Genre Studies - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

28/11/2015
GenrestudiesWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Genrestudies
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Genrestudiesisanacademicsubjectwhichstudiesgenretheoryasabranchofgeneralcriticaltheoryin
severaldifferentfields,includingtheliteraryorartistic,linguistic,orrhetorical.
Literarygenrestudiesisastructuralistapproachtothestudyofgenreandgenretheoryinliterarytheory,
filmtheory,andotherculturaltheories.Thestudyofagenreinthiswayexaminesthestructuralelements
thatcombineinthetellingofastoryandfindspatternsincollectionsofstories.Whentheseelements(or
semioticcodes)begintocarryinherentinformation,agenreemerges.Inarthistory,genretheoryconsiders
thevisualartsinasimilarway.
LinguisticgenrestudiesisbestdescribedbySystemicFunctionalLinguisticsor"SFL",alsoknownasthe
SydneySchoolofgenreanalysis.SFLscholarsbelievethatlanguagestructureisanintegralpartofatext's
socialcontextandfunction.[1]SFLscholarsoftenconductresearchthatfocusesongenresusefulnessin
pedagogy.
EnglishforSpecificPurposesor"ESP"isanotherschoolofliterarygenrestudiesthatexaminesthe
pedagogicalimplicationsofgenre.ESPscholarsfocusonhowgenrecanhelpnonnativeEnglishspeakers,
ofteninupperlevelacademicprograms,learnhowtousethelanguageanditsconventionsthroughthe
applicationofgenre.[2]
RhetoricalGenreStudiesor"RGS"studiesgenreassocialaction.RGSemergedfromCarolynR.Miller's
article"GenreasSocialAction".[3]
Contents
1 BranchesofliteraryandlinguisticGenreStudies
1.1 SystemicFunctionalLinguistics
1.2 EnglishforSpecificPurposes
1.3 RhetoricalGenreStudies(RGS)
2 GenericConventions
3 Historyofgenretheory
3.1 Enlightenmentage
3.2 Evolution
4 Currentstateofgenretheory
5 Functionsandlimits
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre_studies
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5 Functionsandlimits
6 Insocialcommunities
7 Aspectsofgenretheory
7.1 Rhetoricalsituation
7.2 Genreassocialaction
7.3 Socialconstruct
7.4 Antecedentgenres
7.5 Reciprocityofgenre
7.6 Tyrannyofgenre
7.7 Stabilization,homogenizationandfixity
7.8 GenreEcologyandActivityTheory
7.9 SecondarySpeechGenres
8 Seealso
9 References
10 Externallinks
BranchesofliteraryandlinguisticGenreStudies
SystemicFunctionalLinguistics
SystemicFunctionalLinguisticsscholarsbelievethatlanguageisorganizedwithinculturesbasedon
culturalideologies.The"systemic"ofSFLreferstothesystemasawhole,inwhichlinguisticchoicesare
made.SFLisbasedlargelyontheworkofMichaelHalliday,whobelievedthatindividualsmakelinguistic
choicesbasedontheideologiesofthesystemsthatthoseindividualsinhabit.ForHalliday,thereisa
"networkofmeanings"withinaculture,thatconstitutesthe"socialsemiotic"ofthatculture.This"social
semiotic"isencodedandmaintainedbythediscoursesystemoftheculture.[4]ForHalliday,contextsin
whichtextsareproducedrecur,inwhathecalls"situationtypes."Peopleraisedwithinaspecificculture
becomeaccustomedtothe"situationtypes"thatoccurwithinthatculture,andaremoreeasilyableto
maneuverthroughthe"situationtypes"withinthatculturethanpeoplewhowerenotbroughtupwithinit.[5]
Halliday'sapproachtoculturalcontextintheformationofrecurrent"situationtypes"influencedother
scholars,suchasJ.R.Martin.MartinledtheSFLpedagogicalapproach,whichemphasizedtheroleof
contextintextformation.Martinandhisassociatesbelievedthatprocessbasedapproachestoeducation
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ignoredtheculturalboundariesoftexts,andprivilegedmiddleandupperclassstudentsattheexpenseof
studentsfromlowerclassbackgrounds.[6]AccordingtoMartinandotherSFLscholars,anexplicitfocuson
genreinliteraturewouldhelpliteracyteaching.Focusingongenrerevealsthecontextsthatinfluencestexts,
andteachesthosecontextstostudents,sothattheycancreatetextsthatareculturallyinformed.[7]
Throughtheirgenreworkinschools,Martinandhisassociatesdevelopedadefinitionofgenreasa"staged,
goaloriented,socialprocess."[8]IntheMartiniangenremodel,genresarestagedbecausetheyaccomplish
tasksthatrequiremultiplestepstheyaregoalorientedbecausetheirusersaremotivatedtoseethe
completionofthestagestotheendandtheyaresocialbecauseusersaddresstheirtextstospecific
audiences.[8]
EnglishforSpecificPurposes
EnglishforSpecificPurposesscholarshiphasbeenaroundsincethe1960s,butESPscholarsdidnotbegin
usinggenreasapedagogicalapproachuntilthe1980s,whenJohnSwalespublishedGenreAnalysis:
EnglishinAcademicandResearchSettings,inwhichSwaleslaidoutthemethodologicalapproachthat
broughttogetherESPandgenreanalysis.[9]SwalesidentifiedtwocharacteristicsofESPgenreanalysis:its
focusonacademicresearchinEnglishanditsuseofgenreanalysisforappliedends.[10]ESPfocuseson
specificgenreswithinspheresofactivity,suchasthemedicalprofession,butitalsofocusesonthebroader
conceptofcommunicativepurposeswithinfieldsofstudy.[11]
EnglishforSpecificPurposessharessomecharacteristicswithSFLstudies.Bothbelievethatlinguistic
featuresareconnectedtosocialcontextandfunction,andbothaimtohelpdisadvantagedstudentsgraspthe
systeminwhichtextsarecreatedsothattheycancreatesimilartexts,byteachingthemtherelationship
betweenlanguageandsocialfunction.Bothtrytoaccomplishtheirgoalsbyteachingspecificgenresto
underprivilegedusers.[12]
However,therearealsosomeimportantdifferencesbetweenESPandSFL.WhereasSFLscholarsfocuson
teachingbasicgenrestructurestoprimaryandsecondaryschoolstudents,ESPscholarsarefocuseson
teachingProfessionalandAcademicdisciplinarygenrestoUniversityandgraduatelevelstudents.ESP
studentstendtobemoreboundtodiscursivegenresubjects,withinveryparticularcontexts.ESPfocuseson
microlevelgenresandcontexts,whereasSFLfocusesonmacrolevelcontexts.[13]
RhetoricalGenreStudies(RGS)
RhetoricalGenreStudiesscholarsexaminegenreastypifiedsocialaction,aswaysofactingbasedon
recurrentsocialsituations.ThisfoundingprincipleforRGSwastakenfromCarolynR.Miller'sessay
"GenreasSocialAction,"whichwaspublishedin1984.[3][14]Inherarticle,MillerexaminesFrankLloyd
Bitzer'snotionofexigenceasareactiontosocialsituations,andKennethBurke'snotionof"motive"as
humanaction.[15]UsingBitzer,particularly,Millerbelievesitispossibletoexamineexigenceas"an
externalcauseofdiscourse."[16]Ultimately,sheisabletoviewsituationsassocialconstructions.Genresare
typifiedwaysofrespondingtorecurringsocialconstructions.[17]
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RGSscholarshaveevolvedbeyondMiller'sfoundingdefinitionofgenre.CarolBerkenkotterandThomas
Huckinbeginwiththenotionthatgenreisknowledgefoundation,andarguethatgenresembody
communities'knowledgeandwaysofacting.[3]ForBerkenkotterandHuckin,genrebecomesawayof
navigatingsocialactivity.Assuch,itisdynamic,becausetheconditionsofsocialactivityarealwaysin
flux.Recurrence,theyclaim,involvesvariation.[18]BerkenkotterandHuckinredefinegenreassocial
cognition.[18]
Thenotionof"uptake"isalsointegraltoRGSscholarsunderstandingofgenre.AnneFreadmanusesuptake
todescribethewaysinwhichgenresinteractwitheachotherinherarticles"Uptake"and"Anyonefor
Tennis?".[19]Sheusesthegameoftennistoexplainthewaysgenresinteract.Tennisplayers,shesays,do
notexchangetennisballs,theyexchangeshots.Eachshotonlyhasmeaningwithinthegame,itsrules,and
thecontextofthegamebeingplay.[20]Shotsaremeaningfulbecausetheytakeplaceinagame.Thegameis
meaningfulbecauseittakesplacewithin"ceremonials."Thus,thefinalatWimbledonprovidesadifferent
contextthanagamebetweenfriends.Genresarethegamesthattakeplacewithinceremonials,andshots
areutterances,orverbalexchanges.Wecannotreallyunderstandatextwithoutunderstandingthe
ceremonialinwhichitoccurs.[21]"Uptake"istheillocutionaryresponseelicitedbyparticularsituations.[22]
AmyDevitt'sresearchhasfurthercomplicatedtheRGSlandscape.InWritingGenres,Devittdistinguishes
betweenthe"contextofgenres,""genrerepertoires,""genresystems,"and"genresets."The"contextof
genres"istheoverallsetofgenresavailableinaculture.A"genrerepertoire"referstothesetofgenresthat
aspecificgroupusestoachieveitspurposes."Genresystems"arethesetsofgenresthatfunctionwithinan
activitysystem.Finally,"genresets"aremorelooselydefinedsetsofgenresthatfunctionwithinanactivity
system,butonlydefinealimitedrangeofactionswithinthatsystem.[23]Forinstance,ifweweretotakea
courtroomasanactivitysystem,agenresetcouldbedefinedasonlythosegenresusedbythejudge.
Studyingthe"contextofgenres,""genrerepertoires,""genresystems,"and"genresets"enablesresearchers
tostudytherelationshipsandpowerstructuresofactivitysystems.[23]
GenericConventions
Conventionsareusualindicatorssuchasphrases,themes,quotations,orexplanationsthatreadersexpectto
findinacertaingenre.Theycouldbeconsidered"stereotypes"ofthatgenre.Forexample,Sciencefiction
isexpectedtobesetinthefuture,andhavefuturisticevents,technologicaladvances,andfuturisticideas.
Realismisexpectedtocontainastoryaboutpeoplewhocouldpassasreal,strugglingthroughreallife
situationsand/orrealworldevents,etc.
CriticPaulAlpersexplainsthatliteraryconventionsarelikemeetingplaceswherepastandpresentwriters
"cometogether"todeterminetheformaconventionshouldtakeinaparticularliteraryinstance(work).In
practicalterms,thiscomingtogetherisamatterofthepresentwriterconsultingtheworkofpredecessors,
butAlperswantstoconnotethesenseofactivenegotiationandaccommodationthattakesplacebetween
thewriterandthegenreheorsheisworkingin(agenredefinedbyotherpeople).AccordingtoAlpers,a
misconceptionpersistsinmoderncriticismthatliteraryconventionisanarbitraryandinflexiblepractice,
establishedbywidespreadusageandimposedfromwithout.Conventioninthissenseistheantithesisof
thepersonalandindividualitisfelttoconstrainthe[writer].Alpersreconceptualizesliterary
conventionassomethingconstitutiveandenabling.Forhim,genericconventionsarenotfixed
proceduresimposedbyimpersonaltraditionrather,theyarethelivingusagesofother[writers],the
sharedpracticeofthosewhocometogether.Thinkingofgenericconventionsasapracticesharedbymany
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users,allowslaterwriterstoexercisethesamedegreeofcontroloverconventionasthosewhopredated
them.Farfromconstrainingwriters,conventionprovidesflexibilitytopreservecertainaspectsofagenre
andtransformothers.Conventioninthissenseenablesindividualexpression,becausethe[writer]isseen
asresponsiveto,evenwhenchallenging,hispredecessorsandfellows.[24]
GenretheoristDavidFishelovalsodealswithgenericconventionshecallsthem"genericrules"in
elaboratinghisexplanatorymetaphorofliterarygenresassocialinstitutionsinthebookMetaphorsof
Genre:TheRoleofAnalogiesinGenreTheory.Fishelov,likeAlpers,seesgenericconventionsasan
inescapablyvitalpartoftheliterarycommunicativesituation,linkingpresentandpastwriterstoeach
other,aswellastoreaders.Establishedconventionsareachallenge,orahorizon,againstwhichthewriter
andhisreaderhavetodefinethemselves.Thewritermayrespondtothischallengebystretch[ing]the
genericrules.[25]
FishelovdrawshismetaphorofgenreassocialinstitutionfromapassageinRenWelleckandAustin
WarrensTheoryofLiterature:
Theliterarykind[genre]isaninstitutionasChurch,University,orStateisaninstitution.Itexists
notasananimalexistsorevenasabuilding,chapel,library,orcapital,butasaninstitutionexists.
Onecanworkthrough,expressoneselfthrough,existinginstitutions,createnewones,orgeton,so
faraspossible,withoutsharinginpoliticsorritualsonecanalsojoin,butthenreshape
institutions.[26]
Thisformulationascribesagencytoactorswithinsocialinstitutions.Inthesamewayinstitutionslike
churches,universities,andstatesorganizesocialactorstoaccomplishcollectivesocialpurposes,literary
genresorganizerelationshipsbetweenwritersandreaderstoaccomplishcommunicativepurposes,which
changeovertime.Genresarenotstatic,butrather,likesocialinstitutions,persistthroughtheconstant
renovationoftheirconventionsbyindividuals.Fishelovisparticularlyhelpfulintheorizingtheroleofthe
readerinalternatelyconstrainingandmotivatinggenericchange:
[T]hereaderdemandscompliancewiththeestablishedgenericconventionssothathecanintegrate
thenewtext,butatthesametimeheexpectsthewritertomanipulatetheseestablishedconventions
sothatthenewtextismorethanatediousrepetitionofthegenerictradition.[25]
Readerexpectationsoperateasbothaconstraintonthewriterandalatentdemandforinnovation."The
writerisexpectedtomanipulatetheexistingconventionsandtocarrythem(atleast)onestepfurther.
Fromthewritersperspective,thegenericconventionisamodeltofollowbutalsoachallengeto
overcome.Fishelovexplainsthatwriterschooseorarecompelledtomanipulateprevailingconventionsfor
avarietyofaestheticandthematicreasons.
Historyofgenretheory
GenretheoryorgenrestudiesgotunderwaywiththeGreeks.TheGreeksfeltthatthetypeofpersonan
authorwaswouldbedirectlyresponsibleforthetypeofpoetrytheywrote.TheGreeksalsobelievedthat
certainmetricalformsweresuitedonlytocertaingenres.Aristotlesaid,
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Wehave,then,anaturalinstinctforrepresentationandfortuneandrhythmandstartingwith
theseinstinctsmenverygraduallydevelopedthemuntiltheyproducedpoetryoutoftheir
improvisations.Poetrythensplitintotwokindsaccordingtothepoet'snature.Forthemore
seriouspoetsrepresentedthenobledeedsofnoblemen,whilethoseofalessexaltednature
representedtheactionsofinferiormen,atfirstwritingsatirejustastheotherswrotehymnsand
eulogies.
ThisisallbasedonPlato'smimeticprinciple.Exaltedpeoplewill,inimitationofexaltation,writeabout
exaltedpeopledoingexaltedthings,andviceversawiththe"lower"types(Farrell,383).Genrewasnota
blackandwhiteissueevenforAristotle,whorecognizedthatthoughthe"Iliad"isanepicitcanbe
consideredatragedyaswell,bothbecauseofitstoneaswellasthenobilityofitscharacters.However,
mostoftheGreekcriticswerelessacutelyawareifawareatalloftheinconsistenciesinthissystem.
Forthesecritics,therewasnoroomforambiguityintheirliterarytaxonomybecausethesecategorieswere
thoughttohaveinnatequalitiesthatcouldnotbedisregarded.
TheRomanscarriedontheGreektraditionofliterarycriticism.TheRomancriticswerequitehappyto
continueonintheassumptionthattherewereessentialdifferencesbetweenthetypesofpoetryanddrama.
ThereismuchevidenceintheirworksthatRomanwritersthemselvessawthroughtheseideasand
understoodgenresandhowtheyfunctiononamoreadvancedlevel.However,itwasthecriticswholeft
theirmarkonRomanliterarycriticism,andtheywerenotinnovators.
AfterthefallofRome,whenthescholasticsystemtookoverliterarycriticism,genretheorywasstillbased
ontheessentialnatureofgenres.ThisismostlikelybecauseofChristianity'saffinityforPlatonicconcepts.
Thisstateofaffairspersisteduntilthe18thcentury.
Enlightenmentage
Attheendofthe18thcentury,thetheoryofgenrebasedonclassicalthoughtbegantounravelbeneaththe
intellectualchafingoftheEnlightenment.Theintroductionoftheprintingpressbroughttextstoalarger
audience.Thenpamphletsandbroadsidesbegantodiffuseinformationevenfarther,andagreaternumber
oflessprivilegedmembersofsocietybecameliterateandbegantoexpresstheirviews.Suddenlyauthorsof
both"high"and"low"culturewerenowcompetingforthesameaudience.Thisworkedtodestabilizethe
classicalnotionsofgenre,whilestilldrawingattentiontogenrebecausenewgenreslikethenovelwere
beinggenerated(Prince,455).
Locke,inAnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding(1690),hadreduceddatatoitssmallestpart:the
simpleideaderivedfromsense.However,asthescienceofcognitionbecamemorepreciseitwasshown
thateventhissimpleideaderivedfromsensewasitselfdivisible.ThisnewinformationpromptedDavid
HartleytowriteinhisObservationonMan(1749),
HowfartheNumberofOrdersmaygoisimpossibletosay.IseenoContradictionin
supposingitinfinite,andagreatDifficultyinstoppingatanyparticularSize.(Prince,456).
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Thepossibilityofaninfinitenumberoftypesalarmedtheologiansofthetimebecausetheirassumptionwas
thatrigorouslyappliedempiricismwoulduncovertheunderlyingdivinenatureofcreation,andnowit
appearedthatrigorouslyappliedempiricismwouldonlyuncoveranevergrowingnumberoftypesand
subsequentsubtypes.
Inordertoreestablishthedivineincategorization,thenewtaxonomicalsystemofaestheticsarose.This
systemofferedfirstbeauty,andthenthesublimeasthetaxonomicaldevice.TheproblemwithAesthetics
wasthatitassumedthedivineandthusthesublimemustunderlieallthesecategories,andthus,theugly
wouldbecomebeautifulatsomepoint.Theparadoxisglaring.
Evolution
Eversincethelate18thcenturyliterarycriticshavebeentryingtofindatheoryofgenrethatwouldbe
morecommensuratewiththerealitiesofindividualtextswithingenres.Theevolutionofgenretookmany
twistsandturnsthroughthe19thand20thcenturies.Itwasheavilyinfluencedbythedeconstructionist
thoughtandtheconceptofrelativity.In1980,theinstabilityengenderedbythesetwonewmodesof
thoughtcametoaheadinapaperwrittenbyJacquesDerridatitled,"TheLawofGenre."[27]Inthearticle
Derridafirstarticulatestheideathatindividualtextsparticipateinratherthanbelongtocertaingenres.He
doesthisbydemonstratingthatthe"markofgenre"isnotitselfamemberofagenreortype.Thus,thevery
characteristicthatsignifiesgenredefiesclassification.However,attheendofthisessay,Derridahintsat
whatmightbeamorefruitfuldirectionforgenretheory."There,thatisthewholeofit,itisonlywhat'I,'so
thatsay,herekneelingattheedgeofliterature,cansee.Insum,thelaw.Thelawsummoning:what'I'can
sightandwhat'I'cansaythatIsightinthissiteofarecitationwhereI/weis."[28]BywhichDerridameans
thatnotonlyistaxonomyasubjectivesport,butduetothisveryfact,theplaceandtimethetaxonomical
acttakesplacedeservesfurtherstudy.
Then,in1986,RalphCohenpublishedapaperinresponsetoDerrida'sthoughtstitled"HistoryandGenre."
InthisarticleCohenarguedthat
genreconceptsintheoryandinpracticearise,change,anddeclineforhistoricalreasons.And
sinceeachgenreiscomposedoftextsthataccrue,thegroupingisaprocess,notadeterminate
category.Genresareopencategories.Eachmemberaltersthegenrebyadding,contradicting,
orchangingconstituents,especiallythoseofmembersmostcloselyrelatedtoit.Theprocessby
whichgenresareestablishedalwaysinvolvesthehumanneedfordistinctionandinterrelation.
Sincethepurposesofcriticswhoestablishgenresvary,itisselfevidentthatthesametextscan
belongtodifferentgroupingsofgenresandservedifferentgenericpurposes.(Cohen,204)
GenreEvolutioninRGS
RGSscholarslargelyagreethatwhilegenresareindeeddynamicandconstantlyevolvingentities,theyare
difficulttochange.AmyDevittdescribesthisbind,assheconsidersagenretobeboththeproductandthe
processthatcreatesit(580)[29]ToDevitt,genresnotonlyrespondtorecurrentsituations,butthey
constructthemaswell.[30]Thisphenomenonmakestheorizinggenreevolutionchallenging.CarolynR.
Millerevencautionsagainstdescribinggenrechangeasevolution,asevolutionimpliesprogress.[31]Still,
manyRGSscholarshavetheorizedhowgenreschange.JoAnnYatesandWandaOrlikowskiofferthat
onepersoncannotsinglehandedlyeffectthechangeofaninstitutionalizedstructureotherrelevant
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participantsmustadoptandreinforcetheattemptedchangeforittobeimplementedandsustainedin
practice(108).[32]YatesandOrlikowskithendescribehowgenresevolve:theyclaimthatgenreschange
whenakairoticmomentpresentsitself,andtherhetor,insteadofchoosingtoemploythe"genremost
appropriatelyenacted"triesanewmethodofwhichtheaudienceacceptsasnewwayofrespondingtothe
recurrentsituation(119).Seekairos.NatashaArtemevahasmadesimilarobservationsbasedonaneight
yearethnographicsurveythatfollowedengineeringstudentsfromacademiaandintotheworkplace
environment.[33]Artemevaobservedtwoofhersubjectsimpacttheevolutionofworkplacegenreswhena
kairoticmomentpresenteditself(164).Yettheseformerstudentssuccessinchangingtheworkplacegenre
alsodependedonthreeindividuallyacquiredskills:1)culturalcapital,2)domaincontentexpertise,and
3)agencyintherhetorsabilitytonotonlyseewhenakairoticmomentpresenteditself,buttoalsoseize
theopportunity(167).ThomasHelscherisnotasoptimistichewrites,the"rhetoricalconstitutionof[a]
discoursecommunityoperatesasacounterweighttotheprocessofcommunitygrowthandchange"(30)
andarguesthatthe"transformationofthefundamentalgenericconventionsbywhichcommunities
constitutesthemselves...isparadigmaticoftheprocessofsocialtransformation"(32).[34]
Currentstateofgenretheory
Thedefinitionofgenrefromdictionary.com(http://www.dictionary.com)is"aclassorcategoryofartistic
endeavorhavingaparticularform,context,technique,orthelike."Althoughitseemsthatgenreshouldbe
easytodefine,thefinerpointsoftextualcategorizationarenotyetestablished.
Genres,accordingtoDanielChandler,createordertosimplifythemassofavailableinformation.Creating
categoriespromotesorganizationinsteadofchaos.JaneFeuerhasdividedwaystocategorizegenresinto
threedifferentgroups.Thefirstisaesthetic.Byusingthismethodonecanorganizeaccordingtocertainsets
ofcharacteristics,andsotheoverallworkoftheartistisnotdisparagedbygeneralization.Thesecond
classificationmethodisritual.Ritualusesitsownculturetohelpclassify.Ifoneperformsaritual
associatedwithasystemofritual,onecanbesaidtobepracticingasamemberofthatsystem.The
commontaxonomicmethodisideological.Thisoccursmostofteninthemarketingoftexts,music,and
movies.Theeffectivenessofthistypeofcategorizationcanbemeasuredbyhowwellthepublicaccepts
thesecategoriesasvalid.
AmyJ.Devittfocusesonrhetoricalgenre.Scholarsgenerallyrecognizetherestrictionsplacedonworks
thathavebeenclassifiedasacertaingenre.However,viewinggenreasarhetoricaldevicegivestheauthor
andthereadermorefreedomand"allowsforchoices."Genresarenotfreestandingentities,butareactually
intimatelyconnectedandinteractiveamongstthemselves.Rhetoricalgenrerecognizesthatgenresare
generatedbyauthors,readers,publishers,andtheentirearrayofsocialforcesthatactuponaworkatevery
stageofitsproduction.
Thisrecognitiondoesnotmakethetaxonomyoftextseasy.Chandlerpointsoutthatveryfewworkshave
allthecharacteristicsofthegenreinwhichtheyparticipate.Also,duetotheinterrelatednessofgenres,
noneofthemisclearlydefinedattheedges,butratherfadeintooneanother.Genreworkstopromote
organization,butthereisnoabsolutewaytoclassifyworks,andthusgenreisstillproblematicandits
theorystillevolving.
Moreover,themetagenreasaconcepthasbeenanimportantpointtostudy.AccordingtoGiltrow,
metagenreis"situatedlanguageaboutsituatedlanguage".Metagenressuchasinstitutionalguidelinescan
be"rulingoutcertainkindsofexpression,endorsingothers",constrainingandenabling.Theconceptof
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metagenrealsoprovidesavaluablewaytounderstandthedynamicsofinstitutionalinterrelationsbetween
genres.Inthementalhealthdiscourse,forexample,hasbeendemonstratedthemetagenericfunctionofthe
AmericanPsychiatricAssociation's(DSM)forstandardizingandmediatingthelocalizedepistemological
communicativepracticesofpsychiatrists.
Functionsandlimits
GenrebeganasanabsoluteclassificationsysteminancientGreece.Poetry,proseandperformancehada
specificandcalculatedstylethatrelatedtothethemeofthestory.Speechpatternsforcomedywouldnotbe
appropriatefortragedy,andevenactorswererestrictedtotheirgenreundertheassumptionthatatypeof
personcouldtellonetypeofstorybest.Thisclassicalsystemworkedwellaslongastheartswerelargely
directedbynobilityandrichpatrons.Acommonunderstandingofmeaningwashandyinknowingwhatthe
employerexpected,andthecrowdsunderstoodit.
DuringtheEnlightenmentperiodin18thcenturyEurope,thissystemofpatronagebegantochange.A
merchantmiddleclassbegantoemergewithmoneytospendandtimetospendit.Artistscouldventure
awayfromclassicalgenresandtrynewwaystoattractpayingpatrons.ComedycouldnowmeanGreek
meteredcomedy,orphysicalcamp,orsomeothertypeofexperience.Artistswerealsofreetousetheir
mediumstoexpressthehumanconditioninawaythatwasnotpossibleundersinglepatronage,oratleast
notprofitable.Artcouldbeusedtoreflectandcommentonthelivesofordinarypeople.Genrebecamea
dynamictooltohelpthepublicmakesenseoutofunpredictableart.Becauseartisoftenaresponsetoa
socialstate,inthatpeoplewrite/paint/sing/danceaboutwhattheyknowabout,theuseofgenreasatool
mustbeabletoadapttochangingmeanings.InfactasfarbackasancientGreece,newartformswere
emergingthatcalledfortheevolutionofgenre,forexamplethetragicomedy.
Unfortunately,genredoeshaveitslimitations.Ourworldhasgrownsomuchthatitisdifficulttoabsolutely
classifysomething.Informationoverlaps,andasinglebookcanencompasselementsofseveralgenres.For
example,abookmightbeclassifiedasfiction,mystery,sciencefictionandAfricanAmericanliteratureall
atonce.
Genresuffersfromthesameillsofanyclassificationsystem.Humansarepatternseekingbeingsweliketo
createorderoutofthechaosoftheuniverse.However,whenweforgetthatourorderisimposed,often
arbitrarily,overauniverseofuniqueexperiences,themeritoftheindividualgetslost.Ifasystemof
classification,likegenre,isthenusedtoassignvaluejudgments,weallowourpreconceptionsaboutthe
wholetoinfluenceouropinionoftheindividual.Genreisusefulaslongaswerememberthatitisahelpful
tool,tobereassessedandscrutinized,andtoweighworksontheiruniquemeritaswellastheirplacewithin
thegenre.
Asimpleexampleoftheinherentmeaninginanartformisthatofawesternmoviewheretwomenface
eachotheronadustyandemptyroadonewearsablackhat,theotherwhite.Independentofanyexternal
meaning,thereisnowaytotellwhatthesituationmightmean,butduetothelongdevelopmentofthe
"western"genre,itiscleartotheinformedaudiencethattheyarewatchingagunfightshowdownbetweena
badguyandagoodguy.
Ithasbeensuggestedthatgenresresonatewithpeoplebecauseofthefamiliarity,theshorthand
communication,aswellasthetendencyofgenrestoshiftwithpublicmoresandtoreflectthezeitgeist.
Whilethegenreofstorytellinghasbeenrelegatedaslesserformofartbecauseoftheheavilyborrowed
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natureoftheconventions,admirationhasgrown.Proponentsarguethatthegeniusofaneffectivegenre
pieceisinthevariation,recombination,andevolutionofthecodes.
Genrestudieshaveperhapsgainedthemostrecognitioninfilmtheory,wherethestudyofgenredirectly
contrastswithauteurtheory,whichprivilegesthedirector'sroleincraftingamovie.
Insocialcommunities
Thereissomethingmoreaboutgenretheory,andtothateffectitisnecessarytoproposeKristenH.Perrys
definition.Written(textual)genresaresocialconstructionsthatrepresentspecificpurposesforreadingand
writingwithindifferentsocialactivities,createdbysocialgroupswhoneedthemtoperformcertainthings.
Theychangeovertime,reflectingessentialshiftsinsocialfunctionperformedbythattext.Genresalso
representconstellationsoftextualattributes:someattributesarenecessaryandotherattributesareoptional.
AnotherdefinitionwhichshowsthedifferentaspectsofgenretheoryisMillerwhodefinesgenresas
typifiedrhetoricalactionsthatrespondtorecurringsituationsandbecomeinstantiatedingroups
behaviors.Genreevolvesasaformofsocialknowledgeamutualconstruingofobjects,events,interests
andpurposesthatnotonlylinksthembutmakesthemwhattheyare:anobjectifiedsocialneed.Thisview
seesgenresnotasstaticformsbut,rather,asformsofwaysofbeingframesforsocialaction
environmentsforlearninglocationswithinwhichmeaningisconstructed(Bazerman),suggestingthat
differentcommunitiesusedifferentmeansofcommunicationtoaccomplishtheirobjectives.
Totrytoshowtheimportanceofthecontextingenreanexampleisusedaboutaparticularpartofthegenre
theoryspeechgenresbutitisimportanttostressthatcontextisreallyimportantinallsituations.Context
playsanimportantroleinshapinggenres(Holquist,1986).Genretheorydoesnotconceptualizecontextas
simplythespaceoutsideoftextorthecontainersurroundingtexts,butasdynamicenvironmentsthat
simultaneouslystructureandarestructuredbythecommunicativepracticesofsocialagents.Speechgenres
arerecognizablepatternsoflanguageincontext(Bakhtin,1986):speechgenresincludebothoraland
writtenformsoflanguage.
Researchershavealsoshownthattherhetoricalmovespeoplemustmakewithinacceptedgenresto
communicatesuccessfullyinparticularcontextsoperatetoreinforcecommunitiesidentitiesandto
legitimateparticularcommunicationpractices.Thus,thegenresthatcommunitiesenacthelpstructuretheir
memberswaysofcreating,interpreting,andusingknowledge(MyersWinsor,Ordering,Writing
Bazerman,Shaping,ConstructingBerkenkotterandHuckinSmart).Genresareveryimportantinour
everydaylifeandwedonotrealizehowmuchweusethem,howmuchtheyaffectus,howmuchthey
determinethewayweactandunderstandtheothers.
Aspectsofgenretheory
Rhetoricalsituation
In1968,LloydBitzerclaimedthatdiscourseisdeterminedbyrhetoricalsituationsinhisarticletitled,"The
RhetoricalSituation".Arhetoricalsituationreferstothefactthateverysituationhasthepotentialfora
rhetoricalresponse.Helookstounderstandthenaturebehindthecontextthatdeterminesdiscourse.Bitzer
states,"itisthesituationwhichcallsdiscourseintoexistence".[35]Thus,thesituationcontrolswhattypeof
rhetoricalresponsetakesplace.Eachsituationhasanappropriateresponseinwhichtherhetorcaneitheract
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uponornotactupon.Heexpressestheimperativenatureofthesituationincreatingdiscourse,because
discourseonlycomesintobeingasaresponsetoaparticularsituation.Discoursevariesdependinguponthe
meaningcontextthatiscreatedduetothesituation,andbecauseofthis,itis"embeddedinthe
situation".[35]
AccordingtoBitzer,rhetoricalsituationscomeintoexistence,at
whichpoint,theycaneithermatureandgoaway,ormatureand
continuetoexist.Bitzerdescribesrhetoricalsituationsascontaining
threecomponents:exigence,audience,andconstraints.He
highlightssixcharacteristicsneededfromarhetoricalsituationthat
arenecessarytocreatingdiscourse.Asituationcallsarhetorto
creatediscourse,itinvitesaresponsetofitthesituation,the
responsemeetsthenecessaryrequirementsofthesituation,the
exigencewhichcreatesthediscourseislocatedinreality,rhetorical
situationsexhibitsimpleorcomplexstructures,rhetoricalsituations
aftercomingintocreationeitherdeclineorpersist.Bitzer'smain
argumentistheconceptthatrhetoricisusedto"effectvaluable
changesinreal"(Bitzer14).
In1984,CarolynR.Millerexaminedgenreintermsofrhetorical
situations.Sheclaimedthat"situationsaresocialconstructsthatare
theresult,notof'perception,'butof'definition'".[36]Inotherwords,
weessentiallydefineoursituations.Millerseemstobuildfrom
J.M.Barrie'sworkswerenotoriously
Bitzer'sargumentregardingwhatmakessomethingrhetorical,
hardtoplaceinanysinglegenre.
whichistheabilityofchangetooccur.OppositeofBitzer's
predestinedandlimitedviewofthecreationofgenres,Miller
believesgenresarecreatedthroughsocialconstructs.SheagreedwithBitzerthatpastresponsescan
indicatewhatisanappropriateresponsetothecurrentsituation,butMillerholdsthat,rhetorically,genre
shouldbe"centerednotonthesubstanceortheformofdiscoursebutontheactionitisusedto
accomplish".[36]Sinceherviewfocusesonaction,itcannotignorethathumansdependonthe"contextof
thesituation"aswellas"motives"thatdrivethemtothisaction.[36]Essentially,"wecreaterecurrence,"or
similarresponses,throughour"construal"oftypes.[36]Millerdefines"types"as"recognitionofrelevant
similarities".[36]Typescomeaboutonlyafterwehaveattemptedtointerpretthesituationbywayofsocial
context,whichcausesustostickto"tradition".[36]Millerdoesnotwanttodeemrecurrenceasaconstraint,
butrathersheviewsitasinsightintothe"humancondition".[36]Thewaytobringaboutanew"type",[36]is
toallowforpastroutinestoevolveintonewroutines,therebymaintainingacyclethatisalwaysopenfor
change.Eitherway,Miller'sviewisinaccordancewiththefactthatashumans,wearecreaturesofhabit
thattightlyholdontoacertain"stockofknowledge".[36]However,changeisconsideredinnovation,andby
creatingnew"types"wecanstillkeep"tradition"[36]andinnovationatthesametime.
Genreassocialaction
Theconceptofgenreisnotlimitedtoclassificationsandlists.Peopleinteractwithingenresdaily.Genreis
determinedbased"ontheactionitisusedtoaccomplish"bytheindividualsusingthatparticulargenre.[36]
Thedistancebetweenthetextoractionofgenreanditsusersdoesnothavetobevast.Peoplerespondto
exigenciesprovidedbygenreeveryday.Exigenceis"asetofparticularsocialpatternsandexpectations
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thatprovidesasociallyobjectifiedmotiveforaddressing"therecurringsituationofaparticulargenre.[36]
Seeinggenreasasocialactionprovidesthe"keystounderstandinghowtoparticipateintheactionsofa
community".[36]CarolynR.Millerarguesthat,"arhetoricalsounddefinitionofgenremustbecenterednot
onthesubstanceortheformofdiscourse,butontheactionitisusedtoaccomplish".[36]
Theideathatrhetoricalsituationsdefinegenremeansthatparticipantsingenremakedecisionsbasedon
commonalitiesandrepeatthoseinstances.Genreisnotonlyabouttheformofbutalsothemere
repetitivenessofsimilarities.Theclassroomsettingexemplifiesthis.Whenstudentswishtospeak,they
raisetheirhandstosignifythatdesire.Raisingahandisthecorrectresponsetospeakinginturninthat
particularsocialsetting.Apersonatlunchwithagroupoffriendswouldnotraisetheirhandtospeak
becausethesocialsituationisdifferent.Millerconcludesthatsocialactionsaretheresponseto
"understandinghowtoparticipateintheactionsofacommunity".[36]
CarolynR.MillerbuildsonargumentsmadebyotherscholarswhilealsocontradictingBitzer'sargument
bygivingherreadersfivefeaturestounderstandgenre.[36]Shebelievesthatifsomethingisrhetorical,then
therewillbeaction.Notonlywilltherebeaction,butthisactionwillalsoberepeated.Therepetitionof
actioncreatesaregularizedformofdiscourse.Millerwouldaddthattheresulthasmoretodowiththe
actionaccomplishedbythesituation.Millerrecognizesthatapersonchoosestotakeacertainsocialaction
withinadefinedsetofrulesrulessetinplacebythatuser.Lastly,asituationcannotdictatearesponse.
Millerendsherarticlewiththethoughtthatgenresarepartlyrhetoricaleducationthroughherstatement,"as
arecurrent,significantaction,agenreembodiesanaspectofculturalrationality".[36]Here,Miller
unknowinglyencapsulatesafutureideologyaboutgenre:thatgenresarecreatedbyculture.Accordingto
MnothoDlaminigenreisbasicallyadeepinformationinaparticularcontext.
Socialconstruct
Bitzer'sdefinitionofexigenceas"animperfectionmarkedbyurgency...somethingwaitingtobedone"[35]
tiesinwithMiller'sideaofsocialactionasthenextstepafteranexigencyisrealized.Milleralsopoints
towardsthetheorythatgenresrecur,basedonJamieson'sobservationthatantecedentgenresfindingtheir
wayintonewgenres.Moreimportantly,Millertakesonthebiggerpictureofarhetoricalsituationinwhich
allofthesestepshappen."Situationsaresocialconstructsthataretheresult,notof'perception,'butof
definition".[36]Fromthis,itisunderstoodthatsocialconstructsdefinesituationsand,therefore,exigenceis
alsosociallysituated.
Genre,also,understoodintermsofsocialcontextsprovidesgreatermeaningtoeachrecurringsituationit
essentiallyallowsfordifferentiation,thoughpastgenreshavearoleinpresentandnewgenres.Through
thisdifferentiation,genreisallowedtocontinueevolving,justassocialcontextscontinuetochangewith
time.Bawarshidescribesthewayinwhichthishappensas"communicantsandtheirsocialenvironments
areconstantlyintheprocessofreproducingoneanother"(Bawarshi69).Rhetoricessentiallyworksthe
sameway,asseenintheexampleofwritingBawarshiprovides,"writingisnotasocialactsimplybecause
ittakesplaceinsomesocialcontextitissocialbecauseitisatworkinshapingtheverycontextwithin
whichitfunctions".[37]Therefore,throughsocialconstructs,onecanshaperhetoricalworks,andinturn,the
workscanshapethesocialcontext:"wecreateourcontextsaswecreateourtexts".[37]
Antecedentgenres
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Writtenin1975,KathleenHallJamieson's"AntecedentGenreasRhetoricalConstraint"declaresthat
discourseisdeterminedbytheRhetoricalSituation,aswellasantecedentgenres.Antecedentgenresare
genresofthepastthatareusedasabasistoshapeandformcurrentrhetoricalresponses.Whenplacedinan
unprecedentedsituation,arhetorcandrawonantecedentgenresofsimilarsituationsinordertoguidetheir
response.However,cautionshouldbetakenwhendrawingonantecedentgenresbecausesometimes
antecedentgenresarecapableofimposingpowerfulconstraints.[38]Theintentofantecedentgenresareto
guidetherhetortowardaresponseconsistentwithsituationaldemands,andifthesituationaldemandsare
notthesameaswhentheantecedentgenrewascreated,theresponsetothesituationmightbe
inappropriate.[38]
Throughthreeexamplesofdiscourse,thepapalencyclical,theearlyStateoftheUnionAddress,and
congressionalreplies,shedemonstrateshowtracesofantecedentgenrescanbefoundwithineach.These
examplesclarifyhowarhetorwilltendtodrawfrompastexperiencesthataresimilartothepresent
situationinordertoguidethemhowtoactorrespondwhentheyareplacedinanunprecedentedsituation.
Jamiesonexplains,byuseofthesethreeexamples,thatchoicesofantecedentgenremaynotalwaysbe
appropriatetothepresentsituation.Shediscusseshowantecedentgenresplacepowerfulconstraintsonthe
rhetorandmaycausethemtobecome"boundbythemanaclesoftheantecedentgenre".[38]These
"manacles,"shesays,mayrangeinlevelofdifficultlytoescape.Jamiesonurgesonetobecarefulwhen
drawingonthepasttorespondtothepresent,becauseoftheconsequencesthatmayfollowoneschoiceof
antecedentgenre.Shereiteratestheintendedoutcomethroughherstatementof"choiceofanappropriate
antecedentgenreguidestherhetortowardaresponseconsonantwithsituationaldemands".[38]
Reciprocityofgenre
Peopleoftenrecognizegenrebasedonthecharacteristicsthatthesituationoffers.AmyDevittstatesthis
whenshesays,"Agenreisnamedbecauseofitsformalmarkers"(Devitt10).Howevershealsosays,"the
formalmarkerscanbedefinedbecauseagenrehasbeennamed"(Devitt10).Whenwelabelsomethingasa
certaingenre,wealsoflagthesesamecharacteristicsascontributingtowhatwealreadybelievethegenreto
be.Thesetwoquotesshowhowreciprocityfunctionswithingenre.Devittdisplaysthereciprocalnatureof
genreandsituationaccordingtotheindividualbyusinganexampleofagrocerystorelist.Aquestionposed
bythisexampleis,issomethingagrocerylistbecauseitlistsgroceriesorisitagrocerylistbecauseone
personsaysitisagrocerylistandwethusrecognizealltheitemsonthelistasgroceries?Thougheach
possibleanswertothisraisedquestioncontradictoneanother,theyarebothcorrect.Similarly,individuals
recognizethecharacteristicsoftherecurringrhetoricalsituationsinthesamewayastheyseethemas
affirmationofwhattheyalreadyknowaboutthepreexistinggenre.Therhetoricalattributesofthegenreact
asbothobjectswhichdefineandaredefinedbygenre.Inotherwords,genreandrhetoricalsituationsare
reciprocalsofoneanother.Devittfocusedonactivitysystemofgenreandthattheparticipants'situation,
contextsandtextareallmutuallycreated"nooneaspectfullydeterminestheother."(Devitt)
Tyrannyofgenre
Thephrase"tyrannyofgenre"comesfromgenretheoristRichardCoe,whowrotethat"the'tyrannyof
genre'isnormallytakentosignifyhowgenericstructuresconstrainindividualcreativity"(Coe188).If
genrefunctionsasataxonomicclassificationsystem,itcouldconstrainindividualcreativity,since"the
presenceofmanyoftheconventionalfeaturesofagenrewillallowastronggenreidentificationthe
presenceoffewerfeatures,orthepresenceoffeaturesofothergenres,willresultinaweakorambiguous
genreidentification"(Schauber403).
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Genrescanactasconstraintsonreadersaswell.LiteraryhistorianHansRobertJaussdescribesgenresas
creatinga"horizonofexpectation"underwhichreaderswillinterprettextsbasedonhowmuchthey
correspondtothefeaturesofthegenretheyrecognizefromworkstheyhavepreviouslyread.[39]The
classificationsystemconceptresultsinapolarizationofresponsestotextsthatdonotfitneatlyintoagenre
orexhibitfeaturesofmultiplegenres:"Thestatusofgenresasdiscursiveinstitutionsdoescreateconstraints
thatmaymakeatextthatcombinesormixesgenresappeartobeaculturalmonstrosity.Suchatextmaybe
attackedorevenmadeascapegoatbysomeaswellasbedefendedbyothers"(LaCapra220).
Underthemoremodernunderstandingoftheconceptofgenreas"socialaction"laMiller,[36]amore
situationalapproachtogenreisenabled.Thissituationalapproachfreesgenrefromtheclassification
system,genre's"tyrannyofgenre".Relyingontheimportanceoftherhetoricalsituationintheconceptof
genreresultsinanexponentialexpansionofgenrestudy,whichbenefitsliteraryanalysis.Oneliterature
professorwrites,"Theuseofthecontemporary,revisedgenreidea[associalaction]isabreathoffreshair,
andithasopenedimportantdoorsinlanguageandliteraturepedagogy"(Bleich130).Insteadofacodified
classificationasthepragmaticapplicationofgenre,thenewgenreideainsiststhat"humanagentsnotonly
havethecreativecapacitiestoreproducepastaction,suchasactionembeddedingenres,butalsocan
respondtochangesintheirenvironment,andinturnchangethatenvironment,toproduceunderdetermined
andpossiblyunprecedentedaction,suchasbymodifyinggenres"(Killoran72).
Stabilization,homogenizationandfixity
Neveristheretotalstabilizationinarecognizedgenre,norarethereinstancesthatindicateacompletelack
ofhomogenization.However,becauseoftherelativesimilaritiesbetweentheterms"stabilization"and
"homogenization",theamountofstabilizationorhomogenizationacertaingenremaintainsisbasedon
opinion.Necessarydiscourseis,obviously,alwaysneededandisthusconsideredperfectlystabilized.In
rhetoricalsituationorantecedentgenres,thatwhichisunprecedentedmostlyleadstostableandpredictable
responses.Outsidethenaturalsettingofagivenformofdiscourse,onemayrespondinappropriatelydueto
anunrecognizedalternate.Theunrecognizedalternateiscreatedbythelackofhomogenizationordiffering
expectationsinthepresentedrhetoricalsituation.[38]
Fixityisuncontrolledbyagivensituationandisdeliberatelyutilizedbytheaffectedbeforetherhetorical
situationoccurs.Fixityalmostalwaysdirectlyeffectsstabilization,andhaslittletonobearingon
homogenization.Thechoiceofdiscoursewillprovideacertainvalueoffixity,dependingonthespecific
choice.Ifasituationcallsformoremediatedresponses,thefixityofthesituationismoreprevalent,and
thereforeisattributedwithastabledemandofexpectations.Stabilitynorfixitycanbedirectlyaffectedby
thesubjectathand.Theonlyoptionisaffectinghomogenizationwhichinturn,canpositivelyornegatively
affectstability.Directlychoosingafixedarenawithingenreinverselyaltersthehomogenizationofsaid
chooserconstitutingasanewgenreaccompaniedwithmodifiedgenresubsetsandanewlydesiredurgency.
Thesameideologicaltheorycanbeappliedtohowoneservesdifferentpurposes,creatingeitherseparate
genresormodernizedmicrogenres.(Fairclough)
GenreEcologyandActivityTheory
Activitytheoryisnotgroundedinanyoneareaoffieldofresearch,butinsteaddrawsfromseveral
disciplinesincludingpsychology,behaviorism,andsocioculturalstudies.Althoughactivitytheory
originatedinthesocialsciences,itiscurrentlyappliedmostfrequentlytosocialscientific,organizational,
andwritingstudies.Modeledasatriangle,activitytheoryconsidershowmultiplefactors(subject,object,
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mediatingartifacts,rules,anddivisionoflabor)existinginanactivitysystem(environment)interactto
achieveanoutcome.Centraltoactivitytheoryistheconceptofmediation.Humanactivitiesaredrivenbya
needtoachieveacertainoutcomeorgoal.Typicallythisactivityismediatedbyartifactswhichinclude
tools,language,signs,andculturalnorms.In"TextualObjects"CherylGeislerexplainsthattextsare
traditionallyidentifiedasmeditationalmeanstocompleteatask,thoughsheoffersthattextsmightalsobe
identifiedasthemotiveindiscoursecommunitiesinwhichtextisvaluedastheoutcomeasopposedtothe
meansofanoutcome.Geislernotesthattextsproducedformeditationalmeansaretypicallymore
private/personalized,whereastextsidentifiedasobjectsareoftenwrittenwithapublicmotive.Shedoesnot
argue,however,thattextsshouldexistexclusivelyasoneortheother,butrathershesuggeststhattextscan
functionasboth.[40]
Forsomegenretheorists,suchasClaySpinuzzi,genresaretoolsinuse,andassuchcanbeseenas
mediatingobjectswithintheworld.Thisviewofgenreasatoolinuseisexemplifiedintheschoolofgenre
theorythatstudiesgenres'relationshipstoactivitysystems.InhisarticleTextualGrounding:HowPeople
TurnTextsintoTools,JasonSwartsassertsthatusersutilizetextsastoolswhentheyrecognizethetexts
specificvalueinarhetoricalsituationorenvironment.Usersthengroundtexts,alteringthetexts
structureforpersonaluse,tomakethemusableunderveryspecificconditions.Theusertakesthetextfrom
aformalizedrepresentationofinformationtoapersonaltool.Swartsarguesthatthemeaningofatextis
establishedbyuptakeoftheusers,thoughthisvariesdependingontheuserandtheusersgoal.[41]
Similarly,inTracingGenresThroughOrganizations:ASocioculturalApproachtoInformationDesign,
ClaySpinuzziassertsthattheuseofcertaintoolsincertainsituationscanhelpuserstoactpurposefullyin
thatactivity.[42]Withinthistraditionofgenrestudies,"Genresarenotdiscreteartifacts,buttraditionsof
producing,using,andinterpretingartifacts,traditionsthatmaketheirwayintotheartifactasaformshaping
ideology."[43]Thestudyofgenresasmediatingartifactswithinactivitysystemsiscloselyrelatedto
ActivityTheory,inwhichtheinteractionsofdifferentspheresofactivityareexamined.Activitytheory,
accordingtoDavidRussell,"tracescognitionandbehavior,includingwriting,tosocialinteraction."[44]
Activitytheoristsexaminethewaysthattheworkdoneinonesphereofactivitycouldpotentiallychange
theworkdoneinanother.Forexample,Russellexamineshowpeopleusewritingtomediatetheiractivities,
andhowchangesinoneactivitycanleadtochangesinanotheractivity.Russellpointsoutthat"theactivity
systemofcellbiologyresearchisnotconfinedtouniversities.Italsoextendsintoboundaryactivitysystems
ofdrugcompanies,governmentmedicalresearchfacilities,andsoon."[45]Subtlechangesintheuseof
writinginoneactivitycaneffectchangesintheuseofwritinginrelatedsystems.Ifthegovernmentsets
downnewpharmaceuticaldocumentationlaws,thentheteachingofhowtodocumentthedistributionof
pharmaceuticalswillchange,notjustinpharmacies,butalsoinhospitalsandnursingclassrooms.Activity
systemsarealwaysinflux,becausesubtlechangesinonelevelofthesystemresultinsubtlechangesin
otherlevelsofthesystem.[46]Activitysystemsarestillrelativelystable,despitetheirconstantflux.The
changeswithinthemareoftensubtle,andlargescalechangesusuallyoccuroverlongperiodsoftime.
GenreEcologydescribesthedenseconnectionsbetweengenreswithintheactivitiesthattheymediate.
Multiplegenresmediateasingleactivitynogenreexistsinisolation.[47]In"TheEcologyofGenre"Anis
Bawarshiarguesthatgenresarerhetoricalecosystemsinwhichparticipantsactivelyenactand,
consequently,reenactsocialpractices,relations,andidentities.Participantsusegenretointerpretand
performsocialmotiveswhichsustainrhetoricalecosystemsthatproducesocialcontexts,practices,and
identities.[48]ForSpinuzzi,andothergenretheoristsstudyingthesocialaspectsofgenre(likeCarolynR.
Miller,AmyDevitt,andKathleenJamieson,amongothers),genreismorethanacategoryorartifactgenre
isawayofinteractingwiththeworld.Inthestudyofgenreecologies,genreisseenasawaypeoplecan
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accomplishactivities.[49]Likeactivitysystems,genreecologiesarenotentirelystable,becauseactivities
change,causingthegenresmediatingthemtochange,aswell.[50]Take,forexamplethedigitizationofthe
workplace.Beforecomputers,theworkspacewaslargelymediatedbygenressuchasthepapermemo,or
thecompanynewsletter.Afterdigitization,papermemosandpapernewslettersbegantodisappear.Memos
andnewslettersdidnotdisappearinstead,theirdistributionmethodchanged.Now,memosandnewsletters
aredisseminatedelectronicallyinemails.Thegenresofthememoandnewsletterstillexists,buttheyhave
changed,slightly,toreflectthechangesintheactivitysystemthattheymediate.
SecondarySpeechGenres
MikhailBakhtinstheorizationofcomplex,secondaryspeechgenresascompositesofsimple,primary
speechgenresintheanalysisoftheinteractionbetweenthemultiplecompetingvoicesandregistersin
literaryworks.Bakhtindefinescomplex,secondaryspeechgenresasnovels,dramas,allkindsofscientific
research,majorgenresofcommentary,andsoforth[that]ariseinmorecomplexandcomparativelyhighly
developedandorganizedculturalcommunication(62).WhileBakhtinfocusesonthehistoricalemergence
ofthenovelinmuchofhiswork,inhisessay"TheProblemofSpeechGenres,"hemakesclearthathis
theorycanbeappliedtoallliterarygenres,includingprofoundlyindividuallyricalwork[s](61)suchas
thepastoralelegy.Complex,secondaryspeechgenresareformedbyabsorb[ing]anddigest[ing]various
primary(simple)genresthathavetakenforminunmediatedspeechcommunion(62).Primaryspeech
genresareshortrejoindersofdailydialogue,everydaynarration,briefstandardmilitarycommand
(60),verbalsignalsinindustry(63),letters,diaries,minutes,andsoforth(98),notablefortheir
referentialitytoandfunctionwithinthepragmaticcommunicativecontextsofextraverbalreality
(situation)(83).Whenprimaryspeechgenresareabsorbedbysecondaryones,theyarealteredand
assumeaspecialcharacter,losingtheirimmediaterelationtoactualrealityandtotherealutterancesof
others(62).Thisprocessofabsorptionanddigestionofprimaryspeechgenresbysecondaryonesleadsto
amoreorlessdistinctdialogizationofsecondarygenres,theweakeningoftheirmonologicalcomposition
(66).WhileBakhtiniandialogizationmayweakenthemonologicalcompositionofsecondaryspeech
genres,itdoesnotprecludeadominanttheme,ideology,orculturalmeaningfromarisingoutofinterplay
ofthevarioustransformedprimarygenres(98)thatmakeupasecondarywork(although,Bakhtinadmits,
thisdominantideologyisdifficulttoisolateincomplexworks,andis,toacertainextent,leftopentothe
interpretationofindividualreaders).Bakhtinexplainsthatprimarygenresundergoamoreorlessthorough
processofcontestationandresolutionwithinthesecondaryworktheyconstituteandenterintoactual
realityonlyviathe[work]asawhole,thatis,asaliteraryartisticeventandnotaseverydaylife(62).As
arule,thesesecondarygenresofcomplexculturalcommunicationplayoutvariousformsofprimaryspeech
communication(Bakhtin98).Evenasaworkpermitsandenactsdialogizationbetweencharacters,
conventionalforms,andsemanticcontent,itresolvesorfinalizesthatcontentintoawholenessof
utterance,whichisintelligibletoreaders,andthereforeguarantee[s]thepossibilityofresponse(orof
responsiveunderstanding)(76).Throughthefinalizationofdisparateconventionalandthematicstrands,a
workachievesthefullnessofwhatBakhtincallsitsspecificauthorialintent,Miltonsspeechplanor
speechwillforhiswork,andreadiesitselfforresponsiveunderstanding(reception,interpretation)onthe
partofreaders(77).Despiteitsinternaldialogization,theworkdeliversitselftoreadersasasemantically
exhaustivewhole,andinthiswayusesitsinternaldramatorespondideologicallytoitsgenre:otherworks
connectedwithitintheoverallprocessesofspeechcommunicationin[its]particularculturalsphere(75).
Theseincludeworksofpredecessorsonwhomtheauthorrelies,otherworksofthesameschool,and
worksofopposingschoolswithwhichtheauthoriscontending(75).Inthiswayatheworkformsa
cruciallinkthechainofspeechcommunionofitsgenre(76).[51]
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Seealso
Computerandvideogamegenres
Filmgenre
Formulafiction
Genrefiction
Literarygenre
Musicgenre
Plotdevice
Stockcharacter
Genrecriticism
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Externallinks
AnIntroductiontoGenreTheorybyDanielChandler
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GenreAcrossBorders(GXB)(http://genreacrossborders.org/)
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