Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof

Chapter 4: Elementary Number Theory and
Methods of Proof
Section 4.7 Two Classical Theorems
MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)
4.7 Two Classical Theorems
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Synopsis
Objective: Proofs of two famous theorems in mathematics: 2 is

irrational, and there are infinitely many prime numbers. Both
proofs use indirect arguments (i.e. proofs by contradiction) and
were well known more than 2000 yrs ago.
The irrationality of
2.
The infinitude of the set of prime numbers.

When to use indirect proof.
Open questions in Number Theory.
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Theorem 4.7.1 Irrationality of
2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
2 is rational.
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2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
such that
2 is rational. Then there exists integers m and n
2=
m
.
n
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2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
such that
m
.
n
(We may assume m, n have no common factors other than 1 or 1,
2=
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2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
such that
m
.
n
2=
else we may divide them by their common factors to get a new pair m1
and n1 that have no common factors.)
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2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
such that
m
.
n
2=
else we may divide them by their common factors to get a new pair m1
and n1 that have no common factors.)
Squaring both sides of equation gives
m2
2= 2.
n
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even.
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even. Therefore, right side is even.
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Therefore m is even (by Prop. 4.6.4).
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Therefore
m = 2k
for some integer k.
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
for some integer k.
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
Therefore
for some integer k.
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
n2 = 2k 2 .
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
Therefore
for some integer k.
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
n2 = 2k 2 .
Consequently n2 is even, and so by Prop. 4.6.4 again, n is even.
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
Therefore
for some integer k.
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
n2 = 2k 2 .

Hence both m and n have a common factor of 2.
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
Therefore
for some integer k.
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
n2 = 2k 2 .

Hence both m and n have a common factor of 2.
This contradicts m, n have no common factors other than 1, 1.
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Example (Proposition 4.7.2)
1 + 3 2 is irrational.
Proof: Suppose not.
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Proof: Suppose not. Then 1 + 3 2 is rational. Then there exists

integers a and b with b 6= 0 such that
a
1+3 2= .
b
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a
1+3 2= .
b
Rearranging, we find that
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
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a
1+3 2= .
b
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
Dividing both sides by 3 gives
2=
ab
.
3b
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a
1+3 2= .
b
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
2=
ab
.
3b
Clearly a b and 3b are integers. Also, 3b 6= 0 by the zero product

property.
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a
1+3 2= .
b
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
2=
ab
.
3b
property. Therefore 2 is a rational number.
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a
1+3 2= .
b
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
2=
ab
.
3b
property. Therefore 2 is a rational number.
This is a contradiction to 2 is irrational. Hence 1 + 3 2 is irrational.

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The infinitude of the set of prime numbers

Proposition 4.7.3
For any integer a and any prime number p, if p|a then p - (a + 1).
Proof:
Suppose not.
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Proposition 4.7.3
Proof:
Suppose not. Then there exists an integer a and a prime number p such
that p|a and p|(a + 1).
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Proposition 4.7.3
Proof:
Since p|a, there exists k Z such that
a = p k.
(1)
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Proposition 4.7.3
Proof:
Since p|a, there exists k Z such that
a = p k.
(1)
Since p|(a + 1), there exists l Z such that

a + 1 = p l.
(2)
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(Proof of Prop. 4.7.3 continues)
Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2), we arrive at
1 = p l p k = p (l k).
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1 = p l p k = p (l k).
Clearly l k is an integer.
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1 = p l p k = p (l k).
Clearly l k is an integer. This shows that p is a divisor of 1.
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1 = p l p k = p (l k).
Since p is prime, p is positive.
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1 = p l p k = p (l k).
Therefore, by Thm. 4.3.1,
p 1.
(If a, b Z+ and a|b, then a b.)
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1 = p l p k = p (l k).
p 1.
This is a contradiction to p being prime is greater than 1.
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1 = p l p k = p (l k).
p 1.
This is a contradiction to p being prime is greater than 1.

Therefore the supposition is false.
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Theorem 4.7.4 Infinitude of the Primes

The set of prime numbers is infinite.
Proof: Suppose not.
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Proof: Suppose not. Then the set of prime numbers is finite, say there
are only n many prime numbers.
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Then we may list all the prime numbers in ascending order,
p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 = 7, . . . , pn .
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p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 = 7, . . . , pn .
Consider the integer N := p1 p2 p3 pn + 1.
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p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 = 7, . . . , pn .
Then N > 1, and so by Theorem 4.3.4 (Any integer > 1 is divisible by a
prime), N is divisible by some prime number p, i.e. p|N.
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p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 = 7, . . . , pn .
Also, since p is prime, it must be equal to one of p1 , p2 , pn .
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p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 = 7, . . . , pn .
Clearly p|p1 p2 p3 pn , hence, by P. 4.7.3, p - (p1 p2 p3 pn + 1) = N.
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p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 = 7, . . . , pn .
Clearly p|p1 p2 p3 pn , hence, by P. 4.7.3, p - (p1 p2 p3 pn + 1) = N.
Hence p|N and p - N, which is a contradiction.
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When to use indirect proof

When do we use indirect proofs instead?
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No definitive answer.
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Many theorems can be proved either way, and in such situations,
usually indirect proofs are clumsier.
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If no clues suggests an indirect proof, try direct proof first.
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If it doesnt work, try finding a counterexample.
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If counterexample isnt found, try look for a proof by
contradiction/contraposition.
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If counterexample isnt found, try look for a proof by
contradiction/contraposition.
If THAT doesnt work, try to have some coffee or tea, or take a walk,
and then try again ...
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Clues
How to find clues?
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Clues
How to find clues?

Perhaps examine examples for small values of n.
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Clues
How to find clues?

Perhaps examine examples for small values of n.
Try to construct counterexample. If that fails, try to see what
properties denied your counterexamples.
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Open questions in Number Theory
A nice or efficient formula for obtaining primes?
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Mersenne primes, i.e. primes of the form 2p 1, p is prime.
Are there infinitely many Mersenne primes?
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n
Fermat primes, i.e. primes of the form 22 + 1.

Are there infinitely many Fermat primes?
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n

Are there infinitely many primes of the form n2 + 1?
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n

Are there infinitely many primes of the form n2 + 1?
Is there always a prime between integers n2 and (n + 1)2 ?
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More open questions in Number Theory

Are there infinitely many primes of the form N = p1 p2 p3 pk + 1?
(Given that the pj s are all the initial primes)
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Are there infinitely many twin primes, i.e. satisfying the property that
both p and p + 2 are both primes?
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For more information, see:

1
Richard K. Guy, Unsolved Problems in Number Theory.
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For more information, see:

1
Richard K. Guy, Unsolved Problems in Number Theory.
P. Ribenboim, The new book of prime number records, 3rd edition,

Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1995.
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Check
One way to prove that
1
assume
2 is irrational is to
2 = a/b for some integers a and b with

,
square both sides and multiply both sides by b 2 to get
show that a and b have a
One way to prove that there are infinitely many prime numbers is to
1
assume there is a largest prime number p,
construct the number
show that this number has to be divisible by a prime number that is
.
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Question: Are the following logically equivalent?

x D, y E , (P(x)Q(y )), and (x D, P(x))(x E , Q(x)).
.......................................................................
Part 1. If first statement form is true, then second statement form is true.
3.4 Arguments with Quantified Statements
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.......................................................................
Hence Part 1 is true.

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.......................................................................
Suppose x D, P(x) is true, then we are done.

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.......................................................................
Else, c D such that P(c).

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.......................................................................
Else, c D such that P(c).
Therefore, x E , Q(x) is true.

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Question cont
.......................................................................
Part 2. If second statement form is true, then first statement form is true.
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Question cont
.......................................................................

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Question cont
.......................................................................
Since second statement form is true, either x D, P(x) is true
or x E , Q(x) is true.

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Chapter 5: Sequences, Mathematical Induction,

and Recursion
Section 5.1 Sequences
5.1 Sequences
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Synopsis
Objective: A review of sequences and sums.
This is mostly a review of past knowledge of that you already
learnt from H2 Mathematics at Alevels or equivalent Math
subject taken at high school.
Sequences.
Examples.
Summation notation, telescoping sum.
Product notation, computing products.
Factorial notation.
Properties of summation and products.
Change of variable.
5.1 Sequences
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Sequences
Definition
A sequence is a function whose domain is either
all the integers between two given integers, or
.
5.1 Sequences
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Sequences
Definition
A sequence is a function whose domain is either
all the integers between two given integers, or
all the integers greater than or equal to a given integer.
5.1 Sequences
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Sequences
Typically denoted as
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
5.1 Sequences
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Sequences
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
each individual element ak (read as a sub k) is called a term.
5.1 Sequences
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Sequences
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
The k in ak is called a subscript or index.
5.1 Sequences
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Sequences
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
The integer m is the subscript of the initial term.
5.1 Sequences
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Sequences
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
The integer n is the subscript of the final term.
5.1 Sequences
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Sequences
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
The notation
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . .
denotes an infinite sequence.
5.1 Sequences
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Sequences
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
The notation
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . .
denotes an infinite sequence.
An explicit formula or general formula for a sequence is a rule that
shows how the values of ak depend on k.
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.3
Find an explicit formula for a sequence that has the following initial terms:
1 1
1 1
1
1, , , ,
, , ...
4 9
16 25
36
.......................................................................
Solution:
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.3
1 1
1 1
1
1, , , ,
, , ...
4 9
16 25
36
.......................................................................
Solution:
Denote by ak the general term of the sequence and suppose the first term
is a1 .
Then
1
,
12
l
a1
1
,
22
l
a2
1
,
32
l
a3
1
,
42
l
a4
5.1 Sequences
1
,
52
l
a5
1
,
62
l
a6
...
...
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Example 5.1.3
1 1
1 1
1
1, , , ,
, , ...
4 9
16 25
36
.......................................................................
Solution:
is a1 .
Then
1
,
12
l
a1
1
,
22
l
a2
1
,
32
l
a3
1
,
42
l
a4
1
,
52
l
a5
1
,
62
l
a6
...
...
Then
ak =
for all integers k 1.

5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.3
1 1
1 1
1
1, , , ,
, , ...
4 9
16 25
36
.......................................................................
Solution:
is a1 .
Then
1
,
12
l
a1
1
,
22
l
a2
1
,
32
l
a3
Then
ak = (1)k+1
1
k2
1
,
42
l
a4
1
,
52
l
a5
1
,
62
l
a6
...
...
for all integers k 1.

5.1 Sequences
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Summation notation
Definition
If m and n are integers and m n, then the symbol
n
X
ak , read
k=m
summation from k equals m to n of a sub k, is the sum of all terms

am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an .
5.1 Sequences
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Summation notation
Definition
n
X
ak , read
k=m

am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an .
We write
n
X
ak = am + am+1 + am+2 + + an .
k=m
5.1 Sequences
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Summation notation
Definition
n
X
ak , read
k=m

am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an .
We write
n
X
ak = am + am+1 + am+2 + + an .
k=m
k is the index of the summation,
5.1 Sequences
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Summation notation
Definition
n
X
ak , read
k=m

am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an .
We write
n
X
ak = am + am+1 + am+2 + + an .
k=m

m is the lower limit of the summation,
5.1 Sequences
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Summation notation
Definition
n
X
ak , read
k=m

am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an .
We write
n
X
ak = am + am+1 + am+2 + + an .
k=m

m is the lower limit of the summation,
n is the upper limit of the summation.
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.7
Express the following using summation notation:
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
n n+1 n+2
2n
.......................................................................
Solution:
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.7
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
n n+1 n+2
2n
.......................................................................
Solution:
The general term is
k+1
n+k
for integers k from 0 to n.
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.7
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
n n+1 n+2
2n
.......................................................................
Solution:
The general term is
k+1
n+k
Therefore,
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
=
n n+1 n+2
2n
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.7
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
n n+1 n+2
2n
.......................................................................
Solution:
The general term is
k+1
n+k
Therefore,
n
X
1
2
3
n+1
k +1
+
+
+ +
=
.
n n+1 n+2
2n
n+k
k=0
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
What is the value of the expression
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
For n = 1, the sum is
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
= .
12
2
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
= .
12
2
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
= .
12
2
1
1 1
2
1
+
= + = .
12 23
2 6
3
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
= .
12
2
1
1 1
2
1
+
= + = .
12 23
2 6
3
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
= .
12
2
1
1 1
2
1
+
= + = .
12 23
2 6
3
1
1
1
1 1
1
3
+
+
= + +
= .
12 23 34
2 6 12
4
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
= .
12
2
1
1 1
2
1
+
= + = .
12 23
2 6
3
1
1
1
1 1
1
3
+
+
= + +
= .
12 23 34
2 6 12
4
Caution
Although the sum seems to suggest that n must be at least 3 (since the
first 3 terms are given), but there is no such suggestion implied.
5.1 Sequences
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Telescoping sum
Example 5.1.10. Use the identity
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
to find a simple expression for k=1 k(k+1)
.
.......................................................................
5.1 Sequences
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Telescoping sum
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
.
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
X
1
k(k + 1)
k=1

n
X
1
1
=
k
k +1
k=1
5.1 Sequences
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Telescoping sum
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
.
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
X
1
k(k + 1)
k=1

n
X
1
1
=
k
k +1
k=1

1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
=
+ +
1 2
2 3
3 4
n1 n
n n+1
5.1 Sequences
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Telescoping sum
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
.
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
X
1
k(k + 1)
k=1

n
X
1
1
=
k
k +1
k=1

.
. . . .
.

.
.
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
=
+ +
1 2
2 3
3 4
n1 n
n n+1
5.1 Sequences
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Telescoping sum
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
.
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
X
1
k(k + 1)
k=1

n
X
1
1
=
k
k +1
k=1

.
. . . .
.

.
.
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
=
+ +
1 2
2 3
3 4
n1 n
n n+1
1
= 1
.
n+1
5.1 Sequences
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Product notation
Definition
For integers m and n with m n, the symbol
n
Y
ak , read the
k=m
product from k equals m to n of a sub k, is the product of all the

terms
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an .
5.1 Sequences
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Product notation
Definition
For integers m and n with m n, the symbol
n
Y
ak , read the
k=m
product from k equals m to n of a sub k, is the product of all the

terms
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an .
We write
n
Y
ak = am am+1 am+2 an .
k=m
5.1 Sequences
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Factorial notation
Definition
For each positive integer n, the quantity n factorial denoted n!, is defined
to be the product of all the integers from 1 to n:
n! := n (n 1) (n 2) 3 2 1.
5.1 Sequences
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Factorial notation
Definition
For each positive integer n, the quantity n factorial denoted n!, is defined
to be the product of all the integers from 1 to n:
n! := n (n 1) (n 2) 3 2 1.
Zero factorial, denoted by 0!, is defined to be 1:
0! := 1.
5.1 Sequences
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Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
5.1 Sequences
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Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
=
(k 2)2 3
=
=
5.1 Sequences
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Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
4
1
5
6
6
13
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
1
20
.
13
5.1 Sequences
5
6
6
13
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
b.
1
20
.
13
5
6
6
13
3! 3!
=
7!
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
b.
1
20
.
13
5
6
6
13
3! 3!
3! 3!
=
=
7 6 5 4 3!
7!
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
b.
1
20
.
13
5
6
6
13
3! 3!
3!
3! 3!
=
=
=
7 6 5 4 3!
7654
7!
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
b.
1
20
.
13
5
6
6
13
3! 3!
3!
1
3! 3!
=
=
.
=
7 6 5 4 3!
7654
140
7!
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Properties of summation and products

Theorem 5.1.1
If am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , and bm , bm+1 , bm+2 , . . . , are sequences of real
numbers and c is any real number, then the following equations hold for
any integer n m:
5.1 Sequences
13 / 66

Theorem 5.1.1
any integer n m:
n
n
n
X
X
X
1
ak +
bk =
(ak + bk ).
k=m
k=m
k=m
5.1 Sequences
13 / 66

Theorem 5.1.1
any integer n m:
n
n
n
X
X
X
1
ak +
bk =
(ak + bk ).
k=m
2
n
X
k=m
k=m
ak =
k=m
n
X
(c ak )
(generalized distribution law.)
k=m
5.1 Sequences
13 / 66

Theorem 5.1.1
any integer n m:
n
n
n
X
X
X
1
ak +
bk =
(ak + bk ).
k=m
2
k=m
n
X
k=m
n
Y
ak =
ak
k=m
k=m
n
X
(c ak )
k=m
n
Y
k=m
!
bk

n
Y
(ak bk ).
k=m
5.1 Sequences
13 / 66

Theorem 5.1.1
any integer n m:
n
n
n
X
X
X
1
ak +
bk =
(ak + bk ).
k=m
2
k=m
n
X
k=m
n
Y
ak =
ak
k=m
k=m
n
X
(c ak )
k=m
n
Y
k=m
!
bk

n
Y
(ak bk ).
k=m
Proof: Simple application of mathematical induction in Section 5.2 and

properties of addition and multiplication. Left as exercise.
5.1 Sequences
13 / 66
Ex. 5.1.60
Express the following as a single summation.
2
n
X
(3k + 4) + 5
k=1
n
X
(2k 2 1).
k=1
.......................................................................
5.1 Sequences
14 / 66
Ex. 5.1.60
2
n
X
(3k + 4) + 5
k=1
n
X
(2k 2 1).
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
n
X
X
2
(3k 2 + 4) + 5
(2k 2 1)
k=1
k=1
5.1 Sequences
14 / 66
Ex. 5.1.60
2
n
X
(3k + 4) + 5
k=1
n
X
(2k 2 1).
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
n
X
X
2
(3k 2 + 4) + 5
(2k 2 1)
k=1
k=1
n
n
X
X
(6k 2 + 8) +
(10k 2 5)
k=1
k=1
5.1 Sequences
14 / 66
Ex. 5.1.60
2
n
X
(3k + 4) + 5
k=1
n
X
(2k 2 1).
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
n
X
X
2
(3k 2 + 4) + 5
(2k 2 1)
k=1
n
n
X
X
(6k 2 + 8) +
(10k 2 5)
k=1
k=1
k=1
n
X
(16k 2 + 3)
k=1
5.1 Sequences
14 / 66
Change of variable Example 4.1.16a

Transform the following summation by making the specified change of
variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
change of variable: j = k 1.
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
When making the change of variable j = k 1,
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
.
the lower limit, k = 1, is now j =
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
the lower limit, k = 1, is now j = k 1 = 1 1 = 0.
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
the upper limit, k = n + 1, is now
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
the upper limit, k = n + 1, is now j = k 1 = (n + 1) 1 = n.
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
since j = k 1, the variable k is replaced by
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
since j = k 1, the variable k is replaced by j + 1.
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
the general term,
k
n+k ,
is now
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
the general term,
k
n+k ,
is now
(j+1)
n+(j+1)
5.1 Sequences
j+1
n+j+1 .
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
(j+1)
k
=
the general term, n+k
, is now n+(j+1)
Therefore,

n+1
X
k
=
n+k
j+1
n+j+1 .
k=1
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66

variable.

n+1
X
k
summation:
n+k
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
(j+1)
j+1
k
.
= n+j+1
the general term, n+k
, is now n+(j+1)
Therefore,

n+1
n
X
X
k
j +1
=
.
n+k
n+j +1
k=1
j=0
5.1 Sequences
15 / 66
Check
The expanded form of
n
X
ak is
k=m
The value of a1 + a2 + a3 + + an when n = 2 is

If n is a positive integer, then n! =
n
X
ak + c
k=m
n
Y
k=m
n
X
.
.
bk =
k=m
!
ak
n
Y
!
bk
k=m
5.1 Sequences
16 / 66
Chapter 5: Sequences, Mathematical Induction,

and Recursion
Sections 5.2, 5.3 Mathematical Induction I & II
5.2, 5.3 Mathematical Induction I & II
17 / 66
Synopsis
Objective: A review of Mathematical Induction.

This is mostly a review of past knowledge of that you already
learnt from H2 Mathematics at Alevels or equivalent Math
subject taken at high school.
Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Sum of the first n integers.
Sum of geometric sequence.
Application.
18 / 66
Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let a be a fixed integer and let P(n) be a property that is defined for
integers n a.
19 / 66

integers n a.
Suppose the following two statements are true:
P(a) is true.
For all integers k a, if P(k) is true then P(k + 1) is true.
19 / 66

integers n a.
Suppose the following two statements are true:
P(a) is true.
For all integers k a, if P(k) is true then P(k + 1) is true.
Then the statement
for all integers n a, P(n)
is true.
19 / 66

Method of Proof by Mathematical Induction
Consider a statement of the form
For all integers n a, a property P(n) is true.
To prove such a statement, perform the following two steps:
20 / 66

Step 1. (basis step): Show that the property is true for n = a.
20 / 66

Step 2. (inductive step): Show that for all integers k a, if the property is
true for n = k then it is true for n = k + 1. To perform this step,
20 / 66

suppose that the property is true for n = k, where k is any
particular but arbitrarily chosen integer with k a.
[This supposition is called the inductive hypothesis]
20 / 66

suppose that the property is true for n = k, where k is any
particular but arbitrarily chosen integer with k a.
[This supposition is called the inductive hypothesis]
Then show that the property is true for n = k + 1.
20 / 66
Sum of the first n integers

Theorem 5.2.2 Sum of the first n integers
For all n 1,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
.
2
Proof (by mathematical induction):
21 / 66

For all n 1,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
.
2

For
, let the property P(n) be the equation

.
21 / 66

For all n 1,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
.
2

For n 1, let the property P(n) be the equation
.
21 / 66

For all n 1,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + 3 + + n = n(n+1)
.
2
21 / 66

For all n 1,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + 3 + + n = n(n+1)
.
2
Basis step: Want to show:
1=
1 (1 + 1)
.
2
21 / 66

For all n 1,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + 3 + + n = n(n+1)
.
2
1=
1 (1 + 1)
.
2
Simplifying the right side, we see that
21 / 66

For all n 1,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + 3 + + n = n(n+1)
.
2
1=
1 (1 + 1)
.
2
1(1+1)
2
12
2
= 1.
21 / 66

For all n 1,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + 3 + + n = n(n+1)
.
2
1=
1 (1 + 1)
.
2

true.
1(1+1)
2
12
2
= 1. Therefore P(1) is
21 / 66
Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
22 / 66
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
Want to show: P(k + 1) is true, i.e.,

1 + 2 + + (k + 1) =
(1)
22 / 66
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)
22 / 66
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)
Note that the left side of equation (1) is

1 + 2 + + (k + 1)
= (1 + 2 + + k) + (k + 1)
=
(by the inductive hypothesis)
22 / 66
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)

1 + 2 + + (k + 1)
= (1 + 2 + + k) + (k + 1)
=
k(k + 1)
+ (k + 1)
2
22 / 66
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)

1 + 2 + + (k + 1)
= (1 + 2 + + k) + (k + 1)
k(k + 1)
+ (k + 1)
2

k
(k + 1)(k + 2)
+1 =
,
= (k + 1)
2
2
=
22 / 66
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)

1 + 2 + + (k + 1)
= (1 + 2 + + k) + (k + 1)
k(k + 1)
+ (k + 1)
2

k
(k + 1)(k + 2)
+1 =
,
= (k + 1)
2
2
=
which is the right side of equation (1).
22 / 66
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)

1 + 2 + + (k + 1)
= (1 + 2 + + k) + (k + 1)
k(k + 1)
+ (k + 1)
2

k
(k + 1)(k + 2)
+1 =
,
= (k + 1)
2
2
=

Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
22 / 66
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2

1 + 2 + + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)

1 + 2 + + (k + 1)
= (1 + 2 + + k) + (k + 1)
k(k + 1)
+ (k + 1)
2

k
(k + 1)(k + 2)
+1 =
,
= (k + 1)
2
2
=

Therefore Theorem is true by mathematical induction.
22 / 66
Sum of geometric sequence

Theorem 5.2.3 Sum of a geometric sequence
For any real number x except 1, and any integer n 0,
n
X
xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1
23 / 66

n
X
xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1

For n , let the property P(n) be the equation
Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .
23 / 66

n
X
xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1

Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .
23 / 66

n
X
xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1

Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .

x0 =
23 / 66

n
X
xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1

Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .

x0 =
x 0+1 1
.
x 1
23 / 66

n
X
xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1

Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .

x0 =
x 0+1 1
.
x 1
Simplifying, the left side equals x 0 = 1, and the right side equals
x1
x1
= 1.
23 / 66

n
X
xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1

Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .

x0 =
x 0+1 1
.
x 1
Simplifying, the left side equals x 0 = 1, and the right side equals
Therefore, both sides of the equation agree, and so P(0) is true.
x1
x1
= 1.
23 / 66
k
X
i=0
xi =
x k+1 1
.
x 1
24 / 66
k
X
xi =
i=0

k+1
X
xi =
x k+1 1
.
x 1
(2)
i=0

k+1
X
xi =
i=0
=
=
24 / 66
k
X
xi =
i=0
x k+1 1
.
x 1

k+1
X
x k+2 1
xi =
.
x 1
(2)
i=0

k+1
X
x i = x k+1 +
k
X
i=0
xi
i=0
k+1
1
x 1
x k+1 (x 1) + x k+1 1
x k+2 1
=
,
=
x 1
x 1
= x k+1 +

24 / 66

Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof

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Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof

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Chapter 4: Elementary Number Theory and

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Objective: Proofs of two famous theorems in mathematics: 2 is

The infinitude of the set of prime numbers.

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Theorem 4.7.1 Irrationality of

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Theorem 4.7.1 Irrationality of

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

2 is rational. Then there exists integers m and n

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Theorem 4.7.1 Irrationality of

2 is rational. Then there exists integers m and n

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Theorem 4.7.1 Irrationality of

2 is rational. Then there exists integers m and n

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Theorem 4.7.1 Irrationality of

2 is rational. Then there exists integers m and n

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Note that left side of equation is even.

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

for some integer k.

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

for some integer k.

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

for some integer k.

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

for some integer k.

Consequently n2 is even, and so by Prop. 4.6.4 again, n is even.

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

for some integer k.

Consequently n2 is even, and so by Prop. 4.6.4 again, n is even.

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

for some integer k.

Consequently n2 is even, and so by Prop. 4.6.4 again, n is even.

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Example (Proposition 4.7.2)

Proof: Suppose not.

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Example (Proposition 4.7.2)

Proof: Suppose not. Then 1 + 3 2 is rational. Then there exists

MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)

4.7 Two Classical Theorems

Example (Proposition 4.7.2)

Proof: Suppose not. Then 1 + 3 2 is rational. Then there exists