A PROJECT REPORT ON

SOLAR POWER PLANT USING PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the award of the degree
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
____________________________________ ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

-------------------- (--------------)
--------------------- (---------------)
--------------------- (---------------)

DEPARTMENT OF _______________________ ENGINEERING

__________COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled SOLAR POWER

PLANT USING PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS is the work don

________________ ___ ____________________submitted in partial fulfillment
for the award of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN ENGINEERING

(B.TECH)in __________________________Engineering from______________

College of Engineering affiliated to _________ University, ODISHA .

________________
(Head of the department, MECH)

____________
(Assistant Professor)

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any
task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant
guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting
before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both research and
knowledge.
We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor
______________, Department of Mech , our project guide, for his constant
support, encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his
valuable suggestions.
Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either
directly or indirectly for the completion of this project.

DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled SOLAR POWER

PLANT USING PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

, being submitted in

partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering Degree in mechanical

Engineering, affiliated to _________ University, is the work carried out by us.

__________

_________

_________

__________

_________

_________

CONTENTS

PAGE NO.
4

1. ABSTRACT

2. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

10

3. BLOCK DIAGRAM

16

4. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

17

4.1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM7805)

4.2 MICROCONTROLLER (AT89C51/AT89C52)

20
24

4.3 LED

34

4.4 PWM

36

4.5 MOSFET (IRF630/IRF520)

38

4.6 PUSH BUTTONS

39

4.7 BC547
4.8 1N4007 /1N4148
4.9 RESISTOR
4.10 CAPACITOR

41

4.11 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS / SOLAR CELLS

4.12 LM324
4.13 SOLAR PANNEL
5. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

56

5.1 IDE

57

5.2 CONCEPT OF COMPILER

57

5.3 CONCEPT OF CROSS COMPILER

58

5.4 KEIL C CROSS COMPILER

59

5.5 BUILDING AN APPLICATION IN UVISION2

59
5

5.6 CREATING YOUR OWN APPLICATION IN UVISION2 59

5.7 DEBUGGING AN APPLICATION IN UVISION2

60

5.8 STARTING UVISION2 & CREATING A PROJECT

61

5.9 WINDOWS_ FILES

61

5.10 BUILDING PROJECTS & CREATING HEX FILES

61

5.11 CPU SIMULATION

62

5.12 DATABASE SELECTION

62

5.13 START DEBUGGING

63

5.14 DISASSEMBLY WINDOW

63

5.15 EMBEDDED C

64

6. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

66

6.1 DESCRIPTION

67

7. LAYOUT DIAGRAM

71

8. BILL OF MATERIALS

72

9. CODING

75

9.1 COMPILER

76

9.2 SOURCE CODE

84

10. HARDWARE TESTING

88

10.1 CONTINUITY TEST

88

10.2 POWER ON TEST

89

11. RESULTS

69

12. CONCLUSION

93

13. BIBLIOGRAPHY

94
6

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE NO.

2(a) EMBEDDED DESIGN CALLS

12

2(b) V DIAGRAM

12

3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT

16

4.1 A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

19

4.2(a) BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

21

4.2(b) RATING OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

22

4.2(c) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

22

4.5(a) BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AT89S52

27

4.5(b) PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89S52

28

4.5(c) OSCILLATOR CONNECTIONS

32

4.2(d) EXTERNAL CLOCK DRIVE CONFIG.

33

4.6 IR LEDS

35

4.9(a) PUSH BUTTONS

49

4.9(b) PUSH ON BUTTON

51

4.9(c) TABLE FOR TYPES OF PUSH BUTTONS

53

4.10 BC547

58

6. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

66

1. ABSTRACT
The Sun is a direct source of energy

Using renewable energy technologies, we can convert the

solar energy into electricity Solar powered lighting is a relatively
simple concept in a basic way the system operates like a bank
account withdrawal from the battery to power the light source
must be compensated for by commensurate deposits of energy
from the solar panels. As long as the system is designed so
deposits exceed withdrawals on an average daily basis, the
battery remains charged and light source is reliably powered.

The sun provides a direct source of energy to the solar Panel.

The Battery is recharged during the day by direct current
(DC) electricity produced by the solar panel.
Electronic controls are used between the battery, light source and
solar panels to protect the battery from over charge and
discharge and to control the timing and operation of the light.

2. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

10

What is embedded system?

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps
additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. An embedded
system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system,
autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in
diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.
An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a
software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end
embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit
Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc .Lower
end embedded systems - Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems
and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose.

SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:

Build
Operating
Digital
Integrated Download
circuit
Electronic design
Systems
design
Debug

Analog
Electronic design

Tools
Computer
Embedded Architecture
Sensors and Systems
measurements
Software
Engineering
Electric motors
and actuatorsControl
Data
Engineering
Communication

Embedded system design calls on many disciplines

Figure 3(a): Embedded system design calls

11

Har
Sy
Sy
EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN
dw CYCLE
ste
ste
are
m
m
Rapi
-inDef
Tes
d
the
init
tin
Prot
ion
g
otypi
Lo
Targ
ng
op
eting
Tes
tin
g
Figure 3(b) V Diagram

Characteristics of Embedded System

An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a
computer.

They will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software in
addition to those we encounter when we write applications.

Throughput Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of
time.

ResponseOur system may need to react to events quickly.

TestabilitySetting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult.

DebugabilityWithout a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is

doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem.

Reliability embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without

human intervention.

Memory space Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make
the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists.

12

Program installation you will need special tools to get your software into
embedded systems.

Power consumption Portable systems must run on battery power, and the
software in these systems must conserve power.

Processor hogs computing that requires large amounts of CPU time can
complicate the response problem.

Cost Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded system
projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for the job.

Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have a

serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or disk
drives.

APPLICATIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Military and aerospace embedded software applications

C o mmu n i ca t io n App l ic a t io ns
I nd us t r ia l au to ma t io n a nd p ro ce s s c on tr o l s o ft w a re
Mastering the complexity of applications.
Reduction of product design time.
Real time processing of ever increasing amounts of data.
Intelligent, autonomous sensors.

CLASSIFICATION

Real Time Systems.

RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline.

A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer.

RTS CLASSIFICATION

Hard Real Time Systems

Soft Real Time System

HARD REAL TIME SYSTEM

"Hard" real-time systems have very narrow response time.

13

Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker.

SOFT REAL TIME SYSTEM

"Soft" real-time systems have reduced constrains on "lateness" but still must operate very
quickly and repeatable.

Example: Railway reservation system takes a few extra seconds the data remains valid.

3. BLOCK DIAGRAM

14

15

4. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

1. VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM 7805)

2. MICROCONTROLLER (AT89S52/AT89C51)
16

3. LED
4. PUSH BUTTONS
5.

BC547

6. 1N4007/1N4148
7.

RESISTOR

8.

CAPACITOR

9. PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS/SOLAR CELLS

10. LM317
11. SOLAR PANNEL

4.1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features

17

 Output Current up to 1A.

Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
Thermal Overload Protection.
Short Circuit Protection.
Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

Internal Block Diagram

18

FIG 4.2(a): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

4.2 MICROCONTROLLER AT89S52

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K
bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels
high-density non volatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard
80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional non volatile memory programmer. By combining
19

a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel
AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective
solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard
features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers,
three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port,
on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for
operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The
Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt
system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the
oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

Features:
Compatible with MCS-51 Products
8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory
Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles
4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz
Three-level Program Memory Lock
256 x 8-bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Three 16-bit Timer/Counters
Eight Interrupt Sources
Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
Watchdog Timer
Dual Data Pointer
Power-off Flag
Fast Programming Time
Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode)
Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option
20

Block Diagram of AT89S52:

FIG 4.5(A): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AT89S52

Pin Configurations of AT89S52

21

FIG 4.5(b): PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89S52

Pin Description:

VCC:
Supply voltage.
GND:
Ground
Port 0:
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink
eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance
inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during
accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also
receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program
verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification.
Port 1:
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be
configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2
trigger input (P1.1/T2EX).
22

Port 2:
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address
byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory
that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pullups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses
(MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.
Port 3:
Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.
RST:
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The
DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state
of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.
ALE/PROG:
Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address
during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during
Flash programming.
In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and
may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is
skipped during each access to external data memory.
PSEN:
Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.
23

EA/VPP:
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note,
however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be
strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt
programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.
XTAL1:
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL2:
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier
Oscillator Characteristics:
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier
which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz
crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source,
XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 6.2. There are no
requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal
clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high
and low time specifications must be observed.

FIG 4.5(c): Oscillator Connections

24

FIG 4.5(d): External Clock Drive Configuration

Idle Mode
In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on chip peripherals remain active. The
mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special functions
registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled
interrupt or by a hardware reset.
Power down Mode
In the power down mode the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes power
down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain
their values until the power down mode is terminated. The only exit from power down is a
hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should
not be activated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active
long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.

4.3 LED
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) have recently become available that are white and bright,
so bright that they seriously compete with incandescent lamps in lighting applications. They are
still pretty expensive as compared to a GOW lamp but draw much less current and project a
fairly well focused beam.
The diode in the photo came with a neat little reflector that tends to sharpen the beam a
little but doesn't seem to add much to the overall intensity.
25

When run within their ratings, they are more reliable than lamps as well. Red LEDs are
now being used in automotive and truck tail lights and in red traffic signal lights. You will be
able to detect them because they look like an array of point sources and they go on and off
instantly as compared to conventional incandescent lamps.

LEDs are monochromatic (one color) devices. The color is determined by the band gap of
the semiconductor used to make them. Red, green, yellow and blue LEDs are fairly common.
White light contains all colors and cannot be directly created by a single LED. The most
common form of "white" LED really isn't white. It is a Gallium Nitride blue LED coated with a
phosphor that, when excited by the blue LED light, emits a broad range spectrum that in addition
to the blue emission, makes a fairly white light.
There is a claim that these white LED's have a limited life. After 1000 hours or so of
operation, they tend to yellow and dim to some extent. Running the LEDs at more than their
rated current will certainly accelerate this process.
There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDS. One is
to use individual LEDS that emit three primary coloursred, green, and blueand then mix all
the colours to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert
monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same

26

way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite different
spectra that appear white.
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out
of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that
are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.
When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light
bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons
directly and not via heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 3.1(a): circuit symbol

Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or
electronic equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional
lighting technologies. Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

4.4 PWM

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is a commonly used technique for controlling power to

an electrical device, made practical by modern electronic power switches. The average value of
voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load

27

on and off at a fast pace. The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher the
power supplied to the load is.
The PWM switching frequency has to be much faster than what would affect the load,
which is to say the device that uses the power. Typically switchings have to be done several
times a minute in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of
kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and
computer power supplies.
The term duty cycle describes the proportion of on time to the regular interval or period
of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the
time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on.
The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low.
When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on, there is almost no voltage
drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases
close to zero. PWM works also well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature,
can easily set the needed duty cycle.
PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been
used to convey information over a communications channel.

28

Power delivery
PWM can be used to adjust the total amount of power delivered to a load without losses
normally incurred when a power transfer is limited by resistive means. The drawbacks are the
pulsations defined by the duty cycle, switching frequency and properties of the load. With a
sufficiently high switching frequency and, when necessary, using additional passive electronic
filters the pulse train can be smoothed and average analog waveform recovered.
High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realisable with semiconductor
switches. As has been already stated above almost no power is dissipated by the switch in either
on or off state. However, during the transitions between on and off states both voltage and
current are non-zero and thus considerable power is dissipated in the switches. Luckily, the
change of state between fully on and fully off is quite rapid (typically less than 100 nanoseconds)
relative to typical on or off times, and so the average power dissipation is quite low compared to
the power being delivered even when high switching frequencies are used.
Modern semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs or Insulated-gate bipolar transistors
(IGBTs) are quite ideal components. Thus high efficiency controllers can be built. Typically
frequency converters used to control AC motors have efficiency that is better than 98 %.
29

Switching power supplies have lower efficiency due to low output voltage levels (often even less
than 2 V for microprocessors are needed) but still more than 70-80 % efficiency can be achieved.
Variable-speed fan controllers for computers usually use PWM, as it is far more efficient
when compared to a potentiometer or rheostat. (Neither of the latter is practical to operate
electronically; they would require a small drive motor).
Light dimmers for home use employ a specific type of PWM control. Home use light
dimmers typically include electronic circuitry which suppresses current flow during defined
portions of each cycle of the AC line voltage. Adjusting the brightness of light emitted by a light
source is then merely a matter of setting at what voltage (or phase) in the AC half cycle the
dimmer begins to provide electrical current to the light source (e.g. by using an electronic switch
such as a triac). In this case the PWM duty cycle is the ratio of the conduction time to the
duration of the half AC cycle defined by the frequency of the AC line voltage (50 Hz or 60 Hz
depending on the country).
These rather simple types of dimmers can be effectively used with inert (or relatively
slow reacting) light sources such as incandescent lamps, for example, for which the additional
modulation in supplied electrical energy which is caused by the dimmer causes only negligible
additional fluctuations in the emitted light. Some other types of light sources such as lightemitting diodes (LEDs), however, turn on and off extremely rapidly and would perceivably
flicker if supplied with low frequency drive voltages. Perceivable flicker effects from such rapid
response light sources can be reduced by increasing the PWM frequency. If the light fluctuations
are sufficiently rapid, the human visual system can no longer resolve them and the eye perceives
the time average intensity without flicker (see flicker fusion threshold).
In electric cookers, continuously-variable power is applied to the heating elements such
as the hob or the grill using a device known as a Simmer tat. This consists of a thermal oscillator
running at approximately two cycles per minute and the mechanism varies the duty cycle
according to the knob setting. The thermal time constant of the heating elements is several
minutes, so that the temperature fluctuations are too small to matter in practice.

30

Applications
1)
2)
3)
4)

Telecommunications
Power delivery
Voltage regulation
Audio effects and amplification.

4.5 MOSFET
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS
FET) is a device used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The basic principle of the
device was first proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. In MOSFETs, a voltage on the
oxide-insulated gate electrode can induce a conducting channel between the two other contacts
called source and drain. The channel can be of n-type or p-type and is accordingly called an
nMOSFET or a pMOSFET. It is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog
circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common.

Comparison of enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols, along with

JFET symbols (drawn with source and drain ordered such that higher voltages appear higher on
the page than lower voltages).

31

An example of using the MOSFET as a switch

Fig 4.9: MOSFET as switch

In this circuit arrangement an Enhancement-mode N-channel MOSFET is being used to
switch a simple lamp "ON" and "OFF" (could also be an LED). The gate input voltage V GS is
taken to an appropriate positive voltage level to turn the device and the lamp either fully "ON",
(VGS = +ve) or a zero voltage level to turn the device fully "OFF", (VGS = 0).
If the resistive load of the lamp was to be replaced by an inductive load such as a coil or
solenoid, a "Flywheel" diode would be required in parallel with the load to protect the MOSFET
from any back-emf. Above shows a very simple circuit for switching a resistive load such as a
32

lamp or LED. But when using power MOSFET's to switch either inductive or capacitive loads
some form of protection is required to prevent the MOSFET device from becoming damaged.
Driving an inductive load has the opposite effect from driving a capacitive load. For
example, a capacitor without an electrical charge is a short circuit, resulting in a high "inrush" of
current and when we remove the voltage from an inductive load we have a large reverse voltage
build up as the magnetic field collapses, resulting in an induced back-emf in the windings of the
inductor.
For the power MOSFET to operate as an analogue switching device, it needs to be
switched between its "Cut-off Region" where VGS = 0 and its "Saturation Region" where VGS (on) =
+ve. The power dissipated in the MOSFET (PD) depends upon the current flowing through the
channel ID at saturation and also the "ON-resistance" of the channel given as RDS (on).

4.6 PUSH BUTTONS

Fig.4.8(a): Push Buttons

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism
for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard
material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the
human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased
switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to
return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the
button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch.

33

Uses:
In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a
mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released.
In this way, a stop button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used
in simple manual operations in which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for
control.
Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the
operator will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the
machine or process and green for starting the machine or process.
Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation and to
facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and
are mandated by the electrical code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large
mushroom shape can also be found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for
their work and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push button. As an aid for operators
and users in industrial or commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly added to draw the
attention of the user and to provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is
included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.
The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on the
back of the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button when
pushed will cause the process or machine operation to be started and a secondary contact
designed into the operation or process will close to turn on the pilot light and signify the action
of pushing the button caused the resultant process or action to start.
In popular culture, the phrase "the button" refers to a (usually fictional) button that a
military or government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.
Push to ON button:

Fig. 4.8(b): push on button

34

Initially the two contacts of the button are open. When the button is pressed they become
connected. This makes the switching operation using the push button.

4.7 BC547
The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a
general-purpose transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and
amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.

BC 547 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

The BC547 transistor is an NPN bipolar transistor, in which the letters "N" and "P" refer
to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar
transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in
semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation. NPN transistors consist of a layer
of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the
base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an NPN
transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter. The arrow in the NPN
transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the conventional current flow
when the device is in forward active mode. One mnemonic device for identifying the symbol for
the NPN transistor is "not pointing in." An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with
a shared anode region. In typical operation, the emitter base junction is forward biased and the
35

base collector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive
voltage is applied to the base emitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated
carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing
thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse")
through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low
concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the
base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base.

An NPN Transistor Configuration

We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large current
(Ic) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals. However,
this only happens when a small biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the base terminal of the
transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of current control input. The ratio of these two
currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or
nowadays Beta, (). Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the emitter to
the collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (), and is a function of the transistor itself. As the
emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very large collector current the
value of this parameter is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this
value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999.

36

4.8 1N4007

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

37

Fig: 1N4007 diodes

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market are as
follows:

Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have
maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity
of 1 Amp.

Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more
capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot
be used in place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or
IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode
BY125made by company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is
equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

Fig:PN Junction diode

38

PN JUNCTION OPERATION
Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are joined
together to form a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the
operation of the PN junction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we
must first consider current flow in the materials that make up the junction and what happens
initially within the junction when these two materials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper
wire. That is, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal
just as current would flow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive
potential of the battery will attract the free electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave
the crystal and flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an electron leaves the crystal,
an electron from the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing the
current path. Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are
repelled by the negative side of the battery and move through the crystal toward the positive
side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material is by
positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P
material to the negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative
terminal of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive terminal,
electrons are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. This process
continues as the steady stream of holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal.

1N4148
39

The 1N4148 is a standard small signal silicon diode used in signal processing. Its name
follows the JEDEC nomenclature. The 1N4148 is generally available in a DO-35 glass package
and is very useful at high frequencies with a reverse recovery time of no more than 4ns. This
permits rectification and detection of radio frequency signals very effectively, as long as their
amplitude is above the forward conduction threshold of silicon (around 0.7V) or the diode is
biased

Fig: 1N4148 diode

Specifications:

VRRM = 100V (Maximum Repetitive Reverse Voltage)

IO = 200mA (Average Rectified Forward Current)

IF = 300mA (DC Forward Current)

IFSM = 1.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 sec), 4.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 uSec) (Non-Repetitive Peak
Forward Surge Current)

PD = 500 mW (power Dissipation)

TRR < 4ns (reverse recovery time)

Applications
40

High-speed switching

Features

1) Glass sealed envelope. (GSD)

2) High speed.
3) High Reliability

Construction

Silicon epitaxial planar

4.9 RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance
with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are
extremely commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).

41

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less wellknown is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends
upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by
design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated
circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors
must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the
constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickelchrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices,
and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
42

physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behaviour to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of
the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing
of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilohm (1 k =
103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens
(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Variable resistors
Adjustable resistors

A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be
changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wire-wound power
43

resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or
smaller part of the resistance to be used.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is
required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a
device is called a rheostat and has two terminals.
Potentiometers

A common element in electronic devices is a three-terminal resistor with a continuously

adjustable tapping point controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob. These variable resistors are
known as potentiometers when all three terminals are present, since they act as a continuously
adjustable voltage divider. A common example is a volume control for a radio receiver.
Accurate, high-resolution panel-mounted potentiometers (or "pots") have resistance
elements typically wire wound on a helical mandrel, although some include a conductive-plastic
resistance coating over the wire to improve resolution. These typically offer ten turns of their
shafts to cover their full range. They are usually set with dials that include a simple turns counter
and a graduated dial. Electronic analog computers used them in quantity for setting coefficients,
and delayed-sweep oscilloscopes of recent decades included one on their panels.
Resistance decade boxes

A resistance decade box or resistor substitution box is a unit containing resistors of many
values, with one or more mechanical switches which allow any one of various discrete
resistances offered by the box to be dialled in. Usually the resistance is accurate to high
precision, ranging from laboratory/calibration grade accuracy of 20 parts per million, to field
grade at 1%. Inexpensive boxes with lesser accuracy are also available. All types offer a
convenient way of selecting and quickly changing a resistance in laboratory, experimental and
development work without needing to attach resistors one by one, or even stock each value. The
range of resistance provided, the maximum resolution, and the accuracy characterize the box. For
example, one box offers resistances from 0 to 24 megohms, maximum resolution 0.1 ohm,
accuracy 0.1%.
44

Special devices

There are various devices whose resistance changes with various quantities. The
resistance of thermistors exhibit a strong negative temperature coefficient, making them useful
for measuring temperatures. Since their resistance can be large until they are allowed to heat up
due to the passage of current, they are also commonly used to prevent excessive current surges
when equipment is powered on. Similarly, the resistance of a humistor varies with humidity.
Metal oxide varistors drop to a very low resistance when a high voltage is applied, making them
useful for protecting electronic equipment by absorbing dangerous voltage surges. One sort of
photodetector, the photoresistor, has a resistance which varies with illumination.
The strain gauge, invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, is a type
of resistor that changes value with applied strain. A single resistor may be used, or a pair (half
bridge), or four resistors connected in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The strain resistor is
bonded with adhesive to an object that will be subjected to mechanical strain. With the strain
gauge and a filter, amplifier, and analog/digital converter, the strain on an object can be
measured.
A related but more recent invention uses a Quantum Tunnelling Composite to sense
mechanical stress. It passes a current whose magnitude can vary by a factor of 10 12 in response to
changes in applied pressure.

4.10 CAPACITORS
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
45

mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly
separated conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is

measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and
quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a
non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
46

supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other
purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Theory of operation
Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric

(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

47

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms,
the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper,
vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no
influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges
on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of
one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt
across the device.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An
ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge
Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

48

Energy storage

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric
field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored,
is given by:

Current-voltage relation

The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow
of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the
dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one
that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on
one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus
the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage as discussed above. As with any anti-derivative, a constant of integration is added to
represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

49

DC circuits

RC circuit

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of
voltage V0 is known as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch
is open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation,

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The
initial current is then i (0) =V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields

where 0 = RC is the time constant of the system.

As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltage across the resistor and
the current through the entire circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged

50

capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage
replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero.

AC circuits

Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance, describes the phase difference and
the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at
a given frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed from a spectrum of
frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the various frequencies may be found. The reactance
and impedance of a capacitor are respectively

where j is the imaginary unit and is the angular velocity of the sinusoidal signal. The - j phase
indicates that the AC voltage V = Z I lags the AC current by 90: the positive current phase
corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to
instantaneous constant voltage, etc.
Note that impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing frequency.
This implies that a higher-frequency signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage
amplitude per current amplitude an AC "short circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low
frequencies, the reactance will be high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in AC
analysisthose frequencies have been "filtered out".
Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in that the impedance is inversely
proportional to the defining characteristic, i.e. capacitance.

51

Parallel plate model

Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area A and with a separation of d.
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric with
permittivity (such as air). The model may also be used to make qualitative predictions for other
device geometries. The plates are considered to extend uniformly over an area A and a charge
density = Q/A exists on their surface. Assuming that the width of the plates is much greater
than their separation d, the electric field near the centre of the device will be uniform with the
magnitude E = /. The voltage is defined as the line integral of the electric field between the
plates

Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance increases with area and decreases with
separation

.
The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made from materials with a high permittivity.

52

Several capacitors in parallel

4.11 OPAMP LM324

Features

Internally frequency compensated for unity gain

Large DC voltage gain 100 dB
Wide bandwidth (unity gain) 1 MHz (temperature compensated)
Wide power supply range:
o Single supply 3V to 32V
o or dual supplies 1.5V to 16V
Very low supply current drain (700 A) essentially independent of supply voltage
Low input biasing current 45 nA (temperature compensated)
Low input offset voltage 2 mV and offset current: 5 nA
Input common-mode voltage range includes ground
Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
Large output voltage swing 0V to V+ 1.5V

Unique Characteristics

In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output
voltage can also swing to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply

voltage.
The unity gain cross frequency is temperature compensated.
The input bias current is also temperature compensated.

53

Fig.3.6: Pin Diagram of LM324

The LM124 series consists of four independent, high gain, internally frequency
compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single
power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible
and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply
voltage.
Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventional
op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For
example, the LM124 series can be directly operated off of the standard +5V power supply
voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics
without requiring the additional 15V power supplies.
Advantages

Eliminates need for dual supplies

Four internally compensated op amps in a single package
Allows directly sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND
Compatible with all forms of logic

54

4.12 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS/SOLAR CELLS

How Solar Panels Work?
1. Rays of sunlight hit the solar panel (also know as a photovoltaic/ (PV) cells) and are
absorbed by semi-conducting materials such as silicone.
2. Electrons are knocked loose from their atoms, which allow them to flow through the
material to produce electricity. This process whereby light (photo) is converted into
electricity (voltage) is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect.
3. An array of solar panels converts solar energy into DC (direct current) electricity.
4. The DC electricity then enters an inverter.
5. The inverter turns DC electricity into 120-volt AC (alternating current) electricity needed
by home appliances.
6. The AC power enters the utility panel in the house.
7. The electricity (load) is then distributed to appliances or lights in the house.
8. When more solar energy is generated that what you're using - it can be stored in a battery
as DC electricity. The battery will continue to supply your home with electricity in the
event of a power blackout or at nighttime.
9. When the battery is full the excess electricity can be exported back into the utility grid, if
your system is connected to it.
10. Utility supplied electricity can also be drawn form the grid when not enough solar energy
is produced and no excess energy is stored in the battery, i.e. at night or on cloudy days.
11. The flow of electricity in and out of the utility grid is measured by a utility meter, which
spins backwards (when you are producing more energy that you need) and forward (when
you require additional electricity from the utility company). The two are offset ensuring
that you only pay for the additional energy you use from the utility company. Any surplus
energy is sold back to the utility company. This system is referred to as "net-metering".

Solar Energy is measured in kilowatt-hour. 1 kilowatt = 1000 watts.

55

1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = the amount of electricity required to burn a 100 watt

light bulb for 10 hours.

According to the US Department of Energy, an average American household used

approximately 866-kilowatt hours per month in 1999 costing them $70.68.

About 30% of our total energy consumption is used to heat water.

THE SUN produces radiant energy by consuming hydrogen in nuclear fusion

reactions. Solar energy is transmitted to the earth in portions of energy called
photons, which interact with the earth's atmosphere and surface. It takes about 8
minutes and 20 seconds for the sun's energy to reach the earth.

THE EARTH receives and collects solar energy in the atmosphere, oceans, and
plant life. Interactions between the sun's energy, the oceans, and the atmosphere, for
example, create winds, which can produce electricity when directed through
aerodynamically designed wind machines.

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS convert solar radiation into electricity

(photovoltaic literally means "light energy"; "photo" = light, "voltaic" = energy).
Individual cells are packaged into modules, like the one shown at the right; groups of
modules are called arrays. Photovoltaic arrays act like a battery when the sun is
shining, producing a stream of direct current (DC) electricity and sending it into the
building or sharing it with the grid.

THE DC DISCONNECT SWITCH allows professional electricians to

disconnect the photovoltaic array from the rest of the system. With the switch in the
"off" position, workers can safely perform maintenance on other system
components.

56

THE INVERTER converts direct current (DC) electricity generated by the array
into alternating current (AC) electricity for use in the building. Most electrical loads
(energy-consuming devices like lights, motors, computers, and air conditioners) in
schools, homes and businesses use AC electricity.

THE TRANSFORMER ensures that the voltage of the electricity coming from
the inverter is compatible with the voltage of the electricity in the building.

THE AC DISCONNECT disconnect switch allows professional electricians to

disconnect the building's electrical system from the solar photovoltaic system. With
the AC disconnect switch in the "off" position, workers can safely perform
maintenance on the solar photovoltaic system's components.

THE ELECTRIC METER keeps track of the amount of electrical energy

produced by the solar photovoltaic system and sends electronic signals to the data
acquisition system where they are recorded. Electrical energy is measured in
kilowatt-hours. How much energy is contained in a kilowatt-hour? We're glad you
asked. Use our calculator to find out.

Photovoltaic Cells: Converting Photons to Electrons

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as silicon,
which is currently the most commonly used. Basically, when light strikes the cell, a certain
portion of it is absorbed within the semiconductor material. This means that the energy of the
absorbed light is transferred to the semiconductor. The energy knocks electrons loose, allowing
them to flow freely. PV cells also all have one or more electric fields that act to force electrons
57

freed by light absorption to flow in a certain direction. This flow of electrons is a current, and by
placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can draw that current off to use
externally. For example, the current can power a calculator. This current, together with the cell's
voltage (which is a result of its built-in electric field or fields), defines the power (or wattage) that
the solar cell can produce.

4.13 SOLAR PANEL

A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged interconnected
assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a
component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and
residential applications.
Because a single solar panel can only produce a limited amount of power, many
installations contain several panels. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of solar
panels, an inverter, may contain a battery and interconnection wiring

58

59

How Solar Panels Work

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are formed from a wafer of semi-conductor material and although there
are now several types in production using different materials, the most common semi-conductor
used is silicon.
Pure crystalline silicon is a poor electrical conductor but treat it with tiny quantities of an
impurity, either phosphorous or arsenic (a process called doping) and enough electrons of
these materials are freed to enable a current to pass through. Electrons are negatively charged so
this type of silicon is called N-Type.
60

Dope silicon with gallium or boron and holes are created in the crystalline lattice where a
silicon electron has nothing to bond with. These holes can conduct electrical current and the lack
of an electron creates a positive charge so this type of silicon is therefore called P-Type. Both
types of silicon are modest electrical conductors, hence the name semiconductors.
Put a layer of each kind together in a wafer, such as in a PV cell, and the free electrons in the N
side migrate towards the free holes on the P side. This causes a disruption to the electrical
neutrality where the holes and electrons mix at the junction of the two layers. Eventually a barrier
is formed preventing the electrons from crossing to the P side and an electrical field is formed,
separating both sides. This electrical field acts as a diode, allowing electrons to pass from the P
side to the N side, but not vice versa.
Expose the cell to light, and the energy from each photon (light particle) hitting the silicon, will
liberate an electron and a corresponding hole. If this happens within range of the electric fields
influence, the electrons will be sent to the N side and the holes to the P one, resulting in yet
further disruption of electrical neutrality. Apply an external pathway connecting both sides of the
silicon wafer and electrons will flow back to their original P side to unite with the holes sent there
by the electric field.
This flow of electrons is a current; the electrical field in the cell causes a voltage and the product
of these two is power.
Several factors affect the efficiency of a solar cell. Some cells, mainly ones made from a single
material, are only efficient in certain light wavelengths. Single material cells can at the very most
expect to convert about 25% of the light hitting it to electrical power.

6.1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

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POWER SUPPLY
The circuit uses standard power supply comprising of a step-down transformer from 230v
to 12v and 4 diodes forming a Bridge Rectifier that delivers pulsating dc which is then filtered by
an electrolytic capacitor of about 470microf to 1000microF. The filtered dc being unregulated IC
LM7805 is used to get 5v constant at its pin no 3 irrespective of input dc varying from 9v to 14v.
The input dc shall be varying in the event of input ac at 230volts section varies in the ratio of
v1/v2=n1/n2.
The regulated 5volts dc is further filtered by a small electrolytic capacitor of 10 micro f
for any noise so generated by the circuit. One LED is connected of this 5v point in series with a
resistor of 330ohms to the ground i.e. negative voltage to indicate 5v power supply availability.
The 5v dc is at 12v point is used for other applications as on when required.
SOLAR CHARGING CIRCUIT:
In this Solar Charging Circuit we are using SOLAR PANEL. Here we are using MOSFET whose
gate is connected to emitter of the transistor (BC547) drain is connected to +VE terminal &
source is connected to GND is parallel to MOSFET a battery of 12V is connected collector of
transistor is connected to +ve terminal with resistor R1 of 18K. Whose base is connected to o/p
of 1st op-amp (LM324) through resistor R3 of 100K. Pin 11 is connected to GND Pin 4 is
connected to VCC for both op-ampss known as U1: A & U1:B. 2 nd Pin of U1:A is connected to
Pin 1 of op-amp through two resistors R4 of 330K R5 of 330k. Pin 3 and Pin 5 all shorted and
connected to POT of 5K, 6th Pin is connected to GND through resistor R10 of 120K. And 7 th Pin
is o/p Pin with resistor R7 of 2K & LED. UI:C is also an op-amp whose 10 th Pin is connected to
POT of 5K and one of the terminal is also connected to 2 nd Pin of U1:A where 9th Pin is
connected to GND, 4th & 11th Pin are VCC and GND. Where 8th Pin is o/p Pin which is connected
to Gate of MOSFET, Q2 through Diode IN4148 where 9 th Pin is also connected to drain of
MOSFET whose gate is also connected to POT of RV1 who will get another o/p of U1:D known
as Pin 14.
Whose 12th Pin is connected to RV5 ,22K. PRESET 13th Pin is connected to 4diodes in series
known as D5, D6, D7,D8 source is connected to GND.
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WORKING
The project uses one IC lm324 having 4 op-amps used as comparators that is
U1:A,B,C,D. U1:A is used for sensing over charging of the battery to be indicated by action of
U1:B o/p fed D1. Diodes D5 to D8 all connected in series are forward biased through R14 and
D3 .this provides a fixed reference voltage of 0.65*4= 2.6v at anode point of D8 which is fed to
pin 2 U1:A through R11, pin 13 of of U1:D, pin 6 of U1:bB via R9 and pin 10 of U1:C via 5K
variable resistor. Solar panel being a current source is used to change battery B1 via D10. While
the battery is fully charged the voltage at cathode point of D10 goes up. This results in the set
point voltage at pin 3 of U1:A to go up above the reference voltage because the potential divider
formed out of R12, 5K variable resistor,R13 goes up.
This results in pin no 1 of U1:A to go high to switch ON the transistor Q1 that places
drive voltage to the Mosfet IRF640 .such that the current from solar panel is bypassed via D11
and the Mosfet drain and source. Simultaneously pin 7 of U1:B also goes high to drive a led D1
indicating battery is being fully charged. While the load is used by the switch operation Q2
usually provides a path to the (-ve) while the (+ve) is connected to the dc (+ve) via the switch in
the event over load the reference voltage at pin 10 results in pin 8 of U1:C going low to remove
the drive to the gate through the D4 the Mosfet Q2 that disconnects the load. In the event of over
load Q2 voltage across drain and source goes up those results in pin no 9 going above pin no 10
via R22. In the event of battery voltage falling below minimum voltage duly sensed by
D3,R6,RV5 and R16 combination at pin 12 results in pin no 14 going zero to remove the drive to
Q2 gate via R20 and Rv1. The correct operation of the load in normal condition is indicated by
D9 while the Mosfet Q2 conducts.

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This project is meant stepped intensity control of cluster of LEDS. The application area
is to replace the conventional street lighting that uses HID(High Intensity Discharge) lamp such
as mercury vapor, sodium vapor, metal halide which cannot be subjected to intensity control.
LEDS lamp have the advantage of instant switch on as compared to HID lamp. For controlling
the intensity LED lamps can be fed with varying duty cycle from a dc source to control the
intensity while HID lamps generally operated from ac source cannot be fed with controlled
supply as any break would result in failure of the discharge path instantly. So restarting takes few
minutes thus making it unsuitable for intensity control by power control. The concept of intensity
control helps saving of electrical energy. The LEDS used in combination with suitable driving
transistors from the microcontroller duly programmed for a practical application.
For example the LED lights used for the purpose of street lights are switched ON at the
dusk with full intensity till 11pm with 99% duly cycle. With each hour a advancing from 11pm
the duty cycle changes to 10% less progressively so that by the morning the ON time duty cycle
reaches to 10% from 90% at 11pm and finally to zero meaning the lights are OFF from morning
i.e., from dawn to dusk. The operation repeats again from the dusk with full intensity till 11pm
from 6pm and at 12 mid night it is 80% duty cycle, 1o clock 70%, 2o clock 60%, 3o clock
50% ,4o clock 40% and so on till 10% and finally OFF at the dawn. In order to demonstrate the
same from a 12v dc source 4 LEDS in series with 8*3=24 strings are connected in series with a
MOSFET acting as a switch. The MOSFET could be IRF520 or Z44 as available in the market.
Each LED is a white LED and from the data sheet it is seen that it operates at 2.5v. Thus 4
LEDS in series needs 10v. Therefore a resistor is connected with 10ohms, 10 watts rings in
series with the LEDS where the balance voltage is dropped from 12v by limiting the current for
safe operation of the LEDS.
As the MOSFET switch requires a higher dc voltage at its gate another switching
transistor BC547 is used that interfaces from the microcontroller to the gate of the MOSFET.
While the microcontroller pin21 delivers a high logic, the transistor BC547 switches on to divert
the drive voltage of the MOSFET so that the MOSFET switch is OFF. While the controller
delivers a low logic to transistor BC547 is switched OFF which enables drive voltage availability
to the gate of the MOSFET by the ratio 10:1 as formed by the potential divider 1k and 10k. Thus
approximately 10v is available at the gate of the MOSFET while transistor BC547 is OFF. The
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MOSFET switches ON between its drain and source that completes its path of current flow
through the LEDS. Therefore with varying duty cycle from 90% to 10% the current flowing
through the LED reduces that result in lesser intensity as described earlier.

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7. LAYOUT DIAGRAM

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8. BILL OF MATERIALS
R1, R3,R4,
R12 = 10k
R5 = 240 OHMS
P1,P2 =10K preset
P3 = 10k pot or preset
R10 = 470K,
R9= 2M2
R11 = 100K

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R8=10 OHMS 2 WATT

T1----T4 = BC547
A1/A2 = 1/2 IC324
ALL ZENER DIODES = 4.7V, 1/2 WATT
D1---D3,D6 = 1N4007
D4,D5 = 6AMP
DIODESIC2 = IC555
IC1 = LM338
RELAYS = 12V,400 OHMS, SPDT
BATTERY = 12V, 26AH
SOLAR PANEL = 21V OPEN CIRCUIT, 7AMP @SHORT CIRCUIT.

MISCELLANOUS
7805

BATTERY 12V

BC547

SOLAR PANEL

ASSEMBLED PCD
PLAIN PCB
ZEROBOARD
CUTTER
SOLDERING IRON
SCREW DRIVER
MULTIMETER
SOLDERING LEAD

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10. HARDWARE TESTING

10.1 CONTINUITY TEST:
In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see if current flows
(that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by placing a small voltage
(wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such as a piezoelectric speaker)
across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken conductors, damaged components,
or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".
Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multi meters which measure
current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic devices, generally with a
simple light bulb that lights up when current flows.
An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two
ends belonging to a particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance between
the "right" ends, and only between the "right" ends.
This test is the performed just after the hardware soldering and configuration has been
completed. This test aims at finding any electrical open paths in the circuit after the soldering.
Many a times, the electrical continuity in the circuit is lost due to improper soldering, wrong and
rough handling of the PCB, improper usage of the soldering iron, component failures and
presence of bugs in the circuit diagram. We use a multi meter to perform this test. We keep the
multi meter in buzzer mode and connect the ground terminal of the multi meter to the ground.
We connect both the terminals across the path that needs to be checked. If there is continuation
then you will hear the beep sound.

10.2 POWER ON TEST:

This test is performed to check whether the voltage at different terminals is according to
the requirement or not. We take a multi meter and put it in voltage mode. Remember that this test
is performed without microcontroller. Firstly, we check the output of the transformer, whether we
get the required 12 v AC voltage.
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Then we apply this voltage to the power supply circuit. Note that we do this test without
microcontroller because if there is any excessive voltage, this may lead to damaging the
controller. We check for the input to the voltage regulator i.e., are we getting an input of 12v and
an output of 5v. This 5v output is given to the microcontrollers 40 th pin. Hence we check for the
voltage level at 40th pin. Similarly, we check for the other terminals for the required voltage. In
this way we can assure that the voltage at all the terminals is as per the requirement.

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