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Atomic Numbers:
Hydrogen - 1
Helium - 2
Carbon - 6
Example
Conductor
1 - 3 Electrons
No energy gap
Semiconductor
4 Electrons
Insulator
5-8 Electrons
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Semiconductor Impurities
Diagram:
Carriers:
N-Type
Phosporus (P),
Arsenic
(As),Antimony
(Sb) and
Bismuth (Bi)
P-Type
Trivalent (3)
Boron (B),
Indium (In) and
Gallium (Ga)
Majority: Holes
Minority: Conductionband Electrons
(not produced by the
addition of impurities but
by the silicon itself)
Acceptor Atom
Biases
Definition
Requirements
What it does:
Dynamic Resistance
1. Forward
Bias
Allows
current.
(1) Narrows the depletion region by reducing both the Very small and can be
positive and negative ions.
neglected.
(2) Creates a VD = 0.7
2. Reversed
Bias
Prevents
current.
Breakdown Voltage = reverse voltage bias that results to a strong reverse current. Typically 50V.
Avalanche Effect = the strong reverse voltage imparts energy to the few electrons in the p-region that knocks out the valence electrons, which in turn
knocks the others out. The strong impact speeds up the electron and allows them to pass through the depletion region onto the n-region.
1.7 Voltage-Current Characteristics of a Diode:
Forward Bias:
Current
Voltage
Increases rapidly.
Reverse Bias
Current
Voltage
Increases.
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Voltage
Increases.
Diode Approximations
1. Ideal Diode Model
Characteristics
Figure
*Diode = switch
*no dynamic resistance or
barrier potential
*Forward Bias = On
*Reverse Bias = Off
Good Diode
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Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage (VAVG or VDC): value measured on a DC voltmeter
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) = equals the peak value of the input voltage, and the diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of
repetitive inverse voltage
*maximum value of reverse voltage
*diode should be rated at least 20% higher
Turns Ratio = number of turns in the secondary (N SEC) divided by the number of turns in the primary (N PRI).
Center-Tapped Full Wave Rectifier: two-diodes connected to the secondary of a center-tapped transform. Half of the total secondary
voltage appears between the center tap and each end of the secondary winding. (Gitna 0, taas kalahating positve, baba kalahating
negative.)
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Steps:
1. During the first positive first quarter-cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased, allowing the capacitor to charge to within
0.7V of the input peak.
2. When voltage goes down from the peak, the capacitor retains its charge and the diode becomes reverse biased (since the
capacitor's voltage is greater than the input.) The capacitor discharges.
3. The capacitor again charges when voltage increases.
Skipped Ripple Factor to Percent Regulation
2 - 4 Diode Limiting and Clamping Circuits
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Collector Characteristics:
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Collector Characteristics:
*For every given value of IB, there is a set of curves created with VCE as x-coordinate and IC as y coordinate.
Derating PD(max)
- naturally, power decreases whenever temperature increases.
Transistor Data Sheet
*VCEO = measured from the collector (C) to emitter with the base open (O).
4-4 The BJT as an Amplifier
*Amplification - process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal and is one of the major properties of a
transistor.
*A transistor amplifies current because the collector current is equal to the base current multiplied by the current gain .
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Skipped "A Simple Application of a Transistor Switch" / "The Phototransistor" / "Transistor Categories and Packaging" /
"Troubleshooting"
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2. P-Type (acceptor atoms / hole majority / electron minority) - Adding trivalent (three) semiconductors (Boron, Indium, Gallium)
*Hole - vacancy in the atom.
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*The actual reverse saturation current of a commercially available diode will normally be measurably larger than that appearing as the reverse
saturation current in Shockley's equation.
*For every 5 degrees C increase in current, the level of reverse saturation
*Higher doping levels, Double junction area, more temperature = more reverse current.
*Breakdown Voltage - reverse bias potential that results in this dramatic change in characteristics
*Ionization - happens when valence electrons absorb sufficient energy to leave the parent atom.
*Peak Inverse Voltage - maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before entering the break-down region
Material Knee Voltage Reverse Saturation Current
Ge
0.3V (lowest)
1uA (highest)
Si
0.7V
10pA
GaAs
1.2V (highest)
1pA (lowest)
Breakdown Voltages
3900
1500 (lowest)
8500 (fastest)
*Russel Ohl - accidentally discovered p-n junction after seeing a surge in current when a cracked Silicon crystal was near a light
1.7 Ideal Versus Practical
*A semiconductor diode similar to a mechanical switch because it controls whether current can flow or not, but also a bit difference since
current can only flow in a diode unidirectional
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*Average AC resistance - resistance determined by a straight line drawn between the two intersections established by the maximum and
minimum values of input voltage.
1.9 Diode Equivalent Circuits
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*Common Emitter configuration - emitter terminal is common to both the input and output
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*Use Ie when computing for Vce and Ic when computing for Vcb.
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Expected
Problems
VBE
~0.7V
VCE
25% - 75%
IB
*When measuring VBE, for NPN, red is on base (+) and black is on emitter (-).
4.20 Summary:
*Operating point- defines where the transistor will operated on its characteristics curves under the DC conditions
*Fixed-bias configuration is the simplest yet most unstable due to its sensitivity to beta.
*To get Icsat, Vce = 0 or collector to emitter should be shorted.
*To check the transistor, the BE voltage should be close to 0.7V and CE voltage should be 25% to 75% of Vcc (applied voltage).
*In PNP transistors, the current directions are reversed and voltages will have the opposite polarities.
*Beta is very sensitive to temperature and VBE decreases about 2.5mV for each 1 degree increase.
*Reverse saturation currents doubles every 10 degree Celsius.
*Networks with the smallest stability factors are most stable and least sensitive to temperature.
*Switching configuration: transistor moves quickly between saturation and cutoff regions.
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Class Amplifiers
*Q-point determines the class of operation
Three Operation Regions
1. Cutoff - Transistor is off
2. Active - Voltage is equal or above the forward breaker voltage
3. Saturation - Transistor is like a switch
Classes of Operation
1. Class A - device is "on" or the active region during the entire waveform (360 degrees)
*Least efficient because transistor has to be on and greater power needs to be applied.
*gives the cleanest waveform
2. Class B - device is "on" for 1/2 cycle (180 degrees)
*More efficient than class A since it has to be on for half of the cycle
*More distortion
3. Class C - device is "on" for less than half of the cycle
*Most efficient since it is off most of the time
*Most distortion than B.
'*RF Amplifiers
4. Class AB - devices is on between 180 and 360 degrees
Floyd
Uses:
Not used for linear amplification / Used for radio frequency (RF) applications, including circuits, such as
oscillators, that have a constant output amplitude and modulators, where a high frequency is controlled by a low
frequency signal.
Because of this they are not used for AM signals, but are used for angle modulated (FM or PM) signals since the
modulation does not affect the amplitude.
How it works:
1. Biased below cutoff with a negative Vbb supply.
2. The ac source voltae has a peak value that is slightly greater than Vbb + Vbe so that the base voltage exceeds
the barrier potential of the BE junction for s short time.
Tuned Operation:
*Parallel resonant circuit (tank) is needed since the collector voltage (output) is not a replica of the input, which
makes of it of no value in linear amplification.
*The short pulse of collector current on each cycle of the input initiates and sustains the oscillation of the tank
circuit so that an output sinusoidal voltage is produced.
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When the tank circuit is tuned to the frequency of the input signal (fundamental), reenergizing
occurs on each cycle of the tank voltage,
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The amplitude of each successive cycle of the oscillation will be less than that of the
previous cycle because of energy loss in the resistance of the tank circuit, as shown in
Figure 726(a), and the oscillation will eventually die out. However, the regular recurrences
of the collector current pulse re-energizes the resonant circuit and sustains the oscillations
at a constant amplitude.
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2.9 Clampers
Clampers - a network constructed of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a different DC level without
changing the appearance of the applied signal
*Have a capacitor connected directly from input to output with a resistive element in parallel with the output signal.
Steps in solving Clampers:
1. Start the analysis by examining the response of the portion of the input signal that will forward bias the diode.
2. During the period that the diode is in the "on" state, assume that the capacitor will charge up instantaneously to a
voltage level determined by the surrounding network.
3. Assume that during the period when the diode is in the "off" state the capacitor holds on to its established voltage
level.
4. Throughout the analysis, maintain a continual awareness of the location and defined polarity for v0 to ensure that
the proper levels are obtained.
5. Check that the total swing of the output matches that of the input.
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