THE INNER BRAIN

Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
- Located at the skulls rear, is the lowest portion of the brain.
- Three main parts: medulla, cerebellum, and pons.
Brainstem - is about the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately 3 inches long. It includes most of the hindbrain and the
midbrain.
Medulla Oblongata - The lowest part of the brain stem; it continues down to form the spinal cord. Contains nuclei controlling
heart rate, blood vessel diameter, respiratory rate, vomiting, blood pressure, etc.
Cerebellum is largest part of the hindbrain and second-largest part of the brain as a whole (little brain in Latin). It consists of
right and left cerebellar hemispheres connected by a narrow wormlike bridge, the vermis. Sits under the occipital lobes at the
back of the brain; Processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, and visual and equilibrium pathways.
Responsible for proper balance and posture.
Pons - measures about 2.5 cm long. Consists mainly of two pairs of thick stalks called peduncles that attach it to the cerebellum.
It transmits information about body movement and is involved in the functions related to attention, sleep, arousal and respiration.
Spinal cord - which is approximately 17 inches (42 cm) long, is a glistening white continuation of the brain stem. The spinal
cord provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain, and it is a major reflex center
Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
- Located between hindbrain and forebrain, a region in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the
higher and lower portions of the brain.
- Contains visual and auditory reflex centers.
- Two systems in the mid brain are of special interest. One is the reticular formation, a diffuse collection of neurons involved in
stereotyped patterns of behavior, such as walking, sleeping, or working; stimulation of reticular formation increase arousal.
The other system consists of small groups of neurons that use the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and
norepinephrine.
Dopamine - is a neurotransmitter that helps control the brain's reward and pleasure centers. Dopamine also helps regulate
movement and emotional responses, and it enables us not only to see rewards, but to take action to move toward them.
Serotonin - A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of nerve impulses. Serotonin can trigger the release of
substances in the blood vessels of the brain that in turn cause the pain of migraine. Serotonin is also key to mood regulation;
pain perception; gastrointestinal function, including perception of hunger and satiety; and other physical functions.
Norepinephrine - is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone. As a hormone, norepinephrine is released by the adrenal gland
as part of the "fight-or-flight" response, resulting in increased heart rate and blood pressure. As a neurotransmitter,
norepinephrine relays brain impulses from one cell to the next and is involved in arousal, attention and mood.
Pituitary Gland - It is an ovoid gland about 1.3 cm wide. It hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the hypothalamus of the
brain. It is composed of two structuresthe adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis-- with independent origins and separate
functions.
1. Adenohypophysis The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland synthesizes and secretes six principal hormones. Four
hormones are tropic hormones which are thyrotrophic hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating
hormone, and luteinizing hormone. Tropic hormones stimulate their target organs, which are also endocrine glands, to
secrete their hormones, which in turn exert their effects on other body organs and tissues. The other two hormones are
growth hormone and prolactin which exerts their major effects on nonendocrine targets.
2. Neurohypophysis The two posterior lobe of the pituitary gland hormones are ADH and OT. Both are synthesized in
the hypothalamus, transported down the stalk, stored in the posterior pituitary, and released on demand. Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) increases water retention by the kidneys, reduces urine volume, and helps prevent dehydration.
Oxytocin (OT) is released in significant amounts only during childbirth and in nursing women. It stimulates powerful
contractions of the uterine muscle during labor, during sexual relations, and during breastfeeding.
Corpus Callosum (hard body in Latin)A prominent C-shaped band of nerve tracts that connect the right and left cerebral
hemispheres to each other, seen superior to the third ventricle in a median section of the brain.
Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
- consists of the diencephalon and cerebrum.
Diencephalon - The major structures of the diencephalon are the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus.
1. Thalamus - a mass of gray matter in the diencephalon of the brain. Sensory processing; relay of sensory and other
signals to cerebrum; relay of cerebral output to other parts of brain. Located near the center of the brain. It consists
of two joined egg-shaped structures.
2. Hypothalamus the region of the diencephalon forming the floor of the third ventricle of the brain. Hormone
synthesis; control of pituitary secretion; autonomic responses affecting heart rate, blood pressure, pupillary diameter,
digestive secretion and motility, and other visceral functions; thermoregulation; hunger and thirst; sleep and circadian
rhythms; emotional responses; sexual function; memory
3. Epithalamus - includes the pineal gland (an endocrine gland) and the choroid plexus of the third ventricle. Hormone
secretion; relay of signals between midbrain and limbic system
Cerebrum - the largest and most conspicuous part of the human brain. Consists of right and left cerebral hemispheres
separated by shallow grooves called sulci.
Limbic System - is an important center of emotion and learning. It is involved in memory and in the drives of hunger, sex, and
aggression.
1. Amygdala responsible for processing emotions. Facilitates stereotypical aggressive response.
2. Hippocampus - critical to the creation of long-term declarative memories. It does not store memories, but organizes
sensory and cognitive experiences into a unified long-term memory.
Basal ganglia - a cluster of neurons sandwiched between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. It works with the cerebral
cortex and the cerebellum for coordinating voluntary movements, particularly in forming habitual behaviors