International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882

Volume 4, Issue 8, August 2015

Stratigraphic Sequence and Its Impact on Surface Gradient and Landslide

in Gharian Area, Northwest Libya
Mohamed Abdelgalil* and Haysam Minass**
* Environmental Sciences Department, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, Egypt.
E-mail: Abdelgalil02@Yahoo.com
** Earth Sciences and Environment Dept, Faculty of Science at Alkhoms., Al-Mergheb University, Libya.

Abstract
Landslide is much more likely to occur in Gharian area
where Mesozoic Series of reddish, fine-grained
sandstones of Kurrush Formation and mixed carbonate
and clastic of Al Aziziyah Formation exposed in the
foothills of Nafusah escarpment, overlain by varicoloured cross-bedded sandstones of Abu Shaybah
Formation. The upper contact with the Abu Shaybah
Formation are beds of mudstone, sandstone and
conglomerate of Abu Ghaylan Formation, which
overlain by Kiklah Formation, Sidi As Sid Formation
and Nalut Formation respectively. Parts of Abu
Shaybah Formation, Abu Ghaylan Formation and
Kiklah Formation were removed to make the main
road. Slopes became steeper and directed upper blocks
to slide down the hill, forming a jumbled pile of rock
fragments at the toe of the slide.
The main road planned where sedimentary rocks have
been tilted with steeply sloped bedding planes.
Unstable sites were observed where the gradient of the
hill side is approximately parallel to bedding planes,
toward northeast away from the hillside. Road
excavation allowed large chunks of rock and soil to
slide into the road. At stable sites the bedding planes
slope toward northeast into the hillside, while
moderately stable sites were observed where the
gradient of the side hill is oblique to the bedding
planes.
The dolomitic limestone of Sidi as Sid Formation
shows relatively lower porosity compared with the
clastic sediments of Abu Shaybah Formation and
Kiklah Formation. Slope saturation with water occurs
in the form of intense rainfall and reduces the friction
between the bedrock and the overlying sediment. A
common observation is that, a hill slope may slide after
the winter rains begin. This seasonal change in
stability is mainly due to the change in the amount of
water in the pores of the soil. Therefore, stability
increases where rain water is prevented from
infiltrating in the landslide mass by directing surface
water runoff away from the landslide and draining it
away from the landslide site.
Keywords - Landslide, Jabal Nafusah, Nafusah
escarpment, Gharian, Slope stability.

I. Introduction
Development is a process that does interfere with the
environment. Ideal development should be in harmony
with nature, but geo-political considerations many
times lead to rapid development and generate natural
hazards like landslides. Landslide is a term used to
describe sort of gravity-induced movement of mass
down a slope. Mass movements can occur slowly over
a period of years, or they can happen in a matter of
minutes [1].
Land surfaces are held together by multiple forces, the
most important of these is friction. Some soil particles,
like clay, cling to each other tightly, while others, like
sand, are only loosely joined. All landscapes are held
together by friction between the sediment cover and
the underlying bedrock, some more tightly than others.
If something is introduced to disrupt the friction on an
incline, a landslide slips into action. However,
landslide occurs when gravity overcomes the force of
friction. Humans make landslides more likely through
activities like road-building, where landslide is much
more likely to occur in mountainous areas that have
been clear-cut for roads. Water reduces the friction
between the bedrock and the overlying sediment, and
gravity sends the debris sliding downhill.
Roads can clearly increase landslide hazard by making
slopes steeper and directing drainage to steep
locations. Fault zones are zones of geologic weakness
and, as such, are critical in road location.
Identification of low risk sites is essential in planning
roads. The most important factors determining
landslide hazard were lithology and road construction
([2], [3]).
Landslides represent a major constraint on
development, causing high levels of economic loss and
substantial numbers of fatalities. There is a general
consensus that the impacts of landslides in countries
are increasing with time. The generally upward trend
in landslide impact probably results from the rural
road-building programmed, and its attendant changes
to physical and natural systems [4]. Local governments
can reduce landslide effects through land-use policies
and regulations. Individuals can reduce their exposure

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International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882
Volume 4, Issue 8, August 2015

to hazards by using hazard history of a site and

planning to evaluate the hazard potential of a site.
The study area represents Nafusah escarpment and is
located in the northwestern part of Libya (Fig. 1).
The area is affected by human activities with Gharian
city in the southwest. The present study pertains to the
stratigraphic sequence and its impact on surface
gradient as it relates to road construction. It
particularly concerns with determining sites of
unstable slopes and methods of slope stabilization in
Gharian area.
Fig. 2. Topography of Gharian area.

2. Stratigraphic Sequence

level changes
Rise

Sequences

Off shore

On shore

Allochemical

Orthochemical

dolomitic limestone
chert and
concretions

VI

Lagoonal gypsum,

marly limestone
Intertidal - subtidal

conglomerate,
sandstone and clay
of braided-river
system
limestone, evaporite,
& dolomite of
contoted, & collapse
breccia of supratidal
intertidal, subtidal

major
flooding
event

dolomitic rudisted

IV

AGE

Terrigenous

PERIOD

to Bajocian

ALBIAN

Fm.
Late CRETACEOUS

CENOMANIAN TURONIAN

and clastic unit

III
P h a s e

conglamorate.
upper part meander
environment.
lower part braided
environment.

carbonate dominated unit

II
R i f t

interbedded with shale

interbedded with shale

Upper Mb.
(mixed carbonate
& clastic)

NORIAN

Ayn Tobi Yifran

JURRASIC E. CRET.

HETTANGIAN Sinemurian Late BARR.

Relative sea

red fluvial sandstone,

Late LADINIAN - Early CARNIAN

Sart Bu Aun Mb.

Fm.

Lithologic discription

mixed carbonate

T R I A S S I C

Fm. Abu

Abu
Al Qabil Mb. Shaybah Ghaylan

Al Mazul Group

Al Aziziyah

Kurrush

50

0 m.

The coastal plains vary in width where Jabal Nafusah

runs close to the coastal plains. Jabal Nafusah highland
has plateau climate with higher rainfall and humidity
and low winter temperatures. The highest rainfall
occurs in the northern Tripoli region (Jabal Nafusah
and Jifarah Plain) and in the northern Benghazi region
(Jabal al Akhdar), where the average annual rainfall
exceeds the minimum value (250-300 mm) considered
necessary to sustain rain fed agriculture. Rainfall
occurs during the winter months, but great variability
is observed from place to place and from year to year.
Gharian area is rugged with the elevation ranging from
about 640 m in the southwest at Gharian city to about
400 m in the northeast (Fig. 2).

Bir Ayad Group

Kiklah
Fm.

III. Results and Discussion

1. Geomorphology and Climate

M. LADIN.
ANISIAN

Group
Nafusa Group

II. Materials and Methods

Topographic maps and satellite images were used for
detecting the topography and stratigraphic sequence of
Gharian area. Surface gradients, joints and faults
trends were identified in the vicinity of the main road
and the field observations and measurements were
documented with photos. The slope of the bedding
planes relative to ground gradient was determined and
twenty spot samples were collected for microfacies
analysis and evaluate the porosity. Injunctions of the
studied samples to show the porosity with a blue color
and thin sections preparation have been done in
Industrial Research Center, Tripoli, Libya.

Sidi As Said Fm Nalut

Formation

Fig. 1. Showing the study area.

Nafusah escarpment (Fig. 3) was divided into Kurrush

Formation, Al Aziziyah Formation, Abu Shaybah
Formation, Abu
Ghaylan Formation, Kiklah Formation, Sidi As Sid
Formation and Nalut Formation [5].
Moving upward toward Gharian city, the stratigraphic
sequence (Fig. 4) is represented by Kurrush Formation
exposed in the foothills of the jabal escarpment as
series of reddish, fine-grained, convolute cross bedded
sandstones. Al Aziziyah Formation, includes mixed
carbonate and clastic, is overlain by red fluvial
sandstones and conglomerates of Abu Shaybah
Formation. Abu Shaybah sandstone (Figs. 5 and 6)
affected by joints filled with silica and comprises
varied-color Flat bedded and cross-bedded sandstones
(planner, wedge, trough and convolute cross-bedding).
The lower contact with the Abu Shaybah Formation is
distinctly unconformable, but the upper contact with
the Jurassic Abu Ghaylan Formation is conformable
([6], [7]).

Lower Mb. clastic

Fig. 3. Composite stratigraphic sequence of Jabal

Nafusah [5].

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International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882
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Fig. 4. Satellite image showing the stratigraphic

sequence of Gharian area.

Kiklah Formation overlies the Abu Ghaylan

Formation, the Formation composed of impersistent
beds of mudstone, sandstone and conglomerate which
were probably deposited in a braided-river system
carrying high sediment loads, with frequent migration
of the principal channels [11]. The upper contact with
the Cenomanian rocks Sidi as Sid Formation is
unconformable (Fig. 7B).
Sidi as Sid Formation comprises two members, the
lower carbonate unit is Ayn Tobi Member and the
upper marlstone unit is Yifran Member. Yifran
member composed of soft, thinly bedded alternations
of marly limestone, claystones, marlstones and bedded
gypsum. Nalut Formation overlies the Yifran Member
and composed of hard, crystalline, dolomitic
limestone, contains bands and concretions of chert [6].

(A)
(B)
Fig. 5. Abu Shaybah Formation comprises varied color
sandstones; (A) Joints-affected, flat bedded sandstone,
and (B) Joints-affected sandstone filled with silica.

(A)

(B)

(C
)

(D)

Fig. 7. (A) Abu Ghaylan Fm., contorted bedding and

solution collapse breccias. (B) Angular unconformity
between Kiklah Fm and Sidi As Said Fm, Note, the
main road planned where sedimentary rocks (Kiklah
Formation) have been tilted.

3. Fault Plains and Joints

Fig. 6. Varied color sandstones of Abu Shaybah

Formation; (A) Planner cross-bedded sandstone, (B)
Wedge cross-bedded sandstone, (C) Trough crossbedded sandstone, (D) Convolute cross- bedded
sandstone.

Joints and faults represent zones of geologic weakness

and serve as locations of high susceptibility to slope
failure [12]. Fault zones are identified in the vicinity of
the main road where Kiklah Fm and Sidi As Said Fm
beds on one side of the fault are displaced vertically
relative to the other side (Fig. 8). An important feature
of a fault zone slide is its shiny surface caused by
friction on sliding surfaces within the fault zone.
Field evidences and the examined Satellite image show
faulting lie within the mean vector extending along the
N 70 - 80 W - S 70 - 80 E fault set (Figs 9 and 10).
Sidi As Said Fm.

Abu Ghaylan Formation is disconformably overlain by

Kiklah Formation. It composed mainly of light
coloured white to buff and light grey to light brown
limestone and dolomitic limestone. Also recognize
oolites, calcareous and stromatolitic dolomites [8]. The
deposition was in a Iow-energy, supratidal to shallow
sub tidal carbonate evaporite palaeoenvironment [9].
In the lower parts of the formation undulating to
contorted interbeds of carbonate and marl with ripple
and solution collapse breccias have been noted (Fig.
7A). The contorted bedding has been related to synsedimentary tectonic influences [10].

Kiklah Fm.

Sidi As Said Fm.

Kiklah Fm.

Fig. 8. The hillside showing fault plain extending

N75W-S75E, while the main road extending N10ES10W parallel to the hillside.

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International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882
Volume 4, Issue 8, August 2015

Sidi As
Said

Fig. 9. Fault plain and joints extending N70W-S70E,

nearly parallel to the hillside.

Yafrin

21 24

Ain Tobi

33 76

Kiklah

11 18

AbuGhaylan

32 74

AbuShaybah

16 - 26

Fig. 10. Satellite image showing faults trends.

4. Ground Gradient Relative to the Slope of

Bedding Planes
Parts of Abu Shaybah Formation, Abu Ghaylan
Formation and Kiklah Formation of sandstone,
mudstone and conglomerate were removed to make the
main road. Therefore, upper blocks detached along a
bedding plane and slide down the hill, forming a
jumbled pile of rock at the toe of the slide. Slope
stability depends entirely on frictional resistance to
sliding, in turn depends on the surface gradient that
affects the portion of the weight of an object that rests
on the surface. In the slope analysis, the relationship
between the landslide locations and terrain gradient are
connected. The relationship between the terrain
gradient and landslide locations can be connected
using slope analysis [13].
Slope stability is illustrated by a description of the
balance of forces that exist in undisturbed slopes.
Therefore, surface gradients along the study area were
determined and given in Table (1). It is observed that,
the clastic sediments of Kiklah Formation show
relatively lowest surface gradients (Table 1 and Fig.
11).
Table 1. Ranges of surface gradients in Gharian area.

Formation

Nalut

Member

Range of
surface
gradients
28 88

Fig. 11. Ranges of surface gradients for the sequence

of the Formations in Gharian area.
Along the study area, the main road planned where
sedimentary rocks have been tilted and the bedding
planes are steeply sloped. Orientation of bedding or
fractures, particularly where they dip is important
factor ([14], [15]). The slope of the bedding planes
relative to ground gradient was determined. It is
observed that, in sites where the gradient of the side
hill is approximately parallel to bedding planes, road
excavation allowed large chunks of rock and soil to
slide into the road (unstable sites). On the contrary, the
stable sites were observed where the bedding planes
slope into the hillside. Also, moderately stable sites
were observed where the gradient of the side hill is
oblique to the bedding planes (Fig. 12).
(A
)
(B)
Fig. 12. Satellite images showing the main road to
Gharian city (A); Note, the relatively steeper surface
gradient opposite to the dip directions of the beds (B),
the bedding planes slope toward northeast into the
hillside (stable site). The unstable sites are where the
bedding planes slope toward northeast away from the
hillside.

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International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882
Volume 4, Issue 8, August 2015

5. Landslides and Water

Slope saturation with water is a primary cause of
landslides. This effect occurs in the form of intense
rainfall. Slides are usually triggered by heavy rainfall
over a period of hours to days ([16], [17]). Water
reduces the friction between the bedrock and the
overlying sediment. However, too much water causes
the sediment to flow, which explains the occurrence of
many landslides along the study area after rainstorms.
The presence of ground water can decrease slope
stability by reducing the frictional resistance.
Therefore, stability increases by directing surface
water away from the landslide site. Movement is
driven by shear stress, which is generated by the mass
of the block acting under gravity down unstable slope.
Resistance to movement is the result of the normal
load. When the slope fills with water the fluid pressure
will reduce the resistance to movement.
A common observation is that a hill slope may be
perfectly stable during the summer but may slide after
the winter rains begin. This seasonal change in
stability is due mainly to the change in the amount of
water in the pores of the soil. Microfacies analysis of
the studied succession has been carried out to evaluate
the porosity. Calcareous Quartz arenite (Abu Shaybah
Formation) is recorded in the lower part of the
constructed road. Most Quartz grains vary in sizes
between fine to medium, rounded to sub-rounded,
moderately sorted and mature (Fig. 13). The minor
corrosion of some quartz grains as well as minor
dissolution of calcite cement resulted in the initiation
of minor secondary porosity and minor fractures that
were observed.
The dolomitic limestone of Sidi as Sid Formation
shows relatively lower porosity compared with the
clastic sediments of Abu Shaybah Formation and
Kiklah Formation (Figs 13 to 15).

(A)

(A)

(B)

Fig. 14. Thin section photomicrograph of Kiklah

Formation sandstone; A) Calcareous quartz arenite
showing well sorted quartz grains; (XPL, 2.5x mag.);
B) Showing the high porosity of the sandstone of
Kiklah Formation (XPL, 2.5x mag.).

(A)

(B)

Fig. 15. Thin section photomicrograph of Sidi As Sid

Formation; A) Recrystallized dolomite rhombs in
microsparite matrx, dolomitic limestone, (XPL, 30x
mag.); B) Showing the relatively lower porosity (blue
color) of the dolomitic limestone of Sidi As Sid
Formation , (XPL, 30x mag.).

6. Landslide Mitigation
The hazards from landslides can be reduced by
avoiding construction on steep slopes and existing
landslides sites, or by stabilizing the slopes by
directing the surface water away from the landslide
sites. Rain water is prevented from infiltrating in the
landslide mass by covering the landslide with an
impermeable membrane, like plastic sheeting or an
impermeable cover and draining rain water away from
the landslide sites (Figs 16 and 17). Drainage pipes
installed into slopes can carry away excess water. In
addition, setting up retaining walls at intervals will
catch loose debris and keep it in place, while removing
excess mass from the top of a slope could prevent the
bottom from giving way.

(B)

Fig. 13. Thin section photomicrograph of Abu Shebah

Fm; A) high mature calcareous quartz arenite with
well sorted, rounded to sub-rounded quartz grains,
(XPL, 10x mag.); B) Showing the high porosity (blue
color) of the sandstone of Abu Shebah Formation ,
(XPL, 10x mag.). Some quartz grains are cracked and
pitted.

Fig. 16. Directing surface water away from the

landslide site of mud bed up to 4 m thick (Kiklah Fm).

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International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882
Volume 4, Issue 8, August 2015

water away from the landslide sites, draining ground

water, covering the landslide sites with an
impermeable membrane like plastic sheeting, and
minimizing surface irrigation. In addition, setting up
retaining walls at intervals will catch loose debris and
keep it in place, while removing excess mass from the
top of a slope could prevent the bottom from giving
way.

References
Fig. 17. Stability increases when ground water is
prevented by covering the landslide site (Kiklah Fm)
with an impermeable cover.
IV. Conclusions
Stratigraphic sequence affects the main road
construction in Gharian area and consequently has a
profound effect on slope stability. Surface gradient and
groundwater have the greatest effect on slope stability.
Landslide hazard increased where parts of Abu
Shaybah Formation, Abu Ghaylan Formation and
Kiklah Formation were removed to make the main
road. The main road planned where sedimentary rocks
have been tilted and the bedding planes are steeply
sloped. Fault zones in the vicinity of the main road lie
within the mean vector extending along the N 70 80 W- S 70 - 80 E fault set.
Unstable sites were observed in sites where the
gradient of the hill side is approximately parallel to
bedding planes, toward northeast, away from the hill
side. On the other hand, at stable sites the bedding
planes slope toward northeast, into the hill side.
Moderately stable sites were observed where the
gradient of the hill side is oblique to the bedding
planes.
Dolomitic limestone of Sidi as Sid Formation shows
relatively lower porosity compared with the clastic
sediments of Abu Shaybah Formation and Kiklah
Formation. Slope saturation with water is a primary
cause of landslides. This effect occurs in the form of
intense rainfall. A common observation is that a hill
slope may be perfectly stable during the summer but
may slide after the winter rains begin. This seasonal
change in stability is due mainly to the change in the
amount of water in the pores of the soil. Water reduces
the friction between the bedrock and the overlying
sediment. Therefore, stability increases where rain
water is prevented from infiltrating in the landslide
mass by directing surface water runoff away from the
landslide and draining rain water away from the
landslide site.

Recommendations
Landslides hazard can be reduced by avoiding
construction on unstable sites, or by stabilizing the
slopes. Stability increases by directing the surface

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