100Mbps full-duplex Ethernet.
Shutdown This parameter administratively shuts down the interface.
nameif command
It is used to name an interface and assign security level from 1 to 99.
The outside and inside interfaces are named by default and have default security
values of 0 and 100, respectively. By default, the interfaces have their hardware
ID. Ethernet 0 is the outside interface, and Ethernet 1 is the inside interface
SYNTAX: nameif hardware_id if_name security_level
hardware_id Indicates the interfaces physical location on the Firewall.
if_name The name by which we refer to this interface.
security_level A numerical value from 1 to 99 indicating the security level.
Examples:
nameif ethernet0 outside security0
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nameif ethernet1 inside security100

nameif ethernet2 dmz security20
We can see the configuration by using show nameif command.
ip address Command
All the interfaces must be configured with an IP address. The ip address
command is used to configure IP addresses on the interfaces. The ip
address command binds a logical address (IP address) to the hardware ID.
SYNTAX: ip address if_name ip_address [netmask]
if_name The interface name that was configured using the nameif command.
ip_address The interfaces IP address.
netmask The appropriate network mask. If the mask value is not entered, the
firewall assigns a classful network mask.
Example: ip address inside 10.10.10.14 255.255.255.0
We can see the configuration by using show ip command.
nat Command
The nat (Network Address Translation) command translates a set of IP
addresses to another set of IP addresses.
SYNTAX: nat ( if_name) nat_id local_ip [netmask]
(if_name) The internal network interface name.
nat_id The ID number to match with the global address pool.
local_ip The IP address that is translated. This is usually the inside network
IP address.
netmask Network mask for the local IP address.
There are two types of NATing:
1) Static: For ex. There is a google server and we dont want to make its IP
address public so we change its IP address using nat command in firewall
and now user will logon to this new IP . This results in more security as
every time it has to pass through firewall.
2) Dynamic: If there are lots of PCs in a network and all want to access the
internet , it is not easy that every PC is being provided with independent
public IP so at firewall level we change every PCs pvt Ip with public IP.
Examples:
nat (inside) 1 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.0
nat (inside) 1 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0

global Command
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The global command is used to define the address or range of addresses that
the addresses defined by the nat command are translated into. It is important
that the nat_id be identical to the nat_id used in the nat command. The nat_id
pairs the IP address defined by the global and nat commands so that network
translation can take place.
SYNTAX: global ( if_name) nat_id global_ip | global_ip-global_ip [netmask]
(if_name) The external network where you use these global addresses.
nat_id Identifies the global address and matches it with the nat command it
is pairing with.
global_ip A single IP address. When a single IP address is specified, the firewall
automatically performs Port Address Translation (PAT).
global_ip-global_ip Defines a range of global IP addresses to be used by the
firewall to NAT.
netmask The network mask for the global IP address(es).

INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEM (IDS)

An IDS is a security counter measure. It monitors network traffic and monitors for
suspicious activity and alerts the system or network administrator. In some cases
the IDS may also respond to anomalous or malicious traffic by taking action such
as blocking the user or source IP address from accessing the network
A firewall simply blocks openings into your network/system, but cannot
distinguish between good/bad activity. Therefore, if you need to allow an opening
to a system (like a web-server), then a firewall cannot protect against intrusion
attempts against this opening. In contrast, intrusion detection systems can
monitor for hostile activity on these openings.

HIDS
Host Intrusion Detection Systems run on individual hosts or devices on the
network. A HIDS monitors the inbound and outbound packets from the device
only and will alert the user or administrator of suspicious activity if detected

NIDS
Network Intrusion Detection Systems are placed at a strategic point or points
within the network to monitor traffic to and from all devices on the network.
Ideally you would scan all inbound and outbound traffic, however doing so might
create a bottleneck that would impair the overall speed of the network.
When an unauthorized user logs in successfully, or attempts to log in, they are
best tracked with host-based IDS. However, detecting the unauthorized user
before their log on attempt is best accomplished with network-based IDS.
There are four basic techniques used to detect intruders:
1) Anomaly detection
2) misuse detection (signature detection)
3) target monitoring
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Anomaly Detection
Designed to uncover abnormal patterns of behavior the IDS establishes a
baseline of normal usage patterns, and anything that widely deviates from it gets
flagged as a possible intrusion.
An example of this would be if a user logs on and off of a machine 20 times a day
instead of the normal 1 or 2. Also, if a computer is used at 2:00 AM when
normally no one outside of business hours should have access, this should raise
some suspicions. At another level, anomaly detection can investigate user
patterns, such as profiling the programs executed daily. If a user in the graphics
department suddenly starts accessing accounting programs or compiling code,
the system can properly alert its administrators.

Misuse Detection or Signature Detection

this method uses specifically known patterns of unauthorized behavior to predict
and detect subsequent similar attempts. These specific patterns are called
signatures. For host-based intrusion detection, one example of a signature is
"three failed logins."
Target Monitoring
These systems do not actively search for anomalies or misuse, but instead look
for the modification of specified files. This is more of a corrective control,
designed to uncover an unauthorized action after it occurs in order to reverse it.
One way to check for the covert editing of files is by computing a cryptographic
hash beforehand and comparing this to new hashes of the file at regular
intervals. This type of system is the easiest to implement, because it does not
require constant monitoring by the administrator. Integrity checksum hashes can
be computed at whatever intervals you wish, and on either all files or just the
mission/system critical files
Passive IDS
A passive IDS simply detects and alerts. When suspicious or malicious traffic is
detected an alert is generated and sent to the administrator or user and it is up to
them to take action to block the activity or respond in some way.
Reactive IDS
A reactive IDS will not only detect suspicious or malicious traffic and alert the
administrator, but will take pre-defined proactive actions to respond to the threat.
Typically this means blocking any further network traffic from the source IP
address or user.
IDS is required to be properly configured to recognize what is normal traffic on
your network vs. what might be malicious traffic and you, or the administrators
responsible for responding to IDS alerts, need to understand what the alerts
mean and how to effectively respond.
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WAN SOLUTION
REQUIREMENT
There is one CBC (Central Billing Center) which is required to be connected with
28 BGC (Bill Generation Center). As with each BGC location further locations are
connected so it is required to use a router at each location.
CBC Router must have these specifications:
4 numbers of10/100 fast Ethernet interfaces.
20 number of V.35 interface to receive the data from coming BGC Via
optical fiber/ Lease line
2 numbers of ISDN BRI ports.
Four numbers of synchronous serial interfaces for 64 kbps lease line
connectivity.
BGC Router must have these specifications:
2 port 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Interface.
Sufficient port Serial WAN Interfaces.
Al the BGC locations are to be connected to the central location having a point to
point connectivity. The BGC location are having a leased line connectivity of 128
Kbps which can be up gradable to 2 Mbps. The leased Line connectivity is to be
provided BY a ISP.

SOLUTION
As per the requirement the proposed solution is to have point to point
connectivity between the central location and the 28 BGC locations. There is a
Cisco 1841 Router at each of the BGC location. They are connected to a 2 Mbps
Leased Line Modem Pair., HCL-Gateway 2M-2W, through the serial port. The
modem at the customer end is connected to a modem at the ISP side. Like this
way the central location having a Cisco 3845 Router is connected to 28 nos of 2
Mbps Leased Line modem pair.
The connectivity diagram and the bill of material required for the solution is given
in the following pages.

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WLAN (WIRELESS LAN)

In a traditional LAN each computer physically connects to the network via wires
and a network port. A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a network that
provides the same services but without the need for physical connections
between the computers and the network. Wireless LANs offer many advantages
over traditional wired networks, such as mobility, flexibility, scalability and speed,
simplicity and reduced cost of installation. A WLAN typically uses radio waves,
which allow network PC cards plugged into a PC/laptop to connect to a traditional
Ethernet LAN.
IEEE developed the 802.11 standards to provide wireless networking technology
like the wired Ethernet.

STANDARDS
IEEE developed the 802.11 standards to provide wireless networking technology.
With time-to-time development in the field of technology three standards has
been finalized. 802.11(a), 802.11(b), 802.11(g)

Max. bit rate/Raw

net
Frequency Band
Range @ Max.
rate
Unit Cost
Coverage Cost
No. of channels

802.11(b)
11Mb/s
5.5Mb/s
2.4 GHZ
57 m

802.11(a)
54 Mb/s
22-26 Mb/s
5 GHZ
12m

802.11(g)
54 Mb/s
17-22 Mb/s
2.4 GHZ
19m

100%
100%
3

120%
2000%
8

110%
500%
4

IEEE 802.11a standard is the most widely adopted one because it operates at
licensed 5 GHZ band while other are unlicensed and also it provides max. nof
channels and max. bit rate than any other standards.

TOPOLOGIES
There are two topologies on which WLAN works:
1) Infrastructure Network
2) Ad hoc Network
INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORK
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It is useful for providing wireless coverage of building or campus areas. This

is a topology used when there are many access points in a single location.
By deploying multiple Access Points (APs) with overlapping coverage areas,
organizations can achieve broad network coverage. . A laptop or other mobile
device may move from AP to AP while maintaining access to the resources of
the LAN. Each client is equipped with wireless network interface card (NIC)
that consists of the radio transceiver and the logic to interact with the client
machine and software. While the AP is essentially a radio transceiver on one
side and the wired backbone on the other.

ADHOC NETWORK
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This topology is used when we have to interconnect mobile devices that are in
the same area (e.g., in the same room). In this architecture, client stations are
grouped into a single geographic area and can be Internet-worked without
access to the wired LAN (infrastructure network). The ad hoc configuration is
similar to a peer-to-peer office network in which no node is required to function
as a server. In ad hoc there is no need of any AP as all devices are wirelessly
connected to each other.

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Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

ISDNs primary goal is the integration of voice and nonvoice services.
ISDN is actually a set of communication protocols proposed by telephone
companies that allows them to carry a group of digital services that
simultaneously convey data, text, voice, music, graphics, and video to end users,
and it was designed to achieve this over the telephone systems already in place.
There are two types of channels:
1) B channel
2) D channel
B channel
Bearer channels (B channels) are used to transport data. B channels are called
bearer channels because they bear the burden of transporting the data. B
channels operate at speeds of up to 64 kbps.
D channel
D channels are used for signaling. They are used to establish the session before
the data is actually transfer.

ISDN INTERFACES
Types of ISDN interfaces:
1) Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
2) Primary Rate Interface (PRI).
Both BRI and PRI provide multiple digital bearer channels over which temporary
connections can be made and data can be sent.
BRI: ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI, also known as 2B+1D) service provides
two B channels and one D channel. The BRI B-channel service operates at
64Kbps and carries data, while the BRI D-channel service operates at 16Kbps
and usually carries control and signaling information.
PRI: According to American standards , the ISDN Primary Rate Interface (PRI,
also known as 23B+D1) service delivers 23 64Kbps B channels and one 64Kbps
D channel for a total bit rate of up to 1.544Mbps.
And according to European standards, ISDN provides 30 64Kbps B channels
and one 64Kbps D channel for a total bit rate of up to 2.048Mbps.

ISDN Function Groups and Reference Points

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 Function groupA set of functions implemented by a device and software

Reference pointThe interface between two function groups, including cabling
details

Router A is ordered with an ISDN BRI U reference point, referring to the I.430
reference point defining the interface between the customer premises and the
ISP.
Router B is bought with an ISDN BRI S/T interface, implying that it must be
cabled to a function group NT1 device. An NT1 function group device must be
connected to the ISP line through a U reference point; the S/T interface defines
the connection to Router B. Router B is called a TE1 (Terminal Equipment 1)
function group device.
Non-ISDN equipment is called a TE2 (Terminal Equipment 2) device and is
attached using the R reference point to a terminal adapter (TA) function group
device.
Alternatively, a TE1 can connect using an S reference point to an NT2 function
group,

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Function Groups:
1) TE1 (Terminal Equipment 1) ISDN-capable four-wire cable. Understands
signaling and 2B+D. Uses an S reference point.
2) TE2 (Terminal Equipment 2): Equipment that does not understand
ISDN
protocols and specifications (no ISDN awareness). Uses an R reference point,
typically an RS-232 or V.35 cable, to connect to a TA
3) TA (Terminal adapter): Equipment that uses R and S reference points. Can
be thought of as the TE1 function group on behalf of a TE2.
4) NT1 (Network Termination): Connects with a U reference point (two-wire) to
the ISP. Connects with T or S reference points to other customer premises
equipment.

Reference Points:
R between TE2 and TA.
S between TE1 or TA and NT2.
T between NT2 and NT1.
U between NT1 and ISP.
.

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