Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Outline
Part 1
1. Introduction to semiconductor lasers
2. Simplest model and dynamics with time-varying
current parameter
Part 2
1. Applications of semiconductor lasers
2. More complicated models and nonlinear dynamics
Bibliography
Saleh and Teich, Fundamentals of photonics (Wiley)
J. Ohtsubo, Semiconductor lasers: stability, instability
and chaos (Springer)
J. M. Liu, Photonic devices (Cambridge University Press)
Survey
Who has taken a course on
- Optoelectronics/photonics/optical communications/lasers?
- Semiconductor physics/solid-state physics?
- Computing methods/ programming languages (C, Fortran)?
- Bifurcations/nonlinear dynamics/stochastic processes?
Please feel free to interrupt me any time:
questions/comments welcome!
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Optical cavity
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Source: Laserfocusworld.com
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No diode laser
No internet!
Source: Laserfocusworld.com
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12
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Today
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Semiconductors
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In a semiconductor: electron/hole
pairs & energy bands
Eg
A particle in an excited state
decays emitting a photon
Ef
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LEDs
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CB
VB
VB
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In a semiconductor:
Charge neutrality Ne Nh= N
Ne
Ng
For lasing we need
population inversion
(Ne > Ng)
E
Nh g
For lasing: N>N0
Ef
carrier density
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Photon density
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In modern lasers
the efficiency
approaches one
output photon for
each injected
electron
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LI curve
threshold current
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n doped:
extra electrons
The diffusion of
electrons and holes
creates the depletion
layer (e/h are within
the same region).
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p-n junction
p-n junction under 0 bias
Ln , Lp = diffusion lengths
Forwards bias decreases
n , p = recombination times
the potential barrier;
reverse bias increases the
potential barrier
The p-n junction
=
acts as a diode
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Improved
waveguide
because the
semiconductors
have different
refractive index
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Drawback of DH lasers
More complicated to fabricate !
Require strict matching conditions between the two
semiconductor layers (the lattice constant and the
thermal expansion coefficient).
Zhores I. Alferov
Iaffe Physico-Technical
Institute, St. Petersburg Russia
03/12/2013
Herbert Kroemer
University of California
USA
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Fabrication techniques
Heterostructures are grown epitaxially, as lattice-matched
layers of one semiconductor material over another, by
molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) uses molecular beams of
the constituent elements in a high-vacuum environment,
liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE) uses the cooling of a saturated
solution containing the constituents in contact with the
substrate (but layers are thick)
vapor-phase epitaxy (VPE) and metal-organic chemical
vapor deposition (MOCVD) use gases in a reactor.
The performance of early laser diode was
limited by manufacturing techniques
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Molecular-beam epitaxy
MBE growth reactor
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Laser diode: just the laser; diode laser: the complete system
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Source: Wikipedia
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33
The gain
spectrum of the
semiconductor
is broad and
increases with
the carrier
density (N) and
the temperature.
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RT InGaASP laser
Adapted from Saleh and Teich
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gain medium
m = m (c/n)/(2L)
n: refractive index
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L, n
low-reflectivity
front facet
high-reflectivity
back facet
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(mirrors)
(free-space wavelength
spacing, measured with an
Optical Spectrum Analyzer)
n = 3.5, L = 1 mm:
= 0.05 nm @ 635 nm
= 0.3 nm @ 1550 nm
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Example
L=d, = F
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Line-width:
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LED
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QW:
For GaAs B = 50 nm
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QW energy levels
1D infinite potential:
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QW vs Bulk lasers
Density of states
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Index guided
(build-in larger n)
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DFB
VCSEL
(mid 1980s)
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EELs vs VCSELs
Edge-Emitting Laser (EEL)
VCSEL
L 300 m
The semiconductor
facets serve as mirrors
Adapted from J. Mulet, PhD thesis,
Universitat de les Illes Balears (2002)
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L=1-2 m
Two DBRs serve as mirrors
= (o)2/(2nL)
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VCSELs:
The circular
profile allows
easy coupling
to an optical
fiber.
But singletransverse
mode emission
limited to few
mW.
Adapted from A. Larsson, JSTQE 2011
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Threshold current
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Why?
The semiconductor is not a two level
system.
Temperature affects the band-gap
of the semiconductor material, which
determines the energy (and
wavelength) of the emitted photons.
With increasing temperature (Joule
heating) Eg decreases and the
emission frequency shifts to lower
frequencies.
Eg
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Ef
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InP
At 300 K:
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VF
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Outline
Part 1
1. Introduction to semiconductor lasers (SCLs)
2. Simplest rate-equation model and dynamics with
time-varying current parameter
Main goals
Acquire a basic knowledge of
65
dt
p
N
Stimulated
emission &
absorption
Cavity
losses
Spontaneous
emission
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GS
dt
eV N
Pump:
injection of
carriers
Recombination
of carriers
Stimulated
emission &
absorption
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G a N N 0
DH
G aN 0 ln N / N0 QW
Differential gain Carrier density
coefficient
at transparency
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We will assume
single-mode
emission at 0.
The differential
gain coefficient a
depends on 0
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dN
I
N
GS
dt eV N
nr
BN CN
1 S
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Normalized equations
Define the a-dimensional variable:
sp N
dS 1
N 1S
dt p
N
dN 1
N N S
dt N
N N0
N
N N th
Threshold carrier
density: gain = loss
a N th N 0
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Initial conditions
sp N
dS 1
N 1S
dt p
N
At t=0 there are no photons in the cavity: S(0) = 0
Without noise (sp=0): if S=0 at t=0 dS/dt=0
S remains 0 (regardless the value of and N).
Without spontaneous emission noise the laser does not turn !
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dN
1
N NS
dt N
S 0
dS
0
dt
N 1
S 0 N
dN
0
dt
N 1 S 1
Photon density S
off
0.5
0.9
0.3
0.6
0
0.5
1
Pump I
Pump current,
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0.8
0.7
0.1
1.5
on
S= -1
N= 1
0.4
0.2
th = 1
Carrier density N
1.1
S=0
N=
dS 1
N 1S
dt p
0.5
1
Pump I
1.5
Pump current,
The carrier
density is
clamped
above threshold
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dt N
sp N
dS 1
N 1S
dt p
N
(t)
Step (laser turn on): off, on
Triangular signal (LI curve): min, max, T
Parameter values
p
1 ps
1 ns
sp
10-4
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Multimode laser
2.5
2
Steady state:
S=-1
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (ns)
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1.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.1
0
0
0
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500
Time (ns)
1000
0.5
1
1.5
Pump parameter,
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1.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.1
0
0
0
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Time (ns)
100
0.5
1
Pump
1.5
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Experiments
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
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Pump
1.5
Tredicce et al, Am. J. Phys., Vol. 72, No. 6, June 2004
78
dN
1
N GS
dt N
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.5
N
1 S
=0.01
=0
G( N , S )
Pump
1.5
0.5
1.5
Pump
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1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
20
40
60
Time (ns)
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100
20
40
60
80
100
Time (ns)
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Analog
2
1.5
1.5
0.8
0.6
<S>
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
Time (ns)
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40
50
0
0.5
1.5
0
0
10
20
30
40
Time (ns)
83
50
Time (ns)
0.5 ns
Tmod= 0.1 ns
1
0
0
3
2
dc = 1.5, A=0.1
0
0
10
0
0
0.281 ns (=TRO)
Time (ns)
84
Log-log scale
RO
1
p N
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Simulations
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Summary
A simple rate equation model for the photon and carrier
densities allows understanding the main features of the
laser dynamics with time-varying injection current:
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Outline
Part 1
1. Introduction to semiconductor lasers (SCLs)
2. Simplest model and dynamics with timevarying current parameter
Part 2
1. Applications of SCLs
2. More complicated model and dynamics with
optical injection and polarization properties
Communications
Optical Storage
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Communications
The internet and communications over fiber-optic networks
depend on diode lasers.
Diode lasers have created millions of jobs in the
telecommunications industry
Instant news
updates, television
and movies, video
conference, all
depend on lasers.
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Wavelength-division multiplexing
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Next generations
Digital versatile disks (DVDs, 1995)
=650 nm
Storage capacity = 4.7 GB
Blue DVDs (Blu-rays)
=405 nm
23.5 GB/disc
What is next?
3D systems (via, e.g., 2-photon absorption to decrease depth of
field for more layers)
shorter wavelengths (via nonlinear optics: frequency doubling)
supra-resolution imaging (stimulated emission depletion STED)
holographic data storage, etc.
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Cancer treatment
Optical imaging for cancer detection
Tumor ablation
590-1064 nm: maximum photo-thermal effect in human tissue
Laser diodes emitting in the 800-980nm range have been used for
kidney and brain tumors ablation
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Optogenetics
Two main approaches
laser light inhibits or
stimulates cells
laser light triggers a
drug effect
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111
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A transparent permanent
window to the brain
Yttria-stabilized-zirconia (YSZ)
is a ceramic material, which is
well tolerated and used in hip
implants and dental crowns.
It was modified to make it
transparent.
The modified YSZ prosthesis
provide a permanent window
through which doctors can aim
light-based treatments for the
brain without having to perform
repeated craniectomies.
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Big money
Is being invested in the US and in the EU in
brain research:
in the US: 100 M proposed by Obama for the
BRAIN Initiative (Brain Research through
Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies)
In the EU: 10 year Human Brain Project (54 M for
the rump up phase, 2013-2016)
http://thebraininitiative.org
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http://www.humanbrainproject.eu
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Optical spikes
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Why integrate?
In electronics:
Vacuum tubes
In photonics:
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Transistor
Diode laser
Integrated circuit
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The number of
transistors on
integrated
circuits
doubles
approximately
every two
years.
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Source: Wikipedia
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Big data
In 2014, the Internet will be four times larger than it was in
2009.
Companies and social networks contribute to the data
explosion: huge databases, HDTV, video conferencing, etc.
Multicore processors are packing more computing
capability into smaller spaces. But these high-performance
processors are constrained both electrically and physically.
Cant continue like this. The space is limited and the
energy consumption is becoming unsustainable.
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120
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Problem
Silicon is optically transparent at telecom wavelengths
(1,310 and 1,550 nm), so it can be used to create
waveguides.
But silicon lacks the necessary physical properties for
active devices: the direct bandgap needed for light
emission or the electro-optic effect used for modulation of
light.
Because of the different atomic structures of silicon and the
semiconductors III-V that are efficient light emitters, growing
those typically require temperatures in the range of 700oC.
Such temperatures destroy the other features on the chip.
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Wavelength tuning by
composition variation
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Optically pumped by
using a mode-locked
Ti:sapphire laser
The lasing
signature can be
seen from the
kink of the L-L
plot and the
linewidth
narrowing.
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Optically pumped by
cw diode laser at
405 nm.
Monolithically
integrated
plasmonics and Sibased electronics
on a single platform.
http://www.forbes.com/sites/tjmccue/2012/07/30/laser-diode-createsworlds-smallest-semiconductor-laser-for-optical-computing/
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kink of the
L-L plot
concurrent
with linewidth
narrowing
The challenge is whether
nanolasers can be efficiently
operated at RT.
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Outline
Part 1
1. Introduction to semiconductor lasers (SCLs)
2. Simplest model and dynamics with timevarying current parameter
Part 2
1. Applications of SCLs
2. More complicated models, dynamics with
optical injection and polarization properties
dN
1
N GS
dt N
G( N , S )
N
1 S
Parameter values
1 ps
1 ns
sp
10-4
0.01
th = 1
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FFT of S(t)
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RO
1
p N
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Laser linewidth
(t ) E (t ) e
0=2c/0
Slowly varying
complex amplitude
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SE
E Ex iE y
Ex
134
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Complex field E Ex iE y
sp N
dS 1
N 1S
dt p
N
sp N
dE
1
(1 i )( N 1) E
dt 2 p
N
factor
x i y
sp N 0
1
k
, D
2 p
N
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dE x
k ( N 1)( E x E y ) D x
dt
dE y
k ( N 1)(E x E y ) D y
dt
Langevin
stochastic
term:
complex,
uncorrelated,
Gaussian
white noise
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Optical injection
Optical feedback
Optical isolator
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Optical Injection
Detection system
(photo detector,
oscilloscope,
spectrum
analyzer)
Two Parameters:
o Injection ratio
o Frequency detuning = s- m
=m
Dynamical regimes:
o
o
o
o
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(1 i )( N 1) E
dt 2 p
dN
1
dt
N
-N-N E
2
Pinj D (t )
spontaneous
optical injection
emission
Pinj: injection strength
noise
: frequency detuning
sp N 0
D
Solitary laser
5 parameters: p N D
Typical parameters:
= 3, p = 1 ps,
N = 1 ns, D=10-4 ns-1
C. Masoller
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Injection locking
increases the
resonance frequency
and the modulation
bandwidth
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Lyapunov
diagram
Optical spectra
Injection
locking
Single
sideband
Double
sideband
FWM
S-C Chan, S-K Hwang, and Jia-Ming Liu, Optics Express 15, 14921 (2007)
143
144
Power spectra
fo
fmod
145
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Outline
Part 1
1. Introduction to semiconductor lasers (SCLs)
2. Simplest model and dynamics with timevarying current parameter
Part 2
1. Applications of SCLs
2. More complicated models, dynamics with
optical injection, polarization properties
Log scale
threshold current
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Drive current
X Polarisation
Y Polarisation
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
149
Polarization-resolved LI curve:
biestability and hysteresis
PS2:
current
decreases
Intensity (mW)
PS1:
current
increases
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
Two
transverse
modes with
orthogonal
polarization
10
Bias current
Current(mA)
(mA)
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Stochastic
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dE
(1 i )( N 1) E ( a i p ) E D
dt
dichroism
birefringence
E x ( E E ) / 2
dN
N ( N ) j ( N N ) 2 N N | E |2 E i( E E ) / 2
y
dt
Carrier
recombination
Pump:
carrier
injection
spin-flip
rate
Stimulated
recombination
Ix, Iy
Pump current
Pump current
s=10
s=20
Time (ns)
s=30
s=120
s=40
Time (ns)
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Anti-correlated oscillations
experimentally observed and
well modeled with the SFM
model and a small spin-flip rate
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Thermal effects
Assuming a linear increase of
the spin-flip rate with Ts:
157
C. Masoller PRL 90
020601 (2003)
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2.0 mA
2.6 mA
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Temporal evolution
of the intensity of
one polarization
mode, when the bias
current has
superimposed a
weak sinusoidal
modulation and
noise.
Increasing noise
Stochastic Resonance
Time evolution of
the intensity of one
polarization mode,
when the dc bias
current has
superimposed an
aperiodical weak
signal + noise.
162
The three levels are such that the laser emits the correct
polarization only with the help of optical noise (internal:
spontaneous emission or external: incoherent injected light).
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Strong
noise
Stronger
noise
All-optical implementation
Log (D)
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168
TE (x)
Polarization
selector
Ix
2
1
0
20
40
TM (y)
TM (y)
TE (x)
60
80
100
Polarization
rotator
mirror
Periodicity: 2
TE
(x)
Iy
TM
(y)
1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Time (ns)
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D. W. Sukow, T. Gilfillan, B. Pope, M. S. Torre, A. Gavrielides, and CM, Phys. Rev. A 86, 033818 (2012)
170
TM (y)
TM (y)
TE (x) is the
natural
lasing
polarization
without
coupling
Polarization
selector & rotator
I1x
I1y
Polarization
selector & rotator
I2x
I2y
D. Sukow et al, PRE 81, 025206R (2010)
171
Why?
TM (y)
TE (x)
Polarization
selector & rotator
Polarization
selector & rotator
Adapted from W. Coomans PhD thesis; M. Sorel et al, Opt. Lett. 27 1992 (2002)
174
175
10 m
176
177
<cristina.masoller@upc.edu>
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya
http://www.fisica.edu.uy/~cris/