N.McNeill@bristol.ac.

uk

(EENG17300)

Electrical Systems Engineering

Power semiconductor devices

Alternating current I
Three-phase systems
Transformers
Alternating current II
Power semiconductor devices
Power semiconductor switches
applications
7. Direct current electrical machines
8. Control systems

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Module structure

Introduction to the most widely used devices in power

conversion
Basic understanding of their terminal characteristics
and features to look for when selecting a device
Consideration of some practical details in the use of
power semiconductors including thermal
management

Power Semiconductor Devices - Unit Aims

(EENG17300)

Electrical Systems Engineering

Control III

Electric
drives

III

IV

Control II

**

Power
electronic
systems 4

Renewable energy generation

Design of
electrical
machines

Advanced**
power
electronic
design

SMPS laboratory

Electrical energy conversion III

*
Electrical energy
conversion II

Electrical Systems

*these were previously named Industrial Electronics II and III

**new units scheduled for launch in October 2012: provisional names

Year

II

Overview of teaching of energy management topics at Bristol

Electrical Systems Engineering (EENG17300)

Power diodes
Power Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Thyristors
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)

Power electronic devices are specially designed diodes and

transistors
They have the ability to carry large currents and sustain large
voltages
They are often used to control the high voltages and currents
required to operate electrical machines
Some examples are:

Power semiconductor devices

Some factors which are important in low-power analogue

and digital applications may assume less importance here,
and vice versa.

Please bear in mind that we are going to be discussing

semiconductor devices in the context of power conversion
in electrical systems here:

Power semiconductor devices

It is not normally somewhere in between and partially on.

This means that, ideally a power semiconductor is either fully on

and conducting current, or fully off and blocking current.

Almost always when we talk about power devices in power

electronics applications, we are talking about using them in the
switched mode.

A word about the difference between switched and

linear operation.

Power semiconductor devices

Drive
signal

iin

-Vcc

TR2

iout

TR1

Vcc

0V

RLOAD

By way of illustration, lets consider a linear circuit: for

example, a simple Class-B amplifier that we might use in an
audio application to amplify a current, iin, so that a bigger current,
iout, can be driven into a load resistance, RLOAD.

Power semiconductor devices

Drive
signal

iin

-Vcc

TR2

iout

TR1

Vcc

0V

RLOAD

If, say, Vcc = 12V and at a given moment in time vout = 6V then
we have only 50% efficiency at best.

10

TR1 or TR2 support the full-load current, iout, and the difference
between either Vcc or Vcc and the load voltage.

Power semiconductor devices

11

In the previous example, TR1 or TR2 are never either fully on or

fully off (except, of course, during the half-cycles when they are
inactive). They therefore simultaneously support high currents
and voltages, resulting in high power dissipation. As we will see,
switched-mode operation circumvents this.

Where we can, we therefore replace linear circuits with switchedmode circuits.

So, an obvious drawback with linear mode operation is high losses

and poor efficiencies.

A lot of power is being wastefully dissipated in TR1 or TR2.

Power semiconductor devices

Low cost

Easy to drive on and off: not trivial!

12

Reliable operation in the applications ambient environment:

The ambient temperature is usually an important consideration:
(Radiation is also important in some aerospace applications.)

Low power dissipation (losses)

Ability to block the required voltage: this is obviously essential

What do we want from a power electronic semiconductor device?

Power semiconductor devices

3. Switching losses: may be further subdivided into turn-on

and turn-off losses:

2. Off-state losses: due to any leakage current flowing

1. On-state (conduction) losses

Lets look at the power dissipation in more detail: the sources

of power dissipation may be categorized as:

Power semiconductor devices

13

1An

exception may be encountered with Schottky diodes.

However on-state (conduction) losses and switching losses

are usually significant.

Off-state losses due to any leakage current flowing can

usually be neglected1 in modern devices

Power semiconductor devices

14

Dr. Harry Dymond

harry.dymond@bristol.ac.uk

(EENG17300)

Electrical Systems Engineering

15

The supply voltage is Vs and the current

conducted in the steady-state when the
switch is fully on is given by ILOAD.

It is switched on and off via a signal

applied to a third electrode, C (unless,
of course, it is a diode)

Consider a generic power semiconductor

device with power electrodes A and B.

What are conduction losses?

iA

Vs

Power semiconductor devices

A
vAB

ILOAD

16

A good power device is therefore

designed to minimise vAB(on).

Wc = ILOADvAB(on)

When on, the conduction loss, Wc,

is given by:

iA

Vs

Power semiconductor devices

17

vAB(on)

ILOAD

Consider again, our generic power

semiconductor device.

What are switching losses?

iA

Vs

Power semiconductor devices

A
vAB

ILOAD

18

v, i

t1

vAB

iA

t2

19

The voltage needs some time to fall and the current takes some
time to rise at turn-on. The converse, of course, is the case at
turn-off.

With a real power device, we cannot turn it on and off

instantaneously:

Power semiconductor devices

iAvAB

v, i

vAB

iA

t2

iAvAB

woff = i A ( t ) v AB ( t )

The instantaneous power dissipation during turn-off is:

t1

won = i A ( t ) v AB ( t )

The instantaneous power dissipation during turn-on is:

Power semiconductor devices

20

iAvAB

v, i

T1

Eon
vAB

iA
Eoff

T2

t2

A AB

A AB
T2

i v

T2 + t 2

T1

i v

iAvAB

Eoff =

The total energy dissipated at turn-off is given by:

t1

Eon =

The total energy dissipated at turn-on is given by:

T1 + t1

dt

dt

Power semiconductor devices

21

iAvAB

v, i

t1
Eon
vAB

iA
Eoff

t2

iAvAB

22

Woff = Eoff f sw

The average power dissipation (Woff) due to turn-off losses is:

where fsw is the switching frequency.

Won = Eon f sw

The average power dissipation (Won) due to turn-on losses is:

Power semiconductor devices

Real waveforms tend to be messier than those shown.

The diagrams imply that turn-on and turn-off losses are identical.
Again, this is rarely the case.

Current and voltage rise and fall rates are shown as linear here:
this is rarely the case.

Some points:

Power semiconductor devices

23

iAvAB

v, i

t1
Eon
vAB

iA

iAvAB

v, i

t1
Eon

vAB

iA

Looking at the waveforms, an obvious conclusion to make is that the faster

we switch a device, the lower the losses. Take, for example, the effect of
speeding up the turn-on action shown here. Therefore, switching the device
as fast as possible appears to be desirable.

Some points:

Power semiconductor devices

24

iAvAB

v, i

t1
Eon
vAB

iA

iAvAB

v, i

t1
Eon

vAB

iA

An important consideration in the design of any electrical or

electronic equipment is electromagnetic compatibility,
more usually abbreviated to EMC.

But:

Power semiconductor devices

25

Both conducted and radiated emissions are addressed by the

regulations.

Similarly, it must exhibit guaranteed levels of immunity to

emissions from another product.

26

The amount of electromagnetic emissions (EMI) from a piece of

equipment is limited by (normally EU) regulations.

What is meant by electromagnetic compatibility?

Power semiconductor devices

Often it is desirable not to drive a device flat-out in order not

to create excessive EMI.

A design engineer therefore often has to strike a compromise

between fast switching for low losses and slow switching
for low EMI levels.

Rapid current and voltage changes tend to cause higher

levels of EMI.

Power semiconductor devices

27

diode is a naturally commutated switch: it turns on or off depending on

whether the voltage gradient applied is negative or positive.

1The

Switching speed can be

controlled.

A small current or voltage

applied to C turns the device
either on or off:

With the exception of diodes1,

other devices have a
control electrode (C here)
as well as the
power electrodes (A and B).
iA

Vs

Power semiconductor devices

A
vAB

ILOAD

28

Well now look at some specific devices.

Power semiconductor devices

29

K
A

N
K

The basic device consists of a single p-n junction

Functionally identical to small signal diodes but are designed for higher
voltage and current

Power diode

30

* ratings from survey of devices available from digikey.com and farnell.com

Available in a number of different Packages

Power diode

31

* ratings from survey of devices available from digikey.com and farnell.com

Available in a number of different Packages

Power diode

32

Modules
6.5 kV, 200 A
1.8 kA, 1.7 kV

Higher power devices from specialist manufacturers/distributors. High-power device

manufacturers include ABB, Infineon, Mitsubishi Electric, Semikron

Stud
5 kV, 400 A
600 A, 3.2 kV

Chassis-Mount

Available in a number of different Packages

Power diode

33

34

Max Current Rating:

13.5 kA (400 V max reverse
voltage)

Max Reverse Voltage rating:

6 kV (3 kA max current)

Higher power devices from specialist manufacturers/distributors. High-power device

manufacturers include ABB, Infineon, Mitsubishi Electric, Semikron

Presspack

Available in a number of different Packages

Power diode

Off

To infinity

Ideal

Current
Current

Voltage

35

Voltage
0.8 1 V
Higher turn on
voltage compared to
small-signal

Current

expanded scale for ve

values

Reverse
leakage
current

Vrrm

Actual

Reverse
Breakdown

Voltage

On

To infinity

Static Terminal Characteristics

Power diode

Eoff

1
QrrVdc
2
36

The energy dissipated in the diode during turn off can be estimated from
the product of the tail charge Qrr and the supply voltage Vdc:

Power diode

37

Whilst the former switch more quickly, cost and forward voltage
drop tend to be slightly higher.

and mains frequency applications (converter rectifier types).

high-frequency switching applications for 100 kHz and

above (Fast /Ultra-Fast Recovery types)

Diodes are available for:

Power diode

V rrm

reverse
breakdown

Higher reverse
leakage current
than pn diode

Lower forward
voltage drop
than the pn diode

I
V

38

Schottky diode circuit

symbol

cathode

anode

Power diode (Schottky)

Therefore well-suited for high-frequency low-voltage

rectification

Reverse recovery behaviour is good

Limited voltage ratings

Low forward voltage drop

Power diode (Schottky)

39

V < 9 kV
I < 13.5 kA

Converter
Rectifier

Fast / Ultra- V < 4.5 kV

Fast Recovery I < 4 kA

V < 100 V
I < 40 A

Schottky

Voltage /
Current Range

Low

High

Relative
Cost

Moderate
moderate on-state
voltage, high surge
current capability, good
switching performance

Low forward voltage,

high surge current
capability, poor
switching performance

Low forward voltage at

moderate current, very
fast switching
performance

Principal Features

Summary of diode types

40

High frequency
power
electronic
switching

Line frequency
rectification /
conversion

Output rectifier
in low voltage
SMPS

Typical
application

Base (B)

PNP

Base (B)

NPN

Emitter (E)

Collector (C)

Emitter (E)

Collector (C)

Symbols

Control
Voltage

Control
Current

Control
Voltage

Control
Current

Function

Blocking
Voltage

Load
Current

Blocking
Voltage

Load
Current

base

emitter

41

emitter
collector

base

collector

Structure

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

42

Power BJTs operate in much the same way as a conventional

BJT
If the base current and voltage is zero, the device is switched
off
If the base current and voltage are sufficient to drive the
transistor into saturation, it behaves like a closed switch
They can be used to switch current on and off at frequencies
of up to 50 kHz
One disadvantage is the need to maintain the base current in
order to sustain the on state
This is a source of power loss

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

iC
= hFE
iB

Very complicated base-driver circuits capable of delivering

the high base currents are needed.

Power BJTs have lower gains than signal BJTs: at high

currents hFE can fall as low as 10 whereas for a signal BJT it is
50-800.

Gain is given by hFE:

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

43

However, were discussing it here as both the thyristor and the

IGBT rely on bipolar transistor action internally.

44

Given these limitations, the power BJT is now virtually obsolete

and has, depending on the power level in question, been largely
superseded by either the IGBT or the MOSFET.

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

A
P

P N

G (gate)

K
45

The thyristor is similar in function to the power diode

It has an additional terminal called the gate
The thyristor is a four layer device, having three p-n junctions.

Thyristor

A
P

P N

The device will not conduct by the application of a positive

anode to cathode voltage alone, due to the internal reverse
biased p-n junction
A thyristor will conduct if, when it is forward biased, a small
current is introduced into the gate terminal
Once the thyristor is conducting, the gate terminal serves no
further function
The device will cease conduction when reverse anode to
cathode voltage is applied

G (gate)

Thyristor

46

After this the thyristor remains on

due to its latching behaviour until
the anode current is removed.

It is turned on by injecting a
current pulse into the base terminal
of one of them: this control electrode is,
of course, referred to as the gate here.

The thyristor may be usefully

thought of as two interconnected
discrete bipolar transistors.

Thyristor

iG

Q1

Q2

47

Highlighting the four layers:

G

Thyristor

iG

Q1

Q2

n
p
n

48

i =C

dv AK
dt

Issues with the thyristor:

Slow switching speeds
di/dt at turn-on may have to be
limited to prevent excessive instantaneous
power dissipation and/or current crowding
dVAK/dt in off-state also has to be limited
to avoid false triggering due to stray
current injected through junction
capacitances:

The thyristor

Thyristor

Q1

i
K

Q2

49

V BR

IL
Ih

IA [A]

I G >0

I h = holding current

I L = latching current

I G >>0

Thyristor

V BR

I G =0

V AK [V]

50

 Thyristor turn-off time is important

This is the time taken for the current through the device to
return to zero once a reverse voltage has been applied
between the anode and cathode
The fastest turn-off times available are of the order of 10s
This is achieved in devices with lower power ratings (1200V
and 1000A)
Thyristors are currently available at ratings up to 5000A,
12000V

Thyristor

51

52

Power converters for grid applications: recall the HVDC

transmission systems discussed earlier. In these applications they
only have to switch at the mains frequency of 50-60Hz.

Heavy traction (for example, locomotive) power converters

Given the capabilities and limitations with thyristors, today

they are mainly found in

Thyristor

CATHODE K

GATE G

ANODE A

Currently available in
ratings to 2000A, 6000V

The GTO or Gate Turn-Off thyristor can turned on by the

application of a short positive pulse of gate current and
turned off by application of a short negative current pulse

Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)

53

1Invented

source

in the 1950s by, amongst others, an interesting character called William Shockley.

gate

drain

The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor

(MOSFET)1: an N-channel enhancement type is shown
here

The MOSFET

MOSFET

54

Similarly, the drain is so-called because it is terminal by which the

electrons or holes leave the device.

The source is so-called because it is the terminal by which the electrons

or holes enter the device.

The power electrodes are called the source and the drain.

Applying a voltage to the gate creates (or removes) an internal conducting

channel of either electrons (N-channel) or holes (P-channel).

How does it work?

The MOSFET

MOSFET

55

vDS

iD

RDS ( on )

VDS
=
I D

This is very much a figure of merit when comparing

MOSFETs as the on-state conduction losses, Won, are
directly dependent on it:
Won=ID2RDS(on).

Unlike the other devices discussed here, it has a resistive

on-state characteristic: this is generally represented by the
symbol RDS(on).

The MOSFET

MOSFET

56

P-channel

N-channel

Depletion-mode

The MOSFET family

The MOSFET

N-channel

Enhancement-mode

P-channel

MOSFET

57

P-channel

G
S

N-channel

Depletion-mode

The MOSFET

The MOSFET

S
G

N-channel

Enhancement-mode

P-channel

MOSFET

58

N-channel
Normally on:
negative gate voltage
applied to shut
off conducting
channel

Normally on:
positive gate voltage
applied to shut
off conducting
channel

P-channel

59

Normally off:
positive gate voltage
applied to establish
conducting channel

N-channel

Enhancement-mode

Normally off:
negative gate voltage
applied to establish
conducting channel

The MOSFET

P-channel

Depletion-mode

The MOSFET

MOSFET

P-channel

holes
G
S

electrons

N-channel

Depletion-mode

G
D

P-channel
holes
G

60

electrons

N-channel

Enhancement-mode

The terminology again: drain and source

The MOSFET

MOSFET

P-channel

holes
G
S

electrons

N-channel

Depletion-mode

G
D

P-channel
holes
G

61

electrons

N-channel

Enhancement-mode

Note the solid bar between the source and drain in the
depletion-mode device symbols and the broken bar in the
enhancement-mode device symbols.

MOSFET

62

2. The N-channel type is very much preferred in power electronics: carrier

mobility of electrons superior to that of holes: this yields lower RDS(on) values
for a given silicon area.

This is a non-trivial consideration and tends to present a challenge when

deploying these devices in real-world power converters.

1. With zero gate-source voltage the depletion-mode devices conduct

whereas the enhancement mode devices block. In other words, a voltage
has to be applied to a depletion-mode device's gate-source junction to turn it
off: it is a normally-on device.

Two important points when looking at the MOSFET family tree:

MOSFET

P-channel

The MOSFET

P-channel

N-channel

Enhancement-mode

This is the most commonly used MOSFET

type in power electronic converters

N-channel

Depletion-mode

The MOSFET

MOSFET

63

With an N-channel MOSFET

the gate would have to be driven
above Vsupply.

Vsupply

64

With a P-channel MOSFET the gate

signal only needs to swing between
0V and Vsupply. (nb.: note that the
signal is now active low here.)

Vsupply

However, the P-channel MOSFET is sometimes useful where losses are not
critical and its gate-drive requirement is convenient: consider the grounded
load arrangement here:

MOSFET

65

However, although the gate and source electrodes are separated

by an insulating layer of SiO2 and exhibit a virtually infinite dc
resistance, this junction forms a substantial capacitance.

Unlike the BJT, which is current-driven, the MOSFET is

voltage-driven and draws virtually no steady-state gate
current in the on-state.

Some further points:

MOSFET

Nonetheless, driving this device is still much easier than is

the case with the BJT.

Considerable transient current is required to charge and

discharge this capacitance when switching the device.

MOSFET

66

In signal-level logic circuits N-channel and P-channel devices

are combined to realize the well-known CMOS
(complementary metal oxide semiconductor) logic families,
for example, the 4000B and 74AC series.

Depletion-mode devices and enhancement mode devices are

sometimes referred to as D-mode and E-mode devices
respectively.

Some further points:

MOSFET

67

However:
1. They exhibit a low noise margin
2. Although the voltage level is not problematic, most logic families
cannot supply sufficient current to charge and discharge the gate
capacitance of anything other than very small MOSFETs rapidly enough
during switching: gate-driver circuitry is usually still required.

The power MOSFET typically has a threshold voltage of approximately 35V. However, some so-called logic-level power MOSFETs are available with
threshold voltages of approximately 0.8-1V.

Some further points:

MOSFET

68

If either device heats up,

then its RDS(on) value rises and
this tends to force current to
divert into the other device.

RDS(on)
(TR1)

i1

i2

iT

RDS(on)
(TR2)

69

RDS(on) is temperature dependent: approximately 1%/C.

Although this means that losses rise as the temperature rises, an
advantage is that MOSFETs tend to share conduction losses well
when connected in parallel.

The MOSFET

MOSFET

However, as previously mentioned, considerable transient

current is drawn by the gate when switching at this frequency.

Switching losses are also low: the device can easily operate
at up to 100kHz and above without these being excessive: the
MOSFET is the fastest of all the power semiconductor devices.

On the other hand, switching losses are virtually independent

of temperature.

The MOSFET

MOSFET

70

71

recent developments in MOSFET technology have yielded higher voltage devices with
ever-lower RDS(on) figures (eg., 70m at 600V in a standard TO-247 package).

1However,

For this reason it is generally only used in low-voltage

applications (< 100-200 V)1

RDS(on) = kVDSS2.5-2.7

The RDS(on) value rises very sharply with the devices voltage
rating:

The MOSFET

MOSFET

gate
source

drain

The MOSFETs intrinsic or parasitic anti-parallel diode may

be a very useful feature, particularly in inverter circuits.

The MOSFET

MOSFET

72

gate
source

drain

However, it can sometimes be problematic as its performance

is often not as good as a specialised purpose-designed diode.

The MOSFET

MOSFET

73

gate

emitter

collector

device is sometimes erroneously referred to as an isolated gate bipolar transistor.

This is wrong and is deprecated here as it implies galvanic isolation which is not present .

1This

The IGBT (insulated1 gate bipolar

transistor) is a hybrid power semiconductor
device which combines the attributes of the
BJT and the MOSFET. Note that the
terminology used to denote its terminals
reflects this: it has a collector and an emitter
as its power electrodes and a gate as its
control electrode.

The IGBT

IGBT

74

emitter

gate

emitter

collector

does not appear to have been realised in any other forms such as an npn bipolar transistor
driven by an P-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET.
75

1It

gate

collector

The IGBT may be usefully thought of as a pnp bipolar transistor driven by an

N-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET1:

The IGBT

IGBT

Between them, the IGBT and the MOSFET have made the
power BJT effectively obsolete in power conversion
applications.

The IGBT is a comparatively recent addition to the family of

power semiconductor devices, having been originally patented
in 1982.

The IGBT

IGBT

76

Some IGBTs designed for heavy traction applications will only

switch comfortably at up to 3-5kHz. However, IGBTs designed to
compete with the MOSFET can switch at up to 100kHz.

There is a trade-off between switching losses and conduction losses when

designing the IGBT.

But both the turn-on and turn-off switching losses usually rise with
temperature.

Compared with the MOSFET, conduction losses are relatively flat with
temperature,

The IGBT

IGBT

77

Such an anti-parallel diode is often

included in an industry standard
three-pin package (eg., the TO-247
type) in a so-called Co-pack
configuration.
gate

emitter/ anode

collector/ cathode

Unlike the MOSFET, the IGBT does not have an intrinsic or parasitic
anti-parallel diode inherent to its structure and, if needed, this has to be
added separately.

The IGBT

IGBT

78

The diagram shows

likely candidate
devices for different
combinations of
voltage and switching
frequency.
0.1

10

V (kV)

10

100

1000

f (kHz)

MOSFET

Nb. Note the logarithmic scales here.

0.1

IGBT

thyristor

Devices: overview

79

However series
strings of devices are
used to achieve this.

Thyristors are used to

support hundreds of
kilovolts in grid
applications:

0.1

10

100

V (kV)

0.1

10

100

IGBT

thyristor

Devices: overview

1000

f (kHz)

MOSFET

80

IGBTs can be optimised

for high-voltage and
low-frequency operation
or vice versa.
0.1

10

V (kV)

0.1

10

100

IGBT

thyristor

Devices: overview

1000

f (kHz)

MOSFET

81

This is because, although fast

switching is not needed,
recall that the RDS(on)
value falls steeply with voltage,
yielding very low conduction
losses.

However, they are still

sometimes preferred at
low frequencies if the
required voltage is low.

MOSFETs are the fastestswitching of all the devices.

0.1

10

V (kV)

0.1

10

100

IGBT

thyristor

Devices: overview

1000

f (kHz)

MOSFET

82

They are therefore

encroaching onto some
of the applications
hitherto catered for
by IGBTs.

Latest-generation MOSFETS
have been developed with
high voltage and
low RDS(on) ratings.

0.1

10

V (kV)

0.1

10

100

IGBT

thyristor

Devices: overview

1000

f (kHz)

MOSFET

83

However, we can depict

diodes similarly.

For clarity weve only

addressed active devices
in the previous slides.
0.1

10

V (kV)

0.1

10

100

1000

f (kHz)

84

Fast recovery
pn diode
Schottky
diode

Mains-grade
pn diode

Devices: overview

0.1

10

V (kV)

BJTs and JFETs have also been realised

using SiC. (In Si these are effectively
obsolete for power applications.)

IGBTs, MOSFETs and diodes have

been realised in SiC technology.

However, silicon carbide

(SiC) devices have been
coming onto the market
over the last 10-15 years.

Weve talked about silicon

devices in this course.

The future?

0.1

10

100

IGBT

thyristor

Devices: overview

1000

f (kHz)

MOSFET

SiC?

85

Low switching losses

Low driver circuit losses
Low conduction losses
High-temperature operation

Cost and availability are

therefore continuing problems
at the present time (2012).

However, they have

proved difficult to
manufacture.

The performance
of SiC devices is, in many
ways, excellent:

0.1

10

V (kV)

0.1

10

100

IGBT

thyristor

Devices: overview

1000

f (kHz)

MOSFET

SiC?

86

n.mcneill@bristol.ac.uk

Neville McNeill

Finally: if any queries:

(EENG17300)

Electrical Systems Engineering

87