Chapter 15 Parasitism and Mutualism

12/01/2015

Coevolution: change of a biological object triggered by the change of a

related object
Symbiosis- the intimate association between two or more organisms
of different species
The fate of individuals of one species depends on their association
with individuals of other
Parasites- detrimental effects on the individuals they infect can also
have positive impacts on other species in the community
Parasites and pathogens act as ecosystem engineers, alter energy
budgets and nutrient cycling, and influence biodiversity
o Parasites increases their fitness by using the host in a close
association for : food , habitat, dispersal
o Host fitness decreasesd thru: stunted growth , emaciation ,
behavior modification , sterility . may die from a secondary
infection
o Parasites generally: much smaller than the host , highly
specialized , reproduce quickly and large number
Infection: heavy load of parasites cause disease
Microparasites:
o Complete cycle within one host
o Small size , short generation time, multiply rapidly ,
transmitted directly from host to host or through a carrier
(Malaria, Ringworm)
Macroparasites: infections tend to be chronic and accumulate slowly
o Larger size, longer, generation time, usually do not complete
their life cycle whin a single host
o Transmitted directly from host to host or thru a carrier or
intermediate host : flatworms , flukes , roundworms, lice ,
ticks
Parasitic Plants : 4000 species
Hemiparasites: photosynthetic plants that obtain water and
nutrients from the host xylem . Ex: Mistletoes are hemiparasites
actually benefitial to other organisms.
Holoparasites : nonphotosynthetic plants that function as
heterotrophs, using the hostphloem and xylem to supply carbo,
water, nutrient Ex: Squawroot
Ectopoarasites: live on the outside of the host
of vertebrates: skin, feathers, scales, hair
of insects : legs, upper and lower body surfaces, mouthparts
Endoparasite : live within the host
Burrow under the skin
Live in blood

 Organs, lining tissues (nasal tract)

How parasites get into their hosts?
Mouth , nasal passages , skin, rectum , urogenital system
They can travel to their preferred habitat using pulmonary,
circulatory , or digestive systems
Direct Transmission
Without an intermediate organism
The most important debilitating external parasite of birds and
mammals spread by direct contact : Fleas, Lice, botfly larae, mites
Direct transmission can occur thru: dispersal by air, water, and
other substrate
Microparasites are often transmitted directly : influenza virus
airborne ; smallpox virus direct contact
Transmission can occur between hosts :
Some parasitic plants use direct transmission
Some fungal parasites of plants spread through root grafts, when
the roots of one tree grow onto the roots of a neighboring tree and
attach
Nematoe burrow into the root system and prevent the root from getting
water
Intermediate Vector : Some parasites are transmitted between hosts an
intermediate vector
Often an arthropod
Lyme disease is caused by a bacterial spirochete Borrelia
burgdorferi . The vector is black-legged tick . The spirochete is
dependent on the vector for transmission between hosts
The most dangerous parasite : mosquito cause malaria . Vector: a
female mosquito
Malaria is a recurring infection produced in humans by protozoan
parasites transmitted by the bite of an infected female mosquito of
the genus Anopheles.
Dutch Elm disease : has devastated elm tree (host) populations in
North America
The parasite is an ascomycete fungus
o The insect vectors are elm bark beetles that carry spores from
one tree to another.
Mistletoe is a plant parasite, taking water and nutrients from the host
plant
Birds are the vector, dispersing mistletoe seeds
Why would a parasite evolve to use more than two host to complete
life cycle?

Different requirements through stage and each host gives a unique

requirements in order for them to fulfill the cycle
Definitive host the host in which the parasite reaches maturity
Intermediate- harbors the host during some developmental phase
Why refrain from growth befreo reproduction in the adut niche?
Organisms with complex life cycles occupy distinct habitats as
larvae and adults. The ability to efficiently exploit different
resources throughout ontogeny is thought to be a main reason for
the evolution of metamorphosis and complex life cycles
Multiple Hosts and Stages of Transmission : Meninigeal worm
Hosts respond to parasitic invasions:
Behavioral defenses may help a host to avoid infection
o Grooming- birds and mammals remove ectoparasites from
their bodies
Can remove both adult and juvenile parasites
o Location- can move to an area with fewer parasite
Deer use dense, shaded placed to avoid deerflies l
If a parasite has infected a host, defenses include e:
o Inflammatory response- injured host cells trigger the
release of histamines that act as a chemical alarm
Blood flow to the site increases
White blood cells and other cells attack infection
Scab forms to reduce further entry
o Internal cysts reacitions can produce a hard cyst in the
muscle or skin that encases the parasite
Pigs form cysts around roundworms that infect their
muscle
Trees form cankers
Plants responses to parasites include:
o Cyst or scab formation in roots and fruits in response to
bacterial and fungal infections
Isolates parasite- no contact with healthy tissue
o Insect attacks on leaves, stems, fruits, seeds by forming
abnormal structures (galls) unique to the particular types of
insect
This may expose the insect larvae to predation . Ex:
downy woodpeckers excavate goldenrod ball galls
containing insect larvae
A second line of defense is the immune response
o Antigen a toxin or other foreign substance that induces a
immune response in the body
o Antibodies are produced

Immune system remembers past antigens and responds quickely if

a parasite re-infects a host
Parasites can circumvent the immune system
o Some vary their antigens almost continuously
o Stay ahead of the hosts ability to respond
o Infection by the parasite becomes chronic
Antibodies are made mostly of protein
o If an animal has a protein deficiency, antibody production is
inhibited
Effects on Host Survival and Reproduction