Asphalt Pavement Evaluation Using Conventional and

Ground Penetrating Radar Survey

A Thesis
Submitted for the practical fulfilment degree of

Master of Technology

In
Civil Engineering
(Transportation and Infrastructure Engineering)
Submitted by

Anwar Hussain
M.Tech Transportation&Infrastructural ENGINEERING
SR NO: 05-05-06-10-41-13-1-10342

June-2015
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore -560012

Acknowledgement
I would like to take this golden opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr.
P. Anbazhagan Assist. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Science, for his excellent supervision, illuminating guidance, constant encouragement,
Immense support and active involvement in all phase of my work.
I am thankful to Mr. Nagesh. V, Mr. Sundar Raj, M.Tech scholars, Department of Civil
Engineering, for their unconditional help, encouragement and support during my project
work.
I express my deepest sense of gratitude and love towards my parents for their love, blessing,
constant encouragement and extreme support in all my decisions.
I am grateful to the research student Mr. Deepu Chandran of the Geotechnical Engineering
Department. He made a wonderful, friendly learning and working environment. I am also
thankful to the office and technical staff of Department of Civil Engineering, for their
co-operation.
I am thankful to my batch mates Mr M.Deepak Kumar,Mr. Kiran Kumar for their help
and companionship.

Anwar Hussain

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

Background7
Problem of study8
Objective of study..9
Location of study...9
Scope of study...9

CHAPTER2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Flexible Pavement10
2.1.1 Flexible pavement structure..10
2.1.2 Cause of failure..11
2.1.3 Collapse of Flexible pavement...12
2.2 Deterioration of Flexible pavements..13
2.3 Pavement Distress..13
2.3.1 Cracks..13
2.3.2 Pavement defects.16
2.3.3 Pavement deformation.17
2.4 Ground Penetrating Radar(GPR)22
CHAPTER3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 PCI method26
3.2 Data requirement & Collection..26
3.2.1 Methodology of research.....27
3.3 Applications of GPR in pavements.61
3.5 GPR For Pavement Investigations..64

3.6 Future work.72

CHAPTER4: PCI SURVEY
CHAPTER5:GPR SURVEY
CHAPTER6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

REFERENCES.72
APPENDIX A(List Of Figures)....73
APPENDIX
B(List
Of
Tables).
..

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Roads play a major role in the development of all countries and societies by providing
the essential links between different parts of the country to facilitate the movement of people
and transport of goods. The importance of roads increases as the area of the country
increases, especially in the absence of other means of transport such as railways and
waterways, which is often occurred in developing countries.
The highway network is classified into four main roadway types
1- Expressways: Roads arteries outside municipal borders link the cities and regions with two
carriage ways and at least four lanes (two lanes or more in each direction).
2- Main roads: Roadways linking cities and regions or serving cities within municipal
boundaries, there are single carriageway roads for good paved standard or dual carriage ways
with 2 lanes in each direction.
3- Secondary roads: These link district centres and villages.
4- Agricultural roads: Roads linking agricultural land and farms with markets.
The weakness and lack of periodic maintenance programs and delayed repairs of the damage
suffered by paving the roads in that there have contributed on functional and structural
damage.
It is difficult to maintain the road on the same specification that was owned at the opening
and problems start to appear represented in the pavement cracks, holes and undulations and
so on (Bashir, 2006). Many exposed pavements have problems lead to a reduction of the
quality of the road and reduce the degree of safety and comfort to road users. Some of these
problems occur in asphalt layers, such as cracks and bleeding, and some of the lower classes
occur, such as crawl and swell. Studies and researches have been shown that most of the
problems faced by asphalt roads in India linked mainly with hot, dry climate prevail in most
areas.
Most of the problems are various types of cracks, hardening, ravelling and weathering asphalt
materials which are mainly due to a number of environment factors, namely:
- High temperatures, especially in the summer.
- The daily temperature range.
- The intensity of solar radiation.
Damage appears slowly at first, and then gradually accelerates, accumulating to become
visible as structural distress and tangible as ride quality reduced. If distress is observed and
corrected in a timely manner, low cost strategies will restore the road to nearly its original
condition. However, if early treatment is neglected or postponed, the accumulated damage
will require a more costly repair treatment. Recognizing that damage accumulation and
acceleration is a key to understanding the need for early, low-level, low-cost preventive
maintenance treatments.
It is easy to see why pavements deteriorate at various rates and why we find them in various
stages of disrepair. Recognizing defects and understanding their causes help us of evaluate
pavement condition and select cost-effective repairs. The pavement defects shown on the
following pages provide a background for this process. Periodic inspection is necessary to
provide current and useful evaluation data. It is recommended that ratings be updated every
year.

Obviously, most pavement deterioration results from both environmental and structural
causes. However, it is important to try to distinguish between the two in order to select the
most effective rehabilitation techniques.
1.2 Problem of Study:
Pavement deterioration is a result of complex distress as pavement cracking through fatigue
under repeated loadings and environmental cycles; deformation of the pavement structure
through shearing; and disintegration of materials when mechanical or chemical bonds are
broken through weathering, infiltration, or loading. Underground conditions, structures,
traffic characteristics, and environmental contexts all have a tremendous impact on the
performance of highway pavements (Gary et al., 2009).
Due to variations in construction and material quality, the age of a pavement structure may
not accurately indicate the condition or the performance of the pavement. However, the age
of the pavement may be used to further categorize pavement sections and may provide a
relative condition of those sections (ADO, 1999).
At the opening of the road, usually with high quality and specifications. But the passage of
time and with the use of the road because of traffic loads applied on the road on a daily basis
and continuous in addition air factors such as daily and seasonal rains and changes in
temperatures, it is difficult to maintain the road on the same specification that was owned at
the opening and problems start to appear represented in the pavement cracks, holes and
undulations and so on (RLTA, 2010).
Generally, good design does not prevent the occurrence of such defects in case of default in
the construction or in the case of non-construction according to engineering specifications
(cases of non-compliance with specifications) .The cost of maintenance expense exceeds the
cost of construction itself because it was disrupting traffic generated by the delay in the
establishment of these roads.
Preventive maintenance is an essential tool for extending the life of a pavement. Used early in
a pavement's life, preventive maintenance corrects small problems before they become big
problems, saves money, reduces delays and improves safety and ride ability.
Therefore profession engineer maintained until the roads are always safety ways and the
movement for passengers or goods are a comfortable and economical at all times (Bashir,
2006).
Not all pavement structures are constructed alike, nor do all pavement structures perform
identically. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor the maintenance requirements of each
general type of pavement. By monitoring the performance of pavement sections of similar
construction and usage, sufficient information can be developed to forecast maintenance
requirements (ADO, 1999).
1.3 Objective of Study:
The key element to surface evaluation management programs is to identify the different types
of pavement distresses and determine their causes. Knowing what caused the pavement
distress allows the appropriate maintenance treatment to be applied (Lavin, 2003).
Basic objective of this study is to
i. Condition assessment of selected pavements in IISc campus using
conventional approach by calculating Pavement Condition Rating (PCR) based
manual survey.

ii. Condition assessment of selected pavements in IISc campus using

modern geophysical survey of Ground Penetration Radar(GPR)method.

iii. Correlate pavement qualities with non-distractive tests results and
evaluate limitation and advantage of modern GPR survey for pavement
quality assessment.
1-4 Location of Study:
The field work carried out in IISc campus road network for the pavement condition survey
and GPR survey, Frequently using roads in the campus which have chosen and selected 7
major roads have selected for the study area which are Badam Marg, Madhuka Marg,
Mahogany Marg, Bank Road, Near R-Block Road, Near SERC Road

The survey was carried out on above roads and tries to find possible number of distress and
analysis of those distresses for our objectives.
1-5 Scope of Study:

Improving and maintenance of transportation infrastructures is a major

task in any urban city in India. These transportation facilities are playing a
major role in infrastructure development, economical growth and
people/industrial agglomerations. Most of the urban centres are improving
transportation infrastructures, in particular, roads by better maintenance
and augmentation, rather than new construction. In general, maintenance
of road network in city/urban centre consumes almost 80% of cost in total
transportation infrastructure expenditures. This may be due to the lack of
scientific/technical
knowledge
for
road
condition
assessment,
maintenance and repairs. Road maintenance
is a major issue in Indian cities.
In this study, an attempt has been made to evaluating the existing
pavement section by field and GPR experiment and there by assessing the
condition for better maintenance and repair work. 7 different road
conditions are selected in the IISc campus, these locations are inspected
visually and PCR is evaluated as per conventional ASTM D6433 pavement
condition assessment. In these 7 locations non-destructive field
experiment of GPR survey has been carried out.

CHAPTER 2

Literature review
Pavement Condition assessment is mandatory step before overlay and
reconstruction in the developed countries. But condition assessment is
rarely practice for Indian roads before overlay and reconstruction. Very
popular road condition assessment methods are Pavement Condition
Rating (PCR) and result using non-destructive tests. This chapter review
pavement condition assessment method by ASTM D6433 standard
procedure for pavements and parking lots and non-destructive testes. PCR
is a conventional pavement evaluation system by considering distress of
pavement section by carrying out visual survey. Pavement sections will be
rated based PCI(Pavement Condition Index) ranging from 0 to 100 scale.
The survey was carried out on flexible pavements in the campus, Flexible
pavements are so named because the total pavement structure deflects, or flexes, under
loading. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of material
each of which receives the loads from the above layer, spreads them out and then passes them
on to the layer below.
A typical flexible pavement structure (Figure 2.1) consists of the surface course and the
underlying base and subbase courses. Each of these layers contributes to structural support
and drainage. The surface course (typically an HMA layer) is the stiffest (as measured by
resilient modulus) and contributes the most to pavement strength. The underlying layers are
less stiff but are still important to pavement strength as well as drainage and frost protection.

Figure 2.1 Basic flexible pavement structure (Haffman, 2008)

Many non-destructive tests are used for condition assessment of

pavements. In this study GPR will be used, hence these two methods with
case study is discussed in this chapter. Ground penetrating radar is a nondestructive electromagnetic method that produces a continuous crosssectional profile or record of subsurface features, without drilling, probing,
or digging. GPR profiles are used for evaluating the pavement and location
and depth of buried objects and to investigate the presence and continuity
of natural subsurface conditions and features.

2.3 Pavement Condition Rating (PCR):

Pavement Condition Rating (PCR) identifies various types of pavement
distress for the pavement types and provides each distress overview and
rating for pavement condition. The rating method used is based upon
visual inspection of pavement. The rating method provides a procedure
for uniformly identifying and describing, in terms of severity of the
distress. The PCR is a numerical rating on a scale of 0 to 100 that is
determined based on measured distress types, quantities and severities.
The PCI provides a measure of the present condition of the pavement based on the distress
observed on the surface of the pavement, which also indicates the structural integrity and
surface operational condition (localized roughness and safety). The PCI cannot measure
structural capacity nor does it provide direct measurement of skid resistance or roughness. It
provides an objective and rational basis for determining maintenance and repair needs and
priorities. Continuous monitoring of the PCI is used to establish the rate of pavement
deterioration, which permits early identification of major rehabilitation needs. The PCI
provides feedback on pavement performance for validation or improvement of current
pavement design and maintenance procedures.
pavement condition ratinga verbal description of pavement condition as a function of the
PCI value that varies from failed to Very Good
pavement distressexternal indicators of pavement deterioration caused by loading,
environmental factors, construction deficiencies, or a combination thereof. Typical distresses
are cracks, rutting, and weathering of the pavement surface. Distress types and severity levels
detailed in Chapter4.

2.4 Non-Destructive Tests for Pavement Evaluation:

Numbers of non-destructive tests are used to test functional and structural properties of the
pavement. This section presents review of non-destructive testing to evaluate pavement
functional properties and structural properties. Pavements non-destructive tests can be
broadly divided into several categories:
Nuclear Equipment
Deflection based Equipment
Electromagnetic equipments and
Seismic Equipments
Infrared thermography (IRT)
Selection of particular non-destructive testing method is based on cost, time and availability
of equipment.
Nuclear Equipment - A nuclear density gauge measures in-place HMA density using gamma
radiation. Gauges usually contain a small gamma source (about 10 mCi) such as Cesium-137
on the end of a retractable rod. Gamma rays are emitted from the source and interact with
electrons in the pavement through absorption, Compton scattering and photoelectric effect. A
Geiger-Mueller detector (situated in the gauge opposite from the handle) counts gamma rays
that reach it from the source. Pavement density is then correlated to the number of gamma
rays received by the detector. Nuclear density gauges are typically operated in one of two
modes, each of which uses a different correlation to determine pavement density
Deflection Based Equipment- Pavement surface deflections have been used in the past as an
indicator of the pavement life. Pavement surface deflection measurements are the primary
means of evaluating a flexible pavement structure and rigid pavement load transfer. Although
other measurements can be made that reflect (to some degree) a pavement's structural
condition, surface deflection is an important pavement evaluation method because the
magnitude and shape of pavement deflection is a function of traffic (type and volume),
pavement structural section, temperature affecting the pavement structure and moisture
affecting the pavement structure. Deflection measurements can be used in back calculation
methods to determine pavement structural layer stiffness and the subgrade resilient modulus.
Widely used deflection instruments are Benkelman beam and Falling, Weight Deflectometer
(FWD) or dynaflect and Multi Depth Deflectometer(MDD).
Benkelman Beam Test
The Benkelman beam test procedure involves the measurement of pavement surface rebound
with a cantilevered beam when a truck loaded to 8180 kg on its rear axle moves from rest.
Measurements are made between the dual tires on the rear axle at specified intervals in the
outer wheel path and are then corrected for temperature and seasonal variation. The corrected
rebound values are used in a statistical manner to determine a most probable spring rebound
(MPSR). The MPSR value, a specified design rebound and traffic number are used to enter a
design chart (based on an accumulated experience on similar roads) to determine the overlay
required to extend pavement life to 20 years. This test is fast, simple and inexpensive.
However, it does not provide thickness information and must be accompanied by other tests

that provide this information. In general, Benkelman beam tests are performed on an overlay
is the preferred rehabilitation strategy.
Multi-depth Deflectometer (MDD)
The multi-depth deflectometer (MDD) is used to measure depth deflection profiles of
pavement; effective elastic moduli of multi-layered pavement structures can be back
calculated from these measurements. The MDD consists of a series of up to six linear voltage
differential transducers (LVDTs) installed vertically into the pavement at preselected depths
in a relatively small-diameter hole. Resilient depth deflections are measured with the MDD
used in association with a moving load. A major limitation of this method is that it requires a
trench immediately adjacent to the pavement section of interest to ensure the effective
placement of modules.
Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) or dynaflect.
The dynaflect and Falling Weight Deflectometer are tools that measure surface deflection. In
this technique, a number of geophones are used to determine the static deflection basin
resulting from a vertical impact. A back-calculation procedure is then used to infer the
thickness and resilient modulus of the constituent layers of the pavement structure. Due to the
nature of the back-calculation algorithm, reliable layer thickness information is required to
control the inversion process. Thus supplemental coring or road radar tests are required.
In this study, modern geophysical non-destructive tests of electromagnetic method is used.
Literature of the method is given below:
Infrared thermography (IRT)
Infrared thermography (IRT) employs an infrared scanner to capture the thermal image from
the top of the pavement, capturing temperature differentials. Typically, scanners can detect
differences as small as 0.1C. The subsurface defects affect the heat flow within the
pavement, and this in turn affects the temperature distribution of the concerned area. In most
cases, this method can capture the location and extent of sub-surface distresses in the form of
cracking, segregation, ageing, and construction non-homogeneity The delaminated or
debonded sections are thinner than the surrounding sound area. With the same input of solar
energy, these sections heat and cool faster than the adjacent pavement.
The IRT is able to detect this temperature difference, and the flawed sections can be
identified. The various field conditions represent the major drawback of this method. Certain
environmental, such as time of testing, cloud cover, wind flow, pavement surface texture,
solar radiation, and sub-surface conditions (moisture, frost penetration), conditions can affect
the test results.

2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the
subsurface.
This
non-destructive method
uses electromagnetic
radiation in
the microwave band (UHF/VHF frequencies) of the radio spectrum, and detects the reflected
signals from subsurface structures. GPR can have applications in a variety of media,
including rock, soil, ice, fresh water, pavements and structures.
Basic principle of GPR
A GPR system consists of a few components, as shown in Fig.2.21,that emit an
electromagnetic wave into the ground and receive the response. If there is a change in electric
properties in the ground or if there is an anomaly that has different electric properties than the
surrounding media, a part of the electromagnetic wave is reflected back to the receiver. The
system scans the ground to collect the data at various locations. Then a GPR profile can be
constructed by plotting the amplitude of the received signals as a function of time and
position, representing a vertical slice of the subsurface, as shown in Fig. 2. The time axis can

be converted to depth by assuming a velocity for the electromagnetic wave in the subsurface
soil.

Fig.2.2 Block diagram of a GPR system

Components of Typical GPR Equipment

The first step in choosing a GPR system is to understand the main
components the system. The typical GPR system is comprised of five main
components that interface and communicate with each other depending
on their respective functions. The physical location of each of these
components is dependent on the system and application, and in some
cases two or more components may be combining in the same physical
unit. The anatomy of typical GPR equipment is shown in Figure 2.3.
Encoder: The Encoder is generally a mechanical device, such as a wheel,
that is used to measure distance along the target area and initiates a
triggering pulse for the radar signal at predetermined distances. In some
cases, a GPS is used in the Encoder to determine location and distance for
triggering.
A/D Converter: The A/D Converter forms the interface between the
Antennas and the
Control Unit converting signals from analog to digit and visa-versa depend
on the direction. A/D Converter also connects to the Encoder from where it
receives information about when to trigger a pulse. The A/D converter is
referred to as Electronic Unit(s).
Monitor/PC: The monitor or PC is used to visualize the GPR information in
real time and to operate the system. Depending on the type of monitor, or
if a PC is used, GPR data can be storage for later processing.
Control Unit: The Control unit is the brain center for the GPR system and
is responsible for coordinating the operation of the subordinate
components.

Antennas: While the Control Unit is performing the functionality of the

brain and Antennas are the legs, doing the work of transmitting radar
signals and receiving the reflected waves. As a general rule, the frequency
of the antenna determines the depth of penetration and the resolution
the higher the frequency the better the resolution but at the expense of
the depth of penetration.

GPR Antennas Used for Study:

The study has been carried out with MALA 800 MHz Shielded Antenna. The
shielded 800MHz antenna delivers very good resolution for shallow
investigations. Commonly used for road mapping and concrete investigations.
The interchangeable electronics make the 800MHz antenna an economically
good alternative than high resolution 100MHz antenna.
The antenna Specifications are given below:
Dimensions: 0.38*0.20*0.12m
Weight: 2.6Kg
Centre frequency: 800MHz
Depth Range: 0-2.4m

Wavelength /mm : 142

Resolution /mm: 71

Fig.2.6. 800MHz Shielded Antenna

GPR Hardware:
GPRs techniques are based on travel time and amplitude measures of the reflected wave of a
short electromagnetic impulse transmitted through the pavement structure and successively
reflected at the interfaces between layers. These interfaces are detected when the GPR wave
match different materials, water content or density variation, etc. The GPR system has
generally three components:
A generator that creates a single impulse of a given frequency and power.
Antenna(s) for emit the impulse through the media and capture the reflected signal.
A computer that digitalizes the received signal (sampling) and convert it into a format
that can be processed.
Common radar antennas are divided into two categories: air-launched and ground-coupled
Antenna.
Ground-coupled antenna:
This type works at a centre frequency that is in the 80-1500MHz range. Its main advantage is
the greater depth penetration, in comparison with the another category. The scan speed is also
low, between 5 and 15 km/h. So we can acquire data at very good quality. The current study
has been carried out with 800MHz ground coupled antenna.

Typical GPR Equipment with Ground Coupled Antenna

GPR Software
The software available for road scan can be classified in four groups:
Data acquisition unit
Data elaboration unit (signal processing)
Data visualization and interpretation unit
Project and integrated analysis for the road unit
GPR data was analysed in the RADEXPLORAR software which is developed by MALA
Group and the routines will be applied to the GPR radar gram image for better visualization
of the image.

Typical GPR image from a road survey

2.6 GPR Applications In Pavements:

GPR has been used successfully in a variety of roadway applications, including: (1)
measuring layer thickness of asphalt pavements and granular base layers; (2) estimating
asphalt densities; (3) determining moisture content of base materials; (4) identifying stripping
zones in asphalt layers; (5) detecting buried objects such as metal pipes and near-surface
bedrock.
Layer Thickness Calculation
Using the amplitudes (volts) and time delays (ns) from pulse figure it is possible to
Calculate layer dielectrics and layer thickness. The equations used are summarized below:
c t 1
h= a
where
a = the dielectric of the surfacing layer
c = speed of EM wave in air
h=thickness of the layer

t 1 = the time delay between peaks, A1 and A2

a=

1+ A 1 / Am
1A 1/ Am

where
A1 = the amplitude of surface reflection; and
Am = the amplitude of reflection from a large metal
plate in volts

Material

Dielectric Constant

Propagation Velocity (m/ns)

Air

0.3

Ice (Frozen soil)

Granite
Limestone
Dry sand
Wet sand
Asphalt

4
9
6
4 to 6
30
3 to 6

0.15
0.1
0.12
0.12 to 0.15
0.055
0.12 to 0.17

Concrete
Water

9 to 12
81

0.087 to 0.10
0.033

Dielectric Constants and Propagation Velocities of Pavement Materials

Soil moisture and frost susceptibility:

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY
3.1 PCI Method
The PCI is a numerical indicator that rates the surface condition of the pavement. The PCI
provides a measure of the present condition of the pavement based on the distress observed
on the surface of the pavement. It provides an objective and rational basis for determining
maintenance and repair needs and priorities. Continuous monitoring of the PCI is used to
establish the rate of pavement deterioration, which permits early identification of major
rehabilitation needs. The PCI provides feedback on pavement performance for validation or
improvement of current pavement design and maintenance procedures (ASTM D6433, 2007).
PCI values range from 100 for a pavement with no defects to 0 for a pavement with no
remaining functional life. The index is useful in describing distress and comparing pavements
on an equal basis.
ASTM standard contains information on PCI surveys. The FAA recommends that roads
follow ASTM D 6433, Standard Test Method for road Pavement Condition Index Surveys
(ASTM D6433, 1999). ASTMs manual is prepared to assist user of the Pavement
Management System (PMS) in identifying surface distress in a uniform and repeatable
manner. The distresses included in this manual are used to calculate the Pavement Condition
Index (PCI) for pavements surfaced with asphalt concrete and surface treatments.
This practice covers the determination of roads and parking lots pavement condition through
visual survey using the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) method of quantifying pavement
condition. The PCI for roads and parking lots was developed by the U.S Army Corps
Engineers (ASTM D6433, 1999).

3.1.1 Data requirement

The type of data collection is primary data from the field, as known the part was taken by a
length of road. Recorded data for each type, calculated the area affected and recorded in
special tables. And took a picture of each distress and level of severity. The data collected
using survey method by minimum 2 persons. The data requirement for this study is Type and
severity levels of distress.
Data collection equipment:
1. Data Sheets: for recording the following information:

Date, location, section, distress types, severity levels, quantities, and names of surveyors.
2. Digital Camera: for take some photos.
3. Layout Plan, for network to be inspected.
4. Safety equipment.

3.1.2 Pavement Condition Survey

A manual survey is performed following ASTM D 6433. The pavement was divided into sections.
Each section was divided into sections. The type and severity of sample distress was assessed by
visual inspection of the pavement sample units and the quantity of each distress was measured.
Typically, this procedure requires a team of at least two engineers.
Calculation of PCI for Asphalt Concrete (AC) Pavement ( ASTM standard D 6433):
1. Inspect sample section, determine distress types, severity levels and measure density:
Add up the total quantity of each distress type at each severity level, and record them in the
"Total Severities" section. The sections for the quantities may be either in square feet (square
meters) or number of occurrences, depending on the distress type
2. Divide the total quantity of each distress type at each severity level by the total area of the
sample section and multiply by 100 to obtain the present density of each distress type and
severity.
3. Determine the deduct value (DV) for each distress type and severity level combination from
the distress deduct value curves in ASTM standard D 6433, as show in figure 3.01 deduct value
curves for asphalt for Alligator Cracking.

Fig.3.01 Deduct values for Alligator cracking (ASTM standard D 6433)

4. Determine the maximum Corrected Deduct Value (CDV). The procedure for determining
maximum CDV from individual DV is identical for both AC.
5. The following procedure must be used to determine the maximum CDV:
a. If none or only one individual deduct value is greater than two, the total value is used in
place of the maximum CDV in determining the PCI; otherwise, maximum CDV must be
determined using the procedure described in ASTM standard D 6433.
b. List the individual deduct values in descending order.

c. Determine the allowable number of deducts, m, from Figure 3.02. or using the following
formula in ASTM standard D 6433:
m=1+(9/98)(100-HDV)<=10
Where:
m=allowable number of deducts including fractions (must be less than or equal to ten).
HDV=highest individual deduct value.

Fig.3.02 Adjustment of Number of Deduct Values

(ASTM standard D 6433)
d. The number of individual deduct values is reduced to the (m) largest deduct values, including
the fractional part if less than (m) deduct values are available, all of the deduct values are used.
e. Determine maximum CDV iteratively.
f. Determine total deduct value by summing individual deduct values.
g. Determine q as the number of deducts with a value greater than 2.0.
h. Determine the CDV from total deduct value and q by looking up the appropriate correction
curve for AC pavements in figure 3.03.

Fig.3.03 Corrected deduct values (ASTM standard D 6433)

i. Reduce the smallest individual deduct value greater than 2.0 to 2.0

3.1.3 Assessment of Surface Condition

The inspection method is designed to allow the calculation of a composite rating index called the
pavement condition index .The steps for determining the PCI of an inspection unit are shown in
next chapter .The PCI scale is shown in (table 2.2). The distress types, severity levels, and
methods of estimating quantities are keyed to the deduct curves presented in the area.
This effort investigates to obtain field data that both increases safety and reduce labour
requirements during the data collection for streets, roads and parking lots. The primary objectives
are to evaluate the ability of the PCI survey system to assess the condition of roadway pavement,
to use the resulting data to create and populate database (Cline et al,2002).
Using visual inspection to evaluate pavement surface conditions. The key to a useful evaluation is
identifying different types of pavement distress and linking them to a cause. Understanding the
cause for current conditions is important in selecting an appropriate maintenance or rehabilitation
technique (Walker, 2002).
Pavement Condition Index (PCI)
The detailed field inspections categorize and quantify the pavement deficiencies such as cracks,
patches and utility trench cuts. These deficiencies are entered into the PMS program that
calculates a Pavement Condition index (PCI) for each roadway. PCI values range from zero
(failed) to 100 (Very Good) (ASTM D 6433).
Pavement Condition Rating
The pavement condition rating is a description of pavement condition as a function of the PCI
value that varies from failed to excellent as shown in Table 2.2.
Pavement Condition
Rating

Pavement Condition
Index

Excellent
86-100
Very Good
71-85
Good
56-70
Fair
41-55
Poor
26-40
Very Poor
11-25
Failed
0-10
Table 3.2 pavement condition ratings and pavement condition index ranges (Seiler, 2009.Weil,
2009.U.S DOT, 2009).
The PCI is a quick method of comparing the overall condition of pavement and magnitude of
rehabilitation needs. The following figure shows how pavement condition typically deteriorates
over time. The new pavement holds its good condition for a long period, but once it begins to fail;
its condition drops rapidly (Weil, 2009).

Figure 3.03 Relationship between pavement condition and time (U.S DOT,
2009).

Fig.3.04 Pavement Condition Index (PCI) and Rating Scale

(ASTM standard D 6433)

PCI Range

Rating

Maintenance Measures
No maintenance required

86-100

Very Good

71-85

Little or no maintenance

41-55

Satisfactory
Fair
Poor

26-40

Very Poor

11-25

Serious

Preservative treatments (seal coating or thin nonstructural overlay 2 or more)

Needs patching and repair prior to major overlay Milling
and removal of deterioration extends the life of overlay.
Needs reconstruction with extensive base repair .

0-10

Failed

Total Reconstruction

56-70

Routine maintenance, crack sealing and minor patching

3.2 GPR Method

GPR Equipment

The GPR equipment which used in this research has been produced by Mala Geo Science
Company,Sweden. This equipment consists of:
a) Hardware
b) Software
Hardware:
Object Mapper, used to visual data.
Radar Control Unit, used to processer radio wave signals.
Antenna (800 MHz), used to transmit and received radio wave pulse.
Passenger wheel-path, used to compute truck lane distance.
Software:
Rad-Explorer software is used to display and processing data.
Data Collection:

The GPR data were collected by the passenger wheel-path for tested in IISc campus. GPR
can continuously display profile shows thickness of pavement layers (surface, base, subbase),
as well as it was dictated subsurface deterioration. Determination of thickness between layers
depends on reflectivity of radar wave at the interfaces between layers. Both velocity and
reflectivity are depending on the dielectric constant of the pavement layers.
Measurement Settings:

The following settings were used:

Time window: 456 ns
Stacks: Auto
Sampling frequency: 1180 MHz
Point distance: 0.010 m
Velocity: 100 m\s
Data Interpretation:

Rad-Explorar software which is designed for GPR survey data processing and interpretation
were used. The Rad-Explorer software contains standard routines of digital GPR data
interpretation that are used for improving signal-to-noise ratio, increasing resolution, etc.
With the help of a variety of techniques of signal processing one shall try to reduce the

undesired waves and noise, remove or at least define them on the radargrams for not taking
them into account during the interpretation.
These routines include: reading and visualization of radargram, DC removal, background
removal, trace edit and spatial interpolation on equal profile interval, amplitude correction,
deconvolution, 2D and bandpass filtering, migration, topography correction, determination of
dielectric constant/electromagnetic wave propagation velocity, time to depth conversion. This
does not mean that one must always apply all the routines or is not allowed changing the
order of routines. One should apply only those routines that are required in every specific
case. Some of Rad-Explorar routines are applied to raw data to make a more acceptable
product for initial interpretation and data evaluation.
The applied routines are:
Time-Zero Adjustment: The Time Adjustment routine is meant for adjusting the
zero-point of the vertical time scale to the time zero, i.e. the moment when the wave
has actually left the emitting antenna.
Trace Edit: The Trace Edit module allows the user to exclude the invalid and
undesired traces and record intervals from the initial record.
DC removal: The signal data is acquired in blocks (fixed-length sequences) of block
length N, DC removal is straightforward.
Background Removal: The most intensive signal received by the ground-penetrating
radar is the signal that arrives directly from the transmitting antenna a direct wave.
The application of Background removal routine is necessary when the instrument
noise blocks up the desired signal. The essence of this technique is in subtraction of
the mean trace determined in the window with fixed size running along the profile
from the whole set of traces.
Stolt F-K Migration: The Stolt F-K Migration routine is applied in order to restore the
real location and shape of reflecting boundaries in a section plane.

GPR image after applying the corrections

CHAPTER-4
PCI SURVEY
4.1Types of Pavement Distresses
Different types of pavement distresses in the pavement are listed below. Typical distress
noticed in pavements in the study and their ratings are presented here.
Bleeding
Corrugations
. Ravelling
Rutting
Potholes/Debonding
Patching
Settlement
Crack Sealing Deficiency
Wheel Track Cracking
Longitudinal Joint Cracking
Longitudinal Cracking
Edge Cracking
Random Cracking
Block and Transverse Cracking
Pumping
Deterioration in Flexible Pavement
Assessment of the pavement condition is by the visual observation and recording of types of
defects on the surface of the pavement. Pavement condition survey includes detection of
surface distresses, such as cracking, rutting, and other surface defects, and can also include
survey of pavement roughness in certain cases.
The elements of visual assessment of the situation as follows:
a. Type of distress.
b. Severity of distress.
c. The intensity of the impact of defect layer pavement.
Alligator or Fatigue Cracking

a. Description
Alligator cracking is a series of interconnecting cracks caused by fatigue failure of the asphalt
concrete surface under repeated traffic loading .cracking begins at the bottom of the asphalt
surface (or stabilized base) where tensile stress and strain are highest under a wheel load. The
cracks propagate to the surface initially as a series of parallel longitudinal cracks. After
repeated traffic loading, the cracks connect, forming many sided, sharp angled pieces that
develop a pattern resembling chicken wire or the skin of an alligator. The pieces are less than
0.5 m. (6ft) on the longest side. Alligator cracking is shown in Figure 2.3 (ASTM D6433,
1999) (David, 2006).

Figure 2.3 Alligator Cracking (GTC, 1998)

Causes: Inadequate structural design, inadequate compaction, inadequate structural support
due to higher than normal traffic loadings
b. Severity levels
Low level of intensity (L): fine, longitudinal hairline cracks running parallel to each other with
one or only a few interconnecting cracks. The cracks are not spalled.
Average level of intensity (M): further development of light alligator cracks into a pattern or
network of cracks that may be lightly spalled.
Higher level of intensity (H): network or pattern cracking has progressed so that the pieces are
well defined and spalled at the edges. Some of the pieces may rock under traffic .Potholes of all
sizes are recorded as high severity alligator cracking.

Low
Medium
High
c. How to Measure
Alligator cracking is measured in square meter of surface area .The major difficulty in measuring
this type of distress is that two or three levels of severity often exist within one distressed area. If
these portions can be easily distinguished from each other, they should be measured and recorded
separately, however, if the different levels of severity cannot be divided easily, the entire area
should be rated at the highest severity level present.
Longitudinal and Transverse Cracks:

a. Description
Longitudinal cracks are parallel to the pavements center-line or laydown direction. They may be
adjacent to the pavement edge.
Transverse cracks extend across the pavement at approximately right
angles to the pavement centreline or direction of laydown. These types of
cracks are not usually load-associated.
See Figure 2.5 Longitudinal and Transverse Cracks.

Figure 2.5 Longitudinal and Transverse Cracks (GTC,

1998)

Severity Levels:
LOne of the following conditions exists: nonfilled crack width is less than 10 mm (38 in.),
or filled crack of any width (filler in satisfactory condition).
MOne of the following conditions exists: nonfilled crack width is greater than or equal to
10 mm and less than 75 mm (38 to 3 in.); nonfilled crack is less than or equal to 75 mm (3in)
surrounded by light and random cracking; or, filled crack is of any width surrounded by light
random cracking.
HOne of the following conditions exists : any crack filled or nonfilled surrounded by
medium- or high-severity random cracking; nonfilled crack greater than 75 m (3 in.); or, a
crack of any width where approximately 100 mm (4 in.) of pavement around the crack is
severely broken.

Low

Medium

High

Low

Medium

High

b. How to Measure
Longitudinal and transverse cracks are measured in linear meter. The length
and severity of each crack should be recorded after identification. If the crack
does not have the same severity level along its entire length, each portion of
the crack having a different severity level should be recorded separately. If a
bump or sag occurs at a crack it is also recorded as a distortion.
Edge Cracking
a. Description
Edge cracks are parallel to and usually within 0.3 to 0.5 m (1 to 1.5 ft) of
the outer edge of the pavement. This distress is accelerated by traffic
loading and can be caused by frost-weakened base or subgrade near the
edge of the pavement. The area between the crack and pavement edge is
classified as raveled if it is broken up (sometimes to the extent that pieces
are removed).

Figure 2.6 Edge Cracking (GTC, 1998)

Causes: Edge Cracking is caused by loss of foundation support due to water, insufficient
pavement structure, weak support material or unstable shoulder.
b. Severity levels
Low level of intensity (L): Low or medium cracking with no breakup or
raveling
Medium level of intensity (M): Medium cracks with some breakup and raveling.
Higher level of intensity (H): Considerable breakup or raveling along the edge.

Low

Medium

High

c. How to Measure
Edge cracking is measure in linear meters (feet). Measured by the area
affected by the defect length of the affected area multiplied by one meter,
and the defect density is calculated by dividing the area affected by the total
area of the section scanned multiplied by one hundred.
Rutting
a. Description
A rut is a surface depression in the wheel paths (see Figure 2.10). Pavement uplift may occur
along the sides of the rut, but in many instances, ruts are noticeable only after a rainfall, when the
wheel paths are filled with water. Rutting stems from a permanent deformation in any of the
pavement layers or sugared, usually caused by consolidated or lateral movement of the materials
due to traffic loads. Significant rutting can lead to major structural failure of the pavement.

Figure 2.10 Rutting (GTC, 1998)

Causes: Permanent deformation of any layer due to weakened support layers, poorly compacted
layers and unstable wearing surface or overloading.
b. Severity levels
- Low level of intensity (L): the average depth for this level between 6 - 13 mm.
- Medium level of intensity (M): the average depth of between 14-25 mm.
- Higher level of intensity (H): the average depth of rutting at this level more than 25 mm.
c. How to Measure
Rutting is measured in square meter of surface area. The rut depth is determined by laying a (3m)
straight edge across the rut and measuring its depth.
Ravelling
a. Description
Ravelling is the wearing away of the pavement surface because of dislodged aggregate particles
and loss of asphalt binder.

Causes: Oxidation, aged pavement surface, bad workmanship or materials. Raveling is

aggravated by hot and wet weather which causes oxidation and stripping of the asphalt binder.
b. Severity levels
- Low level of intensity (L): noticeable loss of binder or aggregate
- Medium level of intensity (M):
obvious rough or pitted surface, loss of fine aggregate and some loss of coarse
aggregate
- Higher level of intensity (H): aggregate and/or binder worn away, very rough surface
texture

Low
Medium
High
c. How to Measure
Weathering and ravelling are measured in square meter of surface area.
Potholes
a. Description
Potholes are small usually less than 750 mm (30 in.) in diameter bowlshaped depressions in the pavement surface. They generally have sharp
edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole. When holes are created
by high-severity alligator cracking, they should be identified as potholes
(ASTM D6433, 1999).

Figure 2.16 Potholes (GTC, 1998)

Causes: The most common cause of potholes is water seeping into cracks in the surface of the
road during wet freezing weather. The water causes the roadbed to weaken.
b. Severity levels
Table 2.1 severity levels of potholes (ASTM,1999)
Maximum
Depth
(mm)

Median Diameter (mm)

100-200
201-450

451-750

13-15

Low

High

Medium

26-50
More than 50

Low
Low

Medium
Medium

High
High

Low
Medium
High
How to MeasurePotholes are measured by counting the number that are low-, medium-,
and high-severity and recording them separately.
Patching
a. Description
A patch is an area of pavement which has been replaced with new material to repair the existing
pavement (see Figure 2.17). A patch is considered a defect no matter how well it is performing (a
patched area or adjacent area usually does not perform as well as an original pavement section)
(ASTM D6433).

Figure 2.17 Patching (GTC, 1998)

Causes: Previous localized pavement deterioration that has been removed and patched, utility
cuts.
b. Severity levels
Low level of intensity (L):Patch is in good condition and satisfactory.
Ride quality is rated as low severity or better
Medium level of intensity (M): patch is moderately deteriorated or ride quality is rated as
medium severity.
Higher level of intensity (H): patch is badly deteriorated or ride quality is rated as high severity.
Patch needs replacement (maintenance needs to be immediate).

Low
C. How to Measure

Medium

High

Patching is rated in ft2 of surface area; however, if a single patch has

areas of differing severity, these areas should be measured and recorded
separately. For example, a 2.5 m2 (27.0 ft2) patch may have 1 m2 (11 ft2)
of medium severity and 1.5 m2 (16 ft2) of low severity. These areas would
be recorded separately.

Delamination:
Delamination are sections of a surface layer that have come loose from the pavement. It is
a failure mode that can occur in layered materials. With respect to roads it refers to the loss of
large discrete area of the wearing course layer, usually in conjunction with a clear delineation
of the wearing course from the layer below.
Delamination is often caused by layers with different properties resulting in the layers not
working as a unit, uneven or insufficient binder application, loss of asphalt binder due to
aging or poor mix design and deterioration of the upper pavement layer due to oxidation
and weathering. Delamination is also caused by aging of the upper pavement layer and
poor.
Measure: Square meters of area affected

Low

Medium

High

Example of a Flexible Pavement Condition Survey Data Sheet

Calculation of Corrected PCI ValueFlexible Pavement

Asphalt surfaced roads

Condition survey data sheet for section unit
160m
4m

Street : Near Math dept

No. of sample: 01
Surveyed by: Group

1 Alligator/Fatigue cracking
2 Bleeding
3 Block cracking
4 Bumps and sags
5 Corrugation
20 Delamination

Date: MAR/2015

6 Depression
7 Edge cracking
8 Reflection cracking
9 Lane shoulder drop

11 Patching &Utility patch

12 Polished Aggregate
13 Potholes
14 Rutting
10 Longitudinal & Transverse
Distress Type
Quantity
Total
Density
Deduct Value
10M
3.4

16 Shoving
17 Slippage
18 Swell
19 Ravelling
15 Railroad crossing

3.4
0.53
12
10L
5
4

9
1.4
3
19L
8
2
3
1
1

15
2.34
3
19M
4
6
2.6
2

14.6
2.28
10
19H
10
20
1

13
2.03
20
13L
1

1
0.15
21
7L
3
4
2
3.5
2

14.5

2.26
4

1
2
3
4
5

De
du
ct
Va
lu
e
21
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1

Tot
al

CDV

20

12

10

2
0
2
0
2
0
2

1
2
1
2
2

1
0
2

4
0.
9
0.
9
0.
9
0.
9

0.
9
0.
9
0.
9
0.
9
0.
9

0.
9

68
.8

66.8

38

58.8

29

48.8

30

40.8

36

Calculation of Corrected PCI ValueFlexible Pavement

Allowable No of deducts m=1+9/98(100-20)<10

m=8.3<10
0.3*3=0.9

42

Max CDV= 42
PCI=100-MAX CDV=58
Rating=Fair

Road
Name
Mahogany
Marg
Near
Mathemati
cs Dept.
Badam
Marg
Near
RBlock
Near
SERC
S-Block
Road
Madhuka
Marg

Beginning Point

End Point

J R D Library

Old Bio
Building
End of the road

End of the road

Near Juice point

Main gate
Near
Applied
Physics Dept.
Near Toll Gate

No.of
Length(m)
section
Chem.
1
170

Beside the civil End of the road

Dept.
Beside the S- A2-Block
block
Beside
JRD End of the road
library

Width(m)

TDV

CDV

PCI

Rating

71.2

37

80

Satisfactory

160

36

29

58

Fair

612

34

28

89

Very Good

174

32.6

20

28

Very Poor

1059

29

24

59

Fair

705

41

25

46

Poor

293

49

19

71

Satisfactory

CHAPTER-5
GPR SURVEY

Introduction: Maxwells equations

GPR is a diagnostic non-destructive technology based on the

transmitting/receiving of a high
frequency electromagnetic signal. The analysis of phase, frequency and
amplitude differences
between the transmitted and the received signal gives information about
the electromagnetic properties of the media through which the signal is
transmitted, reflected or scattered Applications of GPR include locating
buried voids/cavities, underground storage tanks, sewers, buried
foundations, ancient landfills. It can also be used to characterize bedrock,
ice, the internal structure of floors/walls, water damage in concrete, and
the internal steelwork in concrete. GPR uses transmitting and receiving
antenna. The transmitting antenna radiates short pulses of the highfrequency (usually polarized) radio waves into the ground. When the wave
hits a buried object or a boundary with different dielectric constants, the
receiving antenna records variations in the reflected return signal. The
principles involved are similar to reflection seismology, except that
electromagnetic energy is used instead of acoustic energy, and reflections
appear at boundaries with different dielectric constants instead of
acoustic impedances.
The depth range of GPR is limited by the electrical conductivity of the
ground, and the transmitting frequency. Higher frequencies do not
penetrate as far as lower frequencies, but give better resolution. Optimal
depth penetration is achieved in dry sandy soils or massive dry materials
such as granite, limestone, and concrete where the depth of penetration is
up to 15 m. In moist and/or clay soils with high electrical conductivity,
penetration is sometimes only a few centimetres. Ground-penetrating
radar antennae are generally in contact with the ground for the strongest
signal strength; however, GPR horn antennae can be used 0.3 to 0.6 m
above the ground. The behaviour of both the electric and magnetic fields
and its sources are defined by the Maxwells Equations. Developing these
equations and adding the Continuity Equations (for zones where there are
surface distribution of charge) we can determine how the wave behaves
and its propagation through a medium.

Where E is the electric field (V/m), H is the magnetic field (A/m), D is the electric
displacement field (C/m2), B is the the magnetic induction (W/m2), free electric charge

density (C/m3), J is the free current density (A/m2) In non-dispersive, isotropic media reduce
to.

Where e is the electrical permittivity or dielectric constant of the material, and m is the
magnetic permeability of the material.