Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
32.
equation
two
is
simplified,
by taking
(b,
0)
and
b,
0) as the
points.
We make
from
is
when
>
1.
171
The
[Chap. 4
circular cone.
d.
If
of/.
The
and
directrix are
V(x
K)
+ y2
and x
we have
|
(x,
\
-*)*
where
D denotes the
directrix.
From
P upon
the
the equation
(1
sides,
we
obtain
- e*)x> -2k
Sec. 32]
A Geometric
constant.
If
we denote by
P'(x',
/) a
(1
* 2 )*' 2
is
representative point on
found to be
- 2 tkx' + y' 2 + tW = 0.
then we substitute
x'
(32.4)
= tx,
y'
= ty
in this equation,
passes through the origin, that is, through the point of intersection of the directrix and the perpendicular upon the latter
P and
P' from
OP'
= vV 2 + y' 2 = V*2 + y2 =
/
OP.
As a
and the
[32.1]
if
either
is
if
Two
particular, all
same
and
(32.3)
in
173
The
[Chap. 4
EXERCISES
1.
Show
and that there are two and only two points of an ellipse or hyperbola
on this axis. Verify these statements algebraically from equation (32.2).
2.
is
taken as
the x-axis, and the line perpendicular to the directrix through the
focus for the jy-axis, and the focus is denoted by (0, k).
directrix
directrix
4.
is
the line
5.
is
the line ax
Ax 2
+2
Hxy
By
+ 2 Fx + 2
Gy
k),
and
+ C = 0.
Given two
point
33.
Since a parabola
+ 1, equation
is
(32.2) for
The Parabola
^=2
(33.1)
and equation
is
*'
(33.1) is
by
= *-
'=
y=y>
transformed into
/*
= 2 fee'.
174
we make
the
The Parabola
Sec. 33]
is
in the ry-system,
is x'
+5=
in the
is
from
x=
#y-system.
L4
we
(33.3)
its
focus
This
is
the point
shown
is
(a, 0),
= 4 ax,
and
its
in Fig.
The perpendicular
is
+ a = 0.
positive.
to the axis at
a = 0,
the focus, that is, the line x
in
the
meets the parabola
points
2 a). The line seg(a, 2 a) and (a,
ment with
value of 4
a.
Since the >>-axis meets the parabola in the origin counted doubly,
p IG
it is the tangent to the parabola at
its vertex. From (33.3) it is seen that a parabola is characterized geometrically as follows
:
[33.1]
parabola
distance
is the
from a
locus of a point
whose
four times the
and the focus of the
the square of
parabola from
its
7, 8).
175
The
[Chap. 4
EXERCISES
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y 2
points in which it is intersected by each of the lines
1.
2x-y-l=Q,
Draw
2.
and
x,
2x-;y+l=0.
directrix
and the
its
focus
a.
= 12 x.
= -4x.
y2
b.y*
c.
x2
d.x*
= 8 y.
= - 12 y.
directrices of the
4.
two parabolas.
and whose
new
b.
=
=
4 a(x
4 a(y
is
an equation of a parabola
+
+
a).
c.
a).
d.
x2
= - 4 a(x = - 4 a(y -
a).
a).
7.
Given the
lines
and x
+ 3 = 0,
find
an equation of the
parabola of latus rectum 8 which has these lines for axis and tangent
at the vertex, when the first line is the axis and the curve is to the right
of the second line
below the
8.
line
is
and 2
x+
is
first line.
lines x
>>
-f 1
for axis
vertex.
3*-4.y-l=0
176
Sec. 34]
34. Tangents
The
and Polars
(34.1)
= mx + h
simultaneously.
(33.3)
and
in
collecting terms,
(34.2)
m 2x 2 + 2(mh -2a)x + h 2 = Q
as the equation
When m = 0,
of intersection.
that
m^
-T'h)- When
(h
0,
when
we have from
latter case
two
we say
is
parallel
mh)
(34.2)
m2
the line
(0
~~
is,
is
is
imaginary.
When the line (34.1) intersects the parabola in two real
points, the ^-coordinate of the mid-point of the segment joining
these points, being one half the sum of the two values of x in
(34.3), is (2 a
mh)/m2 and the ^-coordinate of the mid-point
;
we have
lie
When
zero, that
'
(see
177
we have
The
[Chap. 4
[34.2]
(34.4)
is
tangent to
being
6
(jL2
\m
\.
I
i \
^J
The
Hence
shown.
FTP
is
an
isosceles
the
Since
angles
to
[34.3]
it,
FIG. 29
we have
The tangent
When a parabola
is
revolved about
its axis,
we multiply equation
in the
form
(34.4)
178
by 2 a/m and
Sec. 34]
(34.5)
When
(xi, y\) is
equation of a line.
any point
The
is
an
the polar of
the point (x\, y\} with respect to the parabola, and the point
(xi, ;yi) is called the pole of the line. In particular, the polar of
a point on the parabola is the tangent at the point. We shall
now find the geometric significance of the polar of a point not
on the parabola.
If we solve (34.5) for x and substitute the result in (33.3),
we obtain the quadratic
2 yiy
+ 4 axi = 0,
= yi
Vyi
inter-
4 axi.
Hence the
cording as PI
is
If (#2, 1X2) is
y&2
we have
= 2 a(x 2 + *i).
xi, y\
y 2y
= 2a(x + x 2
179
).
The
[Chap. 4
Hence we have
// the polar of a point (xi, y\) with respect
[34.4]
By means
of this theorem
we
yz)>
(*2,
to
a parabola
(x\, yi).
It
theorem
By
the above
on the
SK/
FIG. 30
[34.5]
is the line
joining
We
have
(*it y\)
m 2xi
my +
i
= 0,
These
roots are
which are real and distinct when the point (xi, y\) is outside
in (34.4), we
the parabola. Substituting these values of
obtain the desired equations of the two tangents.
For example,
180
Sec. 34]
EXERCISES
1.
parabolas
= g Xt
_.
y2
_4x
Also find equations of the tangents to the first parabola at the points
for which x = 2, and of the tangents to the second parabola from the
point
2.
is
(3, 2),
in the latter
3* +
1=0;
2jf
two cases.
= 5 x which
Show
x2
that
= 4 ay
is an equation of a parabola with the ;y-axis for the axis of the parabola
and the *-axis for tangent at the vertex. What are the coordinates of
the focus and an equation of the directrix? Show that the tangent
m is
y
is
_.
(2
mx
am,
am 2
__
am
c is the line
2
).
2x + 3y + c = Q
tangent to the
2
parabola x
The normal
to a curve at a point
is
Show
181
The
10.
Show
[Chap. 4
point of tangency and the directrix subtends a right angle at the focus.
11. Show that the tangents to a parabola at the extremities of any
chord through the focus meet at a point on the directrix. What relation does this result bear to Theorems [34.4] and [34.5]?
12. Show that the chord joining the points of contact of any two
mutually perpendicular tangents to a parabola passes through the
focus.
13. Let /i and 12 be two chords of a parabola through a point P
within the parabola, and let P\ and P* be the points of intersection of
the tangents to the parabola at the extremities of l\ and /2 respectively.
Show that the line PiP2 is the polar of P.
35. Ellipses
and Hyperbolas
P whose
(35.1)
If
we
(1
by
(1
e2 )
by adding k2 /(l
the
result
equation,
may be written
e2 ) 2
of the terms in x
If,
hyperbolas,
(35.2)
'=-rb' *-*
x'
and
y' is
Sec. 35]
Ellipses
and Hyperbolas
The
(k,
0)
(35.4)
it is
(see
2)
x'-
and
that
is,
if
(#',
/)
is
and
>
__
ke
2
OJ
e
(
-z
^>
'
ellipse or of
central conies.
If, in order to simplify the equation (35.3),
quantity a by
(35.5)
we
define the
'-f^?'
in equation (35.3), that
183
is,
The
[Chap. 4
coordinates in the
<
is
35 6>
-
From
A(a, 0). Also from (35.4) it follows that the coordinates of the
focus and an equation of the directrix are respectively
x+-a = 0.
F'(-ae,0),
(35.7)
Since, as remarked before, an ellipse or a hyperbola is symmetric with respect to its principal axes, which in the present
coordinate system are the x- and ;y-axes, it follows from considerations of symmetry that for each of these curves there is
are given
respectively.
They
by
x
F(ae, 0),
(35.8)
respectively.
As a
- -=
c
them
separately.
The quantity
is
a 2 (I
e2 )
<
1.
number
(35.9)
Consequently a
b
is
ft
defined
by
= a*(l - e2
real
since e
(35.9')
),
184
ft
Sec. 35]
Ellipses
and Hyperbolas
from
(35.6),
j^+=l,
(35.10)
in
which
it is
(35.10')
s-g-1,
FIG. 31'
From
an
(35.10)
ellipse
it
follows that
meets the
jy-axis
and
from
From
of the hyperbola.
The segment
axis,
the
ellipse,
b are called
that
is,
are
and
semi-conjugate
tively.
axes
respecpoints A' and A y
the extremities of the transverse axis, are called the ver-
The
Fig. 31.)
jugate axis
is
185
given in
37.
The
[Chap. 4
From
equations (35.9) and (35.9') we have that in the respective cases the eccentricity is expressed in terms of the
semi-axes as follows
:
(35.H
(35.11)
fact that e
<
1 for
an
ellipse
and
>
(35.12)
When
and
a2
(35.12')
31',
ter of a
foci.
to
equal
a right triangle whose legs
are the semi-transverse and
We
shall
now
find
(35.13)
The
of
x-Z,
+ Z-
from the
(35.14)
numerical values of
ex
ex
186
Sec. 35]
Ellipses
and Hyperbolas
FP = a-
from which
(35.15)
F'P
ex,
it
= a + ex,
follows that
FP +
F'P
= 2a.
Hence
in
the
first
Accordingly we have
(35.150
F'P-FP =
2a,
sign or the
sign applying according as P is on the
right-hand or left-hand branch.
the
the
major
axis.
length
[35.1']
a conof the
hyperbola
is
equal
to
foci.
In fact,
if
the dis-
FIG. 32
tance between the foci is denoted by 2 c and the length of the loop by
2 a H- 2 c, the sum of the focal radii is 2 a. Since c = ae, an ellipse
of given major axis 2 a and given eccentricity e is described when
the tacks are set at the distance 2 ae apart and the loop is of length
2 0(1
+ e).
187
The
[Chap. 4
stick rotates
F'P
-FP = 2a.
[35.1]
// d\
[35.2]
from
the
its
f + f-
(35.16)
'
all of
[35.3]
(a
b 2 )/a 2
when
a>
b.
from
tively,
then
188
b,
Sec. 35J
Ellipses
and Hyperbolas
and any curve all of whose points are so related to two perpendicular line segments, of lengths 2 a and 2 b and each of
which
2
given by e
(a
+ b?)/a2
a hyperbola, whose
eccentricity is
and
>>
respectively,
is
law of gravitation, so that now the orbits of the planets are obtained
readily from Newton's law by the use of coordinate geometry and the
calculus. We have seen that for an ellipse each focus is at the distance ae from its center, and thus the eccentricity determines the
departure of the focus from the center. For the earth e is about 1/60,
so that its orbit is almost circular. For the recently discovered planet
Pluto e is about 1/4, the semi-major axis of its orbit is nearly 40 times
and
The paths
250 years.
its
return
EXERCISES
1.
Show
ellipse
(0,
e* =
2.
(b
a*)/b*.
Find the
a.
b.
+ 4 y 2 = 12.
2
9 x + 5 y 2 = 45.
3 x2
and
c.
d.
189
- 4 y 2 = 20.
2
9 x - 16 y* = 12.
5 x2
The
3.
foci are
[Chap. 4
3, 0)
and
(3, 0),
(b)
(c)
4.
(0, 3),
5.
when
when
its
major axis
its
eccentricity
is
twice
is
minor axis
its
2/3.
directrix
l,
focus
and
axes, of lengths 4
6,
+3=
and y
respectively.
6.
lengths 8
respectively.
7. Find an equation of the locus of a point the sum of whose distances from the points (c, 0) and ( c, 0) is 2 a \ also the locus when
the difference of these distances is 2 a.
9.
Show
that,
sponding directrix
What
and
is
if
is h,
same
focus
directrix?
10.
Show
^- + ^-
1 is
positive or negative
according as the point (xi, y\) lies outside or inside the ellipse (35.10).
What is the similar theorem for the hyperbola ?
11.
In what sense
is
circle
an
13.
(cf.
from the
14.
foci.
the line
3^-4^-5 =
ellipse
as directrix,
and
(2,
1) as focus,
eccentricity 1/2
also find
an equation of the hyperbola with this focus and directrix, and ecthe transverse
centricity 2. What is the major axis of this ellipse
;
(See Ex.
9.)
190
15.
Sec. 36]
by means of
(29.5)
and
tangular coordinates
and that
this is
- in
polar coordinates;
cos 6
show
is
+ -e =
Show
for directrix.
with focus at
a 2 cos 2
We
turn
now
an
ellipse
with
1'
is
and Tangents
parallel
of Central Conies
of a central conic
The
y = mx
(36.1)
+h
by
(36.2')
- a 2 mh d= ab Vft 2 + a 2 m 2 - h 2
a2 m 2
+ b2
_ - a 2 mhab^/b 2 - a 2 m 2 + h'
a2 m2 - b2
From
As
a*mh,
yo
'
a2 mh,
-2
- hb2
a*m*-,
191
TKe
of each chord.
By
on the respective
we
[Chap. 4
lines
,_.
ft
(36.30
(36.3)
mm'
(36.4)
we have
=-
FIG. 34
FIG. 34'
Hence we have
an ellipse, or of a
locus of the mid-points of chords parallel
is the
to the other.
Equations
is,
(36.3)
and
(36.3')
192
Sec. 36]
The
(36.5)
are
The
parallel lines
y=
y = mx
(36.5')
tangent
to
the
ellipse
(36.6)
parallel lines
On
denoting by x\, y\ the coordinates of either point, the equation of the tangent at the point may be written in the form
(36.7)
Si
*L_m
=
a
( 36.7')
b2
[36.2]
make equal
a2
'
a 2 (l
e2 )
1.
From
PI(XI, yi)
is
rr
xx
a
VVi
2
.
193
The
Hence
direction
numbers of
[Chap. 4
page 30)
Since the foci are F'( ae, 0) and F(ae, 0), direction numbers
of the focal radii are (see Theorem [6.1])
W2
= xi
v2
ae,
= jyi,
calculations
^^
2
Substituting x\ and y\ for x and y in (36.8), solving for yi and
substituting in the last of the above equations, we have
,
U2
+ v2 =
2
(xi
= a2
+ a 2 (l - e2 - *i 2 (l - e2
2 xiae + e Xi 2 = (a + Xie) 2
ae)
When
+ *i 2 (l - e2
Since the factor
+ x^),
which the
2
)
in
and the
As a physical
194
Sec. 36]
EXERCISES
1.
5 x2
4;y
line
10
3y
= 0.
at the point
(2,
4 y2
4.
point
5.
1).
ellipse
5 x2
=4
+ 9 y 2 = 45
which
is
from the
2).
Show
when
the point
outside
is
y\)
(xi,
Do
(x\ t y\)
the results of
an
ellipse
and
for
a hyperbola ?
7.
Show
Show
(35.10')
is
by a rotation
that
= 90,
equation
transformed into
and that in the #';y '-system the coordinates of the vertices are (0, a)'
and equations of the direcae)', (0, ae)
(0, a)' and of the foci, (0,
9
trices are
vertices, foci,
9.
= 0.
and
Given an
Apply
which
a>
b,
4 y2
and the
12.
circle
with
OP makes
Show
that x
= a cos 8,
195
y=
b sin
0,
which
The
[Chap. 4
Find the relation between the lengths of two conjugate diaman ellipse and also between those of a hyperbola. Show
that when a hyperbola has a pair of conjugate diameters of equal
10.
eters of
length,
it is
rectangular.
Show
of
12.
Show
an
ellipse
to the semi-major
axis.
that the sum of the squares of the reciprocals of two perof an ellipse is constant.
diameters
pendicular
13.
Show
14.
Show
x2
that
*rZ
for all values of
conies, all
less
than a 2 except
same
foci.
b2
of confocal conies.
15. Show that through each point in the plane not on either coordinate axis there pass two conies of a confocal system, one being
an ellipse and the other a hyperbola, and that the tangents to these
curves at the point are perpendicular to one another.
The Asymptotes
of a
Hyperhola.
Conjugate Hyperbolas
Consider in connection with equation (35.10) the equation
%+ i = k
(37.1)
where k
is
some constant.
written
If
2
X
7
a *
= ka 2
is
>
+ &'y22 = 1
may be
'
where a 12
b'
is,
196
Sec. 37]
Asymptotes
ellipse, since
point
there
is
it is an equation of a
only one real solution of the equation,
that is,
V^T~x,
a
>
is an equation of a family of
same center and respective principal axes; equation (37.1) is an equation of a point ellipse
when k = Q, and of a family of imaginary ellipses when
k<0.
Similarly we consider in connection with (35.10') the equation
(37.2)
=*
where k
(37.1),
is
an equation of a hyperbola
We
<>
it is
when
= 0,
that
is,
the equation
= 0.
(37.3)
When
iT2-f-2
this
equation
is
(M)(i
iH
Ex.
7).
We
197
shall
study
The
[Chap. 4
is
given by y\
=-
a 2 in
is
given by
~
( 37.
rf
6)
-*i)
- a2 - *i)(V*i 2 - a2 +
As
Xi
larger, that
is,
as the point
(xi, yi)
is,
is
The
-5
~w=
198
1-
Sec. 37]
hyperbola
[37.2]
is
<
bola;
>
and
= 0.
is
left
to the
When
we
become equal
m, and consequently
cannot propit
is said that
Sometimes
the
to
be
asymptotes.
applied
erly
the asymptotes are tangent to a hyperbola at infinity, but we
prefer the statement that the hyperbola approximates the
asymptotes as distances from the center become very large.
this treatment of tangents
EXERCISES
1.
2
conjugate to 3 x
2.
Show
vertices, foci,
4 y2
and
12.
hyperbola in
hyperbola.
Show by means
2
2
y
tangular hyperbola x
2
=
a
axes its equation is xy
4.
Show
and
= !.
C
199
e'
of a hyperbola
and
its
con-
The
[Chap. 4
4 x2
7.
Show
the hyperbola
of
1 to
what values
for
fax
b\y
Ci
+ b2y + c2 )
and a 2 x + b*y
Ci)(a2 x
= 0.
is
the two
is
9.
lines a\%
Show
b\y
-f c 2
Show
13. Show that if a line meets a hyperbola in the points P' and P",
and the asymptotes in R' and R", the mid-points of the segments
P'P" and R'R" coincide.
14.
Show
bola from
15.
its
Show
end points of
16. Identify
each of the
loci defined
x2
kl
when each
graph
all
of the
's
a2
k*
v2
J*
1,
by the equation
= fe
0,
1,
and
draw on one
= 2.
Show that two equations (37.2) for values of k equal numeribut of opposite sign are equations of conjugate hyperbolas.
17.
cally
18. Show that the ratio of the semi-axes for each family of hyperor k <
bolas (37.2) as k >
is the same for all members of the
family. What relation does this ratio bear to the eccentricity of each
hyperbola?
200
The Conies
Sec. 38]
38.
The Conies
as Plane Sections of a
Cone
and a section
Cone
V is
TT
the point of
and the plane
bisector
meets OA.
the
of
in
which
angle
KVO
The point C
same distance
at the
is
in a
line
tangent to
each element of the cone, and all the points of tangency are
on a circle BE. DG is the line of intersection of the plane of
circular, this sphere is
cone,
its
circle,
we have
201
The
PQ
PH =
sin
VBD
PQ
PG =
[Chap. 4
sin
VDB
Hence we have
The
PH
PG
PF
PG
'
sin
VDB
sin
VBD
angle
angle
VDB
is
P on
(38.1) that
PF =
;
r(j
const.,
the curve,
it
is
follows
a conic,
intersection,
is,
the line
H', B',
Equations of Conies
Sec. 39]
a line D'G' parallel to Z)G, the points D' and G' being on the
As in the preceding case,
lines VK and GP respectively.
PH' = PF', being equal tangents from P to the second sphere.
By the argument used above we show that F is the other focus
of the ellipse and D'G' the corresponding directrix. Moreover,
for any point P the sum of PF and PF' is equal to the length
1
of the segment of
of the two circles
;
major
VK
is
rem [35.1]).
As previously remarked, when the conic section is a hyperbola one branch lies on each of the two cones which are a
prolongation of one another through 0. The focus within
each branch
is
We
rem
[35.1']).
Parallel
Coordinate Axes
It was remarked in
32 that an equation of a curve is determined not only by the geometric character of the curve but
also by its position relative to the coordinate axes. The equation
(39.1)
(1
was derived
- e2 )*2 + y2 - 2 kx + k2 =
when
in
the directrix
203
The
[Chap. 4
<
and a hyperbola
1)
(e
>
1) respectively.
the directrix of a conic is taken as the #-axis and the perpendicular through the focus upon the directrix as the jy-axis,
If
denoted by
is
y?
(39.2)
(1
(0, &),
is
- e*)y* - 2 *y + A 2 = 0,
by
interchanging % and y.
(39.3)
in
+ by2 + 2 fx + 2 g y + c = 0,
for the
We consider
is
this equation
when
equal to zero.
or b
Case 1. a
neither
is
equation (39.3) by
involving y, we obtain
(39.4)
When/ 7*
0,
and
on applying the
equation (39.5)
y'
(39.7)
is
by
transformed into
= 4a'x',
where
a'
= --^r>
Zi
If
204
Equations of Conies
Sec. 39]
substitute from (39.6) and (39.7) the expressions for *', /, and
terms of x, y, and the coefficients of equation (39.3).
a' in
When
= f = 0,
As a quadratic
in
is
equation (39.3)
it
=k
y = k2
lt
consists of
two
fa or k\
fa
[39.1]
k\
An
+ =
2
2 gy
c
is an equation of
equation by
2fx
a parabola with axis parallel to the x-axis when f ^
;
when / =
it
0,
x-axis, which
is
an equation of two
may
be coincident if real, or
which
may
be
imaginary.
Similar reasoning applied to equation (39.3)
yields the theorem
and b
[39.2]
when a
+ =
An
2
2 gy
c
is an equation of a
2fx
equation ax
to
the
when
axis
with
parallel
y-axis when g ^
parabola
two
lines
to
the
an
it
is
parallel
y-axis,
0,
equation of
g
;
which
may
be coincident if real, or
which
may be
imaginary.
2y 2 +
3x-4y + 4 = 0.
the square in y,
we have
).
focus
is
the point
25/24, 1)
directrix is
* + -f = * + ^ = 0.
In obtaining these results we have used the processes which led to
Theorem [39.1]. The reader should adopt this method in the solution
of any exercise.
205
The
Case
and
2.
in the
7* 0,
/s
[Chap. 4
On
7* 0.
in (39.3),
we obtain
(39.8)
where by definition
If
then
we
x'
new
-c.
(39.10)
in the
(39.9)
= x + ^>
y'
=y+
by
2L
(39.11)
-,'2
+ 2L = *.
When we compare
(37.2), in
An
[39.3]
equation
ax 2
or
a hyperbola or intersecting lines according as k ^
=
a
real
or
a
k
ellipse
for
hyperbola the principal axes
are on the lines
;
= 0,
= 0.
(39.12)
The
-f-
(39.10).
in the x's
and
206
in the
/s, we have
Sec. 39]
Equations
By Theorems
on the
is
Conies
[37.2]
2/V3
transverse axis
V2
ot
line
x-
V3Cv
4- 2) __
x-l
o
2
/^
V2
o
2
'
/;r
V2
'
For a hyperbola
e2
= (a 2 +b
)/b
be,
(l,
db
VlO/3). Equa-
y>L =
EXERCISES
1.
Draw
vertex, axis,
4^ -32 x + 4^-63 =
2
0,
3 *2
+ 6* + 3y + 4 = 0.
- 4 y2 -
- 8 y - 31 = 0,
4* -.y + 2x-3;y-2 = 0.
that the line y = 2 x + h shall be
9 x2
6.
first
7.
Determine h so
conic in Ex.
Show
18 x
tangent to the
5.
207
is
is
\l
^
or
parallel to the
The
Show
8.
*-axis
(x2 ,
y*
[Chap. 4
9).
when
What
its
axis
is
= 0.
*2
when
y-2
4,
is
40.
of the
Second Degree.
Invariants
is
(40.1)
and y
and
If
y' in
which there
now we apply
is
no term
in x'y'.
we obtain
(40.2)
a'x' 2
where the
by
'*
208
c'
c.
Sec. 40]
ot the
Second Degree
From
coeffi-
(40.4)
(b
- a)
cos 9
sin
b = a, this equation
= 45. When b ^ a, if equation
When
is,
+ h (cos2 - sin2 0) = 0.
= sin 9
is satisfied by cos
that
divided by cos 2
0,
be written
may
h tan 2
(40.5)
(40.4)
is
(a
b)
- h = 0,
tan
This means that the #'-axis for the angle 6\ and the one for 2
are perpendicular to one another (see Theorem [7.3]). How-
we
h' shall
For example,
so that in the
if it is
new coordinates
equation (40.5)
is
2 tan 2
there
3 tan
is
no term
2
= 0.
1/V5, so that
is
|-,
Substituting these expressions for x and y in the above equation and
collecting terms, we obtain as the new equation
209
The
y',
{Chap. 4
From
(40.3)
we
derive other results of importance. On addand &', and making use of the fun-
damental identity
(40.7)
sin 2
+ cos 2 =
a'
+ b' = a + b.
1,
we obtain
(40.8)
It is
reducible to
is
a'V
(40.9)
- h' 2 = ab- h 2
in the general
of
the
second
which
is
member
the
left-hand
degree
expression
of equation (40.1) are subjected to any transformation of the
b and ab
h 2 are equal to
form (28.8), the expressions a
the same expressions in the coefficients of the transform (40.2),
that is, the equation into which equation (40.1) is transformed.
In this sense we say that a
b and ab
h 2 are invariants under
the transformation. Invariants are of fundamental importance in applications of transformations of coordinates, as we
shall see in
what
follows.
but not both, otherwise (40.2) is of the first degree, and consequently (40.1) is of the first degree. This latter statement
follows also from the fact that if a' = V = 0, then from (40.8)
210
Invariants
Sec 40]
2
2
and ab
h2 =
(a + h ) = 0, which can
hold for real values of a and h only when both are zero. When
or b' = 0, we have from Theorems
h' = 0, and either a' =
[39.1] and [39.2] that the curve is a parabola or two parallel lines.
Conversely, when the curve is a parabola or two
1
0, as follows from (40.9). This is an
parallel lines, ob
example of the fact that when an invariant is equal to zero for
we have
0,
lfi
Case
- A2 >
ab
2.
it is
0.
When
= 0,
it
are both positive or both negative, and in consequence of Theorem [39.3] it follows that (40.1) is an equation
of a real or imaginary ellipse or a point ellipse.
Case
b'
3.
- h 2 < 0. When
ab
differ in sign,
two intersecting
lines.
results,
we have the
following
[40.1]
Equation
h2 <
0.
This result
the case ab
may be
h2
= 0,
2
2
2hxy by According as h is
degree in (40.1), that is, ax
V06, the
positive or negative, when h is replaced by Va# or
2
that is, the
above expression may be written (Va x
j)
terms of the second degree form a perfect square.
Ifab
h2 7*Q and 6^0, the terms of the second degree are
equal to
| (by
The
[Chap. 4
ab
h2
<
or
>
If b
0.
0, in
which case ab
h2
<
0,
the
2 hy,
factors of the terms of the second degree are x and ax
both real and distinct. From this result and Theorem [40.1]
we have
[40.2]
An
which
factors of the terms of the second degree are conjugate imaginary; it is an equation of a hyperbola or two real inter-
when
secting lines
are real
We
and
consider
where
now
all
the equation
+ btf + d)(a 2 x + b 2y + c =
(a&
(40.10)
distinct.
2)
rem
[40.2],
if
*,
a hyperbola or
is
or k
= 0. When
7* 0,
x'y',
in
if
(ai'x
(40.11)
From
+ fti'/X*!'*' - *,'/) = *.
up to Theorem
37
it
those in (40.10),
we have
(40.3 J
(40.12)
An
[39.3],
aix
+ btf + ci
= 0,
212
0,
a2x
+ b 2y + c =
2
Sec. 40]
of the
Second Degree
is
asymptotes.
(40.13)
If
we
+ by + Cl
(ax
+ by + c 2 = *.
)
effect
ax
is
+ by + Ci =
'
= Ci,
and
where
c2
this
an equation of two
is
if c 2
An
[40.4]
of c 2 ',
'
if c 2
In either case
CL
k, a,
equation (ax
c2
and
b.
depending
Hence we have
+ by + Ci)(ax +
fry
+ c 2 = & is an equa)
As a consequence
of this result
and Theorem
[40.2]
we have
[40.5]
(40.14)
+ xy-2y*-2x + 5y-2 = Q.
The terms of
(40.15)
When
get
(x
-y + d)(x + 2y + e) = k.
+ xy _ 2y * +
(d + e)x + (2 d
213
- k = 0.
e)y + de
we
TKe
Comparing
this equation
</
from the
first
an
[Chap. 4
+ 6 = - 2,
cf
- =
<?
de-k = -2;
5,
k to be equal to
equation of a hyperbola
that for de
is
_.
>>,
+1-
and
3,
so
(40.14)
+ 2y-3 =
its asymptotes.
From these results it follows that the equation
2 by
obtained from (40.14), on replacing the constant term
3, is
are
case k in (40.15)
is
which ab
h 2 < 0, it is advisable to use the above process,
which yields the asymptotes when the locus is a hyperbola, and
equations of the lines when the locus is two intersecting lines.
EXERCISES
1. Determine the type of conic defined by each of the following
equations either by effecting a rotation of the axes or by using the
theorems of
this section
- 4 xy + 8 y* + 18 x - 36 y + 9 = 0.
2
b. x 2 - 4 xy + 4 y + 5 y - 9 = 0.
2 2
11 x - 2 y + 12 = 0.
c. 2 x + 3 xy - 2 y
2 2
2 x - 2 y - 3 = 0.
d. x + 2 xy + y
2
2
e. x -4xy-2y -2x + 7y-3 = Q.
a.
2.
5 x2
2x 2
-3xy-2y + 3x-y + S = Q,
2
all
Show
that a hyperbola is completely determined by its asympand a point of the hyperbola, and apply this principle to find
3 y + 1 = 0,
an equation of a hyperbola whose asymptotes are 2 x
3 =
and which passes through the point (1,
x+y
2).
4.
totes
Show
>~4 =
214
2, 3).
The Determination
Sec. 41]
of
a Conic
(40.10),
41.
The Determination
Conic from
General Form
of a
Its
Equation in
We
ax 2
(41.1)
and discuss
the form
first
(41.2)
by
the case
when
+ 2(hx + g)y +
(ax
0,
+ 2 /* + c) = 0.
y=-**
(41.3)
where A
(41.4)
is
defined
A=
&
\^A,
by
(hx
(h
+ g) 2 - b(ax2 + 2fx + c)
- ab)x2 + 2(hg - bf)x + &2 -bc.
215
The
that
[Chap. 4
is,
A=
+ by + g = 0.
hx
(41.6)
We may
tract
- VZi, where A\
the value of
is
A when
line the
quantity
by
intersection
on the
in the point
which y
for
hx
-*fl.
i
1
/Z\
-t-^v^i;
J.
line
+6
j--
#o =
line x
tangent to the curve at
hence the
is
/r
AUi,
coincide
12, after
gestive
Fig.
;
the line hx
+ by + g=
pIG
37
and
the position and shape of the curve depend upon the values of
the coefficients in (41.1).
From
if
and only
the
first
if
is
must have
hg-bf=0,
(41.7)
216
The Determination
Sec. 41]
which case
in
of a
Conic
(41.3) is
(41.8)
-bc =
We
if
0.
when ab
fect square.
The
condition that
(kg
(41.9)
The
0,
bf)
(h
h2
and
is
be a perfect square
a peris
is
bD where
equal to
D=
(41.10)
D is defined by
a
h
f
Since
to
b
0, we have that (41.9) is equivalent
this condition is satisfied, equations (41.3)
by hypothesis
D = 0. When
are equivalent to
by
(41.11)
- bf > or < 0.
hg
We consider now
as ab
bilities
= 0,
in
(41.12)
As a
h2
is
+1
zero, positive,
also
when
(41.1) is
be able to determine
217
The
is
an equation of two
[Chap. 4
if
and only
if
2
imaginary according as g
coincident
if
be
bc>
;
when
or
D=
<
0,
f2
The part
ac>Qor<Q,
When = h =
b
follows from
it
have
When ab
ellipse
h2
=
if D
according as
>
D ^ 0, it is
bD > or < 0.
;
if
a point
a real or imaginary
ellipse
= 0,
218
The Determination
Sec. 41]
and ax
lines,
is
+ 2 hy.
there
then (41.12)
If
must
of a
Conic
to be an equation of
e such that
is
two
numbers d and
exist
member
of (41.12).
Multiplying these
Solving the
the third,
first
+ ad = 2f,
two equations
we have
satisfied:
[41.3]
= 0,
+ ch
in fact
is
ed
g,
c.
for e
that the
a g2
which, since b
hd
2 __
2 fgh
D = 0. Hence we
have
D^
From
An
[41.4]
D=
we have
if
and only
The
[41.5]
equal
to the
It follows
from
ax
=
if D
and only
is
the following
quadratic expression
ax 2
is
is
this
first degree, if
0.
2, if
When by means
of
Theorems
[41.4]
and
is a degenerate conic
not a point ellipse, he should reduce the equation to
the product of two factors of the first degree in x and y, after
the manner of the exercise worked toward the end of 40, and
interpret the result geometrically.
which
is
219
The
[Chap. 4
EXERCISES
1.
tions of Ex.
2.
c is
4.
Show
that
this section,
40.
1,
when
D=
is
(41.1)
is
lines ?
and
an equation of a
lines.
(40.13) ?
is
real, that
5.
is, if
Show
bD>
0.
is
bD <
when
0.
of parallel chords of the conic ; and that when the conic is a parabola
it is a line parallel to the axis of the parabola (see Theorem [34.1]).
6. Show that when (41.1) with b
conic, the x-coordinate of the center
an equation of a central
is
is
of the equation A
0, where A is defined by (41.4),
coordinates x Qt y$ of the center are given by
when
_ag- hf
hg
= 0.
in equation (41.1)
consider the equation as
7. Assume that a ^
a quadratic in x with y entering in the coefficients, and discuss the
solution for x in a manner similar to that developed in this section.
;
8.
form
Show
that,
when an equation
(40.10), equations of
its
+ biy -f Ci =
a\x
of a hyperbola
a2 x
<?
Apply
written in the
-f b2y
+ c2
V02 + fc 2
2
ax 2
is
is
ab
h2
+ 2hxy +
for
by
an equation
+ 2fx +
first
220
degree.
Sec. 42]
Show
10.
and Tangents
can be written
[(A
-06)x +
V/* 2
where
e is
or
by
+ g + eVg 2 - be]
- VA 2 - ab)x + by + g
- e^/g^-bc] = b(c - c),
[(h
following (40.15).
11.
an
Show
ellipse,
that x 2
and obtain
2 xy
its
2 x
in the
equation
+ 4y=
is an equation of
form (40.10) by the method
of Ex. 10.
(42.1)
[6.3],
= xi + tu,
= yi + tv
are parametric equations of the line through the point (x\ 9 y\)
v, t being proportional to the
(x\, y\)
we
ax2
equation
(42.3)
(au
We make
number
of
questions.
the points of intersection of the line and the conic as end points,
the two solutions of (42.3) must differ only in sign, and hence the
that is,
coefficient of / in (42.3) must be equal to zero
;
(42.4)
(ax,
+ hy +f)u +
l
(h Xl
221
+ byi + g)v = 0.
The
[Chap. 4
In order that (x\, y\) shall be the center of the conic, it must
be the mid-point of every chord through it, and consequently
(42.4) must hold for every value of u and v. This means that
the center (JCG ;yo), if the conic has a center, is given by
,
ax<>
(42.5)
+ hy +f=Q,
hx
+ byo + g = Q.
By Theorem [9.1] these equations have one and only one common solution if ab h2 ^ 0. When this condition is satisfied,
the coordinates of the center are given by (see
41, Ex. 6)
h 2 ^ 0, and (*o,
and ab
of the two real or imaginary
now
yo) is
the intersection
lines,
then the expression in the last parentheses in (42.3) is equal
to zero. Also, if u and v are direction numbers of either of the
lines, equation (42.3) must be satisfied for every value of /.
au2 + 2huv
+ bv2 = 0.
From this it follows, as shown before, that the lines are real
h2 <
or imaginary according as ab
or > 0. Since (42.4)
must hold for the direction numbers of the two lines, we again
obtain equations (42.5). Consequently the coordinates of the
vertex, that is, the point of intersection of the lines, are given
by
(42.7)
it
(42.6).
(42.8)
+ gyo + c = 0.
[42.1]
When ab
center (42.6)
vertex (42.6)
h2
when
when
D ^ 0,
= 0.
and
222
is
Sec. 42]
and Tangents
do
(42.5)
ag
= 0,
line
(42.9)
for
0,
when
xi
and
Hence we have
Equation (42.9)
[42.2]
is
an equation of
u and
midnumbers
(au
we observe
perpendicular to (42.9) by
quently u and v must be such that
any
line
au
Theorem
[6.9].
of
Conse-
+ bv = rv,
proportionality r ^ 0,
+ hv = ru,
hu
otherwise there
where r is a factor of
written
are
is no line (42.9). When these equations
;
(42.10)
(a-r)u
+ hv = 0,
hu+(b-r)v =
we have
Q,
(42.11)
b-r
223
= 0,
TKe
[Chap. 4
becomes
r2
(42.12)
This equation
We
(42.2).
ab-h
Case
is
(a
+ b)r +
(ab
- A2 = 0.
)
9* 0.
1.
zero root,
ab
h* = 0. In this case
and from (42.10) we have
-f b is
=-=v~ b~ h
(42.13)
(a
Hence we have
(see
When
[42.3]
41, Ex. 5)
(42.2) is
is
an
Case
2.
are found
(42.14)
ab-h*7
0.
and are always real numbers. The two roots are different, unless o = b and h = 0, in which case the conic is a circle (see
12). In any particular case, other than that of a circle, with
the two values of r from (42.14) two sets of values of u and v
may be found from (42.10), which when substituted in (42.9)
give the two principal axes of the conic.
When the left-hand member of (42.2) is the product of two
factors of the first degree, in which case by Theorem [41.5]
D = 0, and a transformation of coordinates is effected, the resulting expression in x y' is the product of two factors of the
first degree, and consequently D' =
for this expression, where
f
224
Sec. 42]
/(*,jO-r(*
(42.15)
that
+ y 2 +l),
is,
(a
r)x
By Theorem
= 0.
b-r
c-r
(42.16)
/r
is
+ Jr - D = 0,
where
(42.17)
When
=a+b+
J=
c,
ab
+ be +
is
ac
h2
-f2 - g2
applied to (42.15),
we
obtain
(42.18)
/'(*',
/)-r(*'
+ / 2 +l),
where /'(*',
y') denotes the transform of f(x y), that is, the exinto
which f(x, y) is transformed. If (42.15) is the
pression
product of two factors of the first degree, so also is (42.18) and
we have
^_
//r2
_D =^
,
Jftf
a',
is
c'
as
/,
not affected
D=
D'.
rotation
of the axes.
is
a,
ft,
and h are
The
For
If,
D'
this expression
[Chap. 4
is
+g
considering f(x Q yo) expressed in the form (42.7), we subfrom the last row the first row multiplied by XQ and the
,
tract
which
is
lation,
we have
axo
hx
fxo
+ by + g
+
[42.4]
an equation of the
an invariant under any change
coefficients of
is
h 2 are invariants, it
b and ab
40, a
Since, as shown in
follows that the roots of the characteristic equation are the
same in every coordinate system. When by a rotation of the
equation of an equation
ab-h 2
(42.19)
where
r\,
r2
h2
when ab
We
ab-/i 2 ^0.
1.
ax 2
+ by 2 + c = 0.
226
Sec. 42]
In this case
in
n*2
(42.20)
+ r2y2 + 7ir2 = 0.
Hence we have
an
ellipse or of
^
D^
h2
[42.5]
a hyperbola, when
roots
0w equation of
according as the
is
0,
is
it
D = 0-
when
Case 2. ab
one of the roots
7z
is
= 0.
zero,
From
it
(42.19)
degenerate
not zero (see Ex. 6). From the results of 40 it follows that
(42.2) is transformable into an equation of the form
is
ax 2
+ 2 by =
D=
ri*
(42.21)
+ 2 x\
ax 2
or
+ c=* 0.
n* 2 + c =
or
0.
r\
The preceding
r i* 2
......
=
a
~~
Ellipse or hyperbola
ri/2
Two
lines
Parabola
*c =
if
(42.5)
and
(42.2)
have a common
227
solution.
The
[Chap. 4
When
he
roots,
axes
it is
means
of (42.9)
and
(42.10).
We
we have
at (*i,
and
;yi),
must be
zero, that
is,
(axi
From
this
it
point
x-xi
y-yi
|
When
=0
An
[42.6]
to the
(xi, y\) is
(42.22)
EXERCISES
1.
Find the
axis, vertex,
4x 2 -12xy + 9y 2
2.
b.
Show
-3x-2y + 4 = Q.
2 x2
-4ry - y 2 + 7x-2>> + 3 = 0.
228
Locus Problems
Sec. 43]
3.
Show
that
when
translation of axes
is
.yo)
first
is
y'.
Apply
this process
to the conic
6.
Show
2* a -4*> + 3j a
(2,
1)
-2* + 3j'-12 = 0.
8.
What
h2
ab
= 0,
is
when
first
as the parameter
the origin.
+ 2hxy +
by
+ 2 fix + 2 gty + c = 0,
lie
on a straight
line
through
meant by
We
229
The
of this section.
[Chap. 4
certain cases only a portion of the graph of an equation obtained for a given problem is the locus, that is, some points
of the graph do not satisfy the geometric definition of the locus
;
and the reader must have this in mind as he interprets geometrically any equation he has obtained.
1. Find the locus of the vertex of a triangle whose base is fixed
in position and length, and whose
angles are such that the product of
the tangents of the base angles is a
We
A (a,
0).
0)
a,
and
tan PA' A
If,
A( a ,o)
(*.o)
^'(-a,o)
tan
PAA'
k (* 0).
positive.
is
negative.
In both cases
we have from
a2
is
handling
+JL2 =
T
ka
1
'
230
Locus Problems
Sec. 43]
of the vertex.
We
and
^ #>
x
its
"7^5
(a, 0) by 2 c/>
In accordance with
the definition of the locus we have
</>
tan
(43.1)
Dividing the
obtain
first
From
<f>
this result
MQTV
^
'
=
a
2>
x
tan 2
3Q
2
a
(A* ?\
(
B\x.o) &o)
- ^(tan 2
~
tan 2
and the
first
</>
of (43.1)
_2
" a tan
tan 2
- tan
+ tan
</>
x,
we
</>)
</>
we obtain
tan 2
'
+ tan
</>
as a parameter, and
are expressed in terms of
are
and
parametric equations of the locus.
(43.3)
equations (43.2)
In many locus problems, particularly those in which the
Thus % and y
y of the
locus.
tan 2
= 2 tan </(!
tan2 0).
231
The
[Chap. 4
y = 0, the *-axis, which is an evident solution of the problem, and to the equation obtained by
equating to zero the expression in parentheses. When this
equation is written
this equation is equivalent to
(43.4)
it is
point
0],
conjugate axis
vertices at
20/V3. Only
a,
0)
and
h|,
V and semi-
satisfies
)
is
its
relation to
can
but
has
the
(|
(A in the point P.
A'CA
The
angle
FIG. 40
equal to 2 0; consequently
the angle A' PA is (360 -26) = 180 - 0. But
the angle A' PA is 180 -30. Consequently
is
shown.
Locus Problems
Sec. 43]
EXERCISES
1. Find the locus of a point the sum of the squares of whose distances from two fixed points is constant.
2.
Find the locus of a point whose distances from two fixed points
fixed point
7.
Find the locus of a point the sum of whose distances from two
is equal to the square of its distance from
9.
two
10. Find the locus of a point the sum of the squares of whose distances from two adjacent sides of a square is equal to the sum of the
squares of its distances from the other two sides.
12.
to a fixed line
233
is
circle
passing
The
[Chap. 4
13. Given two parallel lines LI and L%, and a third line L3 perpendicular to the first two, find the locus of a point the product of
whose distances from LI and L3 is a constant times the square of its
distance from
L3
and draw
graph.
15.
=3x
and y
AB
its
in the points
16.
(2,
through
variable line
x
0) a line is drawn meeting the lines y
B. Find the locus of the mid-point of
A and
(2, 0).
on the two
17.
fixed lines.
variable line
ABC, meeting
AB
and
is
drawn
AC
18.
in the points
BE and
D and E
BC
of a triangle
respectively.
Find
CD.
lines.
21. In
allel
to
of the
22.
meet
in
234
circle
which
Locus Problems
Sec. 43)
23.
AB
of a triangle
ABC,
vertex C,
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
when
when
when
when
when
CM 2 CB 2 is constant
2
2
CA + CB is constant;
CA/CB is constant;
;
A and B
is
constant.
ABC,
from
A and B upon
24.
Through each of two fixed points P\(x\, y\) and PaOfe, ^2) lines
drawn perpendicular to one another denote by A and B the points
which these lines meet the j-axis and #-axis respectively. Find the
27.
are
in
A B.
Show
ellipse are
29. Find the locus of a point the tangents from which to the
2
parabola y = 4 ax include an angle of 45. (Use the slopes m\ and m 2
of the tangents as parameters.)
lemniscate (see
FIG. 41
235
The
32.
scribed
cycloid,
[Chap. 4
at the center C of
along a fixed line, using as parameter the angle
the circle formed by the line CP and the perpendicular to the line on
which the circle rolls.
33. Through each of two fixed points PI and P2 lines are drawn so
as to intercept a constant length on a fixed line below PI and P2 find
the locus of the intersection of the variable lines. Can the line PiP2
;
Given two concentric ellipses one within the other, and with
on the same lines, if P is the pole with respect to
the outer ellipse of a line tangent to the inner ellipse, find the locus of P.
36.
when
a, h,
and
+ 2hxy +
g are fixed
and
by
+ 2 gy = 0,
236