Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Topology
CHAPTER 5
Separation Axioms
The character, in particular richness of a topological space, depends much upon the abundance of open
sets in its topology. In fact, the more is the number of open sets, the stronger is the topology and then
higher is the chance of any function defined on it being continuous. The study of separation axioms
initiated by Alexandroff and Hopf provides us a tool of analyzing the strength of various topological
spaces.
T2 -axiom: For every pair of distinct points x, y of X, there exist open sets G and H of X such that x G
and y H , G H = .
T3 -axiom: For every point x of X and every closed set F of X not containing x, there exist open sets G
that F G and K H , G H = .
Definition: A topological space (X, T) is called a T1 -space if it satisfies the T1 -axiom.
x
x
T1-axiom
y
T2-axiom
F
T3-axiom
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Proof: Let (X, T ) be a T1 -space and let p be an arbitrary point of X. We shall show that { p}c is open.
To this end let x { p}c . Now x and p being distinct points there exist open sets Gx and H x such that
x Gx and p
/ Gx . Let G = {Gx ; x { p}c }. Clearly G is open and G = { p}c . So {p} is closed.
c
Conversely, let x and y be two distinct points of X. Then {x} and {y} are two closed sets. So {x}
c
c
and {y}c are two open sets satisfying the conditions that y {
/ x} and x {
/ y} . Hence (X, T) satisfies
the T1 -axiom, i.e., X is a T1-space.
An interesting at the same time important result about Hausdorff spaces is the following:
Theorem 5.1.2: If ( X , TX ) be a topological space and (Y , TY ) be a Hausdorff space and f , g : X Y
are continuous functions, then
(i) The set {x , X ; f ( x ) = g ( x )} is closed in X
(ii) f(x) = g(x) for all x in D, D is dense in X implies f(x) = g(x) for all x in X.
(iii) The set graph f = {( x , f ( x )); x X } is closed in X Y .
Proof: (i) Since { x X ; f ( x ) = g ( x )} = 1 ( ) where : X Y Y defined by
Definition: A topological space (X, T) is called a regular space if it satisfies the T3 -space.
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Topology
First note that a regular space need not that be a T1 -space and hence need not be a Hausdorff space.
This is clear as the space (X, T) with X = {a, b, c}, T = { , {a}, {b, c}, X } is regular but not T1 -space
(note the singleton set is {b} is closed}.
Definition: A topological space (X, T) is called a T3 -space if it is regular and T1 .
Observe that every T3 -space is T2 -space b but not conversely. Since a T3 -space is also T1 -space,
every singleton set is closed and therefore for any two distinct points x and y of X, {y} being closed,
there exist two open sets G and H separating x and {y}, i.e., x G, {y} H , G H , but this is exactly
the requirement of a Hausdorff space.
A Hausdorff space which is not regular is the space (R, U) where T is the topology generated by all
open intervals and Q. Evidently T U and hence R is Hausdorff but it is not regular since the closed
c
set Q c and the point 1 Q
can not be separated by disjoint open sets of T.
/
Other important results about regular spaces are
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75
Definition: A topological space is called normal if it satisfies the T4 -axiom and is a T1 -space, i.e., for
every pair of disjoint closed sets F and G, there exist disjoint open sets G and H of X such that
F G, K H.
A normal T1 -space is called a T4 -space.
The following results directly from the definition:
(i) Every metric space is normal
(ii) A normal sapce need not be a T1 -space. Consider the space (X, T) where X = {a, b, c} and
T = { , {a}, {b}, {a , b}, X }. Clearly X is normal but it is not a T1 -space as {a} is not closed.
(iii) Every T4 -space is a T3 -space and hence Hausdorff also.