Geotechnical Journal October 2014 SLGS Part 1

3rd Proff 18-02-2015
Geotechnical
Journal
- Geotechnical
Journal
Special
Issue
on on
Special
Issue
Ground
Improvement
Ground
Improvement
Sri Lankan Geotechnical Society
Sri Lankan
Geotechnical
Society
C/o National
Building
Research Organisation
C/o National
Building
Research
Organisation
99/1, Jawatta
Road,
Colombo
05
Sri
Lanka.
99/1, Jawatta Road, Colombo 05
Sri Lanka.
EDITED BY :
Prof. Buddhima Indraratna
Prof. Athula Kulathilaka
EDITED
:
Mr.BY
Sinniah
K. Navaratnarajah
PAPERS
REVIEWED BY:
Prof. Athula
Kulathilaka
Mr. Sinniah K. Navaratnarajah
PAPERS REVIEWED BY:
ISSN 1391 6149
ISSN 1391 6149
Geotechnical Journal- Special Issue on Ground Improvement, SLGS, Volume 6, Number 1, October 2014
Geotechnical Journal- Special Issue on Ground Improvement, SLGS, Volume 6, Number 1, October 2014
PREFACE
This Special Issue of the Geotechnical Journal of the Sri Lankan Geotechnical Society on Ground
Improvement is the result of keen discussion among various experts, for highlighting the key geotechnical
issues encompassing modern ground improvement techniques for infrastructure development. This
special issue includes 9 papers from around the globe, including numerical and analytical methods, design
parameters, field and laboratory testing, and case studies.
The issue begins with the paper by Balasubramaniamet al. titled Interpretation and analysis of test
embankments in soft clays with and without ground improvement.The paper presents the interpretation of
fully-instrumented test embankments and their role in the development of appropriate ground improvement
techniques for highways and airfields on soft clay deposits illustrated through well-documented case studies
from Southeast Asia and Queensland, Australia.
The paper The application of vertical drains and vacuum preloading for improving soft ground by
Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna introduces recent advancement in soft soil improvement using prefabricated
vertical drains (PVDs) and vacuum preloading. This paper also presents an overview of the theoretical and
practical developments and salient findings of soft ground improvement via PVD and vacuum preloading,
with applications to selected case studies in Australia, Thailand, and China.
The article on the Use of shock mats for mitigating degradation of railroad ballast by Indraratnaet al.
proposes the use of artificial inclusion such as rubber shock mats with the aim of reducing particle breakage
and ballast deformation as a cost-effective option for improving ballasted rail track foundation. This paper
presents a state-of-the-art review of laboratory studies and numerical modelling, illustrating the benefits of
Under Sleeper Pads (USP) and Under Ballast Mats (UBM) in railway practice.
A number of published geotechnical case histories involving ground improvement for mitigating liquefaction
induced geotechnical hazards, originating from the Lower Mainland of British Columbia, Canada, have
been reviewed by Wijewickreme in his paper, Ground improvement to mitigate earthquake-induced soil
liquefaction hazards. Current approaches for predicting earthquake-induced ground deformations and the
appropriate selection of ground improvement methods and their applicability are highlighted.
In their paper on Performance of highway embankments constructed over Sri Lankan peaty soils with
special reference to the Southern Expressway in Sri Lanka, Karunawardena and Toki performed detailed
laboratory and field investigations before and after ground improvement. The paper highlights salient
aspects of field instrumentation and monitoring program during and after embankment construction.
In the paper on Design and performance of bridge approaches constructed using geogrid-reinforced
piled embankment method, Karunawardena and Wedikkarage present a case history of the design and
performance of geogrid- reinforced piled embankments constructed at bridge approaches in the Southern
Expressway project in Sri Lanka. It provides details of the design methodology, numerical analysis and
construction together with field data.
The paper by Baralet al. on Practice of reinforced embankment on hard foundation - a case study of
Phitsanulok, Thailand demonstrates the application of a Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall (MSEW)
3rd Proff 18-02-2015

embankment through numerical simulation. The paper elucidates the performance of a full-scale reinforced
test embankment designed and constructed by Department of Highways (DOH) on relatively stiff clay
foundation.
Subgrade soil stabilization using native vegetation by Pallewattha et al. explains the capability of
increasing the matric suction of the soil subgrade underneath the substructure via root water uptake, in
conjunction with evapo-transpiration by tree canopy. The paper demonstrates that tree roots are capable
of providing significant mechanical reinforcement plus additional cohesion by generating osmotic suction.
The paper by Kodikara and Islam on An Analysis of Compacted Pavement Subgrade Behaviour Due to
Climatic Effects presents a comprehensive description of the behaviour of pavement subgrade subjected
to climatic effects. The current design approaches are reviewed in view of fresh interpretations based on a
newly developed conceptual framework.
Our invitation to be Guest Editors of this Special Issue by the Sri Lankan Geotechnical Society is gratefully
appreciated. The 9articlesincluded in this Special Issue cover an array of ground improvement techniques
from theory to practice. We gratefully acknowledge the efforts of all Authors who accepted our invitation
to submit high quality articles in a timely manner. All papers have been peer-reviewed to maintain high
standards, and we acknowledge the efforts by all Reviewers. We also appreciate the support given by
several PhD candidates at University of Wollongong, Australia during this task, especially Darshana Perera
and Muditha Pallewattha.
It is hoped that this Special Issue on Ground Improvement would be of immense benefit to both researchers
and practitioners alike.
Prof. Athula Kulathilaka
Mr. Sinniah K. Navaratnarajah
3rd Proff 18-02-2015

GEOTECHNICAL JOURNAL
SPECIAL ISSUE ON GROUND IMPROVEMENT
CONTENTS
Interpretation and Analysis of Test Embankments in Soft Clays with and
without Ground Improvement
A. S. Balasubramaniam, B. Indraratna, D.T. Bergado, C. Rujikiatkamjorn
1 -15
The Application of Vertical Drains and Vacuum Preloading for Improving Soft Ground
C. Rujikiatkamjorn and B. Indraratna
16 - 31
Use of Shock Mats for Mitigating Degradation of Railroad Ballast

B. Indraratna, S. Nimbalkar, S.K. Navaratnarajah, C. Rujikiatkamjorn and T. Neville
32 - 41
Ground Improvement to Mitigate Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazards

D. Wijewickreme
42 - 50
Performance of Highway Embankments Constructed Over Sri Lankan Peaty Soils

A. Karunawardena and M. Toki
51 - 58
Design and Performance of Bridge Approaches Constructed Using geogrid -

Reinforced Piled Embankment Method
A. Karunawardena andW.S.N.M Wedikkarage
59 - 66
Practice of Reinforced Embankment on Hard Foundation on Hard Foundation

A Case Study of Phitsanulok, Tailand
P. Baral, D.T. Bergado, C. Rujikiatkamjorn and A.S. Balasubramaniam
67 - 76
Subgrade Soil Stabilisation Using Native Vegetation

M. Pallewattha, B. Indraratna, B. Fatahi, C. Rujikiatkamjorn and U. Pathirage
77 - 86
An Analysis of Compacted Pavement Subgrade Behaviour Due to Climatic Effects

J. Kodikara and T. Islam
86 - 90
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Geotechnical Journal Vol. 6 No. 1 2014 1
INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF TEST EMBANKMENTS IN SOFT CLAYS WITH AND

WITHOUT GROUND IMPROVEMENT
A. S. Balasubramaniam1, B. Indraratna2, D.T. Bergado3, C. Rujikiatkamjorn4
1 Adjunct Professor, School of Engineering, Griffith University Gold Coast Campus, QLD 9726, Australia
(Ph: +61-7-55528590; Fax: +61-7-55528065; email: a.bala@griffith.edu.au)
2Professor of Civil Engineering, School of Mining and Environmental Engineering, Research Director of Centre for Geomechanics
and Railway Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong City, Australia
3Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand
(Ph: +66 2 524 5512, Fax: +66 2 524 6050 email: bergado@ait.ac.th)
4Associate Professor, Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong City, Australia
ABSTRACT: In this paper the interpretation of fully instrumented test embankments and their role in the development of
appropriate ground improvement techniques for highways, motorways and airfields on soft clay deposits is illustrated through
well documented case studies in Bangkok, Thailand, the Muar Flat site in Kuala Lumpur, and in Southeast Queensland. With the
Bangkok Plain and sand backfills, the performance of embankments with different patterns of vertical drains was evaluated over
a period of 25 years. Aspects such as the recharging effects due to the drains, inadequate measures in maintaining the vacuum
during vacuum applications and possible hydraulic connections with large diameter drains are discussed. With the Muar test
embankments, the role of fill strength in residual soil embankment and the field deformation analysis in separating consolidation
settlement from immediate settlement and creep settlements is presented. Novel interpretations of settlement from pore pressure
dissipation, secondary settlement from field measurements, and the decay of the lateral deformation rate overtime were also
made.
1 INTRODUCTION
To evaluate geotechnical parameters traditional laboratory tests are
performed. But when the quality of undisturbed samples taken from
boreholes or block samples is in doubt, in situ tests are performed.
These in-situ tests can be small scale such as vane tests, cone
penetration tests, pressure meter tests, and dilatometers tests. Large
scale field tests are also carried out in parallel and these tests are
fully instrumented. Over the last 32 years the first author has been
involved in interpreting the test data from several embankments in
Thailand, Malaysia, and in Southeast Queensland. This paper touches
on some of the lessons learnt from these studies and how they have
improved our understanding of soft clay behaviour and ground
improvement schemes when studied via at least embankment. The
cases in Thailand and the Muar site in Malaysia will be emphasised
and these experiences will be presented in chronological order rather
than country wise. The concept of large scale field test stemmed from
knowing that our single element laboratory scale tests could not cover
all the features that we encounter in sedimentary soils with layers
that vary in thickness and properties. Not only that, small scale field
tests can occasionally misrepresent large scale behaviour that covers
a much larger loaded area. From this experience began the concept of
building test embankments.
A typical soil profile in the Bangkok Plain is shown in Fig.1. Eide
(1977) reported the results of a test section on the Bangkok-Siracha
highway that were measured in 1966, and where ground along the
route was considered to be very soft. Sand drains 0.2 m in diameter
were installed in a triangular pattern 2 m apart by the displacement
method. These sand drains increased the rate of settlement but not
by much; indeed the most negative aspect quoted by Eide (1977)
was that even though the sand drains accelerated consolidation over
the first 18 months, at the end of this period the rate of settlement
was still as much as 0.03 m per month, which was considered to be
high. Possibly because the factor of safety was low, a substantial
part of the total settlement was due to continuous undrained creep
without volumetric strain, when the stress states when close to failure.
Furthermore, Cox (1967) in his research report at AIT concluded that
the design and construction of road embankments over the soft deltaic
clays in South East Asia was a very complex engineering problem
because the pore pressure response and settlement characteristics
corresponded to lightly over-consolidated states rather than normally
consolidated states.
Dr. ZaChiehMoh and his colleagues were pioneers in the study of the
test embankment at the Second International Airport site in Bangkok
as early as 1970. Full scale test embankments were built at Nong Ngo
Hao by Moh et al (1973) to study the in-situ behaviour. Embankment
I was built rapidly to failure, and indeed it failed at only 3.4 m.
Embankment II was in two sections - one where the height varied
from 0.5 m to 2.9 m and the other with 2.9 m of constant height.
The behaviour of these embankments was studied closely by several
Masters and Doctoral students at AIT.
The next major study was associated with the Royal Thai Navy
Dockyard in Pomprachul, Thailand, where work had commenced
in 1975. The test site is situated at the mouth of the Chao Phraya
River in Samut Prakarn province, approximately 20 km south of the
Bangkok city. The embankment was built in two stages, each being 90
m long by 33 m wide by 2.35 m high and consisting of three sections;
a section without drains, a section with drains 2.5 m apart, and a
section with drains 1.5 m apart (as shown in Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b).
The profile of the soil is in Fig. 2c. The sand drains consisted of small
diameter (0.05m) sand wicks and were installed to a depth of 17 m
by the displacement method. These sand wicks were constructed on
site by pouring sand inside a permeable membrane. First a 75 mm
internal diameter steel tube closed at one end was driven into the
ground and then a sand wick was lowered into the casing and the
casing was subsequently withdrawn.166 piezometers were installed
below the test fill area and outside of it, and then surface and subsurface settlement points were installed to monitor settlement along
the centre line and edges of the test embankment. Three hydrostatic
profile gauges were installed, one along each central cross-section
of a test section. Also, eleven magnetic movement plates were used
to monitor lateral displacement along the gauge. Three inclinometer
casings were installed along the centre line of each test section.
At the airport site in Nong NguHao, the most extensive sand drain
studies on test embankments were performed in 1983 (see Moh and
Woo, 1987) as part of the ground improvement scheme for the runway
pavement and other sections of the taxiways and landside roads. Sand
drains with a minimum diameter 0.26 m were installed by water
jetting to a depth of 14.5 m. The test program included
three test areas, one with surcharge fill, one with vacuum loading,
and one with ground water lowering. Test Section 1 was 40 m x 40
m in plan and sand drains were installed in a triangular pattern, 2 m
Journal
Vol. 6Vol.
No.61 No.
20141 2014
2Geotechnical
Geotechnical
Journal
Fig. 1 Typical soil profile in the Bangkok Plain (Balasubramaniam et al. 2005)
Fig. 2a Plan of test embankment at RTN Dockyard site (Balasubramaniam et al. 2005)
rd
3Geotechnical
Proff 18-02-2015
Journal Vol. 6
No. 1 2014
apart.
load
wassurcharge
unsuccessful
several
leaks
so the
three The
test vacuum
areas, one
with
fill, because
one with
vacuum
loading,
section
waswith
covered
with awater
plastic lowering.
shield. TestTest
Section
3 was 1similar
and one
ground
Section
was
to
except
thewere
draininstalled
spacing in
was
increased
40the
m xTest
40 in
m Section
in plan 1,
and
sand that
drains
a triangular
to
2.4 m because
of a The
similar
problem
in Section
1 where the because
loading
pattern,
2 m apart.
vacuum
load
was unsuccessful
was
unsuccessful.
Test
Section
2 was
slightly
than test
Section
several
leaks so the
section
was
covered
withlarger
a plastic
shield.
Test
1Section
and a pre-loading
of to
60the
kN/m2
applied1,inexcept
three stages.
3 was similar
Test was
in Section
that theWhile
drain
difficulties
encountered
vacuumproblem
load and
spacing waswere
increased
to 2.4 inmmaintaining
because of the
a similar
in
Section
1 where
loading the
wasembankment
unsuccessful.surcharge
Test Section
2 was
the
ground
waterthe
lowering,
proved
to
slightly
larger
than test
Sectionthan
1 andvacuum
a pre-loading
kN/m2 was
be
a more
reliable
technique
loadingofin60accelerating
applied in three
While difficulties were encountered in
consolidation
with stages.
sand drains.
maintaining the vacuum load and the ground water lowering, the
Since
most ofsurcharge
the North-South
Expressway
Bukit
KayuHitam
embankment
proved to
be a morefrom
reliable
technique
than
at
the
Malaysian-Thai
border
to
Johor
Baru
at
the
southern
vacuum loading in accelerating consolidation with sand drains. most
location passes through soft clay deposits, fourteen soil improvement
Fig. 2b: Elevation of test embankment at RTN Dockyard site

(Balasubramaniam et al. 2005)
schemes
were
and constructed
at thefrom
Muar
flat sites.
These
Since most
of designed
the North-South
Expressway
Bukit
KayuHitam
at the Malaysian-Thai
border to to
Johor
Baru the
at the
southernlateral
most
embankments
were instrumented
measure
settlement,
location passes
through
clay ofdeposits,
fourteen soil
movement,
and pore
pressure.softDetails
these embankments
are
improvement
schemes
were designed
and constructed
the Muar
illustrated
in Fig.
3. Several
of these embankments
areatstudied
by
flat first
sites.author
Theseand
embankments
were
instrumented
to ameasure
the
his colleagues
at AIT,
along with
number the
of
settlement,
lateral doing
movement,
and poreThe
pressure.
Detailswas
of these
Masters
Students
their research.
embankment
built
embankments
are and
illustrated
in embankment
Fig. 3. Several
of these
with
residual soil
used as the
in a prediction
embankments
are
studied
by
the
first
author
and
his
colleagues
at
symposium in Malaysia, while reference will be made to the work
AIT,
along with a(1990),
numberRatnayake
of Masters(1991),
Students
doing their
research.
by
Balachandran
Loganathan
(1992)
and
The embankment
wasThe
builtwork
withofresidual
soil and
used extends
as the
Sivaneswaran
(1993).
Balachandran
(1990)
embankment
in
a
prediction
symposium
in
Malaysia,
the prediction made by the first author on the embankment while
built
reference will be made to the work by Balachandran (1990),
to failure, while Ratnayake (1991) analysed the embankment with
Ratnayake (1991), Loganathan (1992) and Sivaneswaran (1993).
vertical drains. Loganthan (1991) used the field deformation analysis
The work of Balachandran (1990) extends the prediction made by
to separate the immediate settlement from consolidation settlement
the first author on the embankment built to failure, while Ratnayake
during
loadingthe
stage
and to separate
settlement
and
(1991) the
analysed
embankment
withconsolidation
vertical drains.
Loganthan
creep
during
the performance
This technique
was
(1991)settlement
used the field
deformation
analysisstage.
to separate
the immediate
different
theconsolidation
Asaoka technique
used to
estimate
consolidation
settlementfrom
from
settlement
during
the loading
stage
settlement,
especially
under one
dimensional
consolidation.
When
and to separate
consolidation
settlement
and creep
settlement during
high
embankmentsstage.
were built,
was awas
major
factor and
the performance
This creep
technique
different
frommade
the
itAsaoka
difficulttechnique
to estimateused
the so-called
residual
settlements
during
the
to estimate consolidation settlement,
maintenance
period one
in most
road works and
other projects.
The work
especially under
dimensional
consolidation.
When
high
of
Sivaneswaran
(1993)
powerful
theand
normalised
embankments
were
built,illustrates
creep washow
a major
factor
made it
settlement
normalised
lateral deformation
tools are induring
studying
difficult toand
estimate
the so-called
residual settlements
the
ground
response
underindifferent
schemes
ground
improvement.
maintenance
period
most road
worksof and
other
projects. The
work of Sivaneswaran (1993) illustrates how powerful the
The above experiences and the lessons learnt led to a rather cautious
normalised settlement and normalised lateral deformation tools are
approach,
with
the final
studiesunder
beingdifferent
carried out
(for aoftwo
year
in studying
ground
response
schemes
ground
period
from 1994 to 1995) for the construction of the runway and
improvement.
other structures at the Second Bangkok International Airport (SBIA)
site. In this study it was concluded that pre-fabricated vertical drains
(PVD) and surcharge was the most suitable ground improvement
3
technique.

2The
VERTICAL
DRAIN
BANGKOK
SIRACHA
above experiences
andSTUDIES
the lessonsIN
learnt
led to a rather
cautious
HIGHWAY
(1967)
approach, with
the final studies being carried out (for a two year
period from 1994 to 1995) for the construction of the runway and
The
of Second
surcharge
and vertical
drainsAirport
as a (SBIA)
ground
otherpotential
structuresuse
at the
Bangkok
International
improvement
technique
was
explored
as
early
as
1966
(Eide,
1977)
site. In this study it was concluded that pre-fabricated vertical drains
for
its
application
in
the
approach
to
bridges.
A
test
section
on
(PVD) and surcharge was the most suitable ground improvement
the
Bangkok-Siracha Highway was built and tested with 0.20 m
technique.
diameter sand drains that varied in depths from 4 to 13 m. During
2
VERTICAL
DRAIN
construction
the soft clay
failed at STUDIES
five locationsIN
so theBANGKOK
2.2 m high
SIRACHA
HIGHWAY
(1967)
embankment was furnished with 8 m wide berms to ensure stability.
From
the observed
of the
embankment,
Eide
(1977)
The potential
use settlement
of surcharge
andtest
vertical
drains as
a ground
concluded
thattechnique
the drained
start
improvement
wasembankment
explored assection
early assettled
1966 most
(Eide,to1977)
with,
after one in
year
rate of to
settlement
almost
the on
same,
for itsbut
application
thethe
approach
bridges. was
A test
section
the
approximately
0.0025
m per month
bothand
the drained
Bangkok-Siracha
Highway
was on
built
tested and
withundrained
0.20 m
sections.
conclusion
Eide
(1977),
that
diameter The
sandpractical
drains that
varied inreached
depths by
from
4 to
13 m.was
During
construction
the soft
failed
at five
the 2.2in m
high
this
type of drain
and clay
spacing
would
not locations
serve the so
purpose
bridge
embankmentHowever,
was furnished
8 magreed
wide berms
to ensure
stability.
approaches.
Eide with
(1977)
that these
results
might
Frombeen
the observed
settlement
of the
testasembankment,
Eide
(1977)
have
affected by
other factors
such
slip failure, are
moulding
concluded
that the
drained
embankment
section
most to start
effect
stemming
from
installing
the drains,
and settled
a low permeability
with,greater
but after
one year
the rate of settlement
almost
the same,
and
secondary
consolidation
settlement was
by the
soft clay.
approximately 0.0025 m per month on both the drained and
sections.
The practical
reached by SITE
Eide
3undrained
STUDY OF
VERTICAL
DRAINS conclusion
AT THE DOCKYARD
(1977), was that this type of drain and spacing would not serve the
A
secondinattempt
made withHowever,
vertical drains
from1975
to 1977,
purpose
bridgewas
approaches.
Eide (1977)
agreed
that
with
construction
of been
a dockyard
Thai
Navy.
A
these the
results
might have
affectedfor
by the
otherRoyal
factors
such
as slip
test
embankment
was effect
built (see
Fig. 2afrom
and installing
Fig. 2b) to
the
failure,
are moulding
stemming
theevaluate
drains, and
a low permeability
and greater
secondary
consolidation
performance
and suitability
of sand
drains (sand
wick type settlement
drains) of
by the soft clay.
accelerating
consolidation of the soft clay. Without an understanding
of the recharge effect due to the sand wicks on the piezometric
3
STUDY OF VERTICAL DRAINS AT THE DOCKYARD
drawdown, doubts were cast on the pore pressure measurements
SITE
as revealed below the natural terrain where the sand wick was
A second and
attempt
made
vertical of
drains
from1975
to 1977,
installed,
this was
led to
the with
installation
additional
piezometers
withthat
the finally
construction
a dockyard
for the Royal
Thai Navy.
test
so
there of
were
166 piezometers
monitoring
theApore
embankment
Fig. It2awas
andfound
Fig. that
2b) to
the
pressure
belowwas
thebuilt
clay (see
surface.
theevaluate
installation
performance
suitability
sandbelow
drainsthe
(sand
type drains)
of
of
sand wicksand
recharged
theofarea
testwick
embankment
with
accelerating
consolidation
of
the
soft
clay.
Without
an
and without drains, and erased the normal piezometric draw-down
understanding
the recharge
duesubsoils
to the sand
the
which
normallyofexisted
in the effect
Bangkok
due wicks
to deeponwell
piezometric
drawdown,
cast
pore pressure
pumping,
as can
be seen indoubts
the areawere
which
wasonnotthe
influenced
by the
measurements
as location
revealed installed
below the
natural
where the
test
embankment
with
sand terrain
wick drains.
Thissand
rewick was installed, and this led to the installation of additional
charging effect was somehow not envisaged in the original planning
piezometers so that finally there were 166 piezometers monitoring
and design of the test embankment, but it did give a valuable insight
the pore pressure below the clay surface. It was found that the
into the extensive deep well pumping in the Bangkok Plain, and the
installation of sand wicks recharged the area below the test
Piezometric
has resulted
in the
as a
embankmentdrawdown
with andthatwithout
drains,
andBangkok
erased subsoils
the normal
consequence
of excessive which
extraction
of ground
water.in the Bangkok
piezometric draw-down
normally
existed
subsoils due to deep well pumping, as can be seen in the area which
3.1 Description of test embankment and soil profile
was not influenced by the test embankment location installed with
sandperformance
wick drains.of sand
Thisdrains
re-charging
effecttype
wasof somehow
not
The
(sand wick
drains) at the
envisaged
in
the
original
planning
and
design
of
the
test
Naval Dockyard site, Pom Prachul, Thailand was investigated in
embankment,
but it did
give a valuable
insight into the
1975
by constructing
an instrumented
test embankment.
Theextensive
test site
deep well pumping in the Bangkok Plain, and the Piezometric
was situated at the mouth of the Chao Phraya River in SamutPrakarn
drawdown that has resulted in the Bangkok subsoils as a
province, approximately 20 km south of the city of Bangkok. The
consequence of excessive extraction of ground water.
embankment, which was built in two stages, was 90 m long, 33 m
wide,
2.35 m high of
andtest
consisted
of threeand
sections;
a section without
3.1 Description
embankment
soil profile
drains, a section with drains 2.5 m apart, and a section with drains
The performance of sand drains (sand wick type of drains) at the
1.5 m apart (as shown in Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b). A profile of the soil is
Naval Dockyard site, Pom Prachul, Thailand was investigated in
shown in Fig. 2c. The sand drains consisted of 0.05 m diameter sand
1975 by constructing an instrumented test embankment. The test site
wicks
whichatwere
installed
to aChao
depthPhraya
of 17 River
m by the
displacement
was situated
the mouth
of the
in SamutPrakarn
method.
province, approximately 20 km south of the city of Bangkok. The
embankment,
which
was
built in two
stages,
was
90 m sand
long,inside
33 m
These
sand wicks
were
constructed
at the
site by
pouring
2.35 mmembrane.
high and consisted
a section
without
awide,
permeable
First, a of
75 three
mm sections;
inside diameter
steel
tube
drains, at
a section
m apart,
and a and
section
closed
one endwith
wasdrains
driven2.5into
the ground
the with
sand drains
wick
1.5 m
apart (as
shown
in Fig.and
2a and
A profile
of the soil
is
was
lowered
into
the casing
thenFig.
the 2b).
casing
was removed.
166
shown
in
Fig.
2c.
The
sand
drains
consisted
of
0.05
m
diameter
sand
piezometers were installed below the test fill area and also outside it.
wicks which were installed to a depth of 17 m by the displacement
Surface and sub-surface settlement points were installed to monitor
settlement along the centre line and the edges of the test embankment.
Three hydrostatic profile gauges were installed, that is, one along
each central cross-section of a test section, and eleven magnetic
4 Geotechnical
Journal
No. 1 2014
Geotechnical
Journal
Vol. 6Vol.
No.61 2014
Fig. 2c General properties of Pom Prachul Clay at RTN Dockyard site (Balasubramaniam et al. 2005)
Fig.3 Locations of Embankments (Indraratna et al. 1997)
3rd Proff 18-02-2015

movement plates were used to monitor lateral displacement along the
gauge. Three inclinometer casings were installed along the centre line
of each test section. A typical profile of the soil at this site is shown
in Fig. 2c.
3.2 Pore pressure measurements below the test embankment
The loading pattern for the three test sections and the pore pressure
observations are shown in Fig. 4a and the piezometric drawdown is
shown in Fig. 4b. Before constructing the test embankment, a 0.35
m thick sand blanket was placed in the area, and this corresponded
to a surcharge pressure of 5.5 kN/m2. The first stage of loading was
carried out in 25 days to a fill height of 1.1 m and a surcharge pressure
of 19 kN/m2. At the end of the first stage of loading the surcharge
pressure was 24.5 kN/m2. After waiting for 60 days, the embankment
was raised to 2.35 m (inclusive of the 0.35 m sand blanket). The
second stage loading was for a one month period and the observations
were continued for ten months.
The piezometers P41, P27, and P13 which were located at 7.5 m
depths in the three sections indicated a consistent rise during the
loading phase and a drop in values during the waiting period and
under the time observed after the full surcharge. These piezometers
measured the absolute values of the pore pressure and thus included
the original ground water pressure before loading. As Fig. 4a shows
the static ground water pressure was observed from the observation
well where the effect of drawdown was ignored. The dummy
piezometers installed at a location far away from the test embankment
and without the influence of the sand wick and the surcharge will give
the static water pressure inclusive of any possible drawdown due to
deep well pumping. At this site the piezometric drawdown only began
below 7.5 m and as such the hydrostatic water pressure indicated by
the observation well and the dummy piezometers located at 7.5 m
depths were more or less coincident, indicating very small drawdown.
All 166 piezometers indicated consistent pore pressures except for the
active piezometers installed at depths of 10 to 15 m which indicated
that the piezometric drawdown below the embankment was more or
less erased by the sand drains which recharged the drawdown area
back to its hydrostatic conditions. Thus at deeper depths the absolute
values of the piezometer readings under the embankments will be
a sum of the static water pressure without any drawdown and the
excess pore pressure induced by the surcharge loading. In order to
clarify the situation, additional piezometers were installed along
the centre line of the longitudinal section of the test embankment
from the northern edge corresponding to the closely spaced sand
drain section and also along the edge of the eastern boundary of the
test embankment. Fig. 5 shows the distance from the edge of the
embankment in an easterly direction, up to which the drains have
influenced erasing the draw-down. A similar phenomenon was noted
in an northerly direction along the centre line, but in both directions
the full draw down was only realised about 15 to 20 m away from the
edges of the embankment. This would indicate that having the three
sections side by side without any space in between them was a grave
mistake when planning the overall test program. Ideally speaking the
three sections must be separated from each other with a substantial
allowance for the zone of influence of the drains to recharge the draw
down area below the embankment. This was observed in the final
planning of the test embankment with PVD at the Second Bangkok
International Airport (SBIA) site in the 1994-1995 studies. The three
test embankments at the SBIA site were separated from each other
with substantial space between them.
3.3 Measured and computed settlements at the Dockyard site
The settlement records from 47 active settlement plates were studied
and typical cases are plotted in Fig 6. In this Figure the surface
settlement at the centre line of the three test sections were plotted
with respect to time. Also shown in this Figure is the loading pattern

with time in terms of the surcharge stress (Vertical stress increment).
These settlement records are in accordance with the pore pressure
dissipation shown in Fig. 4a. The section with closer drain spacing
showed higher settlement than the one with wider spacing and the
one with no drain. It has already been discussed that the wider spaced
drain section was interfering with the section without a drain and
therefore substantial lateral drainage would have taken place in this
section due to the adjoining drain section with a wider spacing.
Using the elastic theory for increment in stresses below the test
sections and the undrained modulus from CK0U triaxial tests,
immediate settlements were computed and plotted in Fig. 7. It can
be seen here that very little immediate settlement occurred below
a depth of 11 m. The immediate surface settlement under the first
stage loading and the second stage loading was computed to be
36 mm and 115 mm respectively. The total primary consolidation
settlement under the embankment loading was calculated using
the stress-strain curves from the Oedometer tests. Fig. 8 shows the
variation of the primary consolidation settlement with depth. In Fig.
8 the consolidation settlements were computed from six series of
consolidation tests performed with the Lever Arm Consolidometer,
the Anteus Consolidometer, and the Bishop Consolidometer. In Series
SC seven tests were conducted from 1 to 16 m with a 24-hour load
increment duration, and a load increment duration of one. A similar
series of tests were conducted in the Anteus Consolidometer as Test
Series AC. Bishop Consolidometer was used in Test Series BC and
the load increment duration and ratio were similar to the SC and AC
series. In Test Series SI, small load increments were used in the Lever
Arm Consolidometer to accurately determine the preconsolidation
pressure. The measured settlements were in the drained section
with drains set 1.5 m apart. These data indicate that even in the 1.5
m-drained section, primary consolidation was not yet completed.
The major lesson learnt from this trial embankment was that the sand
wick drains recharged the zone that was originally under piezometric
drawdown, so recharging the bottom layer of soft clay would have
decreased the effective stress, which is why the settlements were
smaller below the upper 5 m where there was no previous drawdown.
Moreover, the recharging zone seemed to extend laterally up to a
distance of about 15 m or so, and as such the section without drains
would have been influenced by the drained section. It was therefore
better to have had three separate sections spaced out to ensure
minimum interference, and the data from each embankment truly
represents a no-drain section and the sections with the wider and
narrower spacing of drains.
4 MUAR CLAY TEST EMBANKMENTS
Several lessons were learnt from the analysis of the Muar clay test
embankments. The well documented publications on the behaviour
of the residual soil test embankment built to failure indicated how
such a simple field problem can deviate from the known behaviour of
sandfill test embankments. The inclusion of well compacted residual
soil fill seemed to offer good tensile strength and would prevent the
formation of tensile cracks at the base of the embankment.
The predictions were presented in the International Symposium on
Trial Embankments on Malaysian Muar Clays, in November 1989,
held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. All the predictors were given soils
with the same properties and field instrumentation results (Brand
and Premchitt, 1989). Most experts also made poor predictions of
settlement pore pressures and lateral movements.
The CRISP program as based on the critical state soil mechanics
was better at predicting the coupled behaviour of the undrained
and consolidation performance of these embankments. The Muar
clay test embankments also illustrated that the Pads available in the
market for accelerating the dissipation of pore pressures were not 100
percent effective, as expected from the classical theories of Barron
and others. Hansbo in particular considered the non-Darcian flow of
Journal
Vol. 6Vol.
No.61 No.
20141 2014
6Geotechnical
Geotechnical
Journal
Pore Pressure, kN/m2
Vertical Stress, kN/m2
Days
100
200
300
Start 1st Stage
40
P41
30
20
P27
Start 2nd Stage
P13
Sand Sand No
Drain Drain Sand
1.5m 2.5m Drain
10
0
120
Depth 7.5m
Dummy Piezometer
Observation Well
P13
P27
P41
100
Observation
Well
80
Dummy
Piezometer
60
0
100
Days
200
300
Fig. 4a Typical piezometer readings at RTN Dockyard site (Balasubramaniam et al. 2005)
Pore pressure (kPa)
0
100
50
150
Depth (m)
-4
-8
Piezometric pressure
(24 May 1977)
-12
Hydrostatic
Pressure
Piezometric pressure
(20 October 1976)
-16
Fig. 4b Variation of Piezometric pressures with depth at RTN Dockyard site (Balasubramaniam et al. 2005)
that changed
vertically
(ABC)
and laterally
(APMQA)
was
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at predicting
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ultimate
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here
are for the
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the embankment.
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to consolidation.
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these embankments.
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rd accelerating
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Geotechnical
Journal
No.
from settlement gauge readings, for half the embankment. The
market
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others.
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as shown
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several
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thefrom
effect
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smear
possible
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due
to the
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defects
that
using
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compaction
OAC
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(V cLsettlement)
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(ViL= volume
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water
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increase
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embankments
also
(immediatevolume
settlement)
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during
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due
to the
piledpercent
embankments,
and electro-osmosis.
volume
CAB)
as shown
in
Fig.
10. Since
the
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was
several
other
authors
studied
the
effect
of
smear and
possible
well
the
drains.
The
Muar
clay
test
embankments
also
showed
the
defects
decreased
during
consolidation
due
to
the
dissipation
of
excess
stage
is
the
resultant
of
the
change
in
volume
due
to
immediate
Barron
and
others.
Hansbo
in
particular
considered
the
non-Darcian
lateral
volume
(volume
APM) due
to undrained
deformation
showed the defects that arose from using sand compaction piles,
dissipation
of excess
pore pressures
(Christian
and Watt,
1972). Let pore
comparatively
small,
creep
settlement
was
ignored.
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in
resistance
in arose
theduring
drains.
The
Muar
clay
test
embankments
also
Further
studies
conducted
at
AIT
on
the
creep
behaviour
of
the
=
volume
OAC
)
and
consolidation
settlement
(V
=the lateral
settlement
(V
flow
of
water
consolidation
with
drains
in
clays,
while
that
from
using
sand
compaction
piles,
piled
embankments,
and
pressures
(Christian
and
Watt,
1972).
Let
be
ratio
ofthe
iL
(immediate
settlement)
decreased
during
consolidation
due
tocL
piled embankments, and electro-osmosis.
be the ratio
of the lateral
volume
reduction
to the consolidation
lateral volume
(volume
APM)
dueSince
to undrained
deformation
showed
the
defects
that
arosethefrom
using
sand compaction
Muar clay
test
embankments
where
continuous
undrained
creep
volume
CAB)
asreduction
shown
Fig.
10.
thesettlement
loading
several
other
authors
studied
effect
of smear
and
possiblepiles,
well
electro-osmosis.
volume
the consolidation
volume.
Then
dissipation
of excess
poreinto
pressures
(Christian
and
Watt,period
1972).was
Let
settlement
volume.
Then
(immediate settlement)
decreased during
due to the
piled
embankments,
and electro-osmosis.
Further
studies
conducted
at
the test
creepembankments
behaviour
ofalso
the
occurred
with
the
increase
in AIT
lateral
indicated that
the comparatively
small,
creep
was consolidation
ignored.
The
increase
in
resistance
in the
drains.
The
Muarondeformation
clay
be theratio
of theconsolidation
lateralsettlement
volume
reduction
to the
consolidation
Further
studies
attoAIT
onsand
the creep
behaviour
of the Muar
=ofLateral
volume/
settlement
volume
(1)
dissipation
excess
pore pressures
(Christian
and Watt,
1972).
Let
Muar
clay
test
embankments
where
continuous
undrained
creep
undrained
creep
in that
softconducted
clays
high
embankments
waspiles,
quite
lateral
volume
(volume
APM)
due
to
undrained
deformation
showed
the
defects
arose due
from
using
compaction
=
Lateral
consolidation
volume/
settlement
volume
(1)
settlement volume. Then
Further studies
conducted
at AIT
on continuous
the creep behaviour
of
the occurred
clay
embankments
where
undrained
creep
be the In
ratio
of the
lateral
reduction
to thechange
consolidation
occurred
with
the
increase
inhigh
lateral
deformationareindicated
that
the
substantial.
Intest
places
where
embankments
constructed
with
(immediate
settlement)
during
consolidation
due intothe
thefield from
piled
embankments,
and
electro-osmosis.
Fig.10
VhL
isdecreased
the volume
observed
lateral
volume
Muar clay
test
embankments
where
continuousindicated
undrained
creep
is the
observed
lateral
volume
change
involume
the1972).
field
from
In Fig.10
V
with
the
increase
in
lateral
deformation
that
the
undrained
hL
volume.
Then
undrained
creepundrained
in soft clays
to an
high
embankments
was quite settlement
residual soils,
creepdue
plays
important
role. Loganathan
=
Lateral
consolidation
volume/
settlement
(1)
dissipation
of
excess
pore
pressures
(Christian
and
Watt,
Let
inclinometer measurements.
The volume
VhL measured
at of
the end of
occurredstudies
with the
increase
in
lateral
indicated
that
Further
conducted
athigh
AIT
ondeformation
the to
creep
ofsubstantial.
the
at the end
The volume
VhL measured
creep
in
soft
clays
due
to embankments
high
embankments
was
In the ratio measurements.
substantial.
Inthe
places
where
arebehaviour
constructed
with
(1992) used
field
deformation
analysis
separate
thequite
immediate
inclinometer
be
ofisthe
lateral
volume
reduction
to the
consolidation
loading
the
resultant
ofvolume/
lateral
volume
increase
due
to undrained
undrained
creep
in
soft
clays
due
to
high
embankments
was
quite
=
Lateral
consolidation
settlement
volume
(1)
is
the
observed
lateral
volume
change
in
the
field
from
In
Fig.10
V
Muar
clay
test
embankments
where
continuous
undrained
creep
loading
is
the
resultant
of
lateral
volume
increase
due
to
undrained
hL
places
where
high
embankments
are
constructed
with residual
residual
soils,
undrained
creep
plays
an important
role.loading
Loganathan
settlement
from
consolidation
settlement
during
the
stage soils,
settlement
volume. Then
deformation
(ViLtodue
to immediate
settlement)
and
theend
lateral
substantial.
In places
where
high
are
constructed
with
measurements.
The
volumesettlement)
VhL
measured
at the
of volume
occurred
with
increase
in
lateral
deformation
indicated
that
the usedinclinometer
immediate
and
lateral
deformation
(ViL due
undrained
creep
plays
anembankments
important
Loganathan
(1992)
the
(1992)
thethe
field
deformation
analysis
torole.
separate
the immediate
and toused
separate
the
consolidation
settlement
and
creep
settlement
observed
lateral volume
change
inand
the Hj+1
field from
In
Fig.10
V
hL is theduring
reduction
consolidation
(VcL).
If
Hj
correspond
to
residual soils,
undrained
creep due
plays
an
important
role. Loganathan
loading
is
the
resultant
of
lateral
volume
increase
due
to
undrained
undrained
creep
in
soft
clays
to
high
embankments
was
quite
).
If
H
and
H
volume
reduction
during
consolidation
(V
=
Lateral
consolidation
volume/
settlement
volume
(1)
cL
settlement
from
consolidation
settlement
during
the
loading
stage
field
deformation
analysis
to method
separate
the immediate
settlement
from
during the
performance
stage.
This
was
different
from
the inclinometer
measured
at jthe
ofj+1
measurements.
The
volume
VjhLand
(1992)
used In
theplaces
field deformation
analysis to separate
the immediate
the height
of
loading
at two
stages
j+1,jand
then
canend
be determined
due
to
immediate
settlement)
the
lateral
deformation
(V
substantial.
where
high
embankments
are
constructed
with
correspond
to
the
height
of
loading
at
two
stages
and
j+1,
then
iL
and
to separate
theused
consolidation
settlement
and creep
Asoka
technique
to estimate
consolidation
settlement
consolidation
settlement
during
the loading
stage settlement
and tounder
separate
the
loading
isfrom
of lateral
volume
increase
due
to field
undrained
the from
observed
lateral
volume
change
in the
from
In
Fig.10
Vthe
hL isresultant
settlement
from
consolidation
settlement
during the
stage
volume
reduction
during consolidation
(V
residual
soils,
undrained
creep plays
an
role.loading
Loganathan
can
be determined
cL). If Hj and Hj+1
during
the
performance
stage.
This
was different
from
the deformation
one dimensional
consolidation
in important
particular.
When
high
consolidation
settlement
and method
creep
settlement
during
the performance
due
to
immediate
settlement)
and
the
lateral
(V
inclinometer
measurements.
The
volume
V
measured
at
the
end
iL
hL
and
to used
separate
the consolidation
settlement
and creep
settlement
correspond to the height of loading at two stages j and j+1, thenof
(1992)
theare
field
deformation
analysis
separate
the
immediate
Asoka
technique
used
to soft
estimate
consolidation
settlement
under
embankments
built
in
clays,
creeptoisfrom
a major
factor,
and
this loading
stage.
This
method
different
the
Asoka
technique
used isreduction
If H
and Hj+1
volume
during
consolidation
(VcL). due
the resultant
of lateral
volume increase
toj undrained
during
the
performance
stage.was
This
method
was different
from
the
can be determined
from
settlement
from
consolidation
settlement
during
the
loading
stage
(V
)loading
(VathLtwo
) j stages
one
consolidation
insettlement
particular.
When
high
hl immediate
j 1
makesdimensional
ittodifficult
to estimate
the so-called
residual under
settlement
during
estimate
consolidation
one
dimensional
correspond
to
the
height
of
j
and
j+1,
then
due
to
settlement)
and
the
lateral
deformation
(V
iL
Asoka
used
to estimate settlement
consolidation
settlement
under
and
to technique
separatearethe
consolidation
creep
settlement
embankments
built
soft
clays,
creep
isand
a and
major
factor,
and
this
the maintenance
period
most
roadWhen
workshigh
other
projects.
Fig.
3 incan
from
consolidation
inininparticular.
embankments
are
built
softbe determined
).
If
H
and
Hj+1
volume
reduction
during
consolidation
(V
H
H
cL
j
one
dimensional
consolidation
in
particular.
When
high
during
thedifficult
stage.
This
was different
the
(V )j j11 (VhL )j j
makes
it
to details
estimate
so-called
residual
settlement
and Fig.
9aperformance
contain
ofthe
the
testmethod
embankments
built
atfrom
theduring
clays,
creep
is ainto
major
factor,
and
this
itfactor,
difficult
toMuar
estimate
the
correspond
to the
at twostages j and j+1, then
hlof loading
height
embankments
are
built
soft
clays,
creep
is amakes
major
and
this
Asoka
technique
used
estimate
consolidation
settlement
under
the
maintenance
most
road
works
projects. period
Fig.
(2)
Plain.
Details ofperiod
the soilinprofile
at the
Muarand
testother
embankment
site 3is in can
(V
((VVvLH
settlement
during
the
maintenance
mostbe determined from
hlvL)j )j1j1
hL))j j
j 1
makes
it so-called
difficult toresidual
estimate
the so-called
residual
settlement
during
one
dimensional
consolidation
in
particular.
When
high
(VH
and
Fig.
9aFig.
contain
details
of
the
test
embankments
built
at
the
Muar
shown
inroad
9b.
works
andin
Fig.isand
3 aand
Fig.projects.
9a contain
details
the maintenance
period
inother
mostprojects.
road works
other
Fig.
3 of the
embankments
are
built
soft
clays,
creep
major
factor,
and
this
H)j j1
(2)
Plain. Details
of the
soil profile
at the
the
Muar
test
embankment
site
(VHHj )j1 (VH
test
embankments
built
at
Muar
Plain.
Details
ofthe
the
soilis
profile at
and
Fig.
9a
contain
details
of
thebeneath
test embankments
built at
Muar
The
total
settlement
observed
an
embankment
subjected
to
makes
it
difficult
to
estimate
the
so-called
residual
settlement
during
(VhlvL) j j1 (VvLhL )j j1
shown in Fig. 9b.
the Muar
test
embankment
site
is shown
in Fig.
9b.
(2)
Plain.
Details
ofisperiod
the
soil
at the
Muar
embankment
site
step
loading,
basically
a combination
oftest
immediate
settlement,
the
maintenance
inprofile
most
road
works
and
other
projects.
Fig. is3
(VH
)j1j t(jVand
H
H
H)j jjt1j+11 , the factor during the
vL
vL
Similarly at two time
stages
jtime
two
shown
in9a
Fig.
9b.settlement,
The
total
settlement
observed
beneath
an embankment
subjected
to
Similarly
at
stages
tj
and
tj+1,
the
factor
during the
consolidation
and
creep
settlement.
Establishing
and
Fig.
contain
details
of
the
test
embankments
built
at
the
Muar
(Fig.H10) can beHobtained from

The total settlement observed beneath an embankment subjected
to
consolidation
stage
step
loading,
is the
basically
a components,
combination
oftest
immediate
settlement,
(2)
relationships
between
these
after
separating
them
from
consolidation
stage
(Fig.
10)
can
be
obtained
from
Plain.
Details
of
soil
profile
at
the
Muar
embankment
site
is
j
j
(
)
(
)
V
V
Similarly at two time stages
t j and
loading,observed
is basically
a combination
of immediate
settlement,
The totalstep
settlement
beneath
an embankment
subjected to
vL j
vL tjj+1
1, the factor during the
consolidation
settlement,
andin the
creep
the total
settlement
observed
field,settlement.
will help toEstablishing
predict the consolidation stage (Fig.
shown
in Fig.
9b.
be (obtained
(V10)) can
from
step loading,
is basicallysettlement,
a combination
immediate
settlement,
consolidation
and ofcreep
settlement.
Establishing
V
) jthe
hC j 1t j and
relationships
these components,
separating
them from Similarly at two time
stages
tj+1
factor during the
H j hL
settlement between
from relatively
simple after
numerical
computations.
H
j
1 ,
from
consolidation
settlement,
and
creep
settlement.
Establishing
relationships
between
these
components,
after
separating
them
from
The
total
settlement
observed
beneath
an
embankment
subjected
to
can be obtained
the
total settlement
observed incomponents
the field, willleads
help to
the consolidation stage (Fig. 10)
Separating
the settlement
to predict
a better
t
t
(VhCj)1 j 1 (VhLj ) j
relationships
between
thesea components,
separating
them
from
the total
settlement
observed
inafter
theimmediate
field,
will
help design
to
predict the
step
loading,
isofbasically
combination
of
settlement,
settlement
from
relatively
simple
numerical
computations.
understanding
the
settlement
mechanism
and
a far
better
Similarly at two
t jand tj+1, the factor during the
stages
time
the total settlement
settlement
observed
in the
field,
will helpcomputations.
toEstablishing
predict the
consolidation
settlement,
and
creep
settlement.
from
relatively
simple
numerical
Separating
) can be(V
Separating
the
settlement
components
leads
to
a
better
of step loading. Time-dependent deformation due to undrained creep consolidation stage (Fig.
(3)
10)
V
(
t
t ) j from
hL
(VhCvCj 1)j j 1 (Vobtained
settlement
relatively
simple
numerical
computations.
relationships
between
these
components,
them
from of the
the from
settlement
components
leadsafter
toconsolidated
aseparating
better
understanding
vC j) j 1
understanding
of the
settlement
mechanism
and
a far better
can be quite
large
in clays
that
are
normally
anddesign
highly
Separating
the
settlement
components
leads
to
a
better
the
totalloading.
settlement
observed
theacreep
field,
will
help
predict
the
settlement
mechanism
far better
design
of
step loading.
of
step
Time-dependent
deformation
due
to undrained
creep
(3)
overconsolidated.
The
effectsinand
of
are
more
important
for Time(Vttjj)1 j 1 (V(VtthL
j )
understanding
of therelatively
settlement simple
mechanism
and acreep
farcomputations.
better
design
settlement
from
numerical
vC j
vC j)1j j1
dependent
due
to undrained
can
quite
(VhC
can
be quite
large indeformation
clays
thatfor
are
normally
consolidated
andbehighly
horizontal
deformation
than
vertical
deformation
(Christian
and large in
of step loading.
Time-dependent
deformation
due
to undrained
creep
(3)
Separating
settlement
to
aoverconsolidated.
better
claysthe
that
are normally
consolidated
and
(VtvC
overconsolidated.
The
effects components
of
creepcreep
areleads
morehighly
important
for
Watt, 1972),
although
coupling
drained
with
undrained
creep
t jj )1 j to(Vthe
t tj )j1settlement
vC
j 1
where Vvc and Vhc correspond
volume and lateral
can be quite
large
in of
clays
thatare
are
normally
consolidated
and design
highly
understanding
of
the
settlement
mechanism
and
a
far
better
The
effects
creep
more
important
for
horizontal
deformation
horizontal
deformation
than
for
vertical
deformation
(Christian
and
could be analytically more cumbersome and would require soil data
volume duringconsolidation.
overconsolidated.
The effects
of
creep aredue
more
important
for
of
stepare
loading.
deformation
to
undrained
creep
(3)
t j )1
than
forTime-dependent
vertical
deformation
and
Watt,
1972),
(VtvCj ) j to(Vthe
Watt,
1972),
although
drained
creep
with
undrained
creep
that
difficult
to coupling
obtain.
A
new(Christian
methodology
called
Fieldalthough
where
V
and
V
correspond
volume and
lateral
vC settlement
j 1
horizontal
deformation
than
for
vertical
deformation
(Christian
and
vc
hc
can
be
quite
large
in
clays
that
are
normally
consolidated
and
highly
where
V
and
V
correspond
to
the
settlement
volume
drained
creep
withonundrained
creep
could
bedata
analytically
could
becoupling
analytically
more
cumbersome
andchanges
would
require
soil
during consolidation and
a factor
Loganathan
(1992)
to lateral
Deformation
Analysis
(FDA)
based
the
in the
volume
of volume
VC also defined
hc
during
consolidation.
Watt, 1972), although
coupling
drained
creep
undrained
creep
overconsolidated.
The
effects
of
creep
are with
more
important
for
volume
consolidation.
t j
t j settlement
andcreep.
Vduring
to the
volume
and
lateral
that
are more
difficult
to obtain.
new
methodology
called
Field
cumbersome
andA
would
require
soil
data
that are
difficult
to Vvc
describe
the
foundation
soil
under
embankment
loading,
was
proposed
by where
hc correspond
1
could be analytically
more
cumbersome
and
would require
soil data
horizontal
deformation
than
for
vertical
deformation
(Christian
and
volume
during
consolidation.
Loganathan
(1992)
also defined a factor during consolidation to
Deformation
Analysis
(FDA)
based
on
the
changes
the volume
ofAnalysis
Loganathan
(1992)
to
separate
and
quantify
settlement
obtain.
A new
methodology
called
Fieldinthe
Deformation
Loganathan
(1992)
also
defined
a
volume
factor during consolidation
to
that are
difficult
to coupling
obtain. Adrained
new creep
methodology
called creep
Field
Watt,
1972),
although
with
undrained
= Lateral
creep
volume/ creep
settlement
(4)
describe
the
creep.
foundation
soil
under(1987)
wasvolume
proposed
by where
components.
Shibata
thatloading,
significant
Vvc
and
Vhcthe
correspond
to the
settlement
volume and lateral
(FDA)
based
onembankment
thenoted
changes
in
the volume
of changes
foundation
soil
describe
creep.
Loganathan
(1992)
also
defined a factor during consolidation to
Deformation
Analysismore
(FDA)
based on the
changes
in
the volume
of
could
be
analytically
cumbersome
and
would
require
soil
data
Loganathan
(1992)
to separate
and
the and
settlement
occurredunder
in the
embankment
during
the quantify
construction
that its (1992)
volume
during
consolidation.
loading,
was
proposed
Loganathan
V=
loading
stagecreep
can be
calculated
as
cC during
describe
the the
creep.
foundation
soilembankment
under
embankment
loading,
was by
proposed
by
Lateral
creep
volume/
settlement
volume
(4)
that
are difficult
to (1987)
obtain.
A new
methodology
called
Field
components.
Shibata
noted
that
significant
volume
changes
behaviour
deviated
significantly
from
undrained
conditions.
= Lateral creep volume/ creep settlement volume
(4)
to
separate
and
quantify
the
settlement
components.
Shibata
(1987)
Loganathan Analysis
(1992) to
separate
andthe quantify
the
settlement
Loganathan
(1992)
also
defined
a
factor
during
consolidation to
Deformation
(FDA)
based
on
changes
in
the
volume
of
V
occurred
in
the
embankment
during
the
construction
and
that
its
Ting et al.
(1989)
and
Toh
et
al.
(1989)
used
a
similar
concept;
they
vC
hC
Lateralthe
creep
volume/
settlement
volume
(4)
loading
stagecreep
can be
calculated
as
V=
notedShibata
thatunder
significant
volume
occurred
in changes
the embankment
(5)
cC during
components.
(1987)
noted
thatchanges
significant
volume
cC loading stage can be calculated as
foundation
embankment
loading,
proposed
VcCcreep.
duringVthe
behaviour
deviated
significantly
from
undrained
conditions.

considered soil
thethe
volumetric
deformation
ofbehaviour
thewas
foundation
of by
an describe the
construction
and and
that
deviated
occurred during
in the
embankment
during
the its
construction
and
that significantly
its
Loganathan
(1992)
to
separate
quantify
the
settlement
VcC during the loading stage
can
calculated as
VvC
Vbe
Ting
et al. (1989)
andloading
Toh
et to
al. separate
(1989)Ting
used
similar
concept;
hC
embankment
under
theetasettlement
components
(5)
= Lateral creep volume/
settlement volume
(4)
undrained
conditions.
al.
(1989)
and
Tohthey
et al. (1989)
VcC creep
behaviourfrom
deviated
significantly
from
undrained
conditions.
components.
Shibata
(1987)
noted that
significant
volume
changes
the loading
stage can be calculated from
Similarly, VcC during
considered
the
volumetric
deformation
of
the
foundation
of
an
for the Malaysian
embankments.
V
used
a
similar
concept;
they
considered
the
volumetric
deformation
Ting
et
al.
(1989)
and
Toh
et
al.
(1989)
used
a
similar
concept;
they
vC
hC
occurred
in the
embankment
during
thethe
construction
and
that its
(5)
VcC
stage can be calculated as
VcC during the loading
embankment
under
loadingoftoan
separate
settlement
components
VvCVhC
of the
foundation
embankment
under
loading
to
the
considered
the
volumetric
deformation
the
foundation
of separate
anof Similarly,
Total
observed
during
loading
was
a combination
behaviour
deviated
significantly
fromof undrained
conditions.
stage can be calculated from (6)
VcC during
VcrCthe
loading
for
the settlement
Malaysian
embankments.
settlement
components
for
the Malaysian
embankments.
VvC
V
hC
embankment
under
loading
separate
the
settlement
components
immediate
and
consolidation
settlement
components.
Fig.
10 shows
Ting
et al.
(1989)
and
Toh ettoal.
(1989)
used
a similar
concept;
they
VcCthe
loading
VvC
VhC
for
Malaysian
embankments.
Total
settlement
observeddeformation
during
loading
was
a from
combination
of Similarly, VcC during
thethepattern
of
subsoil
stemming
undrained
considered
the
volumetric
deformation
of
the
foundation
of
an
(6)
VcrC
Total settlement observed during loading was a combination of
Similarly, VcC during
the loading stage can be calculated from
V
immediate
and
consolidation
components.
Fig.
10 shows
deformation
which
causedtosettlement
immediate
settlement.
Because
this
embankment
under
loading
separate
the
settlement
components
V
vC
hC
immediate
and consolidation
settlement
components.of Fig. 10
Total settlement
observed
during loading
was a combination
VcrC the
loading
thethe
pattern
of subsoil
deformation stemming from undrained Similarly, VcC during
for
Malaysian
embankments.

shows
the pattern of settlement
subsoil deformation
stemming
immediate
and consolidation
components.
Fig. 10 from
showsundrained
7
deformation which caused immediate settlement. Because this
V VhC
the pattern
of subsoil
deformation
stemming
from
undrained
deformation
which
causedloading
immediate
Because
this
Total
settlement
observed
during
was asettlement.
combination
of
(6)
VcrC vC

deformation
immediate
settlement.
Because
occurred
in caused
an undrained
manner,
the volume
ofthis
settlement
immediate
andwhich
consolidation
settlement
components.
Fig.
10 shows
7
the pattern
of subsoil
deformation
stemming
undrained
deformation,
designated
as AOC,
should from
be equal
to the volume
7
deformation
whichdeformation,
caused immediate
settlement.
Because
of lateral
designated
as APM. Due
to thethis
dissipation
of excess pore pressures, the process of consolidation occurred
simultaneously. Fig. 10 also shows the ultimate deformation7pattern
of the embankment foundation at the end of loading, where the
volume that changed vertically (ABC) and laterally (APMQA) was
due to consolidation. It should be noted that the volumes referred to
here are for the unit length of the embankment.
VvL(volume OAB) is the observed settlement volume in the field from
settlement gauge readings, for half the embankment. The settlement
volume VvL(volume OAB) at the end of each loading stage is the
resultant of the change in volume due to immediate settlement (ViL=
volume OAC ) and consolidation settlement (VcL = volume CAB)
as shown in Fig. 10. Since the loading period was comparatively
Journal
Vol. 6Vol.
No.61 No.
20141 2014
8Geotechnical
Geotechnical
Journal
2
Hydrostatic Pressure
80
120
-8
East
100
40
-4
Draw Down
120
Depth (m)
Pore Pressure, kN/m2
140
Pore Pressure, kN/m
-12
80
Sand Sand No
Drain Drain Sand
1.5m 2.5m Drain
Piezometer Depth 14.0m

East Direction
10
15
20
Distance from Embankment Edge, m
-16
25
Fig.5 Piezometric pressure vs. distance from the edge of the embankment at RTN Dockyard site (East direction)
Fig. 6 Time settlement curves with staged construction schedule (Balasubramaniam et al. 2005)
160
East
3rd Proff 18-02-2015
Geotechnical Journal Vol. 6 No. 1 2014

If the two sets of embankment
data are combined then the combined
2
S = 0.02z3 +0.86z
-15.02z+103.74 with r2=97 percent
(8)
relationship
is
If =the
two sets
of embankment data are
combined
then the combined
S
-0.02z3
+0.86z2-14.68z+103.38
with
r2=97 percent
(9)
relationship is
5 TEST EMBANKMENTS AT THE SBIA SITE IN BANGKOK
S = -0.02z3 +0.86z2-14.68z+103.38 with r2=97 percent
(9)
It became evident from the previous trials that the engineers in
5
TEST
ATthe THE
SBIA
SITE
IN
Bangkok
wereEMBANKMENTS
rather cautious about
potential
use of
vertical
drainsBANGKOK
in the Bangkok plain, while the client, the Airport Authority of
Thailand
the 1994-1995
study
must
beyond all
It becameinsisted
evidentthat
from
the previous
trials
thatindicate
the engineers
in
doubt
that
most
of
the
settlement
experienced
in
the
trial
embankment
Bangkok were rather cautious about the potential use of vertical
must
which
would
indicate
waterAuthority
had been
drainsbeinconsolidation
the Bangkoktype
plain,
while
the client,
thethat
Airport
removed
from
the
soft
clay
to
improve
its
strength
and
to
ensure
there
of Thailand insisted that the 1994-1995 study must indicate beyond
was
no possible
between
the PVD used
andtrial
the
all doubt
that hydraulic
most of connections
the settlement
experienced
in the
underlying
sand
strata
which is experiencing
substantial
piezometric
embankment
must
be consolidation
type which
would indicate
that
drawdown.
These
objectives
to clay
be met
by estimating
the
water had been
removed
from were
the soft
to improve
its strength
degree
of consolidation
from
a direct
measurement
of settlement
and to ensure
there was no
possible
hydraulic
connections
between
and
from used
observation
the dissipation
of porewhich
pressure
in the field.
the PVD
and theofunderlying
sand strata
is experiencing
Furthermore,
in-situ tests
were conducted
with vane
apparatus
to
substantial piezometric
drawdown.
These objectives
were
to be met
by estimating
the degree
of consolidation
a direct measurement
measure
the in-situ
increase
in strength andfrom
the reduction
of the water
of settlement
and from observation
dissipation
of pore
content
from consolidation
due to the of
use the
of PVD
and surcharge.
pressure in thethefield.
tests
were conducted
with
Additionally,
rate Furthermore,
of settlement in-situ
overtime
needed
to be plotted
to
vane apparatus
measure
the in-situ
increase
in strength
and the
indicate
that thetofinal
settlement
rate was
somewhat
comparable
to
reduction
thewould
water consider
content from
consolidation
to thetouse
of
that
whichofone
acceptable
at a ratedue
similar
those
PVD and surcharge.
Additionally,
the rate
settlement
overtime
experienced
in secondary
consolidation,
andofnot
the higher
values
needed to be plotted
to indicate
that the final settlement rate was
corresponding
to hydraulic
connections.
somewhat comparable to that which one would consider acceptable
The
dimensions
of the
embankments
were theconsolidation,
same as the
at a plan
rate similar
to those
experienced
in secondary
earlier
The locations
of the test embankments
and the crossand notstudy.
the higher
values corresponding
to hydraulic connections.
section of embankment TS3 with PVD are shown in Fig. 13 and
The 14
planrespectively.
dimensions These
of theembankments
embankmentswere
werefully
the instrumented
same as the
Fig.
earlier study. The locations of the test embankments and the crossto measure the surface and subsurface settlements, pore pressures,
section of embankment TS3 with PVD are shown in Fig. 13 and
lateral movements and heave. PVD were installed to 12 m depth and
Fig. 14 respectively. These embankments were fully instrumented to
the spacing was 1.5, 1.2, and 1.0 m in the three embankments TS1,
measure the surface and subsurface settlements, pore pressures,
TS2
and
TS3 respectively.
lateral
movements
and heave. PVD were installed to 12 m depth and
Settlement, cm
0
12
16
-2
Depth, m
-4
-6
-8
-10
Stage I Loading
Stage II Loading
-12
-14
Fig.7 Immediate settlement below embankment at RTN Dockyard

site (Balasubramaniam et al. 2005)
Settlement, mm
0
400
800
1200
Depth, m
the spacing was 1.5, 1.2, and 1.0 m in the three embankments TS1,
5.1
and Pore Pressure Plots
TS2Settlement
and TS3 respectively.
5.1 three
Settlement
and Pore Pressure
Plots
All
test embankments
performed
more or less in the same
manner and as such, a detailed discussion will only be based on one
All three test embankments performed more or less in the same
(Test embankment TS 3 with PVD spacing at 1 m interval). For this
manner and as such, a detailed discussion will only be based on one
embankment
the settlement
depth
the pore pressure
(Test embankment
TS 3 withprofile
PVD with
spacing
at 1and
m interval).
For this
plots
at various
are shown
in Fig.
and Fig.
In
embankment
thetimes
settlement
profile
with15depth
and16
therespectively.
pore pressure
Fig
15,
the
settlement
profiles
at
the
end
of
construction
(270
days),
plots at various times are shown in Fig. 15 and Fig. 16 respectively.
after
450
95), and
after 660
daysend
(Feb
are shown.(270
In Fig
15,days
the(June
settlement
profiles
at the
of96)
construction
days),
after
450
days
(June
95),
and
after
660
days
96)pore
are
Settlements were also independently computed from(Feb
actual
shown.
pressure dissipation. In Fig. 16, the dotted curve ABC represents
12
16
Test Series
AC
BC
SI
SC
Observed
the
actual piezometric
with drawcomputed
down thatfrom
was observed
in
Settlements
were alsoprofile
independently
actual pore
September
1994 beforeInthe
embankment
wascurve
constructed.
The full
pressure dissipation.
Fig.
16, the dotted
ABC represents
line
curve piezometric
DEF corresponds
the pore
profile
the full
the actual
profiletowith
drawpressure
down that
was after
observed
in
height
of the1994
embankment
reached withwas
a surcharge
of 75 The
kPa and
September
before theisembankment
constructed.
full
prior
to anyDEF
porecorresponds
water pressure
dissipation.
The pore
pressure
profile
line curve
to the
pore pressure
profile
after the
full
height
of the
embankment
is reached
surcharge
of 75 kPa1996
and
at
the end
of the
construction
period, inwith
Junea 95
and in February
prior
any pore
waterpore
pressure
dissipation.
The pore ofpressure
is
alsotoshown.
The final
pressure
after the dissipation
excess
profile
at the and
endthe
of recharged
the construction
period,
in is
June
95 and
in
pore
pressure
hydrostatic
profile
MNPQ
(NPQ
February
1996 final
is also
shown.pore
Thepressure
final pore
pressure
the
is
the assumed
recharged
profile,
where after
there are
dissipation
of excess
pore pressure
and computed
the recharged
no
data points).
Settlements
were directly
fromhydrostatic
these pore
profile isdissipation
MNPQ (NPQ
is the assumed final recharged pore pressure
pressure
curves.
profile, where there are no data points). Settlements were directly
computed from these pore pressure dissipation curves.
Fig.8. Consolidation settlement below the embankment as calculated

at the RTN Dockyard site (Balasubramaniam et al. 2005)
Further
of these
these derivations
derivations can
can be
be found
found in
Loganathan et
Further details
details of
in Loganathan
et al.
al.
(1993). In Fig.11
Fig.11 the
the creep
creep settlement
settlement volume
volume (VcrC)
(V crC) is denoted as
volume EFAE. Similarly the lateral creep volume is represented as
volume ARMSA
The normalised settlement with maximum settlement at the surface
is presented in Fig. 12a and Fig. 12b. The empirical formulation for
the 6 m and 3 m high embankments are shown in Eqs. (7) and (8)
respectively:
S = -0.02z3+0.75z2-14.11z+102.83 with r2=98 percent
S = -0.02z3+0.75z2-14.11z+102.83 with r2=98 percent
S = 0.02z3 +0.86z2-15.02z+103.74 with r2=97 percent
(7)
(7)
(8)
Geotechnical
Journal
Vol. 6Vol.
No.61 No.
20141 2014
10
Geotechnical
Journal
Fig. 9a Soil profile at Muar test embankment site (Indraratna et al. 1992)
10
3rd Proff 18-02-2015
Scheme 3/1
Scheme 6/4
Scheme 3/2
Scheme 3/3
Scheme 6/5
Scheme 6/6
Scheme 3/4
Fig. 9b Malaysian Trial Embankment Schemes

Scheme 6/1
Fig. 10 Deformation Pattern of Embankment Foundation at End of

Loading Stage
Scheme 6/2
Scheme 6/3
Fig. 11 Deformation Pattern of Embankment Foundation at End of

Consolidation Stage
11

12 Geotechnical Journal Vol. 6 No. 1 2014

Loganathan
et al.
The immediate
settlement
computed
from
was
within 10
% (1993).
of the measured
vertical
settlement.
The rate
of
Loganathan
et al.
(1993).
The
immediate
settlement
computed
from
the
lateral
movements,
as
adopted
by
the
method
where
balancing
settlement
and
the rate of
lateral
movements
were plotted
in
Fig. 19
the
lateral
movements,
as
adopted
by
the
method
where
balancing
the volume (Loganathan et al., 1993) was within 10 % of the
and
Fig.
20, and
were foundet toal.,
decay withwas
time.
Also the
settlement
the
volume
(Loganathan
within
10 the
% rate
of the
measured
vertical
settlement. The 1993)
rate of settlement
and
of
log-time
plots
in settlement.
Fig. 21 forThe
therate
TS1ofand
TS3 testand
embankments
measured
vertical
settlement
the
of
lateral movements were plotted in Fig. 19 and Fig. 20, andrate
were
were
found
to be approaching
a constant
slope.
AnFig.
attempt
was
made
lateral
movements
were
plotted
in
Fig.
19
and
20,
and
were
found to decay with time. Also the settlement log-time plots in
to
define
the
100%
primary
consolidation
time using
the found
Casagrande
found
decay
with
time.
Also
settlement
log-time
plots
in
Fig.
21tofor
the
TS1
and
TS3
test the
embankments
were
to be
type
of
settlement
versus
log-time
plots.
The
points
P
and
Q (shown
Fig.
21
for
the
TS1
and
TS3
test
embankments
were
found
to the
be
approaching a constant slope. An attempt was made to define
in
21)acorrespond
to thetime
100%
primary
for the
approaching
constant
slope.
An
attempt
wasconsolidation
made to define
100%Fig.
primary
consolidation
using
the
Casagrande
type
of
100%Section
primary
timeThe
using
the PCasagrande
of
Test
TS3consolidation
and
TS1 respectively.
The
data
forand
TS2Qis (shown
nottype
shown
settlement
versus
log-time
plots.
points
in
settlement
versus
log-time
plots.
The
points
P
and
Q
(shown
in
because
it
would
crowd
out
the
data
from
the
other
two
embankments.
Fig. 21) correspond to the 100% primary consolidation for the Test
Fig. final
21) TS3
correspond
thetest
100%
consolidation
Test
The
portions
oftothe
data primary
forThe
the data
two
embankments
seemed
Section
and TS1
respectively.
for TS2 isfor
notthe
shown
Section
TS3
andsecondary
TS1crowd
respectively.
data
forcomputed
TS2
not
shown
to
approach
consolidation
part from
as
from
the
because
it the
would
out theThedata
theis other
two
because
it
would
crowd
out
the
data
from
the
other
two
Casagrande
settlement
versus
log-time
plots.
These
results
further
embankments. The final portions of the test data for the two
embankments.
ThePVD
final
portions
ofany
thehydraulic
test data
for the with
two
confirmed
that seemed
the
not cause
connection
embankments
todid
approach
the
secondary
consolidation
part
embankments
seemed
to
approach
the
secondary
consolidation
part
the
lower aquifers
the measured
final settlement
is of the plots.
same
as computed
from and
the Casagrande
settlement
versus log-time
as
computed
from
the confirmed
Casagrandethat
settlement
versus
log-time
These
further
the PVD
did not
causeplots.
any
order
asresults
the secondary
settlement.
These
results
further with
confirmed
thataquifers
the PVD
not cause final
any
hydraulic
connection
the lower
and did
the measured
Finally,
theconnection
inwith
theorder
shear
strength
with time
aftermeasured
consolidation
hydraulic
the lower
andsettlement.
the
final
settlement
isincrease
of the same
as
the aquifers
secondary
in
the field is
was
with the
vane
shear apparatus,
as plotted in
settlement
of measured
the same order
as the
secondary
settlement.
Finally,
Fig.
22. the increase in the shear strength with time after
Finally,
the increase
in the
strength
time shear
after
consolidation
in the field
was shear
measured
with with
the vane
consolidation
in
the
field
was
measured
with
the
vane
shear
apparatus, as plotted in Fig. 22.
apparatus, as plotted in Fig. 22.
Fig. 12a Variation of Percentage Settlement with Depth for 3m High
Settlement with Depth for 3m High
Fig. 12a Variation of Percentage
Embankments
Embankments
Fig. 13 Site plan of test embankments TS1, TS2 and TS3 at SBIA
Fig. 13 Site plansite
of (Balasubramaniam
test embankments TS1,
and TS3 at SBIA
et al.TS2
2007)
Fig. 12b Variation of Percentage Settlement with Depth for 6 m

Fig. 12b Variation of Percentage
Settlement with Depth for 6 m
High Embankments
High Embankments
The degrees of consolidation computed from the pore pressure
The degreesare
ofillustrated
consolidation
computed
the porethepressure
dissipations
Fig.
17.Fig.
Fig.18from
18
compares
degree
dissipations
are illustrated
ininFig.
17.
compares
the degree
of
dissipations
are
illustrated
in
Fig.
17.
Fig.
18
compares
the degree
of consolidation
computed
the settlement
measurements
to
consolidation
computed
fromfrom
the settlement
measurements
to those
of
consolidation
computed
from
the
settlement
measurements
to
those estimated
from
the dissipation
of
pore pressure.
Inthe
Fig.18
the
estimated
from
the
dissipation
of
pore
pressure.
In
Fig.18
ordinate
those
estimated
from
the
dissipation
of
pore
pressure.
In
Fig.18
the
to theofdegree
of consolidation
ordinate
axis Utop refers
axis
Up refers
the degree
consolidation
computedcomputed
from the from
pore
to the degree
ofthe
consolidation
computed
ordinate
Up refers
the pore axis
pressure
dissipation,
while
abscissa
axis
refers
tofrom
the
pressure
dissipation,
while
the
abscissa
axis
refers
to
the
degree
of
the
pore
pressure
dissipation,
while
the
abscissa
axis
refers
to
the
computed
from
the
settlement
degree
of
consolidation
U
s
consolidation
Us
computed
from
the
settlement
measurements.
With
settlement
degree of consolidation
Us computed
measurements.
With due allowance
for a from
small the
percentage
of
due
allowance for
a small
percentage
of
and
measurements.
With
due creep,
allowance
forsecondary
a smallofsettlement
percentage
of
secondary settlement
and
the two
degrees
consolidation
creep,
the
two
degrees
of
consolidation
seem
to
agree
well
because
secondary
settlement
and
creep,
the
two
degrees
of
consolidation
seem to agree well because they are close to the 45 degree line. Due
they
are close
thebecause
45 degreethey
line.are
Due
to the
limited
lengthline.
of paper,
seem
agree to
well
close
to the
45 degree
Due
to theto limited
length of paper,
the
data
related
to the lateral
the
data
related
to
the
lateral
movements
are
not
presented
here.
The
to
the
limited
length
of
paper,
the
data
related
to
the
lateral
movements are not presented here. The deformation due to lateral
deformation
dueless
to lateral
movement
was
thanthe
10method
%,due
as estimated
movementswas
are
not
presented
The less
deformation
toused
lateral
movement
than
10
%,here.
as estimated
by
by
by
the method
usedthan
by 10
Loganathan
et al. (1993).
The immediate
movement
was less
%, as estimated
by the method
used by 12
settlement computed from the lateral movements, as adopted by 12
the method where balancing the volume (Loganathan et al., 1993)
Fig. 14 Cross section TS3 showing PVD at SBIA site

Fig. 14 Cross
section TS3 showing
(Balasubramaniam
et al.PVD
2007)at SBIA site
3rd Proff 18-02-2015
Geotechnical
Geotechnical Journal
Journal Vol.
Vol. 66 No.
No. 11 2014
2014

00
Depth (m)
-4
-4
-8
-8
-12
-12
June 1995
1995
EOC
EOC (End
(End of
of Construction)
Construction) June
Feb.
Feb. 1996
1996
-16
-16
00
40
40
80
80
Degree
Degree of
of consolidation
consolidation (%)
(%)
120
120
Fig. 17
17 Degree
Degree of
of consolidation
consolidation from
from measured
measured pore
pore pressure
pressure at
at
Fig.
SBIA site
site (Balasubramaniam
(Balasubramaniam et
et al.
al. 2007)
2007)
SBIA
Fig. 15
15 Settlement
Settlement plot
plot of
of test
test embankment
embankment with
with PVD
PVD at
at SBIA
SBIA site
site
Fig.
(Balasubramaniam et
et al.
al. 2007)
2007)
(Balasubramaniam
From the test embankment studies carried out in Bangkok with

five
yet
A
Prediction
of
and
five decades,
decades, ground
yet the
the Case
Case
A type
type of
ofmost
Prediction
of the
the stability
stability was
and
and
without
improvement,
of this
experience
settlement
characteristics
is
challenging
settlement
characteristics
is still
still aausing
challenging
task.
with
embankments
constructed
sand. task.
Without any ground
improvement, the failure height of these embankments was very
From
From the
the test
test embankment
embankment studies
studies carried
carried out
out in
in Bangkok
Bangkok with
with and
and
modest
was in
the range of 2.5
m to
Vane shear was
strengths
without
ground
improvement,
most
of
this
with
withoutand
ground
improvement,
most
of3.5
thism.experience
experience
was
with
were
adequate enough
to determine
stabilityWithout
of these embankments
embankments
constructed
using
any
embankments
constructed
usingthesand.
sand.
Without
any ground
ground
with
a
total
stress
analysis,
although
the
Bjerrums
correction
improvement,
was
very
improvement, the
the failure
failure height
height of
of these
these embankments
embankments
wasfactor
very
as
basedand
on the
index
essential.
modest
was
in
of
2.5
to
modest
and
wasplasticity
in the
the range
range
ofwas
2.5 m
m
to 3.5
3.5 m.
m. Vane
Vane shear
shear strengths
strengths
were
adequate
enough
to
the
of
were from
adequate
enough
to determine
determine
the stability
stability
of these
these
Data
three fully
instrumented
test embankments
revealed
that
embankments
with
total
stress
analysis,
although
the
Bjerrums
embankments
with aawere
totalused
stress
analysis,
although
thepiezometric
Bjerrums
when
vertical drains
in the
Bangkok
Plain the
correction
as
based
plasticity
correction factor
factor
as naturally
based on
on the
the
plasticity
index
was
essential.
draw-down
which
exists
in theindex
Plainwas
dueessential.
to deep well
pumping,
virtually
eliminated intest
the embankments
upper
clay layer.
Moreover,
Data
three
fully
revealed
that
Data from
fromwas
three
fully instrumented
instrumented
test
embankments
revealed
that
the
presence
sand were
and silt
seams
to assist
drainage
when
vertical
drains
used
in
Bangkok
Plain
the
when
verticalof
drains
were
used
in the
thetended
Bangkok
Plain lateral
the piezometric
piezometric
and
thereforewhich
test embankments
within
and
without
to have
draw-down
naturally
the
Plain
due
deep
well
draw-down
which
naturally exists
exists
in
the
Plain drains
due to
tohad
deep
well
large
spaceswas
between
to eliminate
any in
type
interference.
The
pumping,
virtually
eliminated
the
clay
pumping,
was
virtually
eliminated
in
theof upper
upper
clay layer.
layer.
Moreover,
the
presence
sand
and
tended
to
assist
lateral
Moreover,of
theinterference
presence of
ofalso
sandremained
and silt
silt seams
seams
tended
to of
assist
lateral
possibility
in the soft
clays
Southeast
drainage
therefore
test
embankments
with
drainage and
and
therefore
testwhere
embankments
with
and without
without
drains
Queensland
and
elsewhere
the presence
of and
sand
and silt drains
seams
had
to
have
to
any
had the
to existence
have large
large
spaces between
between
to eliminate
eliminate
anyit type
type of
of
and
of spaces
piezometric
drawdown
had made
difficult
interference.
The
possibility
of
interference
remained
in
interference.
The
possibility
of implemented
interference also
also
remainedRecent
in the
the
for
the vacuum
drainage
to be
successfully.
soft
Southeast
Queensland
elsewhere
where
the
soft clays
clays of
ofand
Southeast
Queensland
and
elsewhere
where
the
modifications
improvements
to theand
sealing
methods
together
presence
of
sand
and
seams
the
of
presence
of of
sand
and silt
silttype
seams
andwalls
the existence
existence
of piezometric
piezometric
with
the use
Bentonite
cut and
off
were not included
in the
drawdown
had
made
difficult
be
drawdown
had
made
difficult for
for the
the
vacuum
drainage
toprebe
studies
made
here.
Testitit embankments
builtvacuum
on soft drainage
clay withto
implemented
successfully.
Recent
modifications
and
improvements
implemented
successfully.
Recent
modifications
and in
improvements
fabricated
vertical
drains have
performed
successfully
accelerating
to
sealing
together
with
use
of
type
to the
the
sealing methods
methods
together
with
the
use spacing
of Bentonite
Bentonite
type cut
cut
the
consolidation
settlement
when
thethe
PVD
was properly
Fig. 16
16 Pore
Pore pressure
pressure profile
profile of
of test
test embankment
embankment with
with PVD
PVD at
at SBIA
SBIA
Fig.
off
walls
were
not
included
in
the
studies
made
here.
Test
off
walls
were
not
included
in
the
studies
made
here.
Test
designed to take care of the smear effect and well resistance, as
site
site (Balasubramaniam
(Balasubramaniam et
et al.
al. 2007)
2007)
embankments
embankments built
built on
on soft
soft clay
clay with
with pre-fabricated
pre-fabricated vertical
vertical drains
drains
proposed by Hansbo and others. The spacing for the soft Bangkok
have
have performed
performed successfully
successfully in
in accelerating
accelerating the
the consolidation
consolidation
clay was about 1.5 m. The immediate settlement observed was
settlement
settlement when
when the
the PVD
PVD spacing
spacing was
was properly
properly designed
designed to
to take
take
generally of the order of 10 %. The Asaoka method and a Field
care
care of
of the
the smear
smear effect
effect and
and well
well resistance,
resistance, as
as proposed
proposed by
by Hansbo
Hansbo
66
CONCLUDING
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REMARKS
Deformation
Analysis
were
performed
to confirm
magnitude
and
spacing
for
the
clay
about
1.5
and others.
others. The
The
spacing
foralso
the soft
soft Bangkok
Bangkok
clay was
wasthe
about
1.5 m.
m.
settlementobserved
and immediate
settlement
This
This paper
paper set
set out
out to
to study
study the
the role
role of
of test
test embankments
embankments as
as aa site
site of
The
immediate
was
of
the
Theconsolidation
immediate settlement
settlement
observed
was generally
generally
of respectively.
the order
order of
of
of settlement
pressure
dissipation
and direct
into
design
investigation
into the
the
design and
and construction
construction aspects
aspects of
of ground
ground Computations
6investigation
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
10
method
and
Field
Deformation
Analysis
were
10 %.
%. The
The Asaoka
Asaoka
method from
and aapore
Field
Deformation
Analysis
were
measurements
well and of
the
magnitude ofsettlement
long term
improvement
improvement works
works in
in soft
soft clays.
clays. Test
Test embankments
embankments in
in Bangkok,
Bangkok, settlement
also
to
the
also performed
performed
to confirm
confirmagreed
the magnitude
magnitude
of consolidation
consolidation
settlement
This paper set out to study the role of test embankments as a site
settlement
was also
computedComputations
from the field data.
Thailand,
Thailand, and
and the
the Muar
Muar site
site in
in Malaysia
Malaysia and
and in
in Southeast
Southeast secondary
and
immediate
settlement
respectively.
of
settlement
and
immediate
settlement
respectively.
Computations
of
settlement
investigation into the design and construction aspects of ground
Queensland
Queensland were
were used
used as
as case
case studies.
studies. The
The work
work mainly
mainly emphasised
emphasised from
pore
pressure
settlement
from test
pore embankment
pressure dissipation
dissipation
and
direct
settlement
measurements
The
studiesand
at direct
the Muar
site measurements
indicated
the
improvement works in soft clays. Test embankments in Bangkok,
the
the practical
practical aspects
aspects related
related to
to stability
stability and
and deformation,
deformation, and
and even
even agreed
and
long
term
settlement
agreed well
wellof
and
the
magnitude
ofthe
long
term secondary
secondary
settlement
importance
thethe
fillmagnitude
strength inof
stability
characteristics
when
Thailand, and the Muar site in Malaysia and in Southeast Queensland
was
was also
also computed
computed from
from the
the field
field data.
data.
though
though research
research work
work on
on this
this subject
subject has
has been
been there
there for
for more
more than
than
well compacted residual soil was used. Also the Field Deformation
were used as case studies. The work mainly emphasised the practical
Analysis
the
consolidation
aspects related to stability and deformation, and even though research
The
embankment
studies
Muar
indicated
The test
test successfully
embankmentseparated
studies at
at the
the
Muar site
sitesettlement,
indicated the
the
immediate
and the in
creep
settlements.when
The
importance
of
the
stability
characteristics
importance settlement,
of the
the fill
fill strength
strength
inlong
the term
stability
characteristics
when
work on this subject has been there for more than
well
residual
soil
Also
well compacted
compacted
residual
soil was
was
used.
Also the
the Field
Field
Deformation
normalised
settlement
profile
and used.
the normalised
lateralDeformation
movement
five decades, yet the Case A type of Prediction of the stability and
13
13 profiles for several ground improvement schemes were found to be
settlement characteristics is still a challenging task.

Geotechnical
Journal
Vol. 6Vol.
No.61 No.
20141 2014
14 Geotechnical
Journal
similar
shape. The use
of sand the
compaction
piles and
pre-stressed
Analysisin successfully
separated
consolidation
settlement,
the
Analysis
separated minimise
the consolidation
settlement, the
piles
weresuccessfully
found
to successfully
the
immediate
settlement,
and the long termlateral
creepdeformation
settlements.atThe
immediate
settlement, and the long term creep settlements. The
toe
of the embankments.
normalised
settlement profile and the normalised lateral movement
normalised settlement profile and the normalised lateral movement
profiles
for
several
ground improvement
schemes
were found
to be
In
all
the
test
embankment
predicting
the observed
behaviour
profiles for several
groundstudies,
improvement
schemes
were found
to be
similar
in
shape.
The
use
of
sand
compaction
piles
and
pre-stressed
was possible
usingThe
the use
CRISP
computer
programpiles
and and
soft pre-stressed
clay models
similar
in shape.
of sand
compaction
piles were found to successfully minimise lateral deformation at the
of thewere
type found
developed
at Cambridge
University
piles
to successfully
minimise
lateral deformation at the
toe of the embankments.
toe of the embankments.
In all the test embankment studies, predicting the observed
In all the test embankment studies, predicting the observed
behaviour was possible using the CRISP computer program and soft
behaviour was possible using the CRISP computer program and soft
clay models of the type developed at Cambridge University.
clay models of the type developed at Cambridge University.
Rate
ofof
lateral
displacement
(mm/month)
Rate
lateral
displacement
(mm/month)
100
100
40
40
Up - Determined from pore pressure dissipation

U
pressure
dissipation
Ups -- Determined
Determined from
from pore
settlement
measurement
Us - Determined from settlement measurement
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
40
40
0
0
TS1
TS1
TS2
TS2
TS3
TS3
0
0
20
20
40
40U
60
60
80
80
-40
-40
100
100
s (%)
Us (%)
Fig. 18 Degree of consolidation computed from pore pressure
Fig. 18 Degree of consolidation computed from pore pressure
dissipation and settlement measurements at SBIA site
dissipation and settlement measurements at SBIA site
Rate
Rateofofsettlement
settlement(cm/month)
(cm/month)
Inverse time (1/month)
0
0
Time (days)
Time1000
(days)
1000
TS1
TS1
10000
10000
TS3
TS3
TS1
TS1
TS3
TS3
-80
-80
-120
-120
-160
-160
P
P
Q
Q
-200
-200
20
20
Fig. 21 Settlements versus log-time plot for embankments TS1 and

Fig. 21 Settlements versus log-time plot for embankments TS1 and
TS3 at SBIA site (Balasubramaniam et al. 2007)
TS3 at SBIA site (Balasubramaniam et al. 2007)
16
16
7 ACKNOWLEGEMENT
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
7
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
The work presented in this paper relates to the research work
The
work by
presented
this paper
relates
to the27research
work
conducted
thefirst
firstin
author
over
a period
years
the
by the
author
over
a period
of 27ofyears
at the at
Asian
conducted by the first author over a period of 27 years at the Asian
Asian
Institute
of Technology
as sponsored
projects
and
Institute
of Technology
as sponsored
research research
projects and
graduate
Institute of Technology as sponsored research projects and graduate
thesis research
Thework.
close The
collaboration
that the firstthat
author
graduate
thesis work.
research
close collaboration
the
thesis research work. The close collaboration that the first author
enjoyed
while
havingwhile
several
discussions
the latewith
OveEide
of
first
author
enjoyed
having
several with
discussions
the late
enjoyed while having several discussions with the late OveEide of
the Norwegian
Geotechnical
Institute,
former
OveEide
of
the
Norwegian
Geotechnical
Institute,
former
colleagues
the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, former colleagues
Dr. ZaChiehMoh, Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Brand, Prof.
Prof. PrinyaNutalaya,
PrinyaNutalaya,
Dr.
ZaChiehMoh, Dr. Edward
Edward W
W Brand,
Dr. Peter
Peter Brenner,
Brenner, Drs
Drs Ting
Ting Wen
Wen Hui,
Hui, OoiTeikAun,
OoiTeikAun, Chan
Chan Sin
Sin Fatt,
Fatt,
Dr.
Dr. Peter Brenner, Drs Ting Wen Hui, OoiTeikAun, Chan Sin
Fatt,
Dr.
Noppodol
Phienwej,
Dr.
Seah,
Mr.VasanthaWijekulasooriya,
Dr. Noppodol
Noppodol Phienwej,
Phienwej, Dr.
Dr. Seah,
Seah, Mr.VasanthaWijekulasooriya,
Mr.VasanthaWijekulasooriya,
Dr.
Dr. Chu
Chu Jian,Dr.Dr.
Bo,
Dr.
Arul
Rajah,
and
large number
of AIT
Dr.
Bo,Bo,
Dr.Dr.
ArulArul
Rajah,
and aand
largeaa number
of AIT Alumni
Dr.
ChuJian,
Jian, Dr.
Rajah,
large number
of AIT
Alumni
and
friends
are
gratefully
acknowledged.
The
Royal
Thai
and friends
gratefully
acknowledged.
The RoyalThe
ThaiRoyal
NavyThai
and
Alumni
andare
friends
are gratefully
acknowledged.
Navy
and
the
Airport
Authority
of
Thailand
are
thanked
for
the Airport
of Thailand
for engaging
the first
Navy
and Authority
the Airport
Authorityareofthanked
Thailand
are thanked
for
engaging
the
first
author
and his
team
in carrying
out the field
elaborate
author
and
his
team
in
carrying
out
the
elaborate
full-scaled
tests
engaging the first author and his team in carrying out the elaborate
full-scaled field tests and the interpretation of the data presented in
and the interpretation
of the
presentedofinthe
thisdata
paper.
The first
full-scaled
field tests and
the data
interpretation
presented
in
this paper. The first author is also most grateful to the large number
author
is also
themost
largegrateful
numbertoofthe
Master
this
paper.
Themost
first grateful
author istoalso
large students
number
of Master students and Research Associates at AIT who had helped
of
students
and Research
Associates
at AIThim
who
had out
helped
andMaster
Research
Associates
at AIT who
had helped
carry
the
him carry out the work presented in this paper over a thirty year
him
carry
out the
workpaper
presented
in
this year
paper
over A
a thirty
year
work
presented
in
this
over
a
thirty
period.
substantial
period. A substantial component of the technical details presented in
period.
A substantial
component
of the
technicalindetails
presented
in
component
of be
thefound
technical
details
presented
thisfirst
paper
canand
be
this paper can
in earlier
publications
by the
author
this
paper
can bepublications
found in earlier
publications
by and
the first
author and
found
in earlier
the
first author
his co-workers
his co-workers
in the by Journal
of Geotechnical
and
his
in the Journal
of Geotechnical
and
in
the co-workers
Journal of Geotechnical
Geoenvironmental
Engineering
Geoenvironmental
Engineering and
ASCE
and Canadian Geotechnical
Geoenvironmental
Engineering
ASCE
andand
Canadian
Geotechnical
ASCE
and
Canadian
Geotechnical
Journals
International
Journal
Journals and International Journal for Numerical and Analytical
Journals
and International
Journal
forinNumerical
and Analytical
for
Numerical
and Analytical
Methods
Geomechanics,
since mid
Methods
in Geomechanics,
since
mid 1990s.
Methods
1990s in Geomechanics, since mid 1990s.
12
12
8
8
4
4
0
0
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.12
0.08(1/month)0.04
Inverse time
100
100
20
20
0
0
0.16
0.16
Fig. 20 Rate of lateral movement versus inverse time plot at SBIA

Fig. 20 Rate of lateral movement versus inverse time plot at SBIA
60
60
Settlement
(cm)
Settlement
(cm)
UU
(%)
p p(%)
80
80
25
25
0.16
0.16
1
1
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.12
0.08(1/month)0.04
Inverse time
0
0
Inverse time (1/month)

Fig. 19 Rate of settlement versus inverse time plot at SBIA site
Fig. 19 Rate of settlement versus inverse time plot at SBIA site
14
14
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at SBIA site (Balasubramaniam et al. 2007)
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without Ground
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Proceedings
the Sixteenth
Asian
Improvement.Conference,
Proceedings
of the Sixteenth Southeast Asian
Geotechnical
in CD.
Geotechnical Conference, in CD.
Brand, E.W., and Premchitt, J. (1989), Moderators report for the
Brand, E.W.,
and Premchitt,
(1989),
report
for Int.
the
predicted
performance
of theJ. Muar
testModerators
embankment,
Proc.
predicted
Muar test
embankment,
Int.
Symp.
Trialperformance
Embankmentofonthe
Malaysian
Marine
clays, KualaProc.
Lumpur,
Symp. Trial
Embankment
Malaysia,
Vol.2,
1/32 -1/49. on Malaysian Marine clays, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, Vol.2, 1/32 -1/49.
Christian, L.T. and Watt,J.B. (1972), Undrained visco-elastic analysis
Christian, L.T. and Watt,J.B. (1972), Undrained visco-elastic
of soil deformations, Application of the FEM in Geotechnical
analysis of soil deformations, Application of the FEM in
Engineering, Proc. Symp. Vicksburg, Mississippi, May, 2, 533-574.
Geotechnical Engineering, Proc. Symp. Vicksburg, Mississippi,
May, 2, 533-574.
Cox, J. B. (1967). A review of the engineering characteristics of the
recent marine clays in Southeast Asia, Research Report No 6, Asian
Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.
15
THE APPLICATION OF VERTICAL DRAINS AND VACUUM PRELOADING FOR IMPROVING

SOFT GROUND
C. Rujikiatkamjorn1 and B. Indraratna2
1Associate Professor, Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong City, Australia
cholacha@uow.edu.au
2Professor of Civil Engineering, School of Mining and Environmental Engineering
Research Director of Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong City, Australia,
E-mail: indra@uow.edu.au
ABSTRACT: Much of the worlds essential infrastructure is built along congested coastal belts that are composed of highly
compressible and weak soils up to significant depths. Soft alluvial and marine clay deposits have very low bearing capacity and
excessive settlement characteristics, with obvious design and maintenance implications on tall structures and large commercial
buildings, as well as port and transport infrastructure. Stabilising these soft soils before commencing construction is essential for
both long term and short term stability. Pre-construction consolidation of soft soils through the application of a surcharge load
alone often takes too long, apart from which the load required to achieve more than 90% consolidation of these mostly low lying,
permeable, and very thick clay deposits can be excessively high over a prolonged period. A system of vertical drains combined
with vacuum pressure and surcharge preloading has become an attractive alternative in terms of both cost and effectiveness. This
technique accelerates consolidation by promoting rapid radial flow which decreases the excess pore pressure while increasing
the effective stress.
Over the past 15 years the second Author and his co-workers have developed numerous experimental, analytical, and numerical
approaches that simulate the mechanics of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) and vacuum preloading, including two-dimensional
and three-dimensional analyses, and more comprehensive design methods. These recent techniques have been applied to various
real life projects in Australia and Southeast Asia. Some of the new design concepts include the role of overlapping smear zones
due to PVD-mandrel penetration, pore pressure prediction based on the elliptical cavity expansion theory. These recent advances
enable greater accuracy in the prediction of excess pore water pressure, and lateral and vertical displacement of the stabilised
ground. This paper also presents an overview of the theoretical and practical developments and salient findings of soft ground
improvement via PVD and vacuum preloading, with applications to selected case studies in Australia, Thailand, and China.
1 INTRODUCTION
Soft clay deposits usually possess a low bearing capacity, as well
as excessive settlement characteristics, and therefore it is necessary
to improve the existing soft soils before construction activities
commence in order to prevent excessive and differential settlement
(Richart, 1957). The use of vertical drains with preloading is a popular
technique for improving soil because vertical drains accelerate
consolidation by providing short horizontal drainage paths. For this
reason they are employed worldwide in many soft soil improvement
projects (Holtz et al., 1991; Indraratna et al., 1992; Indraratna and
Redana, 2000; Chu et al. 2000; Chai et al., 2006; Indraratna et
al. 2011). Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) have become an
economical and viable ground improvement option because of their
rapid installation with simple field equipment (Shang et al. 1998, Bo
et al. 2003; Chai et al., 2010; Artidteang et al. 2011; Walker et al.
2009). In order to increase the stability of embankments, surcharge
placement is usually a multi-stage exercise with rest periods between
the loading stages so that consolidation and the associated gain in
shear strength occur before the next lift (Jamiolkowski et al. 1983,
Mesri and Khan 2012). This practice may not be possible with
tight construction schedules or foundation soil with very low shear
strength, which is why the application of a vacuum load in addition
to surcharge fill can further accelerate the rate of settlement to obtain
the desired settlement without increasing the excess pore pressure
(Kjellman, 1952; Qian et al., 1992; Qiu et al. 2007; Saowapakpiboon
et al. 2011, Indraratna et al. 2010a). This practice has been used for
land reclamation and port projects (Tang and Shang 2000; Yan and
Chu 2005; Chu and Yan, 2005, Chai et al. 2010; Saowapakpiboon
et al. 2010; Indraratna et al. 2011). The PVDs distribute the vacuum
pressure to deep layers of subsoil, thereby reducing the excess pore
water pressure due to surcharge loading (Zhu and Miao 2002; Chai
et al. 2009; Indraratna et al. 2010b). The consolidation process of
vacuum preloading compared to conventional preloading is shown
in Figure 1.
In this paper a modified radial consolidation theory that considers

the effects of time dependent surcharge loading and vacuum pressure
is proposed. The smear zone prediction using the Elliptical Cavity
Expansion Theory is discussed based on the results of large scale
laboratory tests. The equivalent (transformed) plane strain conversion
is incorporated into finite element codes using the modified Cam-clay
theory. Case histories are discussed and analysed, including the site of
the Second Bangkok International Airport (Thailand) and the Port of
Brisbane. The predictions are compared with the available field data.
2 THEORETICAL APPROACH
2.1 Development of Vacuum Consolidation Theories
The mechanism of vacuum-assisted consolidation is comparable to,
but not the same as conventional surcharge. In earlier studies, vacuum
preloading was often simulated with an equivalent surface load or
by modifying the surface boundary condition. However, laboratory
observations confirm that the vacuum pressure propagates downwards
along the drains in addition to the uniformly applied surface suction.
In the absence of vertical drain, Mohamedelhassan and Shang (2002)
developed a vacuum and surcharge combined one-dimensional
consolidation model based on the Terzaghis consolidation theory.
Indraratna et al (2004, 2005a) Geng et al. (2012) showed that when a
vacuum pressure is applied in the field through PVDs, the suction head
along the drain length may decrease with depth and thereby reduce its
efficiency. A modified radial consolidation theory to include different
vacuum pressure distribution patterns has been proposed. The results
indicate that the efficiency of vertical drains depends on both the
magnitude of vacuum pressure and its distribution. Chai et al. (2006;
2010) and Robinson et al. (2012) introduced an approximate method
for calculating the ground settlement and inward lateral displacement
induced by vacuum consolidation. Rujikiatkamjorn and Indraratna
(2007; 2009) presented the design charts for vacuum consolidation.
Journal Vol.
Vol. 66 No.
No. 11 2014
2014
Geotechnical
3rd Proff 18-02-2015
-100
-100
100
100
0
0
Maximum excess
excess
Maximum
pore pressure
pressure
pore
Time
Time
-100
-100
100
100
0
0
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Time
-100
-100
100
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0
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8c t
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pore
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Time
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-100
ll
2.2 Solution
Solution for
for Axisymmetric
Axisymmetric Condition
Condition
2.2
2.2 Solution for Axisymmetric Condition
A radial
radial consolidation
consolidation theory
theory incorporating
incorporating the
the smear
smear effect
effect and
and
A
A
radial
consolidation
theory incorporating
the smear
effect and
well
well
resistance
was proposed
proposed
by Barron
Barron (1948)
(1948)
and Hansbo
Hansbo
(1981).
well
resistance
was
by
and
(1981).
resistance
was proposed
by Barron
(1948)
Hansbo
(1981). load
The
The application
application
of aa vacuum
vacuum
pressure
withand
only
surcharge
load
The
of
pressure
with
only
aa surcharge
application
a vacuum
with only
a surcharge
along the
along the
the of
surface
(i.e.pressure
no vertical
vertical
drains),
was load
modelled
by
along
surface
(i.e.
no
drains),
was
modelled
by
surface
(i.e. no vertical
modelled
Mohamedelhassan
and drains),
Shang was
(2002)
based by
onMohamedelhassan
one-dimensional
Mohamedelhassan
and
Shang
(2002)
based
on
one-dimensional
consolidation.
The based
aboveonmathematical
mathematical
models
are based
based The
on
and
Shang (2002)
one-dimensional
consolidation.
consolidation.
The
above
models
are
on
instantaneous
loadingmodels
and are
constant
coefficient
of loading
lateral
above
mathematical
based on coefficient
instantaneous
instantaneous
loading
and
aa constant
of
lateral
). Lekha etofal.lateral
(1998)permeability
further extended
the solution
permeability
(khcoefficient
and
a constant
(kh). Lekha
et al.
permeability
(k
h). Lekha et al. (1998) further extended the solution
by incorporating
incorporating
time dependent
dependent
surcharge
loading.time
Walker
et al.
al.
(1998)
further extended
the solutionsurcharge
by incorporating
dependent
by
time
loading.
Walker
et
(2009) proposed
proposed
spectral
method
for aa vertical
vertical
andmethod
redial
surcharge
loading. aaWalker
et al.method
(2009) proposed
a spectral
(2009)
spectral
for
and
redial
consolidation
analysis
of consolidation
stratified soils.
soils.analysis
Indraratna
et al.
al. (2005b)
(2005b)
for
a vertical analysis
and redial
of stratified
soils.
consolidation
of
stratified
Indraratna
et
introduced et
theal.unit
unit
cell analysis
analysis
for the
vacuum
preloading
under
Indraratna
(2005b)
introduced
unit preloading
cell analysisunder
for
introduced
the
cell
for
vacuum
instantaneous
loading.
However,
while an
an
embankment
is being
being
vacuum
preloading
under
instantaneous
loading.
However,
while
instantaneous
loading.
However,
while
embankment
is
constructed
on soft
soft
clay, the
the
fill surcharge
surcharge
is usually
usually
raised
over time
time
constructed
on
clay,
fill
is
raised
over
an
embankment
is being
constructed
on soft
clay, the
fill surcharge
to
attain
the
desired
height.
Therefore,
a
time
dependent
loading
due
to attain
desired
height.
a time
dependent
due
is
usuallytheraised
over
time Therefore,
to attain the
desired
height.loading
Therefore,
to filling
filling would
would be
be more
more appropriate
appropriate than
than an
an instantaneous
instantaneous loading,
loading,
to
a time dependent loading due to filling would be more appropriate
especially during
during the
the initial
initial stages of
of construction.
construction. In
In this
this Section
Section
especially
than
an instantaneous
loading,stages
especially
during the initial
stages of
)
is
assumed
to
increase
the
embankment
load
from
filling
(
t
assumed
to increase
the embankment
fromthefilling
(t) isload
construction.
In thisload
Section
embankment
from filling
(t) is
at time tt0 and

and kept
kept constant
constant
linearly up
up to
to aa maximum
maximum value
value (
linearly
assumed
to increase
linearly up to a(maximum
(at time
t0 and
at timevalue
0
thereafter (Figure
(Figure 2a).
2a). The
The vacuum
vacuum is
is applied
applied at
at t=t
t=tvac.. Figure
Figure 2b
2b
thereafter
vac at t=tvac.
kept
constant thereafter
(Figure 2a). The
vacuum is applied
illustrates
the
unit
cell
adopted
for
analytical
solutions
with
illustrates
the unit the
cell
for for
analytical
with
Figure
2b illustrates
unitadopted
cell adopted
analyticalsolutions
solutions with
boundary conditions
conditions (Figure
(Figure 2c).
2c).
boundary
boundary
conditions (Figure
2c).
Indraratna et
et al.
al. (2011)
(2011) proposed
proposed that
that the
the average
average excess
excess pore
pore
Indraratna
Indraratna
et al.to
(2011)
that thewhile
average
excess pore
pressure due
due
radialproposed
consolidation
considering
thepressure
smear
pressure
to
radial
consolidation
while
considering
the
smear
due to radial consolidation while considering the smear effect under
u L )) can
effectdependent
under time
timesurcharge
dependent
surcharge
canby:
be expressed
expressed by:
by:
time
( u Lsurcharge
) can be expressed
effect
under
dependent
(( u
be
L
for
for
tt00
Time
Time
Figure 11 Consolidation
Consolidation process:
process: (a)
(a) conventional
conventional loading
loading (b)
(b)
Figure
idealised vacuum
vacuum preloading
preloading (modified
(modified from
from Indraratna
Indraratna et
et al.
al. 2005c)
2005c)
idealised
8cht
d 22
dee 1
exp
uL
1
exp 8ch2t
1
u
L
2
8
c
t
dde2 8 c 1t
8chht00 d e
e h
uL =
1 exp
2
8cht0
d e
(2)
(2)
ch isis the
the influence
influence zone
zone diameter,
diameter, c
the coefficient
coefficient of
of
dd ee isis the
h
applied surcharge
surcharge
consolidation for
for horizontal
horizontal drainage,
drainage,
11 == applied
consolidation
pressure,
=
time.
t
pressure, t = time.
-100
-100
0
0

11

where,
where,
p (preloading
(preloading
p
pressure)
pressure)
p0 (Vacuum
(Vacuum
p
0
pressure)
pressure)
88cc h tt
tt 0
exp
h
0
exp
2
2
e
d
dww
d
dss
d
dee
d
(b)
(b)
Soildrain interface
interface
Soildrain
-p00
-p
-p00(1-(1-k
(1-(1-k11)z/l)
)z/l)
-p
Soil
Soil
-k11p
p00
-k
or xx
rr or
Boundary
Boundaryof
ofthe
thedrain
drain
influence
influencezone
zone
Time
Time
Stress/
Stress/
Pressure
Pressure(kPa)
(kPa)
0
0
p
p (preloading
(preloading
pressure)
pressure)
Excess
Excesspore
pore
pressure
pressure(kPa)
(kPa)
100
100
Vertical
Verticaleffective
effective
stress
stress(kPa)
(kPa)
Vertical
Verticaleffective
effective
stress
stress(kPa)
(kPa)
Excess
Excesspore
pore
pressure
pressure(kPa)
(kPa)
Stress/
Stress/
Pressure
Pressure(kPa)
(kPa)
magnitude of
of vacuum
vacuum pressure
pressure and
and its
its distribution.
distribution. Chai
Chai et
et al.
al. (2006;
(2006;
magnitude
2010) and
and Robinson
Robinson et
et al.
al. (2012)
(2012) introduced
introduced an
an approximate
approximate method
method
2010)
for calculating
calculating the
the ground
ground settlement
settlement and
and inward
inward lateral
lateral
for
displacement
induced
by
vacuum
consolidation.
Rujikiatkamjorn
displacement induced by vacuum consolidation. Rujikiatkamjorn
and Indraratna
Indraratna (2007;
(2007; 2009)
2009) presented
presented the
the design
design charts
charts for
for vacuum
vacuum
and
consolidation.
consolidation.
zz
ll
(c)
(c)
Figure 22 (a)
(a) time-dependent
time-dependent loading,
loading, (b)
(b) unit
unit cell,
cell, and
and (c)
(c) boundary
boundary
Figure
conditions
conditions
0
tt
tt0
0
0
(1)t
(1)
for
0t
0
17
17
Geotechnical
Journal Vol.
Vol. 66
Geotechnical Journal Vol. 6
Geotechnical Journal Vol. 6
No.
No. 11 2014
2014
No. 1 2014
No. 1 2014

Recently,
Indraratna
et
al.
(2005b)
showed
that
the
excess
Recently, Indraratna
Indraratna et
et al.
al. (2005b)
(2005b) showed
showed that
that the
the average
average
excess
Recently,
averagepressure
excess
pore
pressure
under
radial
consolidation
due
to
vacuum
pore
pressure
under
radial
consolidation
due
to
vacuum
pressure
Recently,
Indraratna
et
al.
(2005b)
showed
that
the
average
excess
pore
pressure
under
radial
consolidation
due
to
vacuum
pressure
Recently,
Indraratna
et al.
(2005b) from:
showed that the average excess
(uu
alone
could
be
determined
pressure
under
radial
consolidation
to vacuum pressure
vac
(pore
alone
could
be be
determined
from:
uvac
)) alone
could
determined
from: due
vac)pressure
pore
under
radial
consolidation
due to vacuum pressure
( uvac ) alone could be determined from:
(uuvac ) alone
from:
0, could be determined
tt vac
uvac
tt
(3)
vac 0,
vac
(3)
u
0
,
t
t
vac
vac
uvac 0,
t
t
(3)
tt vac

(3)
8
8cc h tt
vac
Permeability
Permeability
Permeability
Permeability
u vac
u
vac
u
u vac
h
vac
p
exp
p 0 exp
2t
0
c
t

2
tddee t vac
8c hh
vac
exp
p
0
2
p 0 exp
tt
dd ee2
tt vac
vac
tt
tt vac
In
order
to
predict
excess
pressures and
associated
settlements,
In order
order to
to predict
predict excess
excess pore
pore
and
associated
settlements,
In
poreinpressures
pressures
and with
associated
settlements,
Equations
(1)-(6)
can
be
used
conjunction
the
soil
properties
Equations
(1)-(6)
can
be
used
in
conjunction
with
the
soil
properties
In
order
to
predict
excess
pore
pressures
and
associated
settlements,
Equations
(1)-(6)
can
be
used
in
conjunction
with
the
soil
properties
of
each
layer
and
the
thickness
of
the
soil
for
each
section.
In
orderlayer
to predict
excess
pore of
pressures
and
associated
settlements,
of
each
and
the
thickness
the
soil
for
each
section.
Equations
(1)-(6)
canthickness
be used inofconjunction
with section.
the soil properties
of
each
layer
and
the
the
soil
for
each
Equations (1)-(6) can be used in conjunction with the soil properties
of each layer and the thickness of the soil for each section.
of each layerkand the thickness of the soil for each section.
kh
h

p ,
p 00 ,
p 0 ,
p 0 ,
(4)
vac
(4)
(4)
(4)
d
where
=
the
diameter
of
the
soil
cylinder
dewatered
by
where d ee = the diametervac
of the soil cylinder dewatered by aa drain,
drain,
d
where
=
the
diameter
of
the
soil
cylinder
dewatered
by
a
drain,
dd w == the
dd s == the
of
equivalent
d e diameter
where
= the diameter
of the zone,
soil cylinder
dewatered
bydiameter
a drain,
of the
the smear
smear
zone,
equivalent
diameter
w the
s thee diameter
dd w == the
dd sthe
= the
diameter
the smearsoil
zone,
equivalent
diameter
kk s == of
of
drain,
horizontal
permeability
in
zone,
= the
diameter
of
the smearsoil
zone,
diameter
of
drain,
horizontal
permeability
in the
the smear
smear
zone,
w the equivalent
sthe
s
=
a
group
of
parameters
representing
the
geometry
of
the
vertical
of =the
drain,ofk parameters
=
horizontal
soil
permeability
in
the
smear
a
group
representing
the
geometry
of
the
vertical
s = horizontal soil permeability in the smear zone,
of the system
drain, kand
s the smear effect. Hansbo (1981) assumedzone,
drain
the
drain
system
and
the smear
effect. Hansbo
(1981)ofassumed
the
=
a
group
of
parameters
representing
the geometry
the vertical
smear
zone
to
have
a
reduced
horizontal
permeability
that
is
=
a
group
of
parameters
representing
the
geometry
of
the
vertical
smear system
zone toandhave
reduced
horizontal
that the
is
drain
the asmear
effect.
Hansbo permeability
(1981) assumed
constant
throughout
this
zone.
The
parameter
is
given
by:
drain
system
and the
smear
effect.
Hansbo (1981)
assumed
the
constant
throughout
this
zone.
The
parameter
is
given
by:
smear zone to have a reduced horizontal permeability that is
smear zone to have a reduced horizontal permeability that is
constant
is given by:
ln
lnthroughout
n // ss
kkhthis
/ k zone.
' ln
ln ssThe
0
0..parameter
75
constant
throughout
this
zone.
The
parameter
is given by:
75
(5a)
h / k 'h
h
(5a)
ds
permeability
in the undisturbed
equivalent
of drain,inkthe
k'diameter
zone
smear
zone.
h=
permeability
equivalent
diameter
of drain,inkthe
hh =
zone and
and k'
= permeability
permeability
zone. in the undisturbed
h =smear
zone and k'
permeability
in the smear zone.
h=
However,
laboratory
testing
by
zone
and k'
the smear zone.
However,
laboratory
testinginconducted
conducted
by Onoue
Onoue et
et al.
al. (1991),
(1991),
h = permeability
Indraratna
and
Redana
(1998)
and
Sharma
and
Xiao
(2000),
using
Indraratna
and
Redana
(1998)
and
Sharma
and
Xiao
(2000),
using aa
However,
laboratory
testing
conducted
by
Onoue
et
al.
(1991),
scale
consolidometer,
suggests
that
the
disturbance
in
large
scale
consolidometer,
suggests
that
the
disturbance
in
the
smear
However,
laboratory
testing
conducted
by
Onoue
et
al.
(1991),
large scaleand
consolidometer,
suggests
thatand
theXiao
disturbance
in the
thea
Indraratna
Redana (1998)
and
Sharma
(2000),
using
smear
zone
towards
the
drain
(Figure
3).
To
obtain
more
zone
increases
towards(1998)
the drain
(Figure
3).
To obtain
more
accurate
Indraratna
andincreases
Redana
and
Sharma
and
Xiao
(2000),
using
a
smear
zone
increases
towards
the
drain
(Figure
3).
To
obtain
more
large
scale
consolidometer,
suggests
that
the
disturbance
in
the
accurate
predictions,
Walker
and
Indraratna
(2006)
employed
large
scale
consolidometer,
suggests
that the
disturbance
in theaa
predictions,
Walker and
Indraratna
(2006)
employed
a parabolic
accurate
predictions,
Walker
and
Indraratna
(2006)
employed
smear zone
increases
towards the
drain (Figure
3). Tothe
obtain
more
parabolic
decay
in
horizontal
permeability
drain
to
smear
increases
towards the
drain (Figure
3). to
Torepresent
obtain
more
decay
inzone
horizontal
towards
the towards
drain
the
parabolic
decay
in permeability
horizontal
permeability
the
drain
toa
accurate
predictions,
Walkerofand
Indraratnaintowards
(2006)
employed
represent
the
actual
variation
permeability
the
smear
zone.
The
accurate
predictions,
Walker
and
Indraratna
(2006)
employed
a
actual
variation
of
permeability
in
the
smear
zone.
The
parameter
represent
the
actual
variation
of
permeability
in
the
smear
zone.
The
parabolic decay in horizontal permeability towards the drain to
parameter
can
be
given
by:
parabolic
decay
in
horizontal
permeability
towards
the
drain
to
can
be
given
by:
parameter
be given
by: of permeability in the smear zone. The
represent
thecan
actual
variation
represent the actual variation of permeability in the smear zone. The
parameter can be given by:
2
parameter
can
s
n be given
3 by: s 1 2
thickness of compressible soil.

thickness of compressible soil.
rr
ss
r
(a)
(a) rss
w
w
rr
e
e
rr
e
e
(a)
(a)
Parabolic fit
Parabolic fit
Parabolic fit
Parabolic fit
Mean consolidation pressure (kPa)

Mean consolidation pressure (kPa)
6.5
Band drain
Band drain
6.5
Mean consolidation
pressure (kPa)
drain
16.5
drain
Mean consolidation
pressure (kPa)
16.5
drain
drain
Band drain
Band drain
50
50
100
100

ln
ln nss
ln
ln n
3
3ss

4
3
4
3

4
4
h , ax
kk'
ax
'
k
k hhhh,,,,ax
ax
ax
k'
h
,
k ' h ,ax
ax
150
150
64.5
6.5
64.5
6.5
129.5
16.5
129.5
16.5
260
64.5
260
64.5
129.5
129.5
260
260
200
200
rr (mm)
(mm) 150
50
100
200
50
100
150
200
(b)
r
(mm)
(b)
r (mm)
(b) and (b) ratio of horizontal to
Figure 33 (a)
(a) Permeability
Permeability distribution
distribution
Figure
(b) and (b) ratio of horizontal to
vertical permeability
permeability (kh/kv)
(k
radial
distance
from
drain
in
h/k
v)) along
vertical
along
radial
distance
from
/k
along
radial
distance
from
drain
in large
large
(k
h
v
Figureconsolidometer
3 (a) Permeability
distribution
and
(b)2006)
ratio
of
horizontal
to
=d
/2,
rrs=d
/2
scale
(Walker
and
Indraratna,
(r
Figure
3
(a)
Permeability
distribution
and
(b)
ratio
of
horizontal
e
e
sto
=d
/2,
=d
(Walker
and
Indraratna,
2006)
(r
scale
consolidometer
(Walker
and
Indraratna,
2006)
(re=de/2,
rs=ds/2
e
e
s
s/2
/k
)
along
radial
distance
from
drain
in
large
vertical
permeability
(k
h v
=
d
/2)
and
r
/k
)
along
radial
distance
from
drain
in
large
vertical
permeability
(k
w=
w/2)
h
v
d
r
and
rw
=
dw/2)
w
scale wconsolidometer
(Walker and Indraratna, 2006) (r =d /2, r =d /2
scale consolidometer (Walker and Indraratna, 2006) (ree=dee/2, rss=dss/2
= dw/2) Procedure
and
rwConversion
2.3 Conversion
Procedure
for
Plane
Strain
Conversion
Procedure
for Equivalent
Equivalent
Plane
Strain
2.3
for Equivalent
Plane Strain
Analysis
and rw = dw/2)
Analysis
Analysis
2.3 Conversion
Procedure
Equivalent
Plane showed
Strain
Indraratna
and Redana
(2000) andfor
Indraratna
et al. (2005a)
2.3 Conversion
Procedure
for
Equivalent
Plane Strain
Analysis
Indraratna
(2000)
al.
showed
Indraratna
andonRedana
Redana
(2000) and
and Indraratna
Indraratna
etprocedure,
al. (2005a)
(2005a) and
showed
that,
basedand
the appropriate
conversionet
by
Analysis
that,
on
the
conversion
procedure,
and
by
that, based
basedand
onRedana
the appropriate
appropriate
conversion
procedure,
and
by
considering
the
degree
of consolidation
at a given
time
step,
plane
Indraratna
(2000)
and
Indraratna
et
al.
(2005a)
showed
considering
theRedana
degree (2000)
of
consolidation
at
step,
plane
Indraratna
and
and Indraratna
et al. time
(2005a)
showed
considering
ofcan
consolidation
at aa given
given
time
step,
stain
multi-drain
analysis
be used
to predict
the
behaviour
ofplane
soft
that,
based the
on degree
the
appropriate
conversion
procedure,
and
by
stain
multi-drain
analysis
can
be
used
to
predict
the
behaviour
of
that,
based
on
the
appropriate
conversion
procedure,
and
by
stainimproved
multi-drain
analysis
can beand
used
toat predict
the
of
soil
vertical
vacuum
preloading.
Using
the
considering
thebydegree
of drains
consolidation
a given
timebehaviour
step,
plane
soft
soil
improved
by
vertical
drains
and
vacuum
preloading.
Using
considering
the degree
of consolidation
atvacuum
a givenpreloading.
time step, Using
plane
soft
soil
improved
by
vertical
drains
and
stain
multi-drain
analysis
can
be
used
to
predict
the
behaviour
of
geometric
transformation
in
Figure
4,
the
corresponding
ratio
of
the
the
geometric
transformation
Figure
the
corresponding
ratio
of
stain
multi-drain
analysis canin
be
used 4,
predict
the behaviour
the
geometric
transformation
indrains
Figure
4,tovacuum
the
corresponding
ratio
of
soft
soil
improved
by
vertical
and
preloading.
Using
permeability
of
the
smear
zone
to
the
undisturbed
zone
is
obtained
by
the
permeability
smear
zone
to
the
undisturbed
is
soft
soil improvedof
by the
vertical
drains
preloading.zone
Using
the geometric
permeability
of
the
smear
zoneand
to vacuum
thecorresponding
undisturbed
zone
is
the
transformation
in
Figure
4,
the
ratio of
(Indraratna
et(Indraratna
al.,
2005a):
obtained
by
et
al.,
2005a):
the
geometric
transformation
in
Figure 4, the corresponding ratio of
obtained
by
(Indraratna
et
al.,
2005a):
the permeability of the smear zone to the undisturbed zone is
the permeability of the smear zone to the undisturbed zone is
obtained by (Indraratna
al., 2005a):
kk h ,ax
et
n 2005a):
obtained by (Indraratna
et al.,
n
permeability
in
smear
k 0 = minimum
== kk h kk0 and
In the above
expression
permeability
in the
the
smear zone.
zone.
In the above
expression
h
0 and k 0 = minimum
permeability
in the
smear zone.
The
excess
pressure
at
The
excess pore
pore
pressure
at aa given
given time
time tt can
can determined
determined based
based on
on
permeability
in the
smear zone.
the combination
combination of
of Equations
Equations (1)
(1) to
to (5).
(5). For
For normally
normally consolidated
consolidated
the
The excess pore pressure at a given time t can determined based on
evaluated
by
clay,
the
settlement
((
The
excess
pore pressure
at a given
timenow
t canbe
determined
based
on
)) tocan
can
be
evaluated
by the
the
clay,combination
the vertical
vertical
the
of settlement
Equations (1)
(5).now
For normally
consolidated
following
equations:
the
combination
of
Equations
(1)
to
(5).
For
normally
consolidated
following
equations:
canbenow
be evaluated
by the
thevertical
vertical
settlement
() now
clay,
the
settlement
() can
evaluated
by the following
clay, the vertical settlement () can now be evaluated by the
following equations:
equations:
following
equations:

HC
''
cc
HC
(6)
log
(6)

log
''
1
eecc00 log
1HC
''i
HC
(6)
(6)
1 e log 'i
at'iia given time, Cc = compression index, ' =
e00
settlement
where
1 == settlement
where
at a given time, Cc = compression index, ' =
where
settlement
at a given
Cc =effective
compression
index,
H
'=
initial
stress,
and
effective
aa given
''ii ==time,
initial
stress,
and
H' =
effective
atsettlement
given time,
time,
where
at a given
time,
Cc =effective
compression
index,
==at
thickness of
of
compressible
effective stress, and H =

effective
at compressible
a given time,soil.
thickness
''i == initial
effective
at a given time,soil.
initial effective stress, and H =
1
1
0.5
0.5
0
0 0
0
0
0
rr
w
w
rr
1.5
1.5
1
1
0.5
0.5
0
0
n 3 s 12 ln s
ln
ln ns
4 22 s 12 ln s
ln ns 3
4 ss
ss1
ln s
s2
2
p
ln s 3
2
ln (5b)
4
2 2s
s
p
1 (5b)

sssss
1
1
4
s
s
1
1
1 (5b)
pp

ss 22 1 1 ln
ln 1 (5b)
2
ss
1
2sss 1
2
s2
1
ln
2
ln
2
ss 2
ss
2
2
1
above expression
In
k 0 == minimum
== kkh kk0 and
and k
minimum
In the
the above
expression
Parabolic
Parabolic permeability
permeability
distribution
distribution
Equivalent
constant
Equivalent
distribution constant
permeability
distribution
permeability
Equivalent constant
Equivalent constant
permeability
permeability
2
2
1.5
1.5
(5a)
(5a)
dd s =diameter
of
smear
zone,
d ww ==
=diameter
of
smear
zone, d
s
d s =diameter of
smear zone, d =
of smear zone, d w
w =
kkdhs ===diameter
permeability
permeability in
in the
the undisturbed
undisturbed
kk0
0
kk0
2
2
khkh/k/k
/kv v
vkk
h
v h/k
de
ln
ln n
n // ssd
kkhh // kk d'' hh ln
ln ss
0
0..75
75
where,
s ,,
n
e ,, ss
where, n
ds
d
e
w
d
w
where, n we , s d w
s ,
where, n d , s d ,
equivalent
diameter
of
drain,
w
w
d
d
equivalent diameter
of drain,
kk
h
kk '' h , ps
kk hh ,, ps
h , ps /
ps
kkkk''hh,,psps
kk h , ax
ps
hh,,ps
ps /
ps
h , ax
kk h , ps / kk h ,ax
h ,ax
h , ps
(7)
(7)
(7)
(7)
00..67
67
nn
ss // nn 2 nn
11 ,,
where
where
3
2
n s 3 / n 2 n 1 ,
where 2
1
1 2 0..67
2ss
1 n n s 1 1
s /subscripts
n n 1 ps
where
ss
ps,
67
1
22
1 n and
and subscripts
n n s 1 3ss2 0
11
1
n2sn
n
13 2
2s 1 n n s 1 1 s s 1
subscripts ps
22 n 1 n n s 1 3 s 2 s 1 and
and subscripts ps
and axn
represent
plane
strain
and
axisymmetric
condition,
respectively
3
n n 1
18
18
18
18
ln
ln ss
ln
s
ln s

33
3rd Proff 18-02-2015
and ax represent plane strain and axisymmetric condition,

respectively.
Flow contact area = dwl
1 Z 2 Z ... N Z
u Z , t A
A t A t ... A t T
N
2
1
Flow contact area = 2 l

Unit width
In the preceding,
l
The spectral method assumes a truncated series solution of

terms:
A j t
and
(10)
is a set of linearly independent basis-functions,
are unknown coefficients. The basic functions were
chosen to satisfy the boundary conditions. In the current analysis,

dw
for a pervious top and bottom (PTPB)
2bw
ds
2bs
de
2B
(a)
thus:
j Z sinM j Z
Figure 4 Unit cell analysis: (a) axisymmetric condition, (b)

equivalent plane strain condition (after Indraratna et al., 2005a)
(B=bs, bw= half width of unit cell, smear zone and drain,
respectively under plane strain condition)
where M
By ignoring the effects of both smear and well resistance, a

simplified ratio of equivalent plane strain to axisymmetric
permeability in the undisturbed zone can be attained based on the
geometric equivalence (i.e. dw=2bw, ds=2bs, de=2B, in Figure 4,
Indraratna et al., 2005) hence;
k h, ps / k h,ax
2.4
LA dZ 0
(7a)
where L describes the differential operations in Eq. (11).

Combining Eqs. (9), (10), (11) yields a set of coupled ordinary
differential equations for j , which in matrix form reads:
A A
ij ijmvl mv
(8)
In the preceding,
depth,
t =time, z
=depth,
ij dTv M j M i ij kvl kv dThij l
water,
mv =volume compressibility and kv =vertical permeability.
mv
and in the
i j
i j
,
(12b)
Based on the eigen problem of Eq. (12), under instantaneous loading

the solution to Eq. (11) is:
weight of
u Z , t vEv 1 1 2 ... N T
The diagonal matrix
equal to zero) E is:
(13)
(square matrix with non-diagonal terms
t diag exp 1t exp 2t exp N t (13a)
layer, are described using the
1
where is an eigen value of matrix . The eigenvector
associated with each eigen value makes up the columns matrix v
unit step (Heaviside) function (Walker, 2006):
Z lUnitStep Z Zl 1 UnitStep Zl Z
(12a)
SN[ ] sinZl sinZl 1
Equation (8) has been normalised with respect to convenient

reference values of each property indicated by the over-bar notation.
Vertical flow to the surface is based on the average hydraulic
gradient. Walker (2006) presented solutions to Eq. (8) for multiple
layers (see Figure 5) based on the spectral method. The three
parameters kv ,
SN M j M i SN M j M i
ij
Z l Z l 1 SN M j M i
=average excess pore pressure for a given
w =unit
(12)
where
c
kv
z
2
, dTv v2 , dTh
, cv
,
where Z
m
H
w mv
w v
k
2h
re
th
(11)
Assuming time independent soil properties that vary spatially with

depth, the governing equation for consolidation with combined
vertical and radial drainage under instantaneous loading and equal
strain conditions in a cylindrical unit cell can be derived as (Walker,
2006):
of soil,
j
for PTPB

2 j 1 for PTIB
The Galerkin procedure requires that the error in Eq. (10) is

orthogonal to each basis function, hence:
Consolidation Theory for Multi-layered Soil
H =depth
(10a)
mv u
k v u
dTh u dTv
mv t
Z k v Z
and
u H , t 0 , and for a pervious top and bottom (PTIB)

u 0, t 0 and u H , t z 0 . Suitable basis functions are
(b)
2 n 12
/ lnn 0.75
3 n2
u 0, t 0
(9)
vi1
is the eigenvector associated with 1 ).

vector defined by:
(i.e.
19
is
a column
i 2 1 cosM i M i
3 DETERMINATION
OF THE
ZONE AND
LARGE
DETERMINATION
OF SMEAR
THE SMEAR
ZONE
AND
SCALE
LABORATORY
TESTING
LARGE
SCALE LABORATORY
TESTING
(13b)
To find the average pore pressure between depth Z 1 and Z 2 the
The term smear

smear zone
zone is generally referred to as the disturbance
that occurs when installing a vertical drain. This causes a substantial
reduction in soil permeability around the drain, which in turn retards
rateofof
consolidation.
In section,
this section,
the Cavity
Expansion
the rate
consolidation.
In this
the Cavity
Expansion
Theory
Theory
is estimate
used to the
estimate
extent
of zone.
the smear
zone. The
is
used to
extent the
of the
smear
The prediction
is
prediction
is then
with results
the laboratory
based and
on
then
compared
withcompared
the laboratory
based on results
permeability
permeability
andwater
variations
in the water content.
variations
in the
content.
j Z terms in are replaced with:
cos M j Z1
M j Z 2 Z1
j Z1 , Z 2
cos M j Z 2
unit cell
The extent
extent of
ofthe
thesmear
smearzone
zonecaused
causedbyby
mandrel
installation
The
mandrel
installation
cancan
be
be
estimated
using
the
elliptical
cavity
expansion
theory
estimated using the elliptical cavity expansion theory incorporating
incorporating
the modified
Cam-clay
(MCC) (Ghandeharioon
the
modified Cam-clay
model
(MCC)model
(Ghandeharioon
et al. 2010).
et al.detailed
2010). theoretical
The detailed
theoretical developments
explained
The
developments
are explained are
elsewhere
by
elsewhere
by
Ghandeharioon
et
al.
(2010),
so
only
a
brief
summary
Ghandeharioon et al. (2010), so only a brief summary is given
below.
is given below. The yielding criterion for soil obeying the MCC
The yielding criterion for soil obeying the MCC model is:
model is:
mv mv
kv k v
(13c)
Z1
pc' p ' 1
Z2
drain
Where,
for partially
penetrating
drain
= stress ratio. The relationship between the radial distance and

its associated deviator stress can be determined by:
0
0.2
z/H
p c' : the stress representing the reference size of yield locus,
p ' = mean effective stress, M = slope of the critical state line and
(a)
3G
r2 r2
ln 1 1 2 0
r
2 3
r
clay
0.4
clay
0.6
T = 0.4
c vt
T = h = 0.1
2
c la y
clay
T = 0.01
0.8
1
(14)
Present
Nogami and Li (2003)
0.2
0.4
u/u0
0.6
0.8
(b)
= 20,
ch hc2 cv re2
= 1.
2 r dr
q
3 rp r
(16)
(17)
In the above expression, r = radius of the cavity, r0 = initial radius of

the cavity, G
= Shear modulus, = Poissons ratio, = slope
of the over consolidation line, = specific volume,
separating three identical layers of clay
= 5,
(15a)
u p p
= total
radial stress at the elastic-plastic boundary, u = excess pore water

pressure and 1 ( is the slope of the normal
consolidation line).
(height, hc ). The properties of the soil are described by the ratios:
ksandhs hc re2kv
np
(15b)
r r
The adoption of the current method via Equation (13c) allows one to
apply a straight forward way of determining the average pore
pressure values within a soil layer, across some layers, or across all
layers. Nogami and Li (2003) developed a free strain approach for
calculating the distribution of excess pore pressure for multi-layered
soil having vertical and radial drainage. An example problem is
presented with a soil system consisting of two identical layers of
hs )
1 1
np 1 1
q p'
Figure 5 (a) Multi-layered consolidation properties and (b) model

verification: multi-layer equal-strain vs free-strain (Walker et al.
2009)
thin sand (height
M
M
1
2
ln
(15)
tan
tan 1 n p 1
The
Based on Equations (15), q and p can be calculated at any soil

element inside the plastic region. Equation (16) is then used to
derive the total stress state at that particular position, while noting
average excess pore water pressure calculated with the present

approach, and that of Nogami and Li (2003), is compared in
Figure 5b. Both methods are in close agreement except for slight
deviations in the thin layers of sand at a low degree of consolidation.
The close agreement shows that, as for homogenous ground
(Hansbo, 1981; Barron, 1948), there is little difference between free
strain and equal strain formulations.
p r
20
q
3

3rd Proff 18-02-2015
Finally, by
byusing
using Equation(17),
(17),thethe
value
of excess
pressure
Finally,
value
of excess
porepore
pressure
can
Finally,
by usingEquation
Equation
(17), being
the
value
of excess
pore
pressure
can be determined
at the location
considered.
be
at the
being
considered.
candetermined
be determined
at location
the location
being
considered.
The extent of the smear zone can be defined either by the variation
The
extent
smear
can bebedefined
either byby
the variation
of
The
extent of
of the
the
smearzone
zone
defined
variation
of permeability
(Indraratna
andcan
Redana,
1998)either
or by thethe
variation
of
permeability
(Indraratna
andand
Redana,
1998)
or by
the
variation
of the
of
permeability
(Indraratna
Redana,
1998)
or
by
the
variation
of
the water content (Sathananthan and Indraratna, 2006) along the
water
content
(Sathananthan
Indraratna,
2006) 2006)
along
the radial
the
water
content
andThe
Indraratna,
along
the
radial
distance
from(Sathananthan
the centraland
drain.
permeability
variation
can
distance
fromfrom
the
central
drain.
The The
permeability
variation
cancan
be
radial
distance
fromspecimens
the central
drain.
permeability
variation
be obtained
recovered
vertically
and
horizontally
obtained
specimens
recovered
vertically
and In
horizontally
be
obtained
from
specimens
recovered
vertically
and
from
thefrom
large-scale
consolidation
apparatus.
thehorizontally
field,from
the
from
the large-scale
consolidation
apparatus.
field, the
the
large-scale
consolidation
apparatus.
In the field,
thethe
measurement
measurement
of
moisture
content
variation
is In
more
convenient.
measurement
of
moisture
content
variation
is
more
convenient.
of
moisture
content
variation
is
more
convenient.
Consolidation
Consolidation tests were conducted to obtain the horizontal tests
and
Consolidation
tests
were
conducted
to
obtain
the
horizontal
were
conducted
to obtain
the
horizontal
and
vertical
permeabilities
vertical
permeabilities
under
different
pressures.
Figure
6 shows and
the
vertical
permeabilities
underFigure
different
pressures.
6 shows
under
different
shows
theFigure
variation
of the
variation
of the pressures.
permeability
ratio6 (k
h/kv) and water content at
and
water
content
at
variation consolidation
of ratio
the (kh/kv)
permeability
ratio
(kthe
h/kv)at
permeability
and water
content
different
consolidation
different
pressures
along
radial
distance,
obtained
different
consolidation
pressures
along
the
radial
distance,
obtained
pressures
radial consolidation.
distance, obtained
large ofscale
from largealong
scale the
laboratory
Here from
the radius
the
from
scale
laboratory
consolidation.
Here
theofradius
the
laboratory
Hereor
the
smear
zone
isof
about
smearlarge
zoneconsolidation.
is about
100mm
2.5radius
times of
thethe
radius
the mandrel,
smear
is times
about the
100mm
orof
2.5
the radius
of
theagreement
mandrel,
which zone
isor
in2.5
agreement
with
the
prediction
using
the cavity
expansion
100mm
radius
thetimes
mandrel,
which
is in
which
is prediction
in agreement
with
prediction
usingtheory.
the cavity expansion
theory.
with
the
using
thethe
cavity
expansion
theory.
G
Ir 3 G
Ir 3 q f
qf
surrounding the mandrel driven prefabricated vertical drains

surrounding
(Figure 8). the mandrel driven prefabricated vertical drains
(Figure 8).
r1
Horizontal/Vertical
Horizontal/Vertical
permeability
permeability
ratio
ratio
70
(a)
(a)
1.00
70
1.00
0.00
66
0.00 0
66 0
drain
drain
Smear zone
Smear zone
50
50
65
65
Excess
Excess
pore
pore
pressure
pressure
(kPa)
(kPa)
r1
rr1
1
r1
Elliptical CET (Eq. 35)

Elliptical CET (Eq. 35)
Cylindrical CET (Cao et al. 2001)
Cylindrical CET (Cao et al. 2001)
Laboratory data
Laboratory data
Elliptical cavity radius
Elliptical cavity radius
Circular cavity radius
Circular cavity radius
Laboratory data from
Laboratory
data
from
Sathananthan
(2005)
Sathananthan (2005)
Radial distance, R (mm)100

Radial distance, R (mm)100
200
ne
Zo
tic Zone
s
a
El stic
Ela
stic
Plastic
Pla
200
200
Cavity
Cavity
200
64
64
0.04
0.04
Mean Consolidation Pressure:

Mean Consolidation
Pressure:
6.5 kPa
16.5
6.5 kPa
32.5 kPa
16.5
64.5
32.5 kPa
129.5
64.5 kPa
260 kPa
129.5
Applied pressure (kPa)
260 kPa
Applied pressure25(kPa)
100
150
25
50
100
50 150
(b)
(b)
Failed
Failed
Zone
Zone
Smear
Smear
Zone
Zone
ne
Zo e
n
Zo
Marginally
Marginally
Disturbed
Disturbed
Zone
Zone
Undisturbed
Undisturbed
Zone
Zone
Applied pressure (kPa)

Applied pressure25(kPa)
25
50
50
100
100
200
200
Drain
Drain
(wmax
(wmax
-w)/w
-w)/w
maxmax
(a)
(a)
Smear zone
Smear zone
Drain
Drain
Water
Water
content
content
(%)(%)
67
67
major axis
major axis
mandrel
mandrel
r1 r1
r1
Figure 7 The patterns of distribution

s predicted for excess pore
(a)
Figure 7 The patterns of distribution
s predicted for excess pore
(a) elliptical CET and cylindrical
pressure with the radial distance using
pressure
withthe
the major
radial distance
elliptical0.5m
CET below
and cylindrical
CET along
axis of using
the mandrel
the soil
CET
along
the
major
axis
of
the
mandrel
0.5m
below
the
surface,
along
the
major
axis
of
the
mandrel
0.5m
below
the
soil
surface, and measured when the tip of the mandrels shoesoil
passed
the
and
measured
when
the
tip
of
mandrels
shoe
passed
the
horizontal
surface,
and
measured
when
the
tip
of
the
mandrels
shoe
passed
the
horizontal plane under consideration, with a pre-consolidation
horizontal
plane
under consideration,
with a pressure
pre-consolidation
plane
under
consideration,
with a pre-consolidation
= 30 kPa
pressure
= 30
kPa (Ghandeharioon
et al. 2010)
pressure = 30 kPaet(Ghandeharioon
et al. 2010)
(Ghandeharioon
al. 2010)
1.50
1.50
68
0.50
68
0.50
Laboratory limit
Laboratory limit
Distance from the cavity center (mm)

Distance from the cavity center (mm)
2.00
2.00
69
69
, can be adopted to characterise the disturbed soil

, can be adopted to characterise the disturbed soil
0.02
0.02
0
0 0
0
1
1
2
2
r/rm
r/rm
3
3
4
4
qpp
q
Ir
Ir
5
5
(b)
(b)
Figure 6 Smear zone determination (a) permeability approach
zone determination
permeability
Figure
6 Smear
(Indraratna
and Redana,
1998); (b) (a)water
content approach
approach
(Indraratna
(b)= water
water content)
content approach
(Sathananthanand
and Redana,
Indraratna,1998);
2006) (w
(Sathananthan and Indraratna, 2006) (w = water content)
Figure 7 presents the analytical predictions of excess pore water
Figure
presents
the analyticalcylindrical
predictionscavity
of excess
pore theory
water
pressure7 using
the conventional
expansion
pressure
using
the
conventional
cylindrical
cavity
expansion
theory
pressure
using
the
conventional
cylindrical
cavity
expansion
(CET) (Cao et al. 2001) and elliptical CET of the Authors
(CET)
(Cao et
and
elliptical
ofof the
Authors
theory
(CET)
(Cao
et2001)
al. 2001)
and
elliptical
the
Authors
(Ghandeharioon
etal.al.,
2010),
compared
with CET
theCET
results
of the
large
(Ghandeharioon
et
al.,
2010),
compared
with
the
results
of
the
(Ghandeharioon
et al.,It2010),
compared
with the results
of the large
large
scale laboratory tests.
is clear
that the elliptical
CET estimates
the
scale
laboratory
tests.
It
is clear
that
CET
pore pressure
during
more accurately
than the
the
scale
laboratory
tests. mandrel
It is
clearinstallation
that the
the elliptical
elliptical
CET estimates
estimates
pore
pressurecylindrical
during mandrel
mandrel
more
than
the
conventional
CET. installation
By incorporating
the laboratory
pore
pressure
during
installation
more accurately
accurately
than test
the
conventional
cylindrical
CET.
By incorporating
incorporating
the
laboratory
test
results on soilcylindrical
permeability,
et al.the
(2010)
proposed
conventional
CET.Ghandeharioon
By
laboratory
test
results
soil permeability,
Ghandeharioon
et al.
proposed
that theon
shear strainGhandeharioon
normalised by
the(2010)
rigidity
index,
results
onplastic
soil permeability,
et al.
(2010)
proposed
that the plastic shear strain normalised by the rigidity index,
that the plastic shear strain normalised by the rigidity index,
0.86% - 1.05%
0.86% - 1.05%
0.10% - 0.17%
0.10% - 0.17%
0.01% - 0.05%
0.01% - 0.05%
21
21
r / rm
r / rm
Figure 8 The distribution pattern for the ratio of the plastic shear
Figure to
8 The
pattern
the ratio
of the
plastic
shear
strain
the distribution
rigidity index
in for
relation
to the
radial
distance
strain
to
the
rigidity
index
in
relation
to
the
radial
distance
Figure
8 Thebydistribution
patternelliptical
for the ratio
of the
plastic
shear
normalised
the equivalent
radius
of the
mandrel
normalised
bythethe
equivalent
elliptical
radius
of
thenormalised
mandrel
characterising
disturbed
surrounding
a PVD
(Ghandeharioon
strain
to the rigidity
index
in soil
relation
to the radial
distance
characterising
the disturbed
soil surrounding
a PVDcharacterising
(Ghandeharioon
et al.
by
the2010)
equivalent
elliptical radius
of the mandrel
the
et al. 2010)
disturbed soil surrounding a PVD (Ghandeharioon et al. 2010)
cchhtt9090/r/rww
22
33
300
300
22
1.5
1.5
200
200
11
100
100
4000
400000
3500
3500
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
re/rs
e s
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
3000
3000
22
50
75
Smear Zone
(b)
30
25
Marginally
Disturbed
Zone
2500
2500
kkh/k
/k =
= 55
h 00
44
2000
2000
33
22
A-Series
A-Series
1000
1000
B-Series
B-Series
500
500
1.5
1.5
11
1600
00
1600
Consolidation Pressure,
Pressure, kPa
kPa
Consolidation
50
100
50
100
200
400
200
400
800
800
1400
1400
22
15
200
200
00
Consolidation Pressure,
Pressure, kPa
kPa
Consolidation
50
100
50
100
200
400
200
400
800
800
0.25
60
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
kkh/k
/k =
= 55
h 00
44
33
22
1.5
1.5
11
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
ree/rss
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
44 COMPARISON
OF MEMBRANE
AND
MEMBRANELESS
COMPARISON
OF
MEMBRANE
AND
VACUUM
PRELOADING SYSTEMS
MEMBRANELESS
VACUUM
PRELOADING
SYSTEMS
Numerical and analytical modelling of vacuum preloading while
0.15
30
0.6
0.6
Figure 10
10Time
Timerequired
required
consolidation
for overlapping
Figure
for for
90%90%
consolidation
for overlapping
smear
smear with
zones
withvariation
linear variation
of permeability
(Walker
and
zones
linear
of permeability
(Walker and
Indraratna,
Indraratna,
2007)
2007)
0.35
ree/rss
600
600
0.45
0.4
0.4
800
800
400
400
(c)
0.2
0.2
1000
1000
10
0.55
0.0
0.0
1200
1200
20
0.65
0
1.0
1.0
1500
1500
cchhtt9090/r/rww
cchh,, m
m22/year
/year
44
400
400
25
0.05
/k0 =
= 55
kkhh/k
0
500
500
(a)
100
35
100
m
mvv,,m
m22/MN
/MN
600
600
cchhtt9090/r/rww
Degree
Degreeof
of Disturbance,
Disturbance, %
%
Recently, Rujikiatkamjorn et al. (2013) made an attempt to employ

aRecently,
compression
curve of soil
to (2013)
determine
Figurea
Rujikiatkamjorn
et al.
madethe
an smear
attemptzone.
to employ
9(a)
shows the
degree
of disturbance
soil
structures
against9(a)
the
compression
curve
of soil
to determineofthe
smear
zone. Figure
radial
after
the drain was
and theagainst
soil was
shows distances
the degree
of disturbance
ofinstalled
soil structures
theloaded.
radial
The
degree
of the
disturbance
the partially
andThe
as
distances
after
drain wasofinstalled
and thedisturbed
soil was soil,
loaded.
degree of disturbance
of thesoil
partially
disturbed
soil, and
as expected,
expected,
the surrounding
adjacent
to the drain
shows
a higher
degree
of disturbance.
Basedto on
for the
the surrounding
soil adjacent
the the
drainmodel
showspredictions
a higher degree
of
disturbance.
Based onregion,
the model
predictions
for thecan
relatively
relatively
undisturbed
the degree
of disturbance
still be
undisturbed region,
degree of disturbance can still be
approximately
19% andthe
22%.
approximately 19% and 22%.
90
120
150
considering
membrane-type
and membraneless
has while
been
Numerical and
analytical modelling
of vacuum systems
preloading
described
by Geng etand
al. membraneless
(2012), where systems
both vertical
and
consideringearlier
membrane-type
has been
described earlier
bywere
Gengcaptured
et al. (2012),
vertical The
and
horizontal
drainage
to reflectwhere
in-situboth
conditions.
horizontal
drainage
to reflect
in-situ
placing
of the
surfacewere
sandcaptured
blanket and
installation
of aconditions.
completelyThe
air
placing
of the surface
sand blanket
installation
of a completely
tight
membrane
is imperative
for the and
membrane
type vacuum
system,
airorder
tight tomembrane
imperative
for the
membrane
vacuum
in
create andissustain
a desired
uniform
vacuumtype
pressure
on
system,
in order
create
sustain
a desired
uniform
vacuum
the
surface
of the to
soil,
and and
thereby
ensure
a speedy
propagation
of
pressure
on head
the surface
ofPVDs
the soil,
and thereby
a speedy
this
vacuum
down the
to consolidate
the ensure
clay layer.
While
ofblanket
this vacuum
down the PVDs
the
apropagation
surface sand
has nohead
real advantage
excepttoforconsolidate
traffic ability,
claya layer.
While asystem
surfacewhere
sanda blanket
no real
advantage
for
membraneless
vacuum has
is applied
directly
onto
except
forthrough
traffic aability,
a membraneless
where a
the
PVDs
networkfor
of tubing,
the absencesystem
of a membrane
vacuum is construction
applied directly
the PVDscosts.
through
network of
eliminates
time onto
and associated
Theapermeability
tubing, the absence of a membrane eliminates construction time and
of the layer of sand plays an important role in this process as it
associated costs. The permeability of the layer of sand plays an
governs how effectively the vacuum pressure propagates from the
important role in this process as it governs how effectively the
boundary of the upper soil to the PVDs to consolidate the layer of
vacuum pressure propagates from the boundary of the upper soil to
clay.
The roles
the permeability
of the sand
blanket
a membranethe PVDs
toofconsolidate
the layer
of clay.
Thein roles
of the
type
vacuum
system
and
adverse
effect
of
the
loss
of
vacuum
with
permeability of the sand blanket in a membrane-type vacuum
depth
a membraneless
system
been analysed
by Geng
systeminand
adverse effecttype
of the
losshave
of vacuum
with depth
in a
et
al. (2012). Figure
11 illustrates
the effect
of the
membraneless
type system
have been
analysed
by sand
Gengblanket
et al.
permeability
in a membrane
system.
(2012). Figure
11 illustrates
the effect of the sand blanket
permeability in a membrane system.
Radius (mm)
Figure
Degree of
of disturbance,
disturbance, (b)
(b) Coefficient
Coefficient of
of consolidation
consolidation
Figure 99 (a)
(a) Degree
(ch),
Coefficient
of volume
changechange
(mv) versus
and(c)(c)
Coefficient
of volume
(mvv) radial
versusdistance
radial
(chh), and
from
the from
centrethe
ofcentre
the drain
(Rujikiatkamjorn
et al. 2013)
distance
of the
drain (Rujikiatkamjorn
et al. 2013)
Walker and Indraratna (2007) investigated the effect of overlapping
smear zones by incorporating a more realistic linear permeability
distribution. As shown in Figure 10, two smear zones overlap when
the spacing
thethe
extent
of the
zone. zone.
FigureFigure
10 shows
spacingisisless
lessthan
than
extent
of smear
the smear
10
shows
therequired
time required
to 90%
reach consolidation.
90% consolidation.
A range
of
the
time
to reach
A range
of drain
drain spacing
exist, across
therequired
time required
spacing
valuesvalues
exist, across
which which
the time
to reachtoa reach
certaina
certain of
degree
of consolidation
not Itchange.
appears
that this
degree
consolidation
does notdoes
change.
appearsItthat
this radius
of
radius
of
minimum
influence
is
0.6
times
the
value
of
the
radius
of
minimum influence is 0.6 times the value of the radius of the linear
the linear
smear
zonefor
assumed
for non-overlapping
smear zones.
smear
zone
assumed
non-overlapping
smear zones.
22
Normalized
Normalized
settlement
settlement
(St/S) (St/S)
0.2
0.4
0.0
0.6
0.2
0.8
0.4
1.0
0.6
1.2
0.8
1.4
1.0
1.6
1.2
1.8
1.4
K2
kh1
kw
kh1: Permeability of the sand blanket

kh1
1)KMembrane
system with K 2 10-1
2
k
Hclay = 10m
6
23
w
2) Membrane
k3)h1Membrane
: Permeability
the
10-3blanket
K 2sand
system of
with
-4
k4)w:Membrane
Permeability
theKPVD
systemofwith
2 10
5) Membrane
Membrane system
system with
with KK 2 10
10-1-5
1)
2
-6
6)
10
K 22
2) Membrane
Membrane system
system with
with K
10-2
system
vacuum
loss
7) Membrane
Membraneless
-3
10
K no
3)
system
withwith
1
2
9
8
7
8) Membraneless system with 25% vacuum

loss
4) Membrane system with K 2 10-4
9) Membraneless system with 50% vacuum loss
2
-6
2.0
-3
10
0.0
10
-2
10
(a)
-1
0.2
T10
h
(a)
0.4
0.0
0.6
k
0.2 K 2 kh1
w
0.8
0.4 kh1: Permeability of the sand blanket
1.0 k : Permeability of the PVD
0.6 w
k
1.2 K1)2 Membrane
h1
kw
0.8 2) Membrane
1.4 k3) :Membrane
2
Permeability
the
10-3blanket
K 2sand
systemof
with
h1
1.0 k4): Membrane
-4
Permeability
theKPVD
systemofwith
2 10
1.6 w
5) Membrane
Membrane system
system with
with KK 2 10
10-1-5
1.2 1)
2
Membrane system with K 10-6
1.8 6)
loss 1
7) Membraneless system with no vacuum
1.4 3)
2
Membrane system with K 10-3
2.0 8) Membraneless system with2 25% vacuum
loss
4) Membrane system with K 10-4
1.6 9) Membraneless system with2 50% vacuum
loss
-5
2.2 5) Membrane system with K 2 10
-2
0
10-6-1
1.810-36) Membrane system
10 with K 2 10
10
Normalized
Normalized
settlement
settlement
(St/S) (St/S)
kw: Permeability of the PVD
1
2.0
1.6 -36) Membrane system
-2 with K 10 -1
0
10 7) Membraneless
10system with no vacuum
10 loss
T10
h
1.8 8) Membraneless system with 25% vacuum loss
2.0
Hclay = 10m
T1h
7) Membraneless system with no vacuum loss

(a)
10
9
8
7
10
10
10
(a)
10
10
Hclay = 40m
5
6
Hclay = 40m
3
7
8
9
71
10
10
(b)
10
10
10
10
10
Th10 factor10curves for
Figure 11 Normalised settlement-time
varying the
permeability of the sand blanket (for membrane system) and the loss
(b)
of vacuum (for membraneless system):
(a) the thickness of the clay
is 10 m;11(b)Normalised
the thickness
of the clay is 40
m (after
Geng
al. 2012)
varying
the
Figure
settlement-time
factor
curves
for et
of
the
sand
(for
membrane
system)
and
the
loss
permeability
blanket
As expected, when permeability decreases, the time for
of vacuum
vacuum (for
membraneless
system):
(a)
thickness
of
of
(forincreases.
membraneless
system):short
(a) the
the
thickness
of the
the
clay
consolidation
For relatively
PVDs
(less than
10clay
m),
is
10
m;
(b)
the
thickness
of
the
clay
is
40
m
(after
Geng
et
al.
2012)
is
10 m;11a
(b) shows
the thickness
the clay is 40ofmthe
(after
Geng
et al. should
2012)
Figure
that theofpermeability
sand
blanket
not
beexpected,
less than 0.01
times
the permeability
of the PVD,
and
at least
As expected,
when
permeability
decreases,
theconsolidation
time
for
As
when
permeability
decreases,
the time for
4
times the increases.
permeability of
the clay
to maintain
an acceptable
10
consolidation
relatively
short
PVDs10(less
10 11a
m),
increases.
For relativelyFor
short
PVDs (less
than
m), than
Figure
consolidation
time that
for the
a degree
of consolidation
(DOC)
ofshould
90%.
Figure
11a the
shows
permeability
the sand
blanket
shows
that
permeability
of the sand of
blanket
should
not be
less
Withbelonger
drains
(Figure
11b),
the permeability
ratio of
the
sand
not
less
than
0.01
times
the
permeability
of
the
PVD,
and
at
least
than
0.01
times
the
permeability
of
the
PVD,
and
at
least
104
times
4
blanket
to the
PVD
should be greater
than to
0.1,
and theanpermeability
times
permeability
of maintain
the clay
maintain
acceptable
10
the
permeability
of the clay
to
anshould
acceptable
consolidation
For
ratio
of the sand
blanket
the
clay
be (DOC)
at least
10 5.90%.
consolidation
time
for atodegree
oflayer
consolidation
of
time
for
a
degree
of
consolidation
(DOC)
of
90%.
With
longer
drains
aWith
membraneless
system,
the
possible
reduction
in
vacuum
along
the
longer drains (Figure 11b), the permeability ratio of the sand
(Figure
11b), thePVDs
permeability
ratio
the sand blanket
to PVD
length
increases
theofthan
consolidation
for ashould
given
blanketoftolong
PVD should
be greater
0.1, and time
the permeability
be
greater than 0.1,
and the permeability
ratio of the
sanddepth,
blanket
to
DOC.
of vacuum
the
ratio of Where
the sandthere
blanketis tono
the loss
clay layer
should bewith
at least
10 5. For
the
clay layer should
be the
at least
105.reduction
For as
a membraneless
system,
membraneless
system
is
as efficient
the
membrane-type
a membraneless
system,
possible
in vacuum
along
the
the
possible
reduction
in vacuum
theand
length
ofthick
longa(40
PVDs
(Figure
forPVDs
relatively
shallow
(10
m)
very
m)
length
of11),
long
increases
thealong
consolidation
time
for
given
increases
the consolidation
timeloss
for aofgiven
DOC. Where
there is the
no
layers ofWhere
clay.
DOC.
there is no
vacuum
with depth,
loss
of vacuum with
depth,
is as efficient as
membraneless
system
is theasmembraneless
efficient assystem
the membrane-type
the
membrane-type
(Figure
11), for
(10 (40
m) and
(Figure
11), for relatively
shallow
(10relatively
m) and shallow
very thick
m)
very
(40 m) OF
layersREMOVING
of clay.
of clay.
5layersthick
EFFECT
AND RE-APPLYING A
VACUUM
2.2
-3
-2
-1
-20
20
-40
vacuum
0
-60 removal
-20
-80
-40
0
-100
-60
A large scale consolidometer can be utilised to examine the effect of

55 EFFECT
OF REMOVING
AND RE-APPLYING
A VACUUMA
EFFECT
OF inREMOVING
RE-APPLYING
vacuum
preloading
conjunction AND
with the
surcharge load
VACUUM
(Indraratna
al. 2004). Acan
large
scale consolidation
A
large scaleetconsolidometer
be utilised
to examine the test
effectwas
of
conducted
byconsolidometer
applying
a vacuum
pressure
close
toload
thethe
theoretical
vacuum
preloading
in conjunction
with
the surcharge
(Indraratna
A large scale
can be
utilised
to
examine
effect of
maximum
of 100kPa
the
PVD
and the
surface
throughload
the
et
al. 2004).
A large to
consolidation
testthe
wassurcharge
conducted
by
vacuum
preloading
inscale
conjunction
withsoil
applying
a vacuum
pressureA close
the theoretical
maximum
of 23
(Indraratna
et al. 2004).
large toscale
consolidation
test was
conducted
by applying
vacuum
pressure
close the
to the
theoretical
100kPa
to the
PVD andathe
soil surface
through
centre
hole in
maximum
of 100kPa
to the pressure
PVD and
thethen
soilapplied
surfaceinthrough
the
the
rigid piston.
A surcharge
was
two stages,
50kPa, and 100kPa. The vacuum pressure was released for a short 23
time in two stages over a 28 day period, to investigate the effect of
unloading and reloading (Figure 12a).
vacuum
reloading
vacuum
reloading
-20
-60
vacuum
removal
vacuum
reloading
vacuum
removal
(a)
vacuum
reloading
vacuum
removal
(b)
surcharge load doubled
-20
-80
0
-100
-40
10
8
centre hole in the rigid piston. A surcharge pressure was then

applied in two stages, 50kPa, and 100kPa. The vacuum pressure
was released for a short time in two stages over a 28 day period, to
The
laboratory effect
resultsofindicated
that thereloading
suction head decreased
with
investigate
unloading
centre holethe
in the rigid
piston. and
A surcharge (Figure
pressure12a).
was then
the depth of the drain because a maximum suction of 100kPa could
applied
in two results
stages,indicated
50kPa, and
100kPa.
The
vacuum
pressure
Thebe
laboratory
that
the suction
head
decreased
with
not
maintained
the
length
of the
The
settlement
was
released
for drain
aalong
short
timeentire
ina two
stages
overdrain.
a 28
day
period,
to
the
depth
of
the
because
maximum
suction
of
100kPa
could
associated
with
a
combined
vacuum
and
surcharge
load
is
shown
investigate
the
effect
of
unloading
and
reloading
(Figure
12a).
notFigure
be maintained
entire
of removing
the drain.
in
12b, which along
clearlythe
reflects
the length
effect of
andThe
resettlement
associated
a combined
and
surcharge
load
is
The laboratory
resultswith
indicated
that thevacuum
suction
head
decreased
with
applying
the
vacuum
by
the
corresponding
gradient
settlement
plot.
shown
in of
Figure
12b, because
which
clearly
reflects
the
effect
of removing
the depth
the drain
a maximum
suction
could
The
above
experimental
procedure
also
showed
that
itofis100kPa
very
difficult
and
re-applying
thealong
vacuum
by the
corresponding
gradient
notsustain
be
maintained
thegreater
entire
length
of the
The
to
a vacuum
pressure
than
90 kPa,
(the drain.
theoretical
settlement associated
plot. The above
experimental procedure also showed that
maximum is
100 kPa)with a combined vacuum and surcharge load is
it
is very
to sustain
vacuumreflects
pressure
90 kPa,
shown
in difficult
Figure 12b,
whichaclearly
thegreater
effect than
of removing
(the
maximum
is 100 kPa)
and theoretical
re-applying
the vacuum
by the corresponding gradient
settlement
plot. The above experimental procedure also showed that
20
it is very
difficult to sustain a vacuum pressure greater than 90 kPa,
vacuum
(a)
0
removal maximum is 100 kPa)
(the theoretical
Settlement
Settlement
(m)
(m)
Suction (kPa)
Suction (kPa)
3rd Proff
18-02-2015
0.0
vacuum
reloading
stage 1
surcharge load
vacuum
50kPa
-40
-80 vacuum reloading
removal
0
5
10
stage 1
-60
surcharge load
50kPa
-80
0
5
10
vacuum
removal
vacuum
surcharge loadreloading
doubled
(b)
stage 2
vacuum
surcharge load) 100kPa
removal
vacuum
reloading
15
20
25
30
Time (Days)
stage 2
surcharge load) 100kPa
15
20
25
30
Figure 12 (a) Suction in the Time

drain (Days)
(240mm from bottom); (b) surface
settlement surface settlement associated with simulated vacuum

loading and removal (Indraratna et al. 2004)
Figure 12 (a) Suction in the drain (240mm from bottom); (b) surface
settlement surface settlement associated with simulated vacuum
loading and removal (Indraratna et al. 2004)
6 EFFECT
EFFECTOF
OF VACUUM
VACUUM CONSOLIDATION
CONSOLIDATION ON
ON THE
LATERAL
YIELD
OF SOFT
CLAYS
LATERAL
YIELD
OF SOFT
CLAYS
In order
investigate
the effect
of a combined
vacuum and
surcharge
orderto to
investigate
the effect
of a combined
vacuum
and
6
EFFECT
OFlateral
VACUUM
CONSOLIDATION
ON strain
THE
surcharge
loaddisplacement,
on
displacement,
a simplified
load
on
lateral
a simplified
plane
strain plane
(2-D)
finite
YIELD
OF SOFT
(2-D) LATERAL
finite
element
analysis
beCLAYS
usedet(Indraratna
et al.outward
2008).
element
analysis
could
be usedcould
(Indraratna
al. 2008). The
The
outward
lateralstrain
compressive
strain
due
surcharge
canand
be
lateral
compressive
due
surcharge
betoreduced
by applying
In order
to investigate
the toeffect
of acan
combined
vacuum
reduced
applying
suctiondisplacement,
(vacuum
preloading).
The
optimisation
suction
(vacuum
The optimisation
of vacuum
and
surchargeby
load
onpreloading).
lateral
a simplified
plane strain
of
vacuum
and surcharge
preloading
pressure
to obtain
a 2008).
given
(2-D)
finitepreloading
element
analysis
could
be used
(Indraratna
et al.must
surcharge
pressure
to obtain
a given
settlement
be
settlement
must
benumerical
considered
in any
numerical
model
to minimise
The outward
lateral
compressive
strain
due tolateral
surcharge
can be
considered
in any
model
to minimise
displacement
lateral
displacement
at (Figure
the (vacuum
embankment
toe
(Figure
13a),
while
reduced
by applyingtoe
suction
preloading).
The optimisation
at
the embankment
13a), while
identifying
any tension
identifying
any
tension
zones
where
the
vacuum
pressure
may
be
of
vacuum
and
surcharge
preloading
pressure
to
obtain
a
given
zones where the vacuum pressure may be excessive.
excessive.
settlement must be considered in any numerical model to minimise
As
expected,
the vacuum
pressure
alone can
inward
lateral
lateral
displacement
at thepressure
embankment
toe create
(Figureinward
13a), lateral
while
As
expected,
the vacuum
alone
can
create
movement,
whereas
preloading
without
any
vacuum
may contribute
identifying
any
tension
zones
where
the
vacuum
pressure
may
be
movement,
whereas preloading
any vacuum The
may contribute
to
an unacceptable
outward without
lateral movement.
particular
excessive.
to an unacceptable outward lateral movement. The particular
situations for most clays is generally a combination of 40% surcharge
situations
for the
most
clayspressure
is generally
a combination
oflateral
40%
As expected,
vacuum
alone
can
create
preloading
stress with
a 60% vacuum,
which
seems inward
to maintain
a
surcharge
preloading
stress with
a 60%any
vacuum,
which
seems to
movement,
whereas
preloading
without
vacuum
may
contribute
lateral displacement close to zero. Figure 13b presents the various
maintain
a
lateral
displacement
close
to
zero.
Figure
13b
presents
to an unacceptable
outwardwith
lateral
movement.
The particular
profiles
of surface
settlement
an
increasing
surcharge
loading.
the
various
of surface
settlement
with
an increasing
situations
forprofiles
most clays
is generally
a combination
of 40%
A
vacuum
alone
may
generate
settlement
up
to
10m
away
from
PVD
surcharge
A vacuum
alone
may generate
up
to
surcharge loading.
preloading
stress with
a 60%
vacuum, settlement
which seems
to
treated
boundary
whiletreated
the application
ofwhile
VP can
minimise
theof
value
10m
away
from
PVD
boundary
the
application
VP
maintain a lateral displacement close to zero. Figure 13b presents
of
soil heave beyond
theofembankment
toe. the embankment toe.
can
the value
heavesettlement
beyond
the minimise
various profiles
of soil
surface
with an increasing
surcharge loading. A vacuum alone may generate settlement up to
10m away from PVD treated boundary while the application of VP
can minimise the value of soil heave beyond the embankment toe.
Geotechnical
Journal
Vol. 6Vol.
No.61 No.
20141 2014
24
Geotechnical
Journal
15 m
0.0
Perforated Pipe
0.2
2.5 m
0.8 m
S1
5m
10 m
10 m
Geomembrane (LLDPE)
S2
S3
Vacuum Pump
S4
LBM
0.0 m
-3 m
1/H
0.4
Bentonite
-6 m
0.6
-9 m
-12 m
0.8
-15 m
PVD, S=1.00 m.
Legend
Surface settlement plate
Stand-pipe piezometer
Extensometer
Electrical piezometer
Inclinometer
(a)
1.0
-0.15
-0.05
0.00
Lateral displacement (m)

(a)
0.05
0.10
Centreline of embankment
-0.2
Normalized vertical displacement
-0.10
0.0
0.2
0.4
preloading ratio
(preloading pressure/varcuum pressure)
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
10
20
Figure 14 (a) Cross section of an embankment with profile of the

Figure
an embankment
profile of
the
subsoil 14
and(a)
(b)Cross
finite section
elementofdiscretisation
of thewith
foundation
of the
subsoil
and
(b)
finite
element
discretisation
of
the
foundation
of
the
embankment (Indraratna et al., 2004)
embankment (Indraratna et al., 2004)
The embankment loading was simulated by the sequential
The
embankment
was The
simulated
by 4themodels
sequential
construction
history loading
(Figure 15a).
following
were
construction
history
(Figureevaluated
15a). The
following
4 models
were
considered and
numerically
under
plane strain
multi-drain
considered
and numerically
evaluated under plane strain multi-drain
analysis (Indraratna
et al., 2004):
analysis (Indraratna et al., 2004):
Model 1 With the application of suction pressure (60 kPa) along
Model
1 With
thetop
application
suction
along
the
the surface
of the
soil, andofalong
thepressure
length of(60
thekPa)
drain,
a thin
surface
the top soil,elements
and along
length of theconstant
drain, a thin
of
layer ofofunsaturated
ofthe
predetermined
halflayer
widths
unsaturated
constant
half widths (30mm)
(30mm) waselements
activatedofatpredetermined
the boundary of
the drain.
was activated at the boundary of the drain.
Model 2 Similar to Model 1, with a constant 60 kPa suction along
the surface
of the to
topModel
soil, 1,
butwith
a linearly
varying
vacuum
pressure
Model
2 Similar
a constant
60 kPa
suction
along
(60 surface
kPa at of
toptheand
applied
along
the depth
of (60
the
the
topzero
soil, atbutbottom)
a linearly
varying
vacuum
pressure
drain.
kPa
at top and zero at bottom) applied along the depth of the drain.
0
0.25
0.5
1
Embankment toe
(b)
30
40
Distance from the embankment certreline (m)
(b)
Figure 13 (a) Lateral displacements; and (b) surface settlement
profiles (Indraratna et al. 2008)
7
7
APPLICATION
CASE
HISTORIES
APPLICATION
TO TO
CASE
HISTORIES
7.1 Second Bangkok International Airport

7.1
IndraratnaSecond
et al.Bangkok
(2004) International
analysed theAirport
performance of test
embankments
constructed
at
the
Second
Bangkok
International
Indraratna et al. (2004) analysed the performance of test embankments
Airport (SBIA),
Thailand.
this site International
the use of vacuum
preloading
constructed
at the
SecondAtBangkok
Airport
(SBIA),
in
lieu
of
high
surcharge
embankment
as
an
alternative
preloading
Thailand. At this site the use of vacuum preloading in lieu
of high
technique was
also studied.
Table
1 summarises
the typical
modified
surcharge
embankment
as an
alternative
preloading
technique
was
Cam-clay parameters and equivalent plane strain permeability
also studied. Table 1 summarises the typical modified Cam-clay
(using Eqs. 7-8) for the FEM analysis. A cross section of the
parameters and equivalent plane strain permeability (using Eqs.
embankment and typical finite element mesh used in the multi-drain
7-8) for the FEM analysis. A cross section of the embankment and
analysis are given in Figure 14. The test embankment was raised
typical
finite element
mesh installed
used in the
given
and stabilised
with PVDs
in multi-drain
a triangularanalysis
pattern are
with
1m
in
Figureto14.
The of
test
embankment
was
raisedPVDs
and stabilised
with
spacing
a depth
15m.
The 100mm
x 3mm
(Mebra) were
PVDs
used. installed in a triangular pattern with 1m spacing to a depth of
15m. The 100mm x 3mm PVDs (Mebra) were used.
Model 3 Similar to Model 2, but the vacuum pressure was varied

linearly with
with depth
depth to
to zero
zero at
at the
the bottom
drain and
and varied
varied with
with
linearly
bottom of
of the
the drain
time (Figure
as occurs
The vacuum
vacuum distribution
distribution
time
(Figure 15b),
15b), as
occurs in
in the
the field.
field. The
with depth
depth and
and time
time was
with
was measured
measured at
at the
the drain
drain interface.
interface. However,
However,
the
predictions
were
made
at
the
middle
between
the predictions were made at the middle between 22 drains
drains
Model 4
4 Conventional
Conventional surcharge
surcharge alone
alone with
with no
no vacuum
vacuum pressure.
pressure.
Model
Figure 15c
15cshows
shows
the predicted
settlement
with the
Figure
the predicted
settlement
togethertogether
with the measured
measured
settlement.
The
Model
3
predictions
agreed
well
withdata.
the
settlement. The Model 3 predictions agreed well with the field
field data. The assumed time dependent variation of vacuum
The assumed time dependent variation of vacuum pressure based
pressure based on surface measurements improves the accuracy of
on surface measurements improves the accuracy of settlement
settlement predictions.
predictions.
24
3rd Proff 18-02-2015
50
40
50
Load (kPa)
Load (kPa)
have
caused inward
(radial)
movement.
effectinward
of the compacted
incorporating
vacuum
pressure
have The
caused
(radial)
crust
is not The
clearly
reflected
by the fieldcrust
data,is which
suggests
that
movement.
effect
of the compacted
not clearly
reflected
by the
field
which
suggests
that
thecaused
depth
thewhereas
crust(radial)
is the
no
the
depth
of data,
thevacuum
crust
is pressure
no
more than
in
the of
field,
incorporating
have1m
inward
more than analysis
1m
theassumed
field,
whereas
the numerical
analysis
assumed
numerical
acompacted
2m thick
crust.
loss
of the
vacuuma
movement.
Theineffect
of the
crustThe
is not
clearly
reflected
2m the
thick
crust.
The
loss movements
of the vacuum
increases
the lateral
head
increases
the
lateral
more
in
line
with
Model
4.is no
by
field
data,
which
suggests
that
thehead
depth
of the
crust
movements
more
in
line
with
Model
4.
more than 1m in the field, whereas the numerical analysis assumed a
2m
thick
crust. state
The loss
of the vacuum
the lateral
Table
1 Critical
soil parameters
used head
in theincreases
movements
more
in
line
with
Model
4.
et al., 2004)
surcharge & vacuum
surcharge & vacuum
30
40
surcharge & vacuum
20
30
surcharge & vacuum

surcharge & vacuum
10
20
0
10
Drain install & vacuum

surcharge & vacuum
0
10 Drain
20 install
30 & vacuum
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
10
60
(a)
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Time (Days)
0
20
30
40
50
Time (Days)
(a)
VacuumVacuum
pressurepressure
(kPa) (kPa)
0
-20
-20
-40
(kN/m )
(m/s)
-60
40
40
80
120
160
(b) 80
120
160
Time (days)
Time (days)
Time (Days)
0
0
40
(b) 80
120
160
120
160
Time (Days)
40
80
no vacuum
only surcharge load
no vacuum
only surcharge load
Settlement
Settlement
(m)
(m)
-0.4
-0.4
-0.8
-0.8
-1.2
-1.2
(m)
Depth
eo
kh,ax
(m/s)
k'h,ax
kh,ax
(m/s)
(m/s)
k
k'h,ps
h,ax
(m/s)
(m/s)
kkhh,ps
, ps
(m/s)
(m/s)
k h, ps
-40
-60
Table
1 Critical
state soil2.0-8.5
parameters
used in the
Depth
(m)
0-2.0
8.5-10.5
10.5-13.0
13-18
et al., e2004)
1.8
2.8
2.1
1.8
1.2
o
Field data
Model 1
Model 2
Modeldata
3
Field
4
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
(c)
Figure 15 (a) Stage loading (b) variation of vacuum with time for
(c) (Indraratna et al. 2004)
Model 3 and (c) settlement predictions
Figure
15 (a) Stage
(b) excess
variationpore
of vacuum
withalong
time the
for
The measured
and loading
predicted
pressures
Model
3
and
(c)
settlement
predictions
(Indraratna
et
al.
2004)
Figure
15
(a)
Stage
loading
(b)
variation
of
vacuum
with
time
for
centreline of the embankment 3m below the ground surface are
Model
3
and
(c)
settlement
predictions
(Indraratna
et
al.
2004)
compared
in
Figure
16a.
Model
3
shows
that
the
time
dependent
The measured and predicted excess pore pressures along the
variation inofvacuum
agrees with
thebelow
field the
measurements.
All the
centreline
the predicted
embankment
3mpore
are
The
measured and
excess
pressuresground
along thesurface
centreline
other models
that did16a.
not Model
consider3 the
timethat
dependent
variation
in
compared
in
Figure
shows
the
time
dependent
of the embankment 3m below the ground surface are compared in
vacuum
pressure
were
unable
to
predict
the
field
behaviour
to
an
variation16a.
in Model
vacuum3 agrees
the field
All the
Figure
shows with
that
time measurements.
dependent
variation
in
acceptable
accuracy.
andthe
predicted
lateral deformation
for
other models
that
didMeasured
notfield
consider
the time dependent
variation
in
vacuum
agrees
with
the
measurements.
All
the
other
models
the
inclinometer
installed
away
from
the
centreline
of
the
vacuum
pressure
were
unable
to
predict
the
field
behaviour
to
an
that
did not consider
the time
variation
in16b.
vacuum
embankment
(after 150
days)dependent
isand
shown
in Figure
All 3pressure
models
acceptable
accuracy.
Measured
predicted
lateral
deformation
for
were unable to predict the field behaviour to an acceptable accuracy.
the inclinometer installed away from the centreline of the 25
Measured and predicted lateral deformation for the inclinometer
embankment (after 150 days) is shown in Figure 16b. All 3 models
installed away from the centreline of the embankment (after 150 days)
is shown in Figure 16b. All 3 models incorporating vacuum pressure 25
0.3
0-2.0
0.03
1.8
0.3
0.3
1.2
0.03
30
0.3
-8
x10
1.2
3.01
30
x10-9
x10-8
8.98
3.01
x10-9
x10-9
5.86
8.98
x10-10
x10-9
5.86
16.0
x10-10
0.73
2.0-8.5
0.08
2.8
0.3
0.73
1.0
0.08
1.3
0.3-8
x10
1.0
1.27
1.3-9
x10
x10-8
3.80
1.27
x10-9
x10-9
2.48
3.80
x10-10
x10-9
2.48
14.5
x10-10
0.5
8.5-10.5
0.05
2.1
0.25
0.5
1.2
0.05
6.0
0.25
-9
x10
1.2
6.02 x
6.0
10-10
x10-9
1.80 x
6.02-9x
10
10-10
1.17 x
1.80-10x
10 -9
10
1.17
15.0x
10-10
0.3
10.5-13.0
0.03
1.8
0.25
0.3
1.4
0.03
2.6
0.25
-9
x10
1.4
2.55 x
2.6
10-10
x10-9
7.60 x
2.55-10x
10-10
10
4.96 x
7.60-11x
10-10
10
4.96
16.0x
10-11
0.1
13-18
0.01
1.2
0.25
0.1
1.4
0.01
6.00.25
x10-10
1.4 -11
6.02 x10-10
6.0 x10
4.15 x10-11
6.02 x10-11
2.71 x10-12
4.15 x10-11
2.7118.0
x10-12
Note: eo= initial

ratio
16.0 void 14.5
15.0
16.0
18.0
(kN/m3)
= slope of compression curve in semi-log scale
Note:
eo= initial void ratio
= slope of re-compression curve in semi-log scale
= slope of compression curve in semi-log scale
= Poissons ratio
= slope of re-compression curve in semi-log scale
M= Slope of critical state line
= Poissons ratio
kh = permeability in undisturbed zone
M= Slope of critical state line
kh = permeability in smear zone
kh = permeability in undisturbed zone
Unit weight of soil
kh = permeability in smear zone
ax and ps denote axisymmetric and plane strain condition,
Unit weight of soil
respectively
ps denote axisymmetric and plane strain condition,
7.2 Portaxofand
Brisbane
respectively
7.2
Port of Brisbane
The Port of Brisbane is one of the largest container ports in
7.2
Port
of
Brisbane
The
Port
of
Brisbane
is one
of the
largest
container
ports
in Australia
Australia
and
is located
at the
mouth
of the
Brisbane
River.
Due to
and
is located at
the mouth
of the Brisbane
River. Due
to anouter
increased
an
increased
demand
in
commercial
activities,
a
new
The Port 2of Brisbane is one of the largest container portsarea
in
demand
activities,
a new
(235000
m2)
)commercial
close
to theat
current
port
facilities
is area
beingRiver.
reclaimed
to
(235000 in
mand
Australia
is located
the mouth
of theouter
Brisbane
Due
to
close
to the
port
facilities
reclaimed
maximise
maximise
thecurrent
land area
provideisanbeing
additional
of berths
an
increased
demand
inand
commercial
activities,
anumber
newto outer
area
2 bulk
the
land for
area
andcargo
provide
an
additional
number
ofthis
berths
suitable
container
handling.
area suitable
the soil
) close
to theand
current
port facilities
isInbeing
reclaimed
to
(235000
m
for
bulk
cargo
and
container
handling.
In this clay
area
the soil
profile
primarily
consists
of provide
high
compressible
over
30m
deep,
maximise the land
area
and
an additional
number
of profile
berths
with
an undrained
shear
strength
that ishandling.
lowerover
than
15kPa
at shallow
primarily
consists
of
high
compressible
clay
withsoil
an
suitable
for
bulk cargo
and
container
In30m
thisdeep,
area
the
depths.
The
dredged
mud
for
reclamation
has
a much
lower
undrained
shear
strength
that
is lower
than 15kPa
at over
shallow
profile primarily
consists
ofused
high
compressible
clay
30mdepths.
deep,
strength,
depending
on the
time
of
and 15kPa
duration
that the
The
mud shear
used
for
reclamation
has a than
much
loweratstrength,
with dredged
an undrained
strength
thatplacement
is lower
shallow
capping
material
been
in place.
In the
absence
depending
ondredged
the has
timemud
of placement
and
duration
that
thesurcharge
capping
depths. The
used
for reclamation
has
a ofmuch
lower
preloading,
itbeen
is estimated
theof
consolidation
time
ispreloading,
in excess
of
material
in place.
In
the
absence
of surcharge
it
strength, has
depending
on thethat
time
placement
and
duration
that the
50
years material
with
settlements
of 2.5-4.0m.
Therefore,
vacuum
is
estimated
thatvertical
the
time
in excess
of 50
with
capping
hasconsolidation
been
in place.
Inis the
absence
of years
surcharge
consolidation
vertical vacuum
drains
preloading,
it iswith
estimated
that the Therefore,
consolidation
time is(PVDs)
in excesswas
of
vertical
settlements
ofprefabricated
2.5-4.0m.
consolidation
recommended
to
accelerate
the
consolidation
process
and
minimise
50 years
with vertical
settlements
2.5-4.0m.
vacuum
with
prefabricated
vertical
drains of(PVDs)
wasTherefore,
recommended
to
lateral
deformation
to the
Moreton
Bay (PVDs)
Marine
Park
consolidation
with adjacent
prefabricated
vertical
drains
was
accelerate
the consolidation
process
and
minimise
lateral
deformation
(Indraratna
et al.
2011).
recommended
to
accelerate
consolidation
processetand
minimise
adjacent
to the
Moreton
Bay the
Marine
Park (Indraratna
al. 2011).
lateral deformation adjacent to the Moreton Bay Marine Park
(Indraratna et al. 2011).

Geotechnical Journal October 2014 SLGS Part 1

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