Module 2

Synchronous Converters

AC Generator
Alternator (AC Generator) or Synchronous
Generator it is an electrical machine converting
mechanical energy to ac electrical energy.

Principle of Operation
The principle of operation of the alternator is exactly the same as that of
the dc generator that is there is induced emf in the stator conductors when
they cut the magnetic flux produced in its magnetic field poles. However in
an alternator it is not essential for the armature to rotate or and either the
armature or field can be made to rotate while the other is kept constant.
Nowadays the armature is kept stationary and the field rotates around it.

Rotating armature alternator

Rotating field alternator

Advantages of Revolving
Field Stationary Armature
The armature winding is more complex than the field and can
be constructed more easily on stationary armature.
The armature winding can be braced more securely in rigid
frame.
It is easier to insulate and protect the high-voltage armature
winding common to alternators.
The armature winding is cooled more because the stator
case core can be made large enough and with many air
passages or air ducts for force air circulation.
The low voltage field can be constructed for efficient highspeed operation.

Alternator Construction
The main parts of the alternator are the following:
1. Stator. It is built up with stampings which are
insulated with paper varnish. The stator is housed in
frame which is fabricated from electrically welded
steel plates. Slots are cut around the inner surface
which accommodates the windings.
2. Rotor. It has rotating magnetic field poles as in dc
generators which are separately excited from a dc
source known as exciter.

Types of Rotor Construction

Two
Types
of
Rotor
Construction:
1. Salient (or projecting)
poles. It is made of cast
iron
steel
of
good
magnetic quality. These
types of rotors are used in
low speed and medium
speed machines. These
machines have short axial
length
and
large
diameters.
Hydropower
alternators and diesel
engine alternators are of
this type.

Types of rotors used in alternator.

(A) Cylindrical type; (B) Salient-pole type

Types of Rotor Construction

2. Smooth-cylindrical type.
It is made of a solid steel
piece and slots and made
on the circumference of the
rotor to hold the field
windings. This type of rotor
is suitable for high speed
turbo alternators. This type
of rotor is cylindrical and
has a large axial length
and small diameter
Types of rotors used in alternator.
(A) Cylindrical type; (B) Salient-pole type

Alternator Construction (cont.)

2. Alternator Construction
a. Stationary field revolving armature
b. Revolving field stationary armature
3. Damper Windings (Squirrel Cage Windings)
Functions of Damper Windings
Useful in preventing hunting (momentary speed
fluctuations)
Provides the starting torque needed in synchronous
motor
Tends to maintain balanced 3-phase voltage under
unbalanced load conditions

General Types of Alternator

1. Synchronous Generator. It is a generator which is driven
at constant speed (synchronous speed) and it is used in
almost all types of applications.
2. Induction Generator. It is an induction motor which runs
as a generator with a speed above synchronous speed. Its
p.f. is normally leading and usually connected in parallel
with a synchronous generator in order to supply power for
lighting loads.
3. Induction Alternator. It generates voltage at higher
frequencies (500 Hz to 10 kHz). It is used to supply power
to induction furnace in order to heat and melt the metal.

Prime Movers for Alternator

The following are the various prime movers used for
alternators:
For large AC generator
a. Steam turbine
b. Gas turbine
c. Hydraulic turbine
d. Internal combustion engine
For small AC generator
a. Internal combustion engine

Generated Voltage in an Alternator

= . = .
Where: E
m
N
Z
kp
kb

= rms voltage generated per phase

= maximum flux per pole
= number of turns per phase
= number of conductors in series per phase
= pitch or chording or coil span factor
= breadth or distribution or winding or spread factor

Frequency of Generated EMF

Where:
f
= frequency in Hertz
p = number of poles
nS = synchronous speed in rpm

Pitch Factor
Pitch Factor or Chording Factor or Coil Span Factor it may be
defined as the ratio of the vector sum of the induced emfs per coil
to the arithmetic sum of the induced emfs per coil. It is may also be
defined as the ratio of the emfs of short pitch coil to emfs of fullpitch coil. By formula, it is given as

=
= [ ]

.
=

Where: kp = pitch factor
q = qth harmonic (1 for fundamental or first harmonic, 3
for third harmonic, 5 for fifth harmonic and so on.
= span of coil (coil pitch) in electrical degrees

Pitch Factor
Short-pitched winding or chorded winding a winding is
said to be short-pitched or fractional-pitched if its coils are
placed less than one pitch (180 electrical degrees) apart.
Reasons for using Short-pitched winding
They save copper of end connections.
They improved the waveform of the generated emf by
reducing or totally eliminating distorting harmonics
They reduced the eddy current and hysteresis loss by
eliminating high frequency harmonics.

Breadth Factor
Breadth or distribution or winding or spread factor it is
defined as the ratio of emfs of distributed winding to emfs of
concentrated winding.

Where:
kb = breadth factor
n = number of slots per pole per phase
= number of electrical degrees between adjacent slots

Sample Problems
1. Calculate the pitch factor for the given windings:
a. 36 stator slots, 4-poles, coil span = 1 to 8
b. 72 stator slots, 6-poles, coil span = 1 to 10
c. 96 stator slots, 6-poles, coil span = 1 to 12
2. Calculate the breadth factor for a 36-slots, 4 pole,
single-layer, three phase winding.

3. A 3-, 16-pole alternator has a star-connected winding

with 144 slots and 10 conductors per slot. The flux per
pole is 0.03 Weber sinusoidally distributed and the
speed is 375 rpm. Find the frequency and the phase and
line emf. Assume full-pitched coil.

Sample Problems
4. The stator of a 3-, 16-pole alternator has 144 slots and
there are 4 conductors per slot connected in two layers
and the conductors of each phase are connected in
series. If the speed of the alternator is 375 rpm,
calculate the emf per phase. Resultant flux in the airgap is 5 x 10-2 Weber sinusoidally distributed. Assume
the coil span as 150 electrical.
5. An alternator on open circuit generates 360 V at 60 Hz
when the field current is 3.6 A. Neglecting saturation,
determine the open-circuit emf when the frequency is
40 Hz and the field current is 2.4 A.

Sample Problems
6. A 4-pole, 3-, 50 Hz, star-connected, alternator has 60
slots, with 4 conductors per slot. Coils are short-pitched
by 3 slots. If the phase spread is 60, find the line
voltage induced for a flux per pole of 0.943 Wb
distributed sinusoidally in space. All the turns per phase
are in series.
7. A 4-pole, 50-Hz, star-connected alternator has 15 slots
per pole and each slot has 10 conductors. All the
conductors of each phase are connected in series. The
winding factor being 0.95. When running on no-load for
a certain flux per pole, the terminal emf was 1825 volts.
If the windings are lap-connected as in a dc machine, what
would be emf between brushes for the same speed and
the same flux/pole. Assume sinusoidal distribution of flux.

Synchronous Motors

Synchronous Motor it is an ac machine that operates at synchronous speed

and converts electrical energy into mechanical energy using field magnets
excited with direct current. It is also called as synchronous condenser.

Characteristics of a Synchronous Motor:

It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all.
It is not inherently self-starting.
It is capable of being operated under a wide range of power factors, both
lagging and leading.