1.

INTRODUCTION
The design of ships employs many technologies and branches of engineering that also are found ashore, but the
imperatives of effective and safe operation at sea require oversight from a unique discipline. That discipline is
called Naval Architecture which is concerned every aspect of the design, construction and performance of all
types of marine vehicle, from the largest ship to the smallest remotely-operated submarine. The naval architect is
the key professional engineer who leads and coordinates all activities in the development of marine vehicles such
as merchant ships, warships, drilling platforms and semi-submersibles, submarines, fishing vessels and tugs.
Originating as an art and still requiring creative engineering flair, it involves the application of scientific and
engineering principles with advanced technology. Naval architects must be conversant with a wide variety of
skills, including functional architecture and most forms of engineering because a ship or boat must be a
completely self-sufficient vehicle: a sea-going complex which provides living requirements for the crew, a
power station, electrical system, warehouse, and sewerage works etc, and all of this must be encompassed in a
massive structure capable of withstanding severe sea loads. Basic features of a ship design are

A ship is a self-contained entity - it must operate for extended periods in a very hostile environment (storm
tossed seas, submerged, corrosion).
A ship has a human crew, it is self-propelled, and carries those systems (electrical generation and
distribution, water and sewage, HVAC, living spaces, cargo handling, weapons, propulsion, maneuvering,
and many others) which are essential to economically and effectively accomplish its mission or missions.
A ship can have a very long service life.
A ship has to be able to protect itself (navigational aids, mobility, maneuverability, weapons systems) and, if
necessary, to absorb punishment (watertight subdivision, double hulls, pumps, and fire fighting).
A ship is very complex .

Responsibility of the naval architect begins with the initial design concept, continues through technical and
economic valuations to detailed design and supervision of construction, and finally the monitoring of
performance in service. The experienced naval architect must be familiar (if not specialised) in some or all of
the following technical areas: design, structures, hydrostatics and stability, hydrodynamics, economics, marine
engines, hydraulics, electrical equipment, control systems, and other systems such as cargo, anchoring, steering,
lifesaving, and pollution control.
To design a ship is an extremely challenging but immensely interesting task. The naval architect should be
capable of finding viable economical and technical solutions to a variety of complex and open-ended engineering
problems. Such as:

How to safely and efficiently move a variety of cargoes across the worlds oceans (cruise liners, tankers,
containerships, heavy lift ships, tug-barge units, etc.).
How to effectively project your nations economic, political, and military objectives across the seas (aircraft
carriers, frigates, submarines, cargo ships, etc.).
How to best protect your nations coastline, resources, and waterborne trade (patrol craft, buoy tenders, oil
spill response ships, escort tugs, etc.).
How to safely explore and wisely exploit the abundant resources found in the oceans depths and in its ice
covered areas (drill ships, fishing boats, oceanographic ships, icebreakers, etc.).
How to provide better boats and ships for entertainment, sport, and recreational boating (excursion boats,
casino boats, sailing yachts, motor yachts, etc.).

These lecture notes start with a brief history of ship design, presented in the following sections of this chapter.
Chapter 2 classifies and briefly describes the different types of marine vehicles. The ships of today can be
classified in many different groups according to the selected criteria. Two basic criteria are selected and the ships
are classified according to their mission and the way of propulsion.
Chapter 3 provides the basic definitions used to describe the size, dimensions and form of the ships.
The first step in planning a new ship is careful consideration of what it is going to do. What cargo will the ship
carry, and how much? In what waters will the ship sail? How deep are the harbors it will enter? How fast must it
go? How much money is available for its construction? The answers to such questions determine a ship's size, its
internal layout, and its engines and machinery. The methods and procedures used in the preliminary design of
ships are briefly described in Chapter 4.
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Chapter 5 provides methods for estimating the size, main dimensions and hull form coefficients of different
types of ships.
Chapter 6 deals with the estimation of the total weight of a ship, which is a governing factor in the preliminary
design stage.
Chapter 7 describes the methods and procedures for estimating required space and volume for different ship
types.
Chapter 8 deals with powering and the selection of the propulsion system properties.
Chapter 9 deals with hydrostatic and stability considerations to be taken into account during the design of marine
vehicles.
Chapter 11 describes basic structural design factors which should be taken into account in the early stages of
design to provide a safe and reliable structural configuration with minimum material and fabrication costs.
Chapter 12 deals with the hydrodynamic design of ships which involves the minimisation of powering
requirements, improvement of seakeeping and manoeuvring performances.
Chapter 13 provides a summary of the main statutory rules for ships.

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1.1. A Brief History of Ship Design

The ship of today is a large, sturdy, self-propelled vessel in which people transport goods across seas, oceans,
and lakes. It is the product of countless centuries of development. To cross small bodies of water, primitive
peoples used any available materials that would float. The history of shipbuilding and navigation is considered
to number about 8 thousand of years. In particular this age attributes to a boat found in the inlet Firth of Forth
(Scotland). The ancient monuments of Babylon, Assyria, Egypt, China and Oceania testify, that the epoch of
the ship began approximately 5 thousand years ago. Early forms of the boat included rafts of logs or bamboo,
bundles of reeds, air-filled animal skins, and even jars and asphalt-covered baskets .

Figure 1.1. Skinboat, logboat and the raft

People propelled the earliest inflated skins by paddling with their hands. Poles, pushed against the bottom,
moved rafts in shallow water. Widened and flattened at one end, the pole became a paddle for use in deeper
water. Later came the oar--a paddle pivoted on the side of the boat.
The invention of sail has much more improved maneuverability of the ships and their possibility to cover large
distances. It let the strength of the wind replace the action of human muscle, although for many centuries ships
often combined the sailing power of wind with the strength of rowers. While rowboats could carry little more
than a few days' food supply for the oarsmen, sailboats could make long trips with payloads. Early sailing
vessels carried square sails, which were best suited for sailing downwind. Fore and aft sails, better suited for
tacking to windward, came later.
The region of the Mediterranean sea due to extremely favorable climatic conditions became a cradle of an
European civilization. Business relations developed fast and grew stronger, and for this purpose the ships were
necessary.

1.1.1. The Ship in Early Ages

The earliest historical evidence of boats is found in Egypt during the 4th millennium BC. The early Egyptians
developed advanced sailing cargo ships. Lacking the great trees needed for large dugouts, these boats were built
of bundles of reeds lashed together to form a narrow, sharp-ended hull and coated with pitch. Such ships could
transport great columns of stone, weighing up to 350 tons, for use in monuments.
Egyptian wooden ships had both oars and sails, being fitted with a bipod (inverted V) mast and a single, large,
square sail . Because they were confined to the Nile and depended on winds in a narrow channel, recourse to
rowing was essential. This became true of most navigation when the Egyptians began to venture out onto the
shallow waters of the Mediterranean and Red seas. Most early Nile boats had a single square sail as well as one
level, or row, of oarsmen. Large Egyptian ships had more than 20 oars to a side, with two or more steering oars.

Figure 1.2. Egyptian trade ship

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By 3000 BC larger wooden seagoing versions of the reed craft sailed for distant cruising, trade, and conquest.
Voyages to Crete were among the earliest, followed by voyages guided by landmark navigation to Phoenicia
and, later, using the early canal that tied the Nile to the Red Sea, by trading journeys sailing down the eastern
coast of Africa.
Reed boats are adequate for hunting, fishing and for short distance travelling along the shallows of the Nile but
they are less suitable for longer journeys, or for moving large numbers of people or heavy cargo. By 2700 BC
Egyptian civilisation had developed economically and politically to the point at which it required grandiose
architecture. The transportation of building materials from quarries further up the Nile stimulated the
development of substantial wooden vessels capable of supplying these new needs. The displacement of Egyptian
nautical ships (1500 BC) amounted to 60 - 80 tons.

Figure 1.3. Egyptian seafaring trade ship

Towards the end of the second millenium the Egyptians came into contact with other aggressive maritime races,
particularly the Phoenicians and the Achaean Greeks. From this period it has been argued, the Egyptians were
obliged to assimilate into their own ships the superior design features of the ships of their enemies. This is
generally assumed to mean the development of oared warships with a sailing capability. The war galley was built
to the same pattern but was of stouter construction. Modifications that could be easily incorporated in a
merchant ship's hull under construction included elevated decks fore and aft for archers and spearmen, planks
fitted to the gunwales to protect the rowers, and a small fighting top high on the mast to accommodate several
archers. Some galleys had a projecting ram, well above the waterline, which may have been designed to crash
through the gunwale of a foe, ride up on deck, and swamp or capsize him.

Figure 1.4. Egyptian warship

By about 2000 BC Crete had evolved into a naval power exercising effective control of the sea in the eastern
Mediterranean. Sometime in the 2nd millennium BC the merchant ship evolved as a beamy "round ship"
powered by sails and emphasizing cargo capacity at the expense of speed. By contrast, the fast fighting "long
ship" was narrower, faster, and more agile than the tubby cargo ship. Developing as both predator on and
protector of maritime trade and coastal cities, it hoisted its sails for cruising but depended on oars when in
action. The Cretan warship had a single mast and a single bank of oars. The sharply pointed or "beaked" bows
suggest an emphasis on the tactical use of the ram.

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Figure 1.5. Ship of Ancient Crete

Beginning about 1100 BC, the Phoenicians dominated the eastern Mediterranean for about three centuries. The
famous Lebanese cedar covering slopes of mountains of their native land was a perfect material for construction
of strong seaworthy ships. In Figure 1.6 is represented the Phoenician trade ship dated to 1500 BC. This rather
capacious vessel with strong stem-posts (firm beam in prow and stern extremities of the ship) and two stern oars.
The mast bore a direct sail on two curved rods (as Egyptian ship).

Figure 1.6. Phoenician trade ship

Their war galleys show a Cretan influence: low in the bow, high in the stern, and with a heavy pointed ram at or
below the waterline. Oars could be carried in a staggered, two-bank arrangement, allowing more oars to be
mounted in a ship of a given length and increasing power and momentum. Because the ram was the principal
weapon, the vessel's slender build and greater rowing power were important in providing more speed for the
decisive shock of battle.

Figure 1.7. Phoenician war ship

Parallel with, or under the influence of, the Phoenicians the Greeks also developed two basic kinds of ships.
Firstly the round hulled symmetrical merchant ship, apparently without significant oarage, and, secondly, the
powerful oared longship or galley. With these ships the Greeks established colonies and trading settlements from
Marseilles to the Black Sea.

Figure 1.8. Greek trade ship

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Unlike the Egyptians, for whom wood was scarce and costly, the Aegean peoples had an abundance of timber
for shipbuilding. The earlier Greek warships were used more to carry attack personnel than as fighting vessels.
As the Greek maritime city-states sped the growth of commerce and thus the need for protection at sea, there
evolved a galley built primarily for fighting. The first galleys, called uniremes (Latin: remus, "oar"), mounted
their oars in a single bank and were undecked or only partially decked. They were fast and graceful with high,
curving stem and stern.
The bireme (a ship with two banks of oars), probably adopted from the Phoenicians, followed and became the
leading warship of the 8th century BC. Greek biremes were probably about 24 metres long with a maximum
beam around 3 meters. Within two or three generations the first triremes (ships with three vertically
superimposed banks of oars) appeared. This type gradually took over as the primary warship.

Figure 1.9. Greek bireme

A trireme of the 5th century BC may have had a length of about 40 meters, a beam of 6 meters, and a draft of 1
meter. Manned by about 200 officers, seamen, and oarsmen (perhaps 85 on a side), with a small band of heavily
armed epibatai (marines), under oars it could reach seven knots. Extremely light and highly maneuverable, the
classical trireme represented the most concentrated application of human muscle power to military purposes
ever devised. The oarsmen sat on three levels, which were slightly staggered laterally and fore and aft to achieve
the maximum number of oarsmen for the size of the hull.
Shipbuilders were now motivated by two design objectives. The first was to increase the power of the galley in
order to improve its ramming capability. This would entail measures to increase speed and acceleration, and
turning ability. In practice this meant an increase in the number of oars. Paradoxically the long narrow hull of the
galley with its substantial wetted area would also make it a potentially fast sailing vessel, but whereas sail might
be ideal for passage making it was not suitable for the precision manoeuvring and flexible response required in a
tactical combat situation. The second design objective would be to increase the strength of the galley, especially
in the bow area, both to withstand the shock of ramming and to protect its own crew against the shock of being
rammed.
The Romans were not themselves a seafaring people so they took and adapted existing warships from other
mediterranean navies. In addition to the trireme the Romans continued to use some Quadriremes (fours) and
Quinquiremes (fives) but these were either single banked vessels with 4 or 5 men per sweep, or two banked
vessels with 2 or 3 men on each oar.
Figure 1.10 illustrates a typical Roman bireme. This type bireme is purely rowing boat setting in motion with
eighty eight oars.

Figure 1.10. Roman bireme

Figure 1.11 illustrates a typical Roman trireme which is an ancient galley (originally Greek, afterwards also
Roman) with three ranks of oars one above another, used chiefly as a ship of war. This is the main type of the
warship of Mediterranean. The main weapon of trireme was battering ram - a prolongation of a keel beam. The
displacement of a vessel reached 230 tons, length - 45 meters.
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Figure 1.11. Roman trireme

Figure 1.12 representsis a Roman grain carrier which dates from 50's AD. It length is 27 meters, breadth - 7,5
meters, settling 2 - 2,5 meters. Such vessel should have a capacity not less than 250 - 300 tons. The mast fixed
in centre of roundish, strong hull bore a direct sail, which was strengthened by two triangular sails similar to
studding-sail, which appeared later.

Figure 1.12. Roman trade ship

With the breakup of the western Roman Empire, naval organization and activity in the west decayed. In the
eastern Roman Empire, however, the need for sea power was well appreciated. During the 11 centuries that the
Roman Empire centred on Constantinople, the Byzantine rulers maintained a highly organized fleet. Their
original type of warship was the liburnian, called in Greek the dromon; it was built in several different sizes, the
heavier designed to bear the weight of battle and the lighter single-bank dromons serving as cruisers and scouts.
Throughout the eastern Roman Empire's existence warships changed little except in rig and armament. An
average large dromon measured up to 50 meters in length, with 100 oars and one or two fighting towers for
marines. At some point early in the Christian era, the lateen sail, three-cornered and suspended from an angled
yard, probably adopted from the Arabs, came into general use. Eastern warships had two or three masts. In a
departure from classical customs, these were left in place in battle.
By the beginning of the Viking period, about AD 800, the early and primitive Scandinavian craft had evolved
into the well-known Viking ship, a sturdy, double-ended, clinker-built (i.e., with overlapping planks) galley put
together with iron nails and caulked with tarred rope. It had a mast and square sail, which was lowered in battle;
high bow and stern, with removable dragon heads; and a single side rudder on the starboard (steer-board)
quarter.
Viking vessels were essentially large open boats. The Vikings at first made no distinction between war and
cargo ships, the same vessel serving either purpose as the occasion demanded. Later, however, they built larger
ships specifically designed for war. By AD 1000 they sailed three categories of these: those with fewer than 20
thwarts (40 rowers); those with up to 30; and the "great ships" with more than 30, which might be considered
the battleship of the time. Expensive and unwieldy, though formidable in battle, the great ships were never
numerous. The middle group, maneuverable and fast, proved most valuable. Viking "long ships" played an
important role in exploration (reaching Greenland and America before Columbus), in the consolidation of
kingdoms in Scandinavia, and in far-ranging raids and conquests.

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Figure 1.13. Viking ship

1.1.2. The Ship in Middle Ages

During the eleventh century the economic geography of Europe began to change. Western society began to settle
down and to expand and with the settled political conditions, the towns began to revive. Changing social and
economic conditions thus stimulated changes in ship design to meet changing needs.
In about AD 1200 came one of the great steps
Netherlands, of the stern rudder.

in the history of sail: the introduction, probably in the

The merging of Northern European ship types which took place towards the end of the fourteenth century was
further complicated in the fifteenth century by the movement of Northern Ships into the Mediterranean and the
interchange of ideas between the two traditions. Cogs had certainly appeared in the Mediterranean by the
beginning of the fourteenth century. Early cogs had open hulls and could be rowed short distances. During the
13th century they became larger and received a deck, as well as a raised platform in the bow and stern.
Until the end of the fourteenth century, then, ships could be classified according to their geographical origins,
Norse, Celtic or Mediterranean. After the fourteenth century identification of ships on a purely ethnographic
basis becomes very difficult as all of the preceding types merge into the Carrack which became the standard load
carrier for the whole of Europe, North and South. By the end of the fifteenth century the Carrack had adopted its
distinctive form and although there were regional variations determined by the traditions of the builders the
overall pattern was uniformly distinguishable.

Figure 1.14. Cog and Carrack

Carracks are regarded as the immediate predecessor of the galleon in terms of ship design. They were the first
square rigged ships to ply the seas and were valued because of their large capacity for carrying troops or cargo.
Carracks differed from galleons in that they were still primarily medieval ships built with an emphasis on
winning a medieval style battle. The design emphasis was not on sailing qualities and artillery capacity, but with
building a ship resistant to enemy boarding parties. To repel boarders the aft and forecastles were built up as
towering fortresses bristling with archery or gun slits.

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Initially carracks were used for exploration by the Spanish and Portuguese venturing out along the west African
coast and into the Atlantic. But large full rigged ships could not always be sailed with the precision necessary for
inshore surveying in unknown waters. The explorers soon came to prefer smaller carracks of around 100 tons, or
the light three masted Mediterranean lateeners known as Caravels. Early caravels were usually two masters of
around 50 tons with and overall length of between 20-30 metres and a high length to beam ratio of around 1:7
making them very fast and manoeuvrable. The most famous caravels are the Nina and the Pinta which sailed
with Columbus on his maiden voyage to the New World. The Santa Maria was a small carrack which served as
the mother ship, the Pinta and the Nina were caravels of around seventy feet with a beam of 24 feet.
The introduction of gunpowder into Europe at the beginning of the fourteenth century precipitated a rapid
development in metallurgical technology. Guns were first used in land warfare in Italy in 1326, and appeared on
ships within the next fifteen years. Given the concepts of land warfare were translated directly to the sea in the
form of floating castles the logical place to mount guns was as high up as possible in order to command a height
advantage over the enemy. The high castles of the carrack seemed ideal for this purpose, but as the guns became
heavier and more powerful they began to affect the stability of the ship and so they were gradually moved down
from the castles to the weather deck, and eventually to the lower decks where they could fire through holes cut
into the sides of the ship.
The use of cannon also encouraged the design of purpose built warships for the service of kings and
governments. The newly emerging nation states of the fifteenth century flexed their muscles with great ships.
The English king Henry Vth, for example, built three great ships, probably carracks, the Jesus of 1000 tons, the
Holigost of 760 tons and the Trinity Royal of 540 tons to be used in the Hundred Years War. By the sixteenth
century the great naval carrack came to be the physical embodiment of the pomp and power of great rulers and
the instrument of their aspirations to control the seas.

Figure 1.15. Caravel and Galleon

During this same period China, with its vast land areas and poor road communications, was turning to water for
transportation. Chinese shipbuilders contrived a watertight box, extending through the deck and bottom, that
allowed the steering oar or rudder to be placed on the centreline, thus giving better control. The stern was built
to a high, small platform at the stern deck, later called a castle in the West, so that, in a following sea, the ship
would remain dry. Thus, in spite of what to Western eyes seemed an ungainly figure, the Chinese junk was an
excellent hull for seaworthiness as well as for beaching in shoal (shallow) water. The principal advantage,
however, not apparent from an external view, was great structural rigidity. In order to support the side and the
bow planking, the Chinese used solid planked walls (bulkheads), running both longitudinally and transversely
and dividing the ship into 12 or more compartments, producing not only strength but also protection against
damage.

Figure 1.16. Chinese junk

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Up to the end of the fifteenth century there was little to distinguish merchant sailing ships from warships.
Warships were simply merchantmen equipped with weapons and troops to use them. The technology of
gunfounding accelerated rapidly during this period and the range and destructive potential of weapons increased
dramatically. Such heavy guns could not be installed in the castles of great ships without adversely, and
sometime fatally, affecting roll stability At some point around the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
shipwrights began to cut holes for cannon ports in the main hull of the ship below the weather deck, so that the
heavy guns could be mounted as close as possible to the waterline, both to improve the roll stability of the boat
and to make the guns themselves less prone to roll and therefore easier to aim.
Mehmed the Conqueror (ruled: 1451-81), captured Constantinople in 1453. The conquest was in no small
measure due to the war galleys he managed to introduce into the Golden Horn. Istanbul became the empire's
capital and eventually also its principal port and naval base. Mehmed the Conqueror used his navy again to assert
Ottomanish supremacy over his two main maritime rivals, Venice and Genoa, in the Aegean and Black Seas, and
by the time Suleyman the Magnificent took charge of the empire, the navy's range of operations covered the
entire Mediterranean. Between 1533 and 1546 the Kaptan Pasha, or chief admiral, was Hayreddin Barbarossa
(1470? - 1546), the greatest Ottomanish naval hero of all time, and the fleets under his command were the terror
of the sultan's enemies and the hope of his friends.

Figure 1.17. 16th century galleon and galley

After the innovation of the Galleon the overall design of large ships did not change a great deal. The
superstructures were gradually reduced, size increased and armament improved and there were many other
detailed developments and complexities. Galleys played a crucial role in the battles of Preveza (1538) and
Lepanto (1571). Unlike the classical Greek and Roman galleys the medieval equivalents were not multiply
banked.
The maritime fleet of the Ottoman Empire, given its geography, played a role in most of its wars which were
conducted simultaneously on land and on sea. The war plans of the Porte were often predicated on a combined
and synchronized use of army and navy. Moreover, the very fact that this nation of the steppes, traditionally on
horseback, became the greatest sea-power on earth in a matter of a single century indicates the tremendous
economic power of the Empire and its inner resilience. The capacity of the Ottoman Empire for shipbuilding was
enormous. Indicative of the staggering power of the Ottoman Empire is that, in 1571, although they lost 200
ships at the battle of Lepanto, within a year there were again 250 ships under the sultan's flag.
The main warship of the Ottoman navy in the 16th century was the kadirga, a Ottoman word of Greek origin
meaning galley. A long, low, narrow ship of shallow draught, the galley was propelled by oars when entering or
leaving harbours, when pursuing or fleeing an enemy, or in battle. In normal cruising conditions, however, it
relied mainly - unless becalmed - on one or two lateen (triangular) sails. Two types of seagoing naval vessels
were built by the Ottomans. The galley of 20 oars, the crew of which consisted of 30-35 sailors and 200 oarsmen
(4 rowers assigned to one oar), plus 100 fighters, and the bastarde with 72 oars pulled by approximately 500
oarsmen (7 to an oar), able to carry 216 fighters on deck. Thus, for a fleet of 100 vessels, 20-25,000 oarsmen, 34,000 sailors, and 12-13,000 soldiers had to be provided.
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were the age of the scientific revolution, though in truth the origins of
the mathematical elements of the scientific revolution can certainly be pushed back into the fifteenth century.
Both of these specialised interests led to a more general dissemination of knowledge about the geometry of
curves which had an obvious application in ship design once the transition had been made from shell built edge
joined ships fashioned by eye to planned carvel hulls built on pre erected skeletons. Whilst it was, and still is,
possible to build small carvel boats by creating a skeleton faired to shape by using ribbands, large ships must be
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planned from the drawing board. So from the later sixteenth century there developed a professional expertise in
what would now be called naval architecture which went hand in hand with a growing understanding of the
significance of hydrodynamics as a factor in optimising the performance of a hull shape.
The earliest known English practitioner is Matthew Baker whose collections of design drawings from 1585 are
still available. The Venetian naval architect Pre Theodor de Niccolo was, however, designing galleys using
mathematical formuli at least as earlier as 1544. From the seventeenth century onwards it became customary
from states and great trading customs to invite shipbuilders to tender designs of contracts, as they do today, and
as a result there still exist many plans and detailed models of large wooden sailing ships which provide a
comprehensive account of how the ships were built and rigged.

Figure 1.18. Construction details of a Russian galley and a galleon in the 18th century
By the middle of the 17th century guns arrayed along the sides of fighting ships were the decisive weapon.
Heavy guns required a gun deck and a short, sturdy hull, which were at odds with the galley's requirements of
lightness and length. Thus, the shift to sail was a victory of fighting strength over maneuver.

1.1.3. Ship Design in the 19th Century

1.1.3.1. The End of Sailing Ships
Once the extent and nature of the world's oceans was established, the final stage of the era of sail had been
reached. In the 19th century shipbuilders studied basic principles of sail propulsion and built excellent ships
more cheaply. The American economy was booming in the late 1840's. As shipping rates soared from $10 to
$60 a ton and the market for Chinese tea skyrocketed, it was much more lucrative to build and operate ships that
looked more like racing vessels than cargo carriers. In the 25 years after 1815 American ships changed in weight
from 500 to 1,200 tons and in configuration from a hull with a length 4 times the beam to one with a ratio of 5
1/2 to 1. The culmination of these innovations was the creation of a hull intended primarily for speed, which
came with the clipper ships. Clippers were long, graceful three-masted ships with projecting bows and
exceptionally large spreads of sail. The first of these, the Rainbow, was built in New York in 1845. For a
seagoing, cargo-carrying sailing vessel, the clipper ship was remarkably fast. Claims for speeds from 16 to 18
nautical mph are common, and exceptional speeds of up to 20 knots have been documented. The size of the
American clipper ships of the 1850s ranged in length from about 46 to 76 m, the longest, Great Republic, was
92 m long, the largest clipper ship ever built. Clipper ships generally were strongly built; iron was strapped over
the frames and on the sides of the inner keel, or keels, in many instances.

Figure 1.19. Clipper

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1.1.3.2. The Birth and Evolution of Steam Ships

By 1840 it was clear that the last glorious days of the sailing ship were at hand. Sailing packets continued to
carry passengers until the 1860s, but steamships soon dominated the transatlantic passenger trade. There had
been many experiments with steam-powered vessels in the 18th century, but the first commercially successful
steamer was Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat of 1807. The Savannah, a sailing ship fitted with a steam
engine, crossed the Atlantic Ocean in 1819, but the ship was not a commercial success. Its eastward run required
29 1/2 days and was made mostly under sail --limited fuel permitted use of the engine for only 80 hours.
On August 17th 1833, a ship named Royal William left the harbour of Pictou in Nova Scotia to make the
crossing of the Atlantic Ocean towards London. The remarkable fact was that the Royal William would make
the crossing powered for the majority of the time by steam.

Figure 1.20. Savannah and Royal William

At first sight, the Royal William looked a lot like a traditional three-masted schooner. However, it introduced
two features that would become the characteristics of the transatlantic steamships in the decades to come : a
funnel and two large sidewheels. With her engines the Royal William could produce 200 hp, which was
equivalent with a top speed of 8 knots (appr. 15 km/h).
Regular transatlantic steamer service was begun by British firms after they had gained experience by operating
steamships around the British Isles. Two wooden liners, the Great Western and the Sirius, inaugurated
transatlantic passenger service under steam in April 1838. The "Great Western" was of 1,350 tons burden and
450 horse-power; the "Sirius" was of 700 tons and 250 horse-power.

Figure 1.21. Comparison of Great Western and Sirius

In 1838, Samuel Cunard formed a steamship company with the express purpose of carrying passengers across
the Atlantic Ocean. The Cunard wooden steamers Britannia, Acadia, Columbia and Caledonia weighed 1150
tons each and their two side-lever paddle engines could produce 740 hp, enabling them to cruise at an average
speed of just under nine knots. On its maiden voyage from Liverpool to Boston, Cunards Britannia, built in
1840, set a record of 12 days, at an average speed of about nine knots. For the next 10 years, Cunard vessels
were the swiftest, competing among themselves for the honorary Blue Riband title for a steamship making the
fastest time between Great Britain and North America.
Meanwhile iron gradually began to supplant wood in ship construction. Although used experimentally by the
British before 1800, iron did not become a significant shipbuilding material until after 1830. By 1855 it was
displacing wood in British shipbuilding.
Early steamships were driven by paddle wheels, but in about 1840 Francis P. Smith of England and the SwedishAmerican inventor John Ericsson developed screw propellers. The first iron-hulled steamer with a screw
propeller to enter transatlantic service was the Great Britain, in 1845. Early ocean steamers also carried sails, for
not until about 1880 were steam engines fully reliable.
Even before the Great Western had completed her second transatlantic crossing Brunel was busily preparing the
plans for her successor, the Great Britain. The initial sketches were for a wooden paddle-steamer and Brunel had
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deduced that the space required for bunkers was proportionately less in a larger vessel and that, consequently,
speed could be greater. Before the keel was laid in 1839 Brunel was able to examine a small iron built vessel, the
Rainbow, and immediately changed the construction of the Great Britain to iron even thought the timber had
already been purchased. The design was further amended in 1840 after Brunel had seen a small screw-driven
ship, the Archimedes, which visited Bristol. After delaying construction for several months while he studied the
concept he concluded that the new screw propulsion was superior to paddles and changed the plans accordingly.

Figure 1.22. Great Britain and Great Eastern

Completed, the Great Britain was 98 m long with a beam of 15.5 m and a registered tonnage of 1016 GRT. She
had berths for 252 passengers but up to 360 could be carried using settees and other sleeping arrangements. The
crew numbered 130. In addition to carrying passengers she had space for up to 1200 tons of cargo. She carried
20 days supply of coal, well in excess of the requirement for an Atlantic crossing of 14 days.
The size of ships was rapidly increased, especially those of Brunel. Under his aegis in 1858 a gigantic increase
was made with the launching of the Great Eastern, with an overall length of 210 m, displacing 32,160 tons, and
driven by a propeller and two paddle wheels, as well as auxiliary sails. Its iron hull set a standard for most
subsequent liners, but its size was too great to be successful in the shipping market of the 1860s. The ship was
sold and put into service as a trans-Atlantic liner. While the Great eastern had capacity for 3000, only 37
passengers were aboard its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York in 1860. Never gaining sufficient
bookings to pay off, the ship was quickly put to work laying cables an mockingly labelled the Great White
elephant. She was the only vessel ever built that had sails, paddle wheels and propellers, with the paddle wheels
and propellers having their own independent engines. She burned a ton of coal per mile. She had a capacity of
12,000 tons of coal. She was under powered, she had about 2600 horsepower with a top speed of 14.5 knots on a
displacement of 27,000 tons.
Steam engines continually grew more reliable and more efficient. Compound engines were introduced in about
1870; triple- and quadruple-expansion engines followed. Each consumed less coal per unit of power, thus
freeing space for cargo. By about 1887 the world' s steamships exceeded sailing ships in tonnage.
By the late 1890s the upper limits of speed possible with piston-engined ships had been reached, and failure in
the machinery was likely to cause severe damage to the engine. In search of more speed more efficient engines
were built and placed in ships. In 1894 Charles A. Parsons designed the first turbine powered ship Turbinia,
using a steam turbine engine with only rotating parts in place of reciprocating engines. Parsons had built the first
successful turbine to power a dynamo, an electric generator. He had done model tests and had great expectations
for the ship, the turbine was very powerful. The results were disapointing. The higest speed recorded was less
than 20 knots. The problem was cavitation, a phenomenon recognized and named by William Froude. The
propellers were spinning at l8,000 rpm, as they spun they decreased the pressure until the water became vapor, a
bubble, a cavity. The power was going into making the bubble instead of pushing the boat.
The remedy was to operate at lower rpm with more turbines and propellers. The original design was one turbine
with one shaft of three propellers. The successful design was three turbines each having a shaft turning three
propellers, which achieved the speed of 34.5 knots in 1897.

Figure 1.23. Turbinia

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1.1.3.3. Warships in the 19th Century

At the beginning of the 19th century the main warships were the "line-of-battle-ships" and frigates. The former
were intended to sail in line of battle, and engage the enemy broadside on, at distances of sometimes 10 metres,
with the aim of boarding & capturing, rather than sinking, the enemy. The last fleet action of the "wooden
walls", was the Battle of Navarino Bay, 1827 - between a combined British, French & Russian fleet against the
Ottoman fleet.
The Industrial Revolution and the technology stemming from it permanently changed naval warfare. The
earliest steam warships in action were small paddle wheelers used by British and American navies against
pirates and other weak foes. As engines gradually improved, navies experimented with them in standard
warships, first as auxiliaries to sail, which was then essential for endurance. The paddle wheels were particularly
vulnerable to enemy fire. In 1843 the United States launched the world's first screw-driven steam man-of-war,
USS Princeton, a large 10-gun sloop.
The introduction of shell guns to replace those that fired round shot led to the use of iron plate mounted on the
hulls of ships as protection against the more damaging impact of exploding shells. The French Gloire was the
first warship protected for its entire length by wrought iron backed by wood.. The first real battleship was the
French La Gloire, 1860, closely followed by the British Warrior and Black Prince, 1861.
This type of ship could only take 1 deck of guns, and in essence, she relied upon a traditional "broadside" for her
offensive power, so she was a long ship, and to that extent, heavy and unwieldy. The answer was the revolving
turret, in which guns could be fired in many directions. Battleships could be shorter, and more manoeuvrable.
During the American Civil War (1861-65), the Confederates built a gunboat on the hull of a burned-out warship.
The Merrimac (officially CSS Virginia) was wooden, with angled sides & iron plates with a row of guns all
round. She inflicted damage on a number of Union warships, until confronted by the even stranger Monitor: a
low iron platform, rising no more than a couple of feet above the waterline, save for a tiny conning tower, and a
large revolving turret, with two guns. Monitor inflicted greater damage at the Battle of Hampton Roads, 1863,
but sank in heavy seas a few months. Monitor and her successors were little more than river-going artillery
platforms, and indeed 'monitor' became the generic term for such inshore vessels. But 'blue water' navies needed
something more robust.

Figure 1.24. HMS Warrior and USS Monitor

In the 1880s, the expectation was that the "ironclad" would be an all-purpose "do-anything" ship. They were
however, still fairly slow, and unwieldy. By 1900, the line-of-battle-ship had evolved into the battleship; the
frigate into the Cruiser, but performing similar functions: eyes of the fleet, commerce-raiding, protection of the
sea-lanes. Some had started to shed some of their armour, becoming faster "protected cruisers" which could
obviously threaten commercial shipping. They produced the response of "Armoured Cruisers". "Light cruisers"
were fast and unarmoured, distinguished from lighter vessels, some of which would be armed merchantmen, as
they had been from time immemorial.

Figure 1.25. French Armoured Cruiser Dupuy de Lome (laid down 1888) and battleship Suffren (1899)
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In 1775 or 1776, an American engineer and student at Yale, David Bushnell invented the Turtle. The Turtle was
egg-shaped and carried only a one man crew. It was driven by two hand-cranked screw propellers, one for
forward movement and the other for versicle movement. The Turtle had a complex system of valves, air vents,
and ballast pumps to control submergence, these were made out of lead and kept the vehicle upright, and it also
had a mine with a time fuse. The mine was supposed to be attached to the bottom of the target ship with a
detachable screw.
Robert Fulton used the principles that were used in developing the Turtle to make his own creation in 1798, the
Nautilus. It uses two forms of power for propulsion diving planes, shape, armament, and under sea air
replenishment. Fulton built a sail for surface runs and a hand-cranked screw propeller for use while submerged.
The Nautilus had a streamlined shape to reduce water resistance and it also had ballast tanks to raise and lower
the craft. It also had diving planes which could be adjusted to determine the vessels angle of ascent of descent.
The vessel was 21-24.5 ft long and carried a crew of 4

Figure 1.26. Turtle and Nautilus

During the civil war the confederates built 4 submarines to use against the Union fleet. The Hunley was the most
famous of the four. Eight men turned the propeller using a handcrank. Maximum speed was 4 knots. Air
was provided by two four-foot pipes, although the hull contained enough air for approximately hour of
submerged operations. In 1864, the Hunley rammed into the USS Housatonic in Charleston Harbor, South
Carolina. A torpedo on the Hunley's spar exploded and sank both of the vessels. This was the first submarine that
made a successful attack on a warship, during the civil war.
After the war was over two designers concentrated on the submarines. Simon Lake worked out the idea of
submerging by negative buoyancy, which is used today. John Philip Holland experimented in other directions
and won a U.S. Navy contract in the late 1890's. In fact, most of the latter half of the 1800's was used in attempt
to develop an adequate means of submarine propulsion. Both of the inventors experimented with compressed air,
steam, and electricity as power sources.
In 1898 J.P. Holland launched his submarine and it was commissioned the USS Holland. This was the United
States Navy's first submarine. It was 53 feet long and displaced 75 tons. The USS Holland used a gasoline
engine while running on the surface and an electric motor while submerged. At top surface speed, it could reach
a speed of 7 knots.

Figure 1.27. Hunley ve USS Holland

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1.1.4. Development of Ship Design in the 20th century

1.1.4.1. Development of Passenger Liners
By the early 20th century the concept of the superliner was developed and Germany led the market in the
development of these massive and ornate floating hotels. Since the end of the 19th century, the Germans had
captured the Blue Riband with ships as Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse and Deutschland. The Kaiser Wilhelm der
Grosse was launched in May 1897 and in November 1897, on her maiden trip, she captured the Blue Riband,
thanks to the two steam engines, which produced 28,000 hp. The design of these liners attempted to minimize
the discomfort of ocean travel, masking the fact of being at sea and the extremes in weather as much as possible
through elegant accomodations and planned activites.

Figure 1.28. Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse

The Deutschland was the ship that would reinforce the German hegemony on that aspect. The ship was
launched on 10 January 1900 and in the summer of that year she made her maiden voyage to New York already
conquering the Blue Riband with an average speed of 22,4 knots. A year later, she broke her own record with a
speed of 23,06 knots.
In reaction to that German hegemony, Cunard decided to build two new ships that would regain the Blue Riband
from the Germans. The British government largely funded the building of the ships that would be baptised :
Lusitania and Mauretania. The decisions on the engines, the propellor blades, hull design and size were all taken
with one purpose in mind: building the two fastest ships on Earth and bringing back the Blue Riband to
England. A Cunard Committee decided that the two ships would be powered by turbines, be around 230
meters long, have a gross tonnage of almost 32,000 tons and use 4 screws.

Figure 1.29. Mauretania ve Lusitania

The White Star Line introduced the most luxurious passenger ships ever seen in the Olympic, Titanic and
Britannic. Space and passenger comfort now took precedence over speed in the design of these ships-resulting
in larger, more stable liners. All three were built by Harland and Wolff of Belfast in Ireland. The Olympic of
1911, displacing 45,324 tons, was then the largest ship ever built. The Titanic of 1912 displaced 46,329 tons, so
vast as to seem unsinkable. The Titanic operated at only 21 knots, compared with the Mauretania's 27 knots,
but its maiden voyage in 1912 was much anticipated. The ship collided with an iceberg off the Newfoundland
coast and sank within hours, with a loss of about 1,500 lives.

Figure 1.30. Titanic, Olympic, Britannic

World War I interrupted the building of new cruise ships, and many older liners were used as troop transports.
German superliners were given to both Great Britain and the United States as reparations at the end of the war.
At that time Germany had three superliners, but all were taken as war reparations. The Vaterland became the
U.S. Line's Leviathan; the Imperator became the Cunard Line's Barengaria; and the Bismarck became the White
Star Line's Majestic.
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Figure 1.31. Imperator and Vaterland

The years between 1920 and 1940 were considered the most glamorous years for transatlantic passenger ships.
During the prosperous years of the 1920s, tourist travel grew rapidly, calling forth a new wave of construction,
beginning with the French Line's le de France in 1927. The "Ile de France" was a 43,153 gross ton liner built in
1926 by Chantiers & Ateliers de St. Nazaire for the French Line (Compagnie Generale Transatlantique). She had
an overall length of 792.9ft x beam 91.8ft, three funnels, two masts, four screws and a speed of 23 knots. There
was accommodation for 537-1st, 603-2nd and 646-3rd class passengers.

Figure 1.32. Ile de France

After the war, the German maritime companies started building new ships to carry on with their business.
Result of this was that the German shipping companies possessed the newest and most modern fleet of all. The
Bremen and the Europa were two of those ultra-modern ships. They were ordered by NDL in 1926 and the
Bremen was finished in 1929. On its maiden voyage the Blue Riband was conquered for a westbound crossing
in 4 days, 17 hours and 42 minutes at an average speed of 27,83 knots. The Europa and the Bremen had a
remarkable design. They were the first Ocean Liners with the so-called bulb stem.

Figure 1.33. Europa ve Bremen

The Rex was launched on 1 August 1931 in Sestri Ponenti, Italy. It was the biggest ship ever built in Italy. The
ship had her trials in September 1932 and reached a speed of 28.9 knots. The interior of Rex was impressive :
luxury was the middle name of the ship. The focal point in the ship was the ball-room of 700 square meters .

Figure 1.34. Rex

In 1930, the Compagnie Gnrale Transatlantique (CGT, also known as French Line) decided to build a ship
that would make France a major player in the transtalantic passenger transport. Therefore, the ship would have
to excel in speed, design and luxury. The French government funded the building of Normandie to a great
extent. Works started on 26 January 1931 and on 29 October 1932, Normandie was officially launched. In all
aspects Normandie was a remarkable ship. She was the largest Ocean Liner ever built on Earth : 313.75
meters.
Before the building of the ship, the future form of her hull was the subject of a lot of tests and studies and finally
Normandie got a bulb stem - typical for Ocean Liners in the 30s - but also a drop-like thickening of the bow
under the waterline. This was found to decrease the resistance of the water at high speeds. Turboelectric
propelling machines of 160,000 shaft horsepower allowed a speed of 32.1 knots in trials in 1935. In 1937 it was
fitted with four-bladed propellers, permitting a 3-day, 22-hour and 7-minute crossing, which won the Blue
Riband from the Europa.
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Figure 1.35. Normandie

In 1926 Cunard started thinking about a replacement for Mauretania. Finally in 1931, the building of Queen
Mary started and the ship was launched on 26 September 1934. In March 1936 Queen Mary was completed and
set sail for her trials and on 11 May 1936, she was handed to Cunard. Queen Mary took over the Blue Riband
from Normandie in 1936 in both directions with speeds of more than 30 knots. In 1937 however, Normandie
took over the Blue Riband again, but in 1938 the Queen Mary did even better and recaptured the Blue Riband in
both directions. She would hold the famous riband from 1938 until 1952, when United States came into service.

Figure 1.36. Queen Mary

During World War II civilian transportation by sea was largely suspended, whereas military transport was vastly
expanded. Cruise liners again were converted into troop carriers in World War II, and all transatlantic cruising
ceased until after the war.
A sister ship of the Queen Mary, the Queen Elizabeth (at 83,673 tons the largest passenger ship ever built), was
launched in 1938, but the interior had not been fitted out before the war came in 1939. First used as a troopship
during the war, it was completed as a luxury liner after 1945 and operated with the Queen Mary until the 1960s,
when the jet airplane stole most of the trade from the Atlantic Ferry. Experience with the two Cunard liners in
the years immediately after 1945 suggested the value in having two
This competition began when U.S. Lines launched the 53,329-ton United States. The design of the ship was
very special. The architect of the ship, Mr. William F. Gibbs, wanted the ship to conquer the Blue Riband for
the USA and with that in mind, he decided to make the ship as light and powerful as possible. He used a lot
aluminium and plastics in substitution for steel and wood. The ``light" structure of the ship in combination
with the 4 engines accounting for 242,000 IHP would give the ship a calculated speed of 38 knots. On 3 July
1952, the United States left New York for her maiden voyage to Southampton and Le Havre. She amazed the
world by making the crossing in 3 days, 10 hours and 40 minutes : more than 10 hours less than Queen Mary in
1938. The average speeds was tremendous : 35.59 knots. Later on in July, on the way home, she also captured
the westbound record with a crossing of 3 days, 12 hours and 12 minutes with an average speed of 34.51 knots.

Figue 1.37. Queen Elizabeth and the United States

In the 50's the passenger liner business was booming, when a single event sent tremors through the industry. In
October 1958, a Pan American jet crossed the Atlantic in a mere six hours. In 10 years the number of
passengers crossing the Atlantic by sea halved, while the number of passengers preferring to cross the Atlantic
by air quadrupled. During the 60's most of the transatlantic Liners were withdrawn from service.
On November 19, 1961 the France went through her sea trials. She proved herself extremely worthy as she
averaged an astonishing 35.21 knots over a large distance. She was entirely finished on January 19, 1962. At
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66,343 gross tons, the France was the third largest vessel in service after the two Queens and the fourth largest in
all history, counting her predecessor Normandie. Her length of 1,035 feet made her the longest ocean liner ever
constructed. The service speed of 31 knots made France the second fastest liner in the world. The appearance
was classic, but still new in a sense. The long black hull and the red black-topped funnels were traditions dating
back to the 19th century. The sweeping whaleback bow was adopted from the Normandie.
The Queen Elizabeth 2 is the last true transatlantic Liner in service. In 1958 Cunard was searching for a
replacement of the Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth. The Queen Elizabeth 2 was the result and on 20
September 1968, it was launched by Queen Elizabeth II. The maiden voyage was undertaken to New York on 2
May 1969. In 1982, the QE 2 was requisitioned as a troopship in the Falkland war. Later that year the ship was
restored for commercial use. In 1986 the engines were replaced by new diesel engines, mainly for fuel savings
and in the mean time, the interior was extensively modernized.

Figure 1.38. France and the Queen Elizabeth II

1.1.4.2. Development of Cruise Ships

Early cruising involved people with sufficient funds finding a means to escape the winter weather of Britain,
Europe and North America. The idea of passengers embarking on a sea trip for pleasure was first promoted in
1840s. However, they were not cruises in the modern sense but normal commercial voyages (carrying cargo and
passengers) with the provision of sightseeing arrangements at ports of call for those passengers booked as
cruisers.
In 1889 the Orient Line, in association with the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, commenced the first true
cruising programme organised by a regular liner operator. Chimborazo and Garonne were deployed from their
services to Australia and were sent on seasonal cruises to the Norwegian Fjords.

Figure 1.39. Chimborazo, Garonne, Lusitania

By 1893 seasonal cruises were also being offered to the Mediterranean with nine such voyages being undertaken
that summer. In 1895s Eden, Esk and Solent were performing the intercolonial mail service in the West Indies.
These ships also provided cruise services by which passengers could visit or make passages among the West
India islands. The cruising yacht Solent was a beautiful yacht-like passenger steamship, of over 2,000 tons,
specially built for the tropics, and regularly employed in West Indian tours. The inter-island cruising concept
was boosted in 1909 with the arrival of the Berbice to replace the 31-year-old Solent.

Figure 1.40. Solent ve Berbica

In January 1901 the Hamburg America Line commissioned the two funnelled luxury cruising yacht Prinzessin
Victoria Luise, the worlds first purpose buil cruise liner. Measuring 135.9m long by 14.33 m beam, with a
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gross tonnage of 4409, she had exclusive accomodation for 200 passengers and a private suit for the German
Kaiser.
The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company commenced cruise operations in 1905 with specially converted tonnage,
albeit of modest size. The Amazon made several Norway cruises in one block in 1909. In January 1912 the
former Orient line Ortona emerged after refit, joining Royal Mail as the 8939 GT Arcadian. With beds for 320
first class passengers, highlights of her cruising facilities included a 35 ft long swimming pool and a three deck
high dining room.

Figure 1.41. Amazon ve Arcadian

The 1960s witnessed the beginnings of the modern cruise industry. Cruise ship companies concentrated on
vacation trips in the Caribbean, and created a "fun ship" image which attracted many passengers who would
have never had the opportunity to travel on the superliners of the 1930s and 1940s. There was a decrease in the
role of ships for transporting people to a particular destination; rather, the emphasis was on the voyage itself.
By default, Home Lines Oceanic (27644 GT) of 1965 can be considered as the first modern cruise liner. The
first new generation cruise ship was however Norwegian Caribbean Cruise Lines Sunward (1966, 8666 GT).
This ship originally entered service in 1966 as a car ferry/cruise ship on the route from Southampton to Gibraltar
but later operated on three and four day cruises from Miami to Nassau with accomodation for 554 passengers.
Success was instant and three other ships were quickly built and brought into service; Starward (1968, 12949
GT), Skyward (1969, 16254 GT) and Southward (1971, 16607 GT).

Figure 1.42. Oceanic and Skyward

The Norwegians were quick to realise the new potential of cruising and in the early 1970s another two cruise
lines entered the trade. Royal Carbbean Cruise Line (RCCL) initially ordered three vessels each of 18500 GT
with deliveries from 1970 to 1972, Song of Norway, Nordic Prince and Sun Viking. The three ships were
instantly popular and that demand for berths brought about the lengthening of the first two units, with a 40%
increase in capacity (23200 GT), in 1978 and 1980. Increasing demand necessitated a new larger unit, Song of
America (37584 GT) which was delivered in 1982. By the mid 1980s continued expansion through ever
increasing demand brought about the introduction of the 74000 GT Sovereign of the Seas in 1988.

Figure 1.43. Song of Norway ve Song of America

Figure 1.44. Soveriegn of the Seas

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Over the past decade the cruise industry has grown steadily, and has extended beyond its past "exclusive" image
into the mass market. In 1998 4.6 million passengers took cruises, representing a turnover of some $10 billion.
Due to ever-increasing demand, ships are being stretched and new designs are grower ever larger. In 1990 the
average new ship carried 775 passengers, in 1995 1173 passengers, and in 1998 1900 passengers. Large new
cruise ships now cost as much as $500 million - similar to the cost of a large hotel.

1.1.4.3. Cargo ships in the 20th century

In the beginning of the 20th century the majority of the cargo ships were employed on tramp trades, loading and
discharging their cargoes at various ports throughout the world. Very little change occurred over the first forty
years of the 20th century as the general cargo vessels continued to trade. The Second World War brought about
the most significant change in the general cargo trades by two means. Firstly, the need to transport war supplies
as well as general cargo across the Atlantic to a beleaguered Great Britain, saw the introduction of the Liberty
ship, a 16 knot, steam powered, all-welded, five hold vessel suitable for all cargoes. Eventually, 16 U.S.
shipyards delivered a total of 2,580 Liberty ships ships, by far the largest ever production run of the a single ship
design.

Figure 1.45. Liberty ship

The second significant fact which the second world war influenced in the general cargo trade was that a great
deal of merchant shipping, of many nationalities, was lost during the period the world experineced global
warfare, which meant that, in the years which followed, vast fleet replacement and anlargement programmes
were undertaken. In the years between 1946 and 1953 world trade dictated that sea transportation of goods
would require sizeable fleets.
Following the Liberty ship there was a need to design a similar multi-purpose vessel and many tramp ship
designs were developed in the fifties. It was during this period that general cargo vessels began trading on
regular routes far more than had been experienced in the past. Raw materials continued to be transported from
the Far East, Africa, South America and other locations to Western Europe and the United States with these new
vessels.
Diesel propulsion replaced the more expensive steam turbine in general cargo ships built during the sixties.
These ships also revealed the first indications that the future lay in unitised cargoes. Pallets were beginning to
become very commonplace in all shipsjolds and some ships even had room for containers on deck. These ships
were the forerunners of the modern container vessels, ro ro vessels and multi pupose ships.

1.1.4.3.1. The Development of the Container Ship

The evolution of the container shipping industry began in the 1950's with the rapid increase in international
demand for dry cargo commodities. Traditional general cargo transportation, however, entailed a high degree of
manual handling during the entire journey over land and sea, with a resulting high labour component of total
shipping costs. Labour costs were on the rise in the 1950's and 1960's, pushing overall operating costs up
sharply. Industry developments to reduce shipping costs focused on increasing cargo space utilization and
reducing cargo loading/unloading times, and led to the introduction of an efficient land and sea worldwide
general cargo intermodal transportation system -- containerization.
It was in 1964 when ASP introduced the first container ship, the 5500 DWT Kooringa, carrying boxes of only 16
foot 8 inches on a cabotage basis between Freemantle and Melbourne, in Australia. Prior to containerisation, all
products other than bulk commodities were moved piece by piece in "break bulk." Boxes were loaded one by
one onto a truck which drove to a port. Dockside, each box was individually unloaded and then hoisted into the
hold of the ship. At the destination, the boxes were unloaded one by one and put on a truck or train for delivery.
Not only was the freight handling slow, piece-meal and repetitive, other modes of transport, such as railroads,
basically added to the inefficiency. What's more, the cargo was exposed to potential damage and pilferage.

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The invention of containerisation solved all those problems. A trailer carrying numerous boxes could be loaded
at the shipper's door, sealed, sent by truck to the port, lifted off its chassis and simply stored aboard ship. At the
destination, the process would be reversed. This simple solution streamlined the process, sped up the delivery
time, and made intermodal transportation far more feasible.

Figure 1.46. First purpose built container ship Kooringa

The concept of containerisation proved to be safer, faster and cheaper than the existing methods of transporting
commodities. It minimised damage and pilferage, and precluded other types of perils. It cut labour and insurance
costs dramatically.

Figure 1.47. Evolution of container ships

1.1.4.3.2. The Development of the RoRo

When the cargo has wheels--e.g., automobiles, trucks, and railway cars--the most satisfactory cargo handling
method is simply to roll it on and off. Vehicle ferries have been familiar in many waters for many centuries,
and the growth since about 1960 of an extensive international trade in motor vehicles has led to an extension of
the ferry principle into roll-on/roll-off ships, which carry automobiles strictly as cargo yet load and unload them
by driving them on their own wheels.
The earliest examples of RoRo vessels are based on landing craft used in WWII. The first purpose built RoRos
were built in mid 1950s. These ships had limited lane lengths of 400-800 m and had only one main deck plus a
weather deck as spare capacity.
Ships built for "ro-ro" traffic are fitted with doors in the hull (most often at the ends), internal ramps and
elevators for deck-to-deck transfers, and external ramps to join the hull doors to the pier. Often the main or only
door is in the stern, facing directly aft and fitted with a massive folding ramp exterior to the hull. The ramp is
often equipped for slewing--i.e., rotating so that it can be landed on a pier alongside the ship.

1.1.4.3.3. The Development of the Tanker

The prototype of the modern tanker the Glckauf of 300 feet in length, with a carrying capacity of 3000 dwt
was launched in 1886. The rise of the tanker fleet resulted to a large extent from the increase in demand fro

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energy to fuel world economic expansion and to assist in the massive rebuilding efforts by the countries during
the world wars.
The T2 tanker design was developed in response to high demand of the Second World War. There were 481 of
these built between 1942 and 1945. They were 523 feet six inches long overall, with a beam of 68 feet. They
were rated at 10,500 tons gross, and a deadweight tonnage of 16,600 tons. They displaced about 21,900 tons.
Propulsion was provided by a turbo-electric drive which delivered 6,000 shaft horsepower, with a maximum
power of 7,240 horsepower giving a top rated speed of about 15 knots with a cruising range of about 12,600
miles.. This consisted of a steam turbine generator connected to a propulsion motor to turn the propeller. The
average production time from laying of the keel to completion for sea trials was about 70 days, including 55 in
the building ways and another 15 in the fitting out dock.

Figure 1.48. T2 tanker

Demand for oil rapidly accelerated during the 1950s and 1960s. The spectacular increase in the size of tankers
was a result of the ever increasing volume of crude oil being moved, which in turn lowered the unit cost of
transportation. VLCCs were particularly economic on the longer hauls, and particularly prior to the re-opening
and widening of the Suez Canal and the oil price shock of 1973 seemde to be particularly attractive means of
transportation from the oil fields in the Middle East to Europe, Japan, and the Western Hemisphere.

1.1.4.3.4. The Development of the Bulk Carrier

Bulk carriers were created to transport large volume commodities efficiently, and took over more and more
deep-sea transport of dry bulk commodities from old multi-deck freighters.

1.1.4.3.5. Application of Nuclear Power on Cargo Ships

On Friday, March 23, 1962, the N.S. Savannah became the first nuclear merchant ship at sea. In 1972, after ten
years of demonstrations and operations, she was laid up and proved that nuclear power was not a viable option
for commercial shipping. She was a fast ship with incredible range. With her 20,000 horsepower nuclear engine
her top speed was 23 knots. Savannah was capable of circling the earth 14 times at 20 knots without refueling.
Savannah was not well endowed with cargo space. Her holds could accommodate just 8,500 tons of freight in a
total space of 652,000 cubic feet. Many of her competitors were able to transport several times as much cargo.
Her crew was larger than comparable oil powered ships (67 compared to about 50). Her budget included the
maintenance of a separate shore organization for negotiating her port visits and a personalized shipyard facility
for completing any needed repairs.
In 1972, when Savannah was laid up, the cost of a ton of oil was about $20.00. A ship with a 20,000 horsepower
engine using 1970s technology would have burned about 120 tons per day for a daily fuel cost of about $2,400.
By early 1974, following the Arab Oil Embargo, a ton of bunker fuel cost about $80.00. That same ship's daily
fuel bill would have suddenly increased to more than $9,000. Savannah's fuel cost would not have changed as a
result of the Oil Embargo. If the oil-burning ship operated for 330 days per year (which is common in the world
of merchant shipping), the increase in its annual fuel expenditure would have more than eliminated the
difference in Savannah's operating costs, even with all of her inherent disadvantages.

Figure 1.49. Nuclear powered Savannah

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1.1.4.4. Warships in the 20th century

1.1.4.4.1. Aircraft Carriers
The first practical demonstration of the ability to launch and land aircraft on naval vessels occurred on
November 14, 1910, when civilian pilot Eugene Ely took off in a Curtiss Pusher aircraft from an 83-foot
platform built on the fore deck of the USS Birmingham. On May 2, 1912, Lt. Samson took off from the HMS
Hibernia while it was under way at sea at a speed of 10 knots. This not only proved that launches could be
achieved from ships at sea, but also highlighted the fact that the ship's forward speed contributed to safer
launches. In 1913, the British cruiser HMS Hermes was converted to a seaplane carrier, becoming the first ship
to set sail with the sole purpose of carrying aircraft into combat.
In September 1918, the HMS Argus became the first ship to be built with a complete flush deck for launch and
retrieval of aircraft. She was converted from the Italian passenger liner Conte Rosso. The HMS Argus was
considered a strike carrier, with a compliment of 20 aircraft.

Figure 1.50. HMS Hermes and HMS Argus

The second HMS Hermes, the first ship to be designed from the outset as an aircraft carrier, was commissioned
in July 1923. She had most of the elements common to aircraft carriers to this day, including an island
superstructure offset from the ship's centerline, deck elevators, and landing arrestor cables. Like the Royal Navy,
France converted several existing ships to act as seaplane carriers during World War I and commissioned its first
flush deck carrier, the Bearn, in 1927. Japan also took note of the importance of aircraft at sea, and
commissioned the seaplane carrier Wakamiya in 1912 and the flush deck carrier Hosho in 1923.
The first American aircraft carrier, USS Langley, was converted from an old collier into an experimental aircraft
carrier. This ship carried a compliment of 34 aircraft. She had no superstructure or catapults, but she was
equipped with arrestor cables and a deck elevator. In 1928 aircraft from the USS Langley mounted a simulated
attack on Pearl Harbor which clearly demonstrated the offensive potential of this new weapon of war.

Figure 1.51. HMS Hermes and USS Langley

During the years before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States launched several new aircraft
carriers, including the USS Ranger (1933), USS Yorktown and USS Enterprise (1936), USS Hornet (1940), and
USS Wasp (1941). On November 11, 1940, more than a year before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the
HMS Illustrious achieve a spectacularly successful air attack against a naval fleet comprising battleships, the
traditional symbol of sea power. The HMS Illustrious launched 12 Swordfish torpedo bombers on a surprise
attack on Italian ships at anchor in the harbor of Taranto. Only two British aircraft were lost in the attack. The
success of airpower over a major fleet at anchor was a lesson well-learned by an interested party on the other
side of the world, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto of the Imperial Japanese Navy.

Figure 1.52. USS Yorktown and HMS Illustrious

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Encouraged by the success of the British carrier aircraft attack on the Italian base at Taranto, and as part of the
Japanese plan of expansion in the Pacific, Admiral Yamamoto dispatched a task force consisting of his six best
carriers -- Kaga, Akagi, Hiryu, Soryu, Shokaku, and Zuikaku -- to attack the Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor.
Before sunrise on December 7, 1941, over 350 fighters, dive bombers, and torpedo bombers launched from the
Japanese carriers. Their attack started at about 7:50 a.m. The first wave of attacking planes hit airbases around
the island of Oahu to destroy the American air defenses. The planes then continued on to Pearl Harbor to attack
the mighty battleship fleet that lay at anchor. Within two hours, they had sunk or seriously damaged 8
battleships, 3 cruisers, 3 destroyers, 4 other ships, and destroyed over 250 land-based aircraft. American
casualties included over 2,400 killed and 1,200 wounded. The surprise of the Japanese attack was so complete
that only 29 Japanese planes were lost.
World War II saw the aircraft carrier prove itself to be the most powerful and important ship in the fleet. In the
United States, three large carriers were commissioned shortly after the end of World War II. These were the USS
Midway, USS Franklin D. Roosevelt, and USS Coral Sea. However, public policy had turned against the Navy.
With the Japanese, German, and Italian fleets destroyed and the age of the atomic bomb approaching, the need
for a strong Navy was seriously questioned. Carrier forces were reduced from 98 to 15.
Although few advancements were made in carrier design until after the Korean War, the post-World War II
period saw many advances in the design of carrier aircraft. The most significant was the introduction of jet
power. The McDonnell FH-1 Phantom became the Navy's first operational jet aircraft in 1947. Over the next ten
years, more than 20 jet aircraft designs were tested for carrier use, and 12 of these actually became operational.

Figure 1.53. USS Coral Sea and USS Forrestal

As the last decades of the 20th Century approached, only the United States had a substantial carrier force. This
was composed of some of the conventionally-powered Forrestal and Kitty Hawk-class ships and the nuclearpowered USS Enterprise and Nimitz-class super carriers. These carriers are all extremely large, in order to
accommodate the large, modern jet attack and fighter aircraft.
The use of the Harriers led to another British innovation. The HMS Hermes and the three ships of the Invincibleclass, had the front of their take-off decks slanted upward to form a "ski jump" ramp. This allowed the Harriers
to take-off in shorter distances with heavier armament loads.

Figure 1.54. USS Nimitz and HMS Invincible

One country which did not pursue naval aviation until the late-1960s was the Soviet Union. In 1967 it launched
the first of two Moskva-class cruisers, which had aft decks for the launch of helicopters. In 1978, the Soviet
Union commissioned the Kiev, the first of four V/STOL type carriers. These carriers are about 1/2 the tonnage of
the large American carriers and have angled decks for helicopters and Yak 36 V/STOL aircraft. In 1991, the
Soviet Union also commissioned the Admiral Kuznetsov (formerly the Tbilisi). The Admiral Kuznetsov has a
ski jump ramp in the tradition of the newest European carriers, and it was planned that the two ships of this class
would deploy naval versions of the Sukoi Su-27 and MiG-29 supersonic fighters. The Soviet Union also had at
least one large nuclear powered carrier under construction in 1991. However, with the collapse of the Soviet
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Union in late 1991, the future of the aircraft carriers and other ships of the former Soviet Navy was put in doubt.
Many of the former Soviet carriers have either been retired or placed into inactive status, and the ships under

construction may never be completed.

Figure 1.55. Moskva, Kiev and Kuznetsov

1.1.4.4.2. Battleships
The ironclad ships, with their center-mounted gun turrets, led directly to the creation of the battleship. Studies of
naval combat in the Spanish-American and Russo-Japanese (1905) wars indicated that fire from larger, longrange guns was more effective than close-in firing from smaller weapons. Improved gunsights, new spotting
techniques, and range finders made long-range gunnery practicable. The first true battleship was the British
Dreadnought, launched in 1906. It had ten 12-inch (30-centimeter) guns. The Dreadnought would reduce the
capital ships of the world's navies to the status of pre-Dreadnoughts overnight. To greater size and firepower, the
Dreadnought had turbines which increased speed, up to 21 knots from the standard 18 knots of the preDreadnoughts. This made it possible to move in and out of range at will. After the dreadnoughts came superdreadnoughts, with 13.5" or 15" guns, displacing up to 27,500 tons. With 15 inch guns, the Queen Elizabeths
also carried the heaviest practical armament of World War I. The battleship played a pivotal role in World War I.
Without it the Allies could have lost control of the seas and, therefore, the war.

Figure 1.56. HMS Dreadnought and HMS Queen Elizabeth

In the Interwar period, both Americans and Japanese had devoted their attention to the issue of naval flying, and
the role it was to play. Battleships were to prove vulnerable to air attack very quickly. (Taranto, 1940; Pearl
Harbor, 1941; HMS Repulse, HMS Prince of Wales, 1941. There were no real fleet actions in the Second World
War, save perhaps for the Battle of Cape Matapan, 1941. The battleships took second place to aircraft carriers, to
protect them, to be used for convoy protection against German surface raiders, or to protect invasion fleets
(Pacific War, Normandy Landings).

Figure 1.57. Bismarck

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1.1.4.4.5. Submarines
In 1900 the U. S. Navy bought "Holland VI" for and changed the name to USS Holland. In August, Congress
ordered six more Holland submarines. Britain had five Hollands on order, but not until senior naval leadership
had wrestled with a moral dilemma: they, like many others through the years, believed that covert warfare was,
basically, illegal. Gentlemen fought each other face to face, wearing easily recognized uniforms. The Navy
agreed to proceed with caution, primarily to "test the value of the submarine as a weapon in the hands of our
enemies."

Figure 1.58. USS Holland and the British Holland "No. 3," in service from 1902 to 1912
Submarines had become so popular in France that the newspaper Le Matin had launched a public fund-raising
drive to build submarines for the Navy: "Francais" launched in 1901 and "Algerien" launched in 1902. In 1902
Spanish submarine designer D'Equevilley, looking for work, was rebuffed by the German Navy; Admiral Alfred
von Tirpitz was on record, "The submarine is, at present, of no great value in war at sea. We have no money to
waste on experimental vessels." D'Equevilley took his plans to the Krupp Germania shipyard, which built the 40foot "Forelle" (Trout) on speculation. Powered only by electricity and without an underway recharging system,
like the French "Gymnote" , "Forelle" was not a practical warship. However, Kaiser Wilhelm II was impressed
and his brother, an admiral, took a ride.
In 1906 U-1, the first German "U-Boat" (for unterzeeboot), was launched. This modified "Karp" was 139 feet
long, displaced 239 tons, had a surface speed of 11 knots, a submerged speed of 9 knots, and a range of two
thousand miles. It was joined in 1908 by a twin, U-2. By this time, the French had a submarine force of sixty
boats, the British almost as many.

Figure 1.59. The British D-1, 1908-1918.

In the 1912 annual fleet maneuvers, two British submarines slipped into a theoretically-safe fleet anchorage and
"torpedoed" three ships. A staff evaluation warned that enemy submarines might prove a serious menace to the
fleet. The Navy Board scoffed. The same year Germany began to get serious about submarines with the "30s"
series U-31 to U-41. These diesel-powered boats displaced 685 tons, carried six torpedoes and one 88mm deck
gun, had a surface speed of 16.4 knots, submerged 9.7 knots and a maximum range of 7,800 miles at 8 knots.
On September 5, 1914 U-21 sank the British cruiser "Pathfinder" with one torpedo. From weapon launch to sunk
took three minutes. A week later, the British had their turn when E.9 sank the German light cruiser "Hela" with
two torpedoes. Then, on September 22, 1914, one virtually prehistoric German submarine, U-9, sank three
British cruisers. On the same day. Within slightly more than 90 minutes.
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The United States was pushed into World War I partly because of the German's unrestricted submarine warfare.
In May 1915, U-20 sank the civilian passenger liner "Lusitania," killing 1,198 men, women and children. The
Germans were sinking allied ships anywhere and anytime they came upon them. They bombed merchant and
passenger ships killing British and American citizens. The United States noticed that the development of the
periscope and self-propelled torpedo, the submarine became a major factor in naval warfare.
In 1916 Germany created the ultimate World War I U-boat: a true long-range submarine cruiser. Boats of the
UA class were 230 feet long, about 1500 tons with a speed of 15.3 knots on the surface, and a range of 12,630
miles at 8 knots. Armament: Twin 150 mm (5.9 inch) deck guns, 1,000 rounds of ammunition, nineteen
torpedoes, manned by a crew of 56 with room for twenty more.
One of the first of the UA-class was built as a blockade-breaking civilian cargo submarine operated by the North
German Lloyd Line. "Deutschland" had a cargo capacity of 700 tons. She engaged in high-value trans-Atlantic
commerce, submerging to avoid British patrols; on her first trip, she carried dyestuff and gemstones to America,
nickel, tin and rubber (much of it stored outside the pressure hull) back to Germany.

Figure 1.60. The cargo-carrying submarine "Deutschland" at New London, CT, in November, 1916.
In 1942 Japan began construction of the 5,223-ton I-400 class of submarine aircraft carrier, each of which
carried three dive-bomber seaplanes. Designed for attacks against the Panama Canal and the West Coast of the
United States. Twelve were planned; only two were built, and did not see any useful service.
The "Battle of the Atlantic" began in July 1942, and continued for eleven months; the U-boats scored some 712
merchant victims. Also in July, the Germans began deployment of a mid-ocean filling station. The Type XIV
boat had a capacity for 700 tons of fuel and other supplies, rather than armaments.
In 1943 hoping to hide existing U-boats from the increasingly devastating air patrols, Germany perfected an idea
that had been kicking around for a long time: use of a breathing tube to allow running on diesel power just below
the surface, thus also keeping the batteries fully charged. They dubbed it the "snorkel." It was not a perfect
solution: the tube could break if the boat was going too fast; the ball-float at the top would close if a wave passed
over, thus shifting engine suction to the interior of the boat and occasionally popping a few eardrums. The
snorkel also left a visible wake, and returned a pretty good radar blip. But it helped.
In 1945 The U. S. Navy took two Type XXI and a handful of Japanese boats for study, and applied some
lessons-learned to a fleet upgrade dubbed "Greater Underwater Propulsive Power" (GUPPY).

Figure 1.61. The US GUPPY class submarine.

In 1950 the Soviet Union moved to regain status as operator of the world's largest submarine fleet: over the
following eight years, they built 235 "Whiskey" class, using the Type XXI as a template.

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In 1952, "Tang," the first of the post-war U. S. submarines, set an American depth record, 713 feet.
In 1953 the U. S. Navy began operation of a fast-submarine test bed, the 203-foot "Albacore." The hull form was
similar to that of an airship; the boat went through five experimental configurations; in the first, she
demonstrated underwater speeds of 26 knots.
In 1954 the first nuclear-powered submarine went to sea: the 323-foot, 3,674-ton "Nautilus." Surface speed 18
knots, 23 knots submerged. On her shakedown cruise, she steamed 1,381 miles from New London to San Juan,
Puerto Rico submerged all the way at an average speed of 15 knots. She was so fast that, on her first exercise
with an ASW force, she outran the homing torpedoes.

Figure
USS

1.62.
Albacore and USS Nautilus

In 1959 the first submarine to utilize the potential of both the nuclear powerplant and the high-speed "Albacore"
hull was "Skipjack" officially rated at 29 knots, submerged. In 1960 "Triton" completed the first submerged
circumnavigation of the globe: 36,014 miles in eighty-four days. In 1965"Albacore" was reported to have set an
underwater speed record of 33 knots, although the "official" speed is posted as 25 knots. In 1968
A Soviet "November" class nuclear submarine surprised the U. S. Navy by keeping up with a 31-knot high-speed
task force led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier "Enterprise." Spooked by the "November" surprise, the
U.S. Navy developed a new class of fast attack boats, "Los Angeles."
The next generation submarine-launched ballistic missile, "Trident," C-4 became operational in 1977. The C-4
did pose some problems for the people who design submarines. Too large to fit in any extant sub design,
Trident" required a new, very large class of submarine: "Ohio," 560 feet long, 42 feet wide, 16,674 tons.

Figure 1.63. USS Los Angeles and USS Ohio

In 1982 planning began for the next-generation American attack submarine: "Seawolf," SSN-21. Size: 353 feet,
40 foot diameter, 8,000 tons and with the most sophisticated systems imaginable. Top speed: probably in excess
of 35 knots. According to one program manager, when underway at quiet speed, "Seawolf" would be as quiet as
a "Los Angeles" boat sitting at the pier. Quiet speed may be in excess of 20 knots.
In 1997 in preparation for development of the next submarine class ("Virginia"), the U. S. Navy elected to create
a one-fourth scale, unmanned, submarine, to test new and emerging technologies before they are committed to
full-scale ships. Designated the Large Scale Vehicle (LSV) 2 and named after a species of trout, "Cutthroat," the
111-foot boat is scheduled for delivery to the Navy in the Spring of 2001.

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Figure 1.64. USS Seawolf, on sea trials, 1996.

In 2000 the Russian missile attack submarine "Kursk" K-141 sank while on maneuvers in the Barents Sea.
Placed in service in 1995, the 510-foot Oscar II-class "Kursk" had a surface displacement of 14,700 tons and
speed in excess of 30 knots. On August 12, the sound of at least two explosions were picked up by The
Norwegian Seismic Service and five other ships operating in the area including two American and one British
submarine shadowing the exercises. The actual cause of the accident is unknown, although "Kursk" had radioed
for permission to launch an exercise torpedo about an hour and a half earlier.

In this year of the "official" 100 Figure 1.65.

Kursknniversary

of the

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