Special Theory of Relativity

postulates of Special theory of relativity

The laws of physics are same in all the inertial frames, which is the principle of
relativity
The speed of light in free space has the same value c in all the inertial systems,
which is the principle of constancy of speed of light.

Derivation of Lorentz Transformation equations

FIGURE
Let S & S I be the two inertial frames. S I moves with a constant velocity c,
Then according to the Gellilian transformation
xI = x vt
In relativistic speed range, let us assume that
xI = k(x vt)

(1)

where k is a factor which doesnot depends on either x or t. But may be a

function of v. Because the equation of physics must have the same form in both
S & S I . We need only the changes of sign of v to write corresponding equation
for x in terms of xI & tI .
Therefore,
x = k(xI + vtI )

(2)

The factor k must be same in both the frames, since there is no difference in S
& S I other than the sign of v.
As in the case of Gallilian transformation thereis nothing to indicate that thre
might be difference between the corresponding co-ordinates yy I and zz I . Which
are perpendicular to the direction of v. And hence
y = yI

(3)

z = zI

(4)

The time co-ordinates t & t , however are not equal.

using eqn(1) and eqn(2).
x = k[k(x vt)] + vtI
x = k 2 (x vt + kvtI )
kvtI = k 2 (x vt) + x
kvtI = x(1 k 2 ) + vtk 2



1 k2
t = kt +
x
(5)
kv
eqn. (1)(3)(4) & (5) constitute a coordinate transformation that satisfies
the first postulates of special theory of relativity. By the 2nd postulate we
can calculate k, At time t = 0 the origins of S & S I coincide, At this point
t = tI = 0. Suppose that, a set of common origin of x & xI at t & the observer
in each system measure the speed with which light spreads out, but the observer
must find the same speed c which means that in the frame S
I

x = ct

(6)

xI = ctI

(7)

and in the S I frame

using eqn. (1) & (5) (7) we get


(1 k 2 )
x
k(x vt) = c kt +
kv


(1 k 2 )
kx kvt = kct +
cx
kv


2
(1 k )
kx
cx = kvt + kct
kv


h
(1 k 2 )
v i
k
c x = ct k + k
kv
c


v
ct k + c k
i
x= h
2)
k (1k
kv c


ct 1 + vc


x=
1 k12 1 vc
this expression when compared with (6) we get


1+ v
1 c c
1=
1 k2 1 v


1
v
c
2 +1 =
v
k
c
1
v2
= 2 1
2
k
c
1
k=q
2
1 vc2

substitute for k in (1) & (5) we get respectively,

2

(8)

x vt
xI = q
2
1 vc2

(a)

yI = y

(b)

z =z

(c)

&
t vx2
tI = q c
2
1 vc2

(d)

Equation (a),(b),(c)&(d) are Lorentz transformations. The Inverse Lorentz transformations

are give by
xI + vtI
(aI )
x= q
v2
1 c2
y = yI

(bI )

z = zI

(cI )

&
I

t + vx
c2
t= q
2
1 vc2
I

(dI )

Lorentz-Fitzirald Contraction (Length Contraction)

Let S & S I be two inertial frames of reference, let the frame S be at rest and
S I is moving with a constant velocity v with respect to S. Let AB be a rod
which is rest with respect to S I . That means the rod moves along x axis with
velocity v. Let x1 & x2 be the co-ordinates of two ends of the rod at a time t
in the frame S.
Therefore the length of the rod w.r.to frame S.
L = x2 x1

(9)

Let xI1 and xI2 be the co-ordinates of therod at the same time t in the frame S I
Therefore the length of the rod w.r.to frame S I .
L0 = xI2 xI1
By Lorentz transformation equations we have
x vt
xI = q
2
1 vc2

(10)

Therfore,
x1 vt
xI1 = q
2
1 vc2
and
x2 vt
xI2 = q
2
1 vc2
Then we get,
xI2

xI1

x2 vt
x

vt
1

=q
q
2
2
1 vc2
1 vc2

x2 x1
xI2 xI1 = q
2
1 vc2
L
L0 = q
1
r
1

L = L0

(11)
v2
c2

v2
c2

(12)

q
2
we have 1 vc2 < 1
Therefore L < L0 . Thus equation (12) shows that a
moving rod approches to be shorter for an observer at rest. This phinomenon is
known as Lorentz LengthContraction. Thus the length is not absolute but it
is relative. Only the dimensions in the direction of motion undergo contraction.
L0 = Length of rod at rest relative to the observer.
L= Length of the rod in motion relative to the observer.
v= Velocity of relative motion
c= Velocity of light.

Time Dilation
Let us consider two inertial frames S and S I . Shown in figure. Let S I moves
with a constant velocity c with respect to S.
FIGURE REQUIRED
We define an event as an occurence which takes place at some instant t at a
point P (x, y, z). Foe example, an electric bulb at (x, y, z) flashes at time t. Let
two clocks be situated one at O and the other at OI . Let the clock at O be
at rest w.r.to frame S I . i.e The clock at OI is moving with a velocity v w.r.to
a clock at O as t1 and t2 . Let the corresponding time as observed by another

observer in S I on his clock at OI be tI1 and tI2 respectively.

Now according to Lorentz transformation, we have,
t vx2
tI = q c
2
1 vc2

Therefore

t1 vx
c2
tI1 = q
2
1 vc2

(13)

t2 vx
c2
tI2 = q
2
1 vc2

(14)

t2 t1
tI2 tI1 = q
2
1 vc2

(15)

Let t2 t1 = t0 and tI2 tI1 = t where t0 and t are respectively time interval on
clock at rest relative to an observer and time interval at motion relative to an
observer. v= Velocity of relative motion and c= Velocity of light.
t= q

t0
1

(16)
v2
c2

q
2
now 1 vc2 < 1 and hence t > t0 thus, a moving clock always appears to run
faster than an identical clock at rest. The time interval dilates. i.e it expands
for a clock in motion. This effect is called Time dilation. The time interval is
measured at time same location. It is called proper time interval or the proper
time. Thus time is not absolute, but it is relative. From equation (16) we have
r
v2
t0 = t 1 2
c

Relativistic addition of velocities

Let us consider two inertial frames S and S I . Shown in figure. Let S I moves
with a constant velocity c with respect to S.
FIGURE REQUIRED Let the particle be moving with velocity ~u relative to
frame S and S I respectively. Then
~u = uxi + uy j + uz k
u~I = uIxi + uIy j + uIz k
where ux ,uy and uz are the components of u along the 3 axes. i,j and k being
unit vectors of x,y and z respectively. uIx ,uIy and uIz are the components of uI
along the respective axes. From the definition of velocity
ux =

x
y
z
, uy =
anduz =
t
t
t
5

similarly
xI I
y I
z I
, uy =
anduIz =
t
t
t
Lorentz inverse transformation are given by
uIx =

tI vx
xI vtI
c2
, y = y I , z = z I and t = q
x= q
2
v2
1 c2
1 vc2
Differentiating these transformation equation,
xI vtI
x = q
, y = y I , z = z I and
v2
1 c2

tI vx
c2
t = q
2
1 vc2

Now from these expression

ux =

x
x + vtI


= I
t
t + cv2 xI
xI
tI

ux =

1+

+v
v xI
c2 tI

uIx + v
1 + cv2 uIx
q
2
I
dy
1 vv2
dy
uy =
=
I
dt
dtI + vdx
c2
q
2
uIy 1 vv2
uy =
1 + cv2 uIx
ux =

(1)

(2)

Similarlly,
uIz

uIz

q
1

1+

v2
v2
v I
c2 ux

(3)

The equations (1),(2) and (3) are Transformation equations for velocity components.
ux v
1 cv2 ux
q
2
uy 1 vv2

uIx =

uIy =

v
c2 ux

(4)

(5)

Similarlly,
uz =

uz

q
1

1
6

v2
v2

v
c2 ux

(6)

The equations (4),(5) and (6) are Inverse transformation equations for velocity components.
An electron is moving with a speed of 0.85c in a direction opposite
to that of moving photon. Calculate the relative velocity of electron
and photon.

Steller aberation
FIGURE NEEDED The phinomenon of Steller aberation results to the result
that the speed of light is independent of the medium of transmission but the
direction of light rays depends on the motion of source emitting light relative
to the observer.
Let Sun be the frame S and revolving earth is S I . which is moving with velocity
v relative to the system S along positive x-direction. Let the light from a star
be observed by the observer O and OI in systems S and S I respectively. Let
the angle made by the light ray in xy plane from the star P at any instant in 2
system at O and OI be and I respectively. If any particle P has velocity u.
Then
u = uxi + uy j + uz k
and
uI = uIxi + uIy j + uIz k
are the velocity components along 3 axes of S and S I with respective unit

vectors i,j and k.

According to Lorentztransformation eqaution
x vt
xI = q
2
1 vc2
yI = y
zI = z
&
t vx2
tI = q c
2
1 vc2
Taking differentiations we get,
x vt
xI = q
2
1 vc2
y I = y
z I = z
&

t vx
c2
tI = q
2
1 vc2
From the concept of relatvistic addition of velocities,
uIx =

uIy

uIz =

ux v
1 cv2 ux

uy

(1)

v2
v2

(2)

1 cv2 ux
q
2
uz 1 vv2
1

(3)

v
c2 ux

From the figure it is clear that star light travelling in xy plane with velocity
c has components Ccos( + ) and Ccos( + I ) along the positive direction
of x axis in the frame S and S I respectively. the y axis components are
respectively Csin( + ) and Csin( + I ). Therefore we have,
ux = Ccos( + ) = Ccos

(4.a)

uy = Csin( + ) = Csin
uIx

(4.b)

(4.c)

(4.d)

= Ccos( + ) = Ccos

ux = Csin( + ) = Csin
From equation (1) and (2)

uIy
uIx

uy 1 2
1 cv2 ux
ux v
1 cv2 ux

p
uIy
uy 1 2
=
uIx
ux v

(5)

substituting the values from (4)

uIy
CsinI
=

uIx
CcosI
uIy
= tanI
uIx
Comparing (6) and (5)
p
1 2
tan =
ux v
p
Csin 1 2
I
tan =
Ccos v
I

uy

(6)

p
sin 1 2
tan =
cos +
p
tan 1 2
tanI =
1 + sec
The inverse of equation is given by
p
tanI 1 2
tan =
1 secI
I

(7)

(8)

Instead of light coming from star, consider now light signal is emitted from a
source at the origin of the S I as shows in the figure. Consider a light ray in
xI y I plane making an angle with xaxis in system S. Let the corresponding
angle as measured by observer O in system S be . Then in this case
ux = Ccos & uIx = CcosI
uy = Csin & uIy = CsinI
Substituting these values in equation (6)
p
uIy
CsinI
Csin 1 2
=
=
uIx
CcosI
Ccos v
p
tan 1 2
tanI =
1 sec
The inverse of equation (9)
p
tanI 1 2
tan =
1 + secI

(9)

(10)

From equations (7),(8),(9) and (10) it is obious that and I are not the same
in the two systems. i.e the light rays depends upon relative motion of source and
observer. Hence the explanation of the phinomenon of aberation is obious. Any
equations (7),(8),(9) and (10) give the exact Relativistic aberation formula.

Reletivistic Dopplers Effect

Let us consider two inertial frames S and S I . Let S I moves with a constant
velocity v with respect to S. Let the transmitter and reciever be situated in
origins O and OI of frames S and S I respectively. Let two light signals or pulses
transmitted at time t = 0 and t = T . T being true period of light pulse. Let tI
be the interval between the rexeption of these pulses by reciever in S I obiviously
tI = T I is the observed time interval between these pulses. Since the time
distance xI covered in frame S I during the reception of the two pulses is zero.
From inverse Lorentz transformation equation,
xI + vtI
x= q
2
1 vc2
9

we have
x =
Since xI = 0

xI + vtI
q
2
1 vc2

vtI
x = q
2
1 vc2

Therefore from t = T I we get,

x = q

vT I
1

(1)
v2
c2

This equation shows that the 2nd pulse has to travel this much distance x
more than the 1st pulse in frame S along x axis to be able to reach at origin
OI in moving a frame S I . From Lorentz inverse transformation equation,
I

tI + vx
c2
t= q
2
1 vc2
tI + vx
c2
t = p
1 2

Since tI = T I and Since xI = 0

t = p

TI
1 2

(2)

This relation includes both actual time period T of the pulses and the time
taken x
c by the 2nd pulse to cover the extra distance x in frame S.
x
c
sustituting the values of x and t from (1),(2) and (3) we get
t = T I +

TI +

(3)

x
TI
=p
c
1 2

Solving we get,
T I (1 + vc )
T = p
1 2
s
1 vc
T = TI
1 + vc

10

(4)

If and I are the actual and observed frequencies respectively. Then we have
= T1 and I = T1I equation (4) gives
s
I

1
1+

(5)

This result is known as Dopplers relativistic formula for light waves in

vacuum.
Interms of actual and apparent wavelengths and I given by
s
c 1
c
=
I
1+
s
I

1+
1

(6)

In both the equation (5) and (6) is positive or negavtive according to the
position of observer. Such that during the resetion apparent frequency I and
apparent wavelength I of the pulse decreases and increases respectively. Such
that during the approch apparent frequency I and apparent wavelength I of
the pulse inreases and decreases respectively. The Doplers effect so far considered as the longitudinal Doplers effect since the observation is made along
the direction of travel of light source.
If the observation are made at right angle to the direction of travel to source
the Doppler effect is known as transverse Doppler effect. For transverse Doppler
effect the 2nd signal doesnot take extra time since here y I = y and z = z I due
to the relative motion along the y and z direction. Therefore from the results
of time dilation the real and apparent periods are related by
T
TI = p
1 2

(7)

If and I are both actual and observed frequencies in S and S I respectivey.

Then
p
I = 1 2
(8)
This expression represents Transverse Dopplers Effect.
If v  c, longitudinal and transverse Dopplers effect take the form
p
I = 1 2 L.D.E
I = T.D.E
Calculate the wavelength shift in the relativistic Dopplers effect in
H of wavelength 6563AO , by a star precieding from a earth with
velocity of 0.1c. Get the classical approximation

11

Equivalence of Mass and Energy

From work-energy Theorem kinetic energy of the moving body is equal to
workdone by external force by impart the velocity to the body at rest.
If F is the force acting on the body then workdone by the force on body in
raising its velocity from v = 0 to v = V is given by
Z V
~
~ ds
W =
F.
0

The kinetic energy of the body Ek = T = W

Z V
~ dr dt
F.
Ek =
dt
0
Z V
~ v dt
F.~
Ek =
0

~
dp
~v dt
dt

Z
Ek =
0
V

Z
Ek =

d
(m.~v )dt
dt

v.
0
V

Z
Ek =

v.d(mv)
0

But from the relation of variation of mass with velocity. The mass of body in
motion
m0
m= p
1 2
m0 = restmassof thebody
V

Z
Ek = T =

v.d
0

Z
Ek = m0
0

Z
Ek = m0

"

v.
0

v2
1 2
c

m0
p

1 2

" 
 21 #
v2
v.d v 1 2
c

 12

Ek = m0


 23  2  #
1
v2
v
dv v.
1 2
2 dv
2
c
c
Z V
vdv
3

(1 2 ) 2




substitute 1 2 as y and dy = 2vdv
We get
c2


Z (1 2 ) c2 dy
2
Ek = m0
3
y2
0
0

12

(1)

"
Ek = m0 c

Ek = p

1 2

m0
1 2

m0 c2

Ek = (m m0 )c2

(2)

This is relativistic equation for kinetic energy. Thus kinetic energy for a moving
body is equal to gain in mass times the square of the speed of light. Therefore
m0 c2 may be regarded as rest energy of body of rest mass m0 . This rest energy
may be considerd as internal stored energy to the body. Then the total energy
of the body E is the sum of rest energy and kinetic energy of the body.
i.e E = Rest energy + Relativistic Kinetic energy
E = m0 c2 + (m m0 )c2
Therefore
E = mc2
This is known as Einsteins Mass Energy Relation which states a universal
equivalence between mass and energy.

Relativistic Force Law and Dynamics of a single Particle

Generalised Newtons 2nd law is
~
dp
F~ =
dt
In relativistic mechanics
d
F~ =
dt

m u
p 0
1 2

when the law is written in this form we can immidiatly deduce the law of
conservation of relativistic momentum from it.
When F~ = 0,
!
m0 u
p= p
1 2
must be constant. In the absence of external force the momentum is conserved.
When the total relativistic momentum
R changes by an amount p. Then this
change is equal to the total impulse F dt given to the system.
In case of the motion of high speed charged particle it is found that the equation
correctly describing the motion is Lorentz Law in electrodynamics,
!
m0 u
d
p
q(E + u B) =
dt
1 2

13

Here q(E + u B) is Lorentz electromagnetic force in which E is the electric

field, B is the magnetic field and u is the particle velocity. All measured in the
same reference frame and q and m0 are constants that describe the electrical
and inertial propertiesof the particle respectively. In Newtonian mechanics we
define the kinetic energy of the particle to be equal to the workdone by an
external force in increasing the speed of the particle from zero to some value u.
Z u
F.dt
K=
0

where F.dl is the workdone by the force F in displacing the particle through dl.
Consider in one dimension
Z u
Z u
du
m0 dx
F.dx =
K=
dt
0
0
Z u
dx
m0 du
K=
dt
0
Z u
K = m0
u.du
0

K=

1
m0 u2
2

In Newtonian mechanics m0 is constant and force is m0 a = m0 du

dt In relativity
Z u
Z u
d
K=
(mu)dx
F.dx =
0
0 dt
Z u
dx
K=
d(mu)
dt
0
Z u
K=
(mdu + udm)u
Z

0
u

K=

(mudu + u2 dm)

(1)

In both m and u are variables. These quantities are relative to further more
m = m0 2 can be written as m2 c2 m2 u2 = m20 c2 Taking difference in this
1

equation yields,
2mc2 dm m2 2udu 2mu2 dm = 0
which on division by 2m can be written as
mudu + u2 dm = c2 dm
The leftside of the equation(2)

14

(2)

is exactly the integrent of equation(1). Hence we can write the relativistic

equation as for the K.E of particle. Then
Z u
Z u
2
2
dm
K=
c dm = c
0

"
2

K = mc m0 c = m0 c

1 2

#
1

Also if we take mc2 = E, where E called the total energy of the particle. we
can write E = m0 c2 + K, in which m0 c2 is called rest energy of the particle.
The rest energy is the energy of the particle at rest when u = 0 and K = 0 the
Energy of the particle is the sum of its rest energy and its kinetic energy. The
relativistic expression for K must reduced to the classical result. 21 m0 c2 when
u
c 1
#
"
1/2
u2
2
1
K = m0 c
1 2
c
u
c

using Binomial theorem expansion in

K=

gives

1
m0 u2
2

In which we take only the first two terms in expansion as significant when
u
c  1 there by confirming the Newtonian mechanics of the relativisic result.
The relation between kinetic energy K of a rapidly moving particle and its
moment p can be found as the following. We have
"
#
1/2
u2
2
K = m0 c
1 2
1
(3)
c
equation(3) can be rearranged as follows
K=h

m0 c2
i m0 c2


u2 1/2
1 c2

(K + m0 c2 )2 =
we have

m20 c4
2

1 uc2

(4)

m20 v 2
2

1 uc2


1
1
p2 2 2 = m20
u
c
p2 =

u2 =

p2
m20 +

p2

c2

15

p 2 c2
m20 c2 + p2

(5)

equation (5) in (4) we get,

(K + m0 c2 )2 = 

m20 c4
1

p2 c2

c2 (m20 c2 +p2 )

(K + m0 c2 )2 = c2 (m20 c2 + p2 ) = (m0 c2 )2 + (pc)2

(6)

we have total energy E 2 = (K + m0 c2 ). Thus equatin(6) can be written as

If in case of
is

u
c

E 2 = (m0 c2 )2 + (pc)2

 1 then p = 2m0 k. we have relativistic expression for energy

p
E = c m0 c2 + p

By differentiating this with respect to p we obtain

dE
pc
pc2
pc2
=p 2
= p 2
=
dp
E
m0 c2 + p2
c m0 c2 + p2
But with E = mc2 and p = mu this reduces to dE
dp = u As a final consideration
in the relativistic dynamics of a single particle we look at the acceleration of a
particle under the influence of a force.
In general, the force is given by
F =

dp
d
= (mu)
dt
dt

F =m
we know that m =

E
c2

du
dm
+u
dt
dt

(7)

so that

1 dE
1 d
1 dK
dm
= 2
= 2 (K + m0 c2 ) = 2
dE
c dt
c dt
c dt
but

dK
dt

= F dL
dt and

dm
dt

1
c2 F.u

Then using equation (7) we obtain,

F =m

du
(F.u)
+u 2
dt
c

Thus acceleration a is defined by a = du

dt so that the general expression for
acceleration


du
F
u(F.u)
a=
=

(8)
dt
m
mc2
This shows that acceleration a is not parallel to the force in relativity. Since
the last term above is in the direction of the velocity u.

16

Minkowskis space
Minkowskis space pointed out that the external world not found of ordinary
three dimensional space known as Euclidean space. But it is four Dimensional
space time continuum known as space or world space. Where time or more
conviniently ict regarded as 4th domension. Therefore an event in the world
space must be represented by 4-coordinates (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) out of which 1st 3 is
space coordinate and 4th one is time coordinate.
FIGURE NEEDED
The events in the world is represented by a point known as world points. In
this world points are corresponds to each particle a certain line known as world
line. Let us consider two axes OX and OP being origin of system (P is ict). we
know that according to Lorentz transformation, (x2 + y 2 + z 2 c2 t2 ) is invarient
quantity. But y I = y and z I = z then
x2 c2 t2 = x2 + p2
is an invarient quantity. This means that distance of any variable point p
in xp plane from origin is unchanged. We shell show how the rotation of
xp system gives Lorentz transformation. Let the axes OX and OP be ratated
through an angle , such that new positions of OX and OP are OX I and OP I .
Then we have radius vector in both the systems
~r = xi + pP

(1)

where i and P are unit vectors along x and P respectively. From the figure we
have
i = iI cos PI sin
P = PI cos + iI sin
(2)
Substituting these in euation (1) we get
iI cos PI sin + PI cos + iI sin = xI iI + pI PI
Equating the coefficients of iI and P I either side we get
xI = xcos + P sin
P I = xsin + P cos
iv
c

Let us substitute tan =

(3)

= i,

sin = p

i
1 2

& cos = p

1
1 2

From equation (3) we get

xI = p

x
1 2

17

P i
1 beta2

x + iP
x + i(ict)
xI = p
= p
1 2
1 2
x vt
xI = q

2
1 vc
similarlly
xi
P
PI = p
+p
2
1
1 2
xi + P
ictI = p
1 2
Then we get
t x
tI = p
1 2
Thus we see that Lorentz transformations are equivalent to rotational axes in
4-D space x, y, z, P through a hypothetical angle i.

Four Vectors
We discus valid vector analysis laws applicable to 4-D vectors are called 4-vectors
or world vectors. As the 4-Dcoordinates are orthogonal we must have
k = 1 and p.
i.i = j.j = k.
p=0
The world vectors are denoted by bars beneath thier symbols. If A and B are

two world vectors then

z + pAp
A = iAi + jAy + kA

Similarlly,
z + pBp
B = iBi + jBy + kB

The transformation law in Minkowskis 4-D space for the set of 4-coordinates
(x1 , x2 , x3 , p) in one frame of reference. To the set of 4-coordinates (xI1 , xI2 , xI3 , pI )
in another
P frame moving with velocity v relative to the first frame is given by
xI = a x Then
I2
I2
I2
(x21 + x22 + x23 + p2 ) = (xI2
1 + x2 + x3 + p )

Any set of 4-coordinates A which transform under Lorentztransformation is

called 4-vectors. the components of A of 4-vector A transform under Lorentz

transformation according to
AImu = a A
The scalar product of 2 world vector A and B is defined as

A.B = Ax .Bx + Ay .By + Az .Bz + Ap .Bp

18

Which may also written as

X
AB = A1 .B1 + A2 .B2 + A3 .B3 A4 .B4

It can be also written as,

AB = A1 .B1 + A2 .B2 + A3 .B3 A4 .B4
Where A is (A1 , A2 , A3 , iA4 ) Itcan be easily varified that the scalar product
A and B is onvarient quantity. i.e
AI BI = A B = Constant
Since
XXX

AI BI =

a A a B

!
=

XX X

a a

A B

XX

A B
A B

Here is Kronecker Delta. Then the scalar product of two 4-vectors are
invarient quantity.

Co-varient 4-D formulation of the laws of Mechanics

If the form of a law is not changed by certain co-ordinate transformation, the
law is said to be invarient or co-varient. If any physical lawis expressed in a
co-varient 4-D form, the law will be invarient under the Lorentz transformation.
In 4-D the position vector will be termed as position 4-vector and is expressed
as
r = x1 x1 + x2 x2 + x3 x3 + x4 x4

Where x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 are unit vectors alomg x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 respectively. To differentiate position 4-vector with ordinary position vector we have to put r in

place of r. Taking the dot product of r with itself, we get Lorentz scalar.

r.r = (x1 x1 + x2 x2 + x3 x3 + x4 x4 ).(x1 x1 + x2 x2 + x3 x3 + x4 x4 )

= x21 + x22 + x23 + x24

i.e Lorentz invarient. If dr represent the change in position 4-vectors then

dr = x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3 + x4 dx4

19

Taking the Dot product of this with itself then weget Lorentz invarient or world scalar.
i.e
dr.dr = dx21 + dx22 + dx23 + dx24

Let x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 = z and x4 = ict Then
dr2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 c2 dt2
(1)

Which is Lorentz Invarient. Let us consider a system in which particle is momentarily rest. As the object at rest its displacement vanishes. i.e dx = dy = dz = 0
and Time denpted by then we have
dr2 = c2 dz 2
(2)

As dr2 is invarient, From equation (2) itis clear that d = dr

ic is an invarient.

If dr and c are invarient. The time d as measured in the rest frame is called

proper time. From equation (3) we have,

1
(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 c2 dt2 )
c2
"
( 
 2  2 )#
2
2
dx
dy
dz
dt
+
+
d 2 = 2 c2
c
dt
dt
dt
r
v2
d = dt 1 2
c
Which is nothing but Time dilation in terms of 4-vectors. As one of the
components of 4-vector isimaginary. The square of the 4-vector may be positive
or negative like any other ordinary vectors. If the square of magnitude of the
vector is greater than or equal to Zero. If the magnitude is said to be nagative
then 4-vectoris said to be space like. If magnitude of 4-vector are world scalar
the designation is uneffected by Lorentz transformation.
Let us now consider the difference vectors between two world point which is
either positive or negative.
Let R be the difference vector defined as R = r2 + r1

where r1 and r2 are the position 4-vectors of the world point respectively. The

magnitude of R is given by

R2 = |r2 r1 |2

R2 = |r2 r1 |2 c2 (t2 t1 )2

Where r1 and r 2 all the ordinaryposition vectors. Thus R will space like if

|r2 r1 |2 < c2 (t2 t1 )2

Let the spacial axis be so oriented that the difference vector (r2 r1 ) is along xaxis is equal to (x2 x1 ) and then Lorentz transformation of the 4th components
of R may be written as

c(t2 t1 ) vc (x2 x1 )
q
c(tI2 tI1 ) =
2
1 vc2
d 2 =

20

If R is space like then c(t2 t1 ) < (x2 x1 ) and hence it is possible to find a

velocity v < c such that ic(tI2 tI1 ) vanishes. i.e fourth component of R. Means

that if the distance between two event is space like it is possible to find system
in which two events are simultaneous.
Example for Covarience
Let us take the scalar wave equation of the type
2

1 2
=0
c2 t2

Like the 3-D gradient, we consider 4-D in world space a differential operator

known as D0 Alembertian with components x

, , ,
1 x2 x3 x4

 = i
+ j
+ k
+x

x1
x2
x3
x4
Taking the scalar products
2
2
2
2
j + k + x
. = i
+

x1 2
x2 2
x3 2
x4 2

i.e
2 = i

2
2
2
1 2
+ j
+ k
2 2
2
2
2
x1
x2
x3
c t

Which is Lorentz invarient. Any physical law may be invarient under Lorentz
transformation if the law may be expressedas covarient 4-D form.

Lorentz transformation in space and time in 4-vector form

Consider 2-systems S and S I . The latter moving with velocity u relative to
former along with the positive x-direction. In Minkowskis space that the cocordinates of an event be represented by the quantities (x, y, z, ict) or x with
( = 1, 2, 3, 4). Where x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 = z and x4 = ict. Lorentz transformation of space and time are written as
t vx2
x vt
xI = p
, y I = y, z I = z and tI = p c
1 2
1 2
Equivalently it can be written as
x1 vt
xI1 = p
, = (x1 + ix4 )
1 2
xI2 = x2 , xI3 = x3
and

t vx2
xI4 = p c
= (x4 ix1 )
1 2

21

Then we have,
xI1 = x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 + ix4
xI2 = 0x1 + 1x2 + 0x3 + 0x4
xI3 = 0x1 + 0x2 + 1x3 + x4
xI1
xI2
I
x3
xI4

xI4 = ix1 + 0x2 + 0x3 + x4

0 0 i

0
1 0
0
.
=
0
0 1
0
i 0 0

x1
x2

x3
x4

xI = x

0
Where is given by
0
i
Express Length contraction

0 0 i
1 0
0

0 1
0
0 0
and Time dilation in 4-vectors form.

4-Dimensional line element

4-D space line element ds is given by
ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 c2 dt2

(1)

The concept of proper time can be explained from the length element. We know
that path of the particle is defined by its position x,y and z as afunction of t.
THe points on its path called the world line of the particle in 4-D space, time
can be parameterized by available . Such that we can write equation (1) in
the form
ds2 = c2 d 2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 c2 dt2
(2)
It isobvious that as the dimension of time for an inertial frame attached to
the particle
dx = dy = dz = 0
.. . From equation (2) d = dt.
Hence is a time as measired in the rest frame of the particle. Further ds = cd
and since ds is invarient, length element d is an invarient element like ds. Hence
is called Proper time of particle.

4-Velocity
The velocity of the particles measured by an inertial observer is


dx dy dz
~u =
, ,
dt dt dt

22

Dividing by c2 dt2 equation (2) we get,



Therefore

dz
dt

2
=1

dt
1
=q
dz
1

v2
c2

(3)
v2
c2

It is evident that for a ray of light u = c, .. .d = 0 and so ds = 0 in this case

equation (3) expresses the relation between proper time as measured in the
rest frame of particles. As time measured by an inertial observer for whom the
speed of the particle is u. In classical physics the time t is absolute so dt is an
invarient quantity for all such observers. The velocity of a particle is defined in
terms of dt as shown in equation(2), on the other hand in relativistic case dt is
relativistic quantity, where as d is invarient quantity.
So the 4-D velocity of particle is written interms of as
u =

=

dx
d

dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4

,
,
,
d d d d

we have x1 = x,x2 = y,x3 = z and x4 = ict Then

 1

dx dt dx2 dt dx3 dt dx4 dt

u =
,
,
,
dt d dt d dt d dt d
 1

1
dx dx2 dx3

q
u =
,
,
, ic
2
1 uc2 d d d
From equation (2) we write
ds2 = (dx1 )2 + (dx2 )2 + (dx3 )2 + (dx4 )2
=

u X
u
X

g dx dx

=1 =1

ds2 = g dx dx
here g is metric tensor and is given by

g11 g12 g13 g14
g21 g22 g23 g24

g31 g32 g33 g34 =
g41 g42 g43 g44

23

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0

0
1

It is also defined as x = g x conventionally the quantities with superscript

are contravarient and subscripts are called covarient. x is Contravarient 4vector x is Covarient 4-vector Then
x = g x
where g is matrix inverse of g . such that
g g = g =
where is called Kroneker delta. The classical expression for acceleration
vector a is

 2
d x d2 y d2 z
,
,
a=
dt2 dt2 dt2
Hence 4-D acceleration is
du
d2 x
a =
=
dt2
dx

du1 du2 du3

.
,
d d d

u u = g u u
 1 2  2 2  3 2
dx
+ dx
+ dx
c2
dt
dt
dt
1
=

v2
c2

u2 c2
2
2 = c
1 vc2

d
dc2
(u u ) =
=0
d
d
Therefore
2u

du
=0
dt

Then
u a = 0
This shows that velocity of 4-vectors u and acceleration 4-vector a are mutually perpendicular to the 4-D momentum of a particle defined as the product of
its rest mass m0 and its 4-D velocity u .


dx
dx1
dx2
dx3
dx4
m0
= m0
, m0
, m0
, m0
d
d
d
d
d
m0

dx1
m0
=q
d
1

v2
c2

m0

m0
dx2
=q
d
1

v2
c2

24

dy
dt
dz
dt

m0

dx3
m0
=q
d
1

m0

v2
c2

dx4
m0
=q
d
1

dx
dt
c

v2
c2

F is called Minkowskis force and is defined as



d
dx
F =
m0
d
d

Equation of Motion
Newtons 1st law holds good for relativistic as well as non-relativistic mechanics.

25