UNIVERSITI TENAGA NASIONAL

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEMB221 - MECHANICS AND MATERIALS LAB

EXP. NO. 1

: TENSILE TESTING (UNIVERSAL TESTER)

GROUP

:5

SECTION

: 01A

GROUP MEMBERS:
1. ABDULLAH HELMI BIN ISAHAK ME094992
2. MUHAMMAD HAFIZUDDIN BIN MOKHTAR ME094969
3. MUHAMMAD LUTFI MOHSEIN BIN ROZMAN ME094974
4. MUHAMMAD WAQIYUDIN BIN MD. HAMSAN ME095151

INSTRUCTOR
Performed Date
23/11/2015

: MISS ROGEMAH BINTI RAMLI

Due Date*
30/11/2015

Submitted Date
30/11/2015

Page | 1

TABLE OF CONTENT

NO

CONTENT

PAGE

SUMMARY / ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE

THEORY

EQUIPMENT / DESCRIPTION OF
EXPERIMENT APPARATUS

PROCEDURES

DATA & OBSERVATION

ANALYSIS & RESULTS

DISCUSSIONS

CONCLUSION

10

REFERENCE

SUMMARY/ABSTRACT
Page | 2

This experiment is known as Tensile Test (Universal Tester). It is to verify the Stress-Strain
relationship of materials hence to determine some mechanical properties of the materials.
The equipment used is WP 300 and the specimens are Aluminium and Brass. The properties
of the equipment are first learned and the specimens specifications are noted down. Several
formulas for modulus of elasticity, engineering stress, engineering strain and elongation at
fracture are introduced here.
The experimental procedures are then followed. Readings of elongation and its corresponding
force are taken and tabulated. The stress and strain values are then calculated using these
values. Graphs of load against elongation are drawn and also the stress-strain diagrams for
both specimens. It is from these graphs that the mechanical properties such as E modulus,
elongation at fracture, tensile and yield strength are obtained.
Values obtained showed quite a large percentage errors from the theoretical values. This may
be due to several errors as discussed further below.

OBJECTIVE
Page | 3

1. To understand the principles of tensile testing.

2. To determine the stress-strain relationship for two type of material
3. To determine the values of elongation at fracture, tensile strength
(UTS), yield strength (offset of 0.2%) and Modulus of Elasticity

THEORY
Generally, if a load or force is static or changed relatively slowly with time
and is applied uniformly over a cross section or surface of a member, the
mechanical behaviour of the material can be observed by a simple stressstrain test. Usually these tests are commonly conducted for metals at
room temperature. There are three principle ways in which the forces can
be applied, they are tension, compression and shear.
Tension is one of the most common mechanical stress-strain tests. A
standard specimen is deformed, usually to fracture with a gradually
increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the long axis of
specimen. Most of the tension tests load for a metals are conducted
according to the ASTM Standard E 8 and E 8M, Standard Test Methods for
Tension Testing of Metallic Materials.

Fundamental Principles of the Tensile Test

The tensile test is the best known test in material testing. It determines tensile strength, one of
the most important properties of material. Furthermore, it is also possible to determine
elongation at fracture as a toughness measurement of the material.
In the tensile test, a mono-axial stress is generated in a material sample. This stress is
induced via external loading of the sample in a longitudinal direction via a tensile force.
There is then an even distribution of direct stress in the test cross-section of the sample. In
order to determine the strength of the material, loading of the sample is slowly and
continuously increased until its fails. The maximum test force occurring is a measurement of
the strength of the material. The so called tensile strength, R m and the initial cross-section, Ao
of the sample
Rm = Fb / Ao

Page | 4

The simplest way of determining the maximum test force is via the maximum pointer on the
force display. In the tensile itself, the cross-section of the sample is reduced. It is constricted
and the actual stresses are considerably higher. The elongation at fracture, A refers to the
change in length of the sample compared with its original length, Lo and is calculated using
the length, Lu of the sample after fracture.
A = Lv Lo / Lo x 100 %
In order to measure the lengths, 2 measuring marks are applied to the test bar.
After fracture, two ends of the sample are placed together neatly at the fracture
point and the distance between the two measuring marks is measured.

Fundamental principles of stress-strain diagram

Diagram 1: Stress Strain diagram

The stress-strain diagram shows

the different behaviours of the

individual

materials

particularly

clearly. Each

material has

characteristic

pattern

of

stress

and strain.

Diagram 2: Stress Strain diagram

From this both diagrams, we can get:
Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity ( E )
The value is the slope of a stress-strain diagram up to the proportional limit.
E = Stress/Strain
Proportional limit ( spl )
Page | 5

The proportional limit is the maximum value of the stress from the stress-strain diagram,
where the stress and strain are proportional.
Hooke's Law
The stress is proportional to strain. The constant of proportionality is E so that:
s=Ee
Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the maximum stress for a material to behave elastically, the specimen will
return to its original undeformed shape if the load is removed so long as the stress is below
the elastic limit.
Yield Point
This defined as the maximum stress on stress-strain curve, where there is an appreciable
increase in strain with no increase in stress. It is generally easier to determine than the
proportional limit or elastic limit and is peculiar to certain types of steel. Some materials do
not exhibit a distinct yield point.
Yield Strength ( sy )
It is the stress which induces a specified permanent set. This is useful for materials which
have no well define yield point. The offset method is generally used to determine yield stress.
Ductility
It is the ability of a material to deform plastically two measurements of ductility:

Percent (%) ultimate elongation of the member

% elongation = ( Lf - L0 ) / (L0) * 100.0

Percent (%) reduction in area at the location of fracture

% Area = ( A0 - Af ) / ( A0 ) * 100.0

Ultimate Strength ( su )
Page | 6

It is the maximum stress developed in a material before rupture.

Poisson's Ratio ( n )
The ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal strain when the material is uniaxially loaded.
n = - elat / elong

EQUIPMENT/DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS

Universal Tester
In order to conduct this experiment, we use the Universal Tester. This WP300 materials
testing device is a robust unit designed specifically for technical instruction and is one of the
classical material testing device in material science. The flexible design of the unit permits a
wide range of different tests requiring tensile or compressive force.

Diagram 3: Universal Tester

Page | 7

Basic
In its basic form, the unit does not require any external connections. The test force is
generated via a manually actuated hydraulic system and displayed via a large, easily legible
display instrument with a trailing pointer. Elongation of the sample is recorded via a dial
gauge. All accessories are screwed to the cross-members. This means that the test unit can be
quickly refitted for various tests.

The basic unit is essentially consists of the following elements:

-

Machine base (1) with handgrip (2)

Support with cross-head (2)

Load frame with upper (3) and lower cross-member (4)

Hydraulic system consisting of a main cylinder (5) and a master cylinder with hand wheel
(6)

Force display (7)

Elongation display via a dial gauge (8)

Gripping heads (9) with sample (10)

Machine Base
The rigid machine base made of cast iron forms the foundation and ensures stability of the
test unit in connection with 4 rubber feet. The machine base supports the hydraulics and the
frame.
Support
The posts (1) and cross-head (2) form fixed support of the test unit. The various fixed sample
receptacles are fastened to the cross-head. The mobile load frame is also mounted on its lowfriction linear ball bearings.
Load Frame
The load frame consists of the upper (1) and lower cross-member (2) and the guide rod (3).
The load frame transmits the test force from the hydraulic main cylinder to the relevant
sample. The load frame is slide-mounted in the cross-head of the support. Tensile samples are
clamped between the upper cross-member and the cross-head, whilst compressive samples
are clamped between the lower cross-member and the cross-head.
Page | 8

Hydraulic System
The test force is generated by hydraulic means. A piston in the master cylinder (2) actuated
via the hand wheel (1) and the threaded spindle creates a hydrostatic pressure which induces
the test force in the main cylinder (3). The hydraulic transmission ratio is 2.77:1, whilst the
mechanical transmission ratio hand wheel/spindle is 503:1. Excluding friction losses, this
would correspond to a manual force of 1 N per 1.3 kN test force. The full stroke of the main
cylinder of 45 mm requires 83 revolutions of the hand wheel.

Force Display & Elongation Measurement

The force measuring device operates according to the manometer principle. It measures the
hydrostatic pressure in the hydraulic system. The large display with a diameter of 160 mm
facilitates precise reading. A maximum pointer stores the maximum force. The elongation is
measured via an adjustable mounted dial gauge. The dial gauge indicates the relative
displacement between the upper cross-member and the cross-head.
Gripping Heads
The gripping heads are designed for tensile samples with an M10 threaded head. In addition,
flat compression pads can easily be inserted in the cross-head and cross-member and are held
by nut.
Specimens being used in this experiment are Aluminium and Brass. The theoretical Modulus
of Elasticity for Aluminium is 70 GPa and Brass is 105 GPa.

Page | 9

PROCEDURES
Firstly, the hand wheel on the master cylinder is untwisted as far as it
will go. The load frame is moved down to its lowest position. Then, the
gripping head with the short bolt at the bottom is screwed down with
pressure pad. The gripping head with the long bolt at the top is screwed to
the upper part of load which supported by nut.
Next, the test length, LO of the sample is measured and noted down.
The sample is screwed into the lower gripping head is screwed down by
hand as far as the end stop. Besides that, the sample also is screwed to
the upper gripping head as far as the end stop by rotating the gripping
head itself. Then the nut on the upper gripping head is tighten by hand
until it is tight but the length of threaded part of sample that is screwed
into the gripping head must be the same for the upper and lower part of
gripping head.
The dial gauge is pushed upwards on the support bar until the tracer
pin is touching the drive. The rotating scale on the dial gauge is set to
zero. The maximum pointer on the force display is also set to zero.
After that, the hand wheel is rotated slowly and constantly. The
application of the force is spread to all over the sample by time interval of
5-10 minutes. It is essential to avoid sudden, jerky force application. The
dial gauge and the sample is observed. The force from the force display is
read for every 0.1mm elongation for the first 1mm but after 1mm, the
force displayed on the force display is read for every 0.2mm until it is
having failure (fracture).
Page | 10

Do not startle when fracture is occurred due to the loud bang

produced during fracture. The maximum test force is read and recorded
from the maximum pointer. The sample is removed from the gripping
head and the hand wheel is twisted back to original position and the load
frame is moved down. All the above steps is repeated with the other
sample.

DATA & OBSERVATION

For Aluminium:
Initial length, Lo
(mm)
30.00

Maximum length, L max

Total elongation, L

Diameter, d (mm)

(mm)
(mm)
35.20
5.20
Table 1: Value of Lo, L max, L and d for Aluminium

Extension, x (mm)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6

6.00

Force, N (kN)
1.80
4.50
7.20
9.50
11.20
12.00
12.50
12.90
13.00
12.50
12.80
12.80
13.40
Page | 11

1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.4

13.70
13.60
13.50
14.00
13.00
14.20
14.20
14.30
13.50
14.20
14.30
13.50
14.40
14.30
13.40
13.50
13.5
13.7
Fracture

Table 2: Elongations and corresponding forces for Aluminium

For Brass:
Initial length, Lo

Maximum length, L max

Total elongation, L

Diameter, d (mm)

(mm)
30.00

(mm)
32.40

(mm)
2.40

6.00

Table 3: Value of Lo, L max, L and d for Brass

Extension, x (mm)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0

Force, N (kN)
0.5
2.4
5.0
7.9
8.3
8.10
9.50
8.30
7.50
9.4

Page | 12

1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4

9.3
8.4
8.5
9.2
9.1
9.0
Fracture

Table 4: Elongations and corresponding forces for Brass

From the observation, the first few millimeter of elongation for both
aluminium and brass, the force (load) that being applied is increased
drastically until it reach certain millimeter, after that the force increase
slowly for the next few millimeter before the force decrease a little bit
then fracture.
For aluminium, the force increase drastically from 0.0 kN to 11.20
kN for elongation of 0.0 mm to 0.5 mm, then it increase slowly from 11.2
kN to 13.00 kN

for elongation of 0.5 mm to 0.9 mm. Then the force

decrease from 13.00 kN to 12.80 kN for elongation of 0.9 mm to 1.4 mm.

The force start increase again from 12.80 kN to 14.00kN for elongation of
1.4 mm to 2.4 mm ( Ultimate tensile strength ) and decreasing at the
force 14.00 kN to 13 kN for elongation 2.4 mm to 2.6 mm. The force
increase and decrease starting at the force 13 kN to 13.7 kN for
elongation 2.6 mm to 5.2 mm before it is going to fracture at elongation of
5.4 mm . The necking of aluminium was occurred at the force 13.5 kN with
elongation 5.0 mm before it is fracture.
For brass, the force increase drastically from 0.0 kN to 9.50 kN for
elongation of 0.0 mm to 0.7 mm, then decrease from force 9.50 kN to 7.50
Page | 13

kN for elongation 0.7 mm to 0.9 mm. Then increase back from 7.50 kN to
to 9.4 kN (Ultimate tensile strength) for elongation of 0.9 mm to 1.0 mm.
Then decrease slowly from 9.4 kN to 9.2 kN for elongation of 1.0 mm to
1.8 mm. The force decrease again from 9.2 kN to 9.0 kN for elongation 1.8
mm to 2.2 mm before the brass sample fracture. The necking of brass
can be seen before it is fracture at the elongation 2.2 mm with the force
9.0 kN.
Brass have a little necking compare to Aluminium before it eventually fractured,
whereas for Brass the necking was not so obvious and fractured suddenly after the maximum
load is reached. During the experiment, parallax error has occurred that make the result of
force is not stable. For brittle material such as Brass, the rupture occurs without any
noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation.

ANALYSIS & RESULTS

For Aluminium

Page | 14

Load (kN) against Elongation (mm)

16
14
12
10

Load (kN)

8
6
4
2
0

Elongation (mm)

Graph 1: Graph of Load VS Elongation for Aluminium

Page | 15

For Brass

Load (kN) against Elongation (mm)

10
9
8
7
6

Load (kN)

5
4
3
2
1
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Elongation (mm)
Graph 2: Graph of Load VS Elongation for Brass

Sample calculation for Aluminium:To calculate the engineering stress, :-

Therefore,

F
A0

where

d 2
A0
4

4F
d 2

At L= 1.0 mm, F= 12.50 kN

4F
4 12.50

442097.06kPa
2
d
0.006 2

To calculate the engineering strain, :Page | 16

Extension, x (mm)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.4

Force, N (kN)
1.80
4.50
7.20
9.50
11.20
12.00
12.50
12.90
13.00
12.50
12.80
12.80
13.40
13.70
13.60
13.50
14.00
13.00
14.20
14.20
14.30
13.50
14.20
14.30
13.50
14.40
14.30
13.40
13.50
13.50
13.70
Fracture

Stresses, (kPa)
63661.98
159154.94
254647.91
335993.77
396118.97
424413.18
442097.06
456244.17
459780.95
442097.06
452707.39
452707.39
473928.05
484538.38
481001.61
477464.83
495148.71
459780.95
502222.26
502222.26
505759.04
477464.83
502222.26
505759.04
477464.83
509295.82
505759.04
473928.05
477464.83
477464.83
484538.38
-

Strain, (m/m)
0.0033
0.0067
0.0100
0.0133
0.0167
0.0200
0.0233
0.0267
0.0300
0.0333
0.0400
0.0467
0.0533
0.0600
0.0667
0.0733
0.0800
0.0867
0.0933
0.1000
0.1067
0.1133
0.1200
0.1267
0.1333
0.1400
0.1467
0.1533
0.1600
0.1667
0.1733
-

LU LO L 1mm

0.0300
LO
LO 30mm

Table 5: Table of stress and strain for Aluminium

Page | 17

Stress-Strain for Aluminium

600000
500000
400000

Stress 300000
200000
100000
0

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Strain

Graph 3: Stress Strain Graph for Aluminium

Sample calculation for Brass:To calculate the engineering stress, :-

Therefore,

F
A0

where

d 2
A0
4

4F
d 2

At L= 1.0 mm, F= 9.4 kN

4F
4 9.40

332456.99kPa
2
d
0.006 2

To calculate the engineering strain, :-

LU LO L 1mm

0.0300
LO
LO 30mm

Page | 18

Extension, x (mm)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4

Force, N (kN)

Stresses, (kPa)

0.5
2.4
5.0
7.9
8.3
8.10
9.50
8.30
7.50
9.4
9.3
8.4
8.5
9.2
9.1
9.0
Fracture

17683.88
84882.64
176838.83
279405.34
293552.45
286478.89
335993.77
293552.45
265258.24
332457.00
328920.22
297089.23
300626.00
325383.44
321846.66
318309.89
-

Strain, (m/m)
0.0033
0.0067
0.0100
0.0133
0.0167
0.0200
0.0233
0.0267
0.0300
0.0333
0.0400
0.0467
0.0533
0.0600
0.0667
0.0733
-

Table 6: Table of stress and strain for Brass

Stress-Strain for Brass

400000
300000

Stress 200000
100000
0

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Strain

Graph 4: Stress Strain Graph for Brass

Aluminium:Page | 19

Modulus of Elasticity, taking slopes at point 0.5 and 0.6 mm elongation:E

424413.18 396118.97
8574003 KPa 8.57GPa
0.0200 .0.0167

Therefore,
Percentage of error:% error = [(Theoretical value Experimental value) / Theoretical value] x 100

%error

70 8.57
100 87.76%
70

Elongation at Fracture:-

LU L0
35.2 30.0
100
100 17.33%
L0
30.0

From stress-strain diagram (Graph 3):Ultimate Tensile strength

= 509295.82kPa

Yield strength

= 459780.95 kPa

Brass:Similar calculations were carried out for the Brass specimen and the following results were
obtained:
Theoretical Modulus of Elasticity, E
Experimental Modulus of Elasticity, E
Percentage error, % error
Ultimate Tensile Strength, UTS
Yield Strength, 0.2% offset
Elongation at fracture, A

105 GPa
31.08 GPa
70.40%
335993.77kPa
293552.45kPa
8.00%

DISCUSSION
Page | 20

Based on the experiment that has been done, the fracture occured
on that brass and aluminium take at the different place. The different of
that fracture place of sample is might be due to the different length that is
put into the gripping head. The x-intercept of yield point offset 0.2% is
293552.
The concept that has being applied in this experiment is tensile testing where a
specimen is stacked in pressure until it breaks. The heap can be recorded by using the
Universal Tester at which the specimen broke and also the length the specimen distorted
before it broke. However, both of these values are geometry dependent. It would be expected
that a larger area would carry more load and that a longer sample would stretch more before it
break. So what it needed are geometrically independent measurements of strength of a
material.
From the slope of the stress-strain graph (refer to graph 3 and 4), the E modulus for
Aluminium is found to be 8.57 GPa, a percentage error of 87.76% from the theoretical value
of 70 GPa. The E modulus for Brass is calculated to be 31.08 GPa, thus a deviation of
70.40% from its theoretical value of 105 GPa.
Besides that, from the stress-strain diagram the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) also
can be measured. It is the maximum test force before a material fractures. Hence from the
graphs the tensile strength for Aluminium is 509295.82kPa and Brass is 335993.77 kPa. It
shows that it takes more load for Brass before it inevitably breaks contrasted with Aluminum.

A
The Elongation of fracture is obtained by the formula

LU L0
100%
L0

. As such

the A value for Aluminium is found to be 17.33% and Brass to be 8.00%. From the values it
is showing Aluminium is more brittle than Brass. Aluminium fractures at shorter elongation
than Brass. However from this data, it shows that some errors might be occur some because
theoretically, Aluminium is more ductile than Brass. Brass fractures at shorter elongation than
Aluminium. So, this data might be not valid if we refer on theory of material.

Page | 21

Concrete is very strong in compression but relatively it is very weak in

tension. In order to improve such mechanical properties that to transmit
better tensile force, the concrete can be combined with metal by inserting
the metal rod in concrete before it is dry. This method is logical because
concrete good in compression but weak in tension while metal good in
tension while weak in compression, together they good in both
compression and tension.
As always, every experimental value could always be subjected to some error, however small
it may be. In this experiment, the possible sources of error could be due to:
1. Parallax/human error Uneven stress on the material could be applied. As we are
applying the load manually by turning the hand wheel attached to the master cylinder,
we could have accidentally turned the wheel too fast or too slow and this will caused
uneven stress and strain on the material.
2. Impurities of the material The material could be impure, or the grains inside the
material could be deformed thus making the material able to rupture easier.
3. Faulty equipment The machine is old, the gauges not working properly.
4. Measurements Uncertainties involved in the values of the measurements.

CONCLUSION
The Principles of Tensile Testing is clearly understood from this experiment. Graphs of Load
against Elongation and Stress-Strain diagrams are drawn using the experimental results. The
relationship of stress-strain for Aluminium and Brass also being determined. Hence from the
result, Modulus of Elasticity, E of Aluminium and Brass is obtained to be 8.57 GPa and 31.08
GPa respectively. Elongation of fracture for Aluminium is 17.33% and Brass 8.00%
meanwhile Tensile strength for Aluminium is obtained from the stress-strain diagram, to be
509295.82kPa and then for brass is 335993.77kPa. Finally the yield strength for Aluminium
is determined to be 459780.95 kPa while for brass the value is 293552.45kPa. Both of the
objectives of this experiment is totally understood. There are many error during experiment
whether during the rotating the handle wheel or problems in dial gauge. Thats why our graph
experiments is slightly different with graph theory.

Page | 22

REFERENCES

1. Ferdinand P.Beer, E.Russell Johnston, Jr., John T.DeWolf. 2004. Mechanics Of

Materials. 3rd Edition. McGraw Hill. pp 50-60, 746.
2. Semester 2 2014/2015. MEMB221 Materials Laboratory Manual. COE, Uniten. pp 913.
3. Structure laboratory tensile test.
http://umplib.ump.edu.my/images/fka/zahrizan/TENSILE%20TEST
%20LAB%20SHEET.pdf

Page | 23

DUCTILE

BRITLE

Page | 24